[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
IL Jcoastal zone information Ce~hndboo h~~~~ a ~~,Qgj~~~~&~~7f r E Cill ~~~05 ~~~2 452.2 K ~C63 U DEATDEPARTMENT EPRTEN O qCMMERCE~ '~ 1978 c. 2 ~~~ THE INTERIORINtina1Oeai and Geological Survey At~mospheric Administration C.X Coastal Mapping Handbook Melvin Y. Ellis, Editor Cooperating organizations: COASTAL ZONE . ~INFORMATION CENTER U.S. Department of the Interior INFORMATON CENTER Geological Survey U.S. Department of Commerce sV OoC, National Ocean Survey " Office of Coastal Zone Management * * - 'ATES Of Property of CsC Library A) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA t.)<9~~~~~ ~COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE _.sa~~~~ ~CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413 . > UNTED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1978 o% UoE 17 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE JUANITA M. KREPS, Secretary NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION RICHARD A. FRANK, Administrator UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY H. WILLIAM MENARD, Director Front cover: Acadia National Park, Maine. Photo courtesy of National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock No. 024-001-03046-2/Library of Congress catalog-card No. 78-600000 COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER Preface Passage of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 focused attention on the Nation's coastal land and water areas. As plans for more effective management of the coastal zone evolved, it soon became apparent that improved maps and charts of these areas were needed. This handbook was prepared with the requirements of the entire coastal community in mind, giving greatest attention to the needs of coastal zone managers and planners at the State and local levels. Its principal objective is to provide general information and guidance; it is neither a textbook nor a technical manual, but rather a primer on coastal mapping. This handbook should help planners and managers of coastal programs to determine their mapping requirements, select the best maps and charts for their particular needs, and to deal effectively with personnel who gather data and prepare maps. The sections on "Sources of Assistance and Advice" and "Product and Data Sources" should be especially useful to all involved in mapping the coastal zone. Brief summaries of the mapping efforts of several State coastal zone management programs are included. "Future outlook" -discusses anticipated progress and changes in mapping procedures and techniques. Illustrations are inserted, where appropriate, to illustrate the products and equipment discussed. Because of printing restrictions, the colors in map illustrations may vary from those in the original publication. The appendixes include substantial material which also should be of interest. In addition a glossary and an index are included to provide easy and quick access to the terms and concepts used in the text. For those interested in more technical detail than is provided in this handbook, the "Selected references" will be useful. Also., the publications of the professional societies listed in appendix 4 will provide technical information in detail. CONTENTS Page Page Preface ---------------------------------------- ------ III Map projections and grid systems-continued Abbreviations -------------------------------------- VII Grid systems ------------------------------------ 38 Delimiting the coastal zone ----.----_---------------- 1 State plane coordinate systems -------------- 38 Coastal maps and charts ---------------------------- 2 Universal Transverse Mercator grid _______-__ 40 Planning uses -- ----------------------------- 3 Remote sensing ------------------------------------- 40 Management uses -------------------------------- 3 Photogrammetric mapping techniques ---------------- 41 Mapping the coastal wetlands - ------------------ 4 Project planning -------------------------------- 42 Selecting maps and charts -------------------------- 5 Ground control ---------------------------------- 42 Special problems ------------------------------------ 6 Aerial photography __-----_- -------------------- 43 Tidal datums ----------------------------------- 6 Aerotriangulation -------__---__------___--------- 44 Shoreline changes ------------------------------ 6 Map compilation -------------------------------- 46 Boundaries -------------------------------------- 6 Field completion -----------------------________ __ 48 Data acquisition procedures --------------------- 6 Final drafting and review ---------------------- 48 State coastal mapping programs --------------------- 7 Map reproduction ------------------------------- 51 California --------------------------------------- 7 Maps ----------------------------------------------- 54 Delaware ---------------------------------------- 7 Planimetric maps ------------------------------- 54 Florida ---------------------------------------- 8 Topographic maps ---_______________________---- 54 New Jersey -------------------------------------- 8 Thematic maps ----------------------------------- 54 Texas -------------------------------------- - - 9 Digital maps ------------------------------------ 55 Sources of assistance and advice --------------------- 10 Line maps-------------------------------------- 55 General information centers --------------------- 10 Photomaps ---___----__----__ ----__-- ------------ 55 National Cartographic Information Center ---- 10 Format ---------------------------------------- 55 National Geodetic Survey Information Center _ 11 Content --_----------_-----_---___----_--------- 55 Environmental Data Service ---------------- 12 Contour interval --------------------------------- 56 EROS Data Center -------------------------- 12 Scale ---------------------------------------- 56 Major Federal mapping and charting programs ___ 12 Accuracy ----------------------------------______ 60 U.S. Geological Survey ---------------------- 12 Revision -----------------__--------- - ----------- 60 National Ocean Survey --------------------- 14 Charts ---------------------------------------- 60 USGS and NOS cooperative programs ------------ 15 Types60 Mapping and charting activities ----------------- 16 Format ----------------------------_------- 61 Product and data sources --------------------------- 19 Accuracy61 Distribution points __-___ ---------------------- 21 Scale and content .___-------------------------- 61 Datums --------------------------------------------- 29 Revision ---------------------_------------------- 62 Horizontal datums ..._____________.._____________ 29 HoVertizontal datums ------------------------------ 29 Overprints and overlays --------_- ------------------- 62 Tidal datums ------------------------------- 29 Tidal datums-----------29 Examples of overlays for coastal management ---- 62 International Great Lakes Datum ----------- 29 Eage o litato _ 64 Chartdatum-30 Advantage and limitation . . ................... . 64 National Geodetic Vertical Datum ---------- 30 Data extraction techniques -----_----_-----_--------- 64 Tidal datums and local marine boundaries -------- 31 Visual extraction ----------- --------- 1----_---- 64 Lake levels and related local boundaries --------- 32 Feature separation --__----__--___--___---___--- 64 Control surveys ---------------------_--------------- 33 Automation_----__----_---_______--____--______ 66 Horizontal control ------------------------------- 33 Land use and land cover classification and mapping --__ 66 Vertical control --------------------------------- 33 Definition of land use ----_ ---_________---___---- 67 Other control ---------_----__-------------------- 33 Classification theory and principles ----_--------- 67 Map projections and grid systems -------------------- 35 The decision process -----------________. _____--- 67 Properties of projections ---___---__---_- -------- 35 Classification systems -----_----_---___--____--- 89 Developable surfaces - -------------------------- - 35 Land use and land cover mapping ____-__-_______. 94 Commonly used projections ---------------------- 36 Future outlook __-_______-_____-____________________. 98 Lambert conformal conic projection _--------- 36 Automation -----__---__----__---_________________ 98 Polyconic projection ---_------------_------- 36 Computer-stored data ----------------------- 99 Mercator projection ---____----_-------------- 37 Updating ---__----_----___--_________________ 100 Transverse Mercator projection -----.-------- 38 The metric system ------------------------------ 100 Combination projections ------_ -------------- 38 The future ---------------------.-----__----_--- 100 VI CONTENTS Selected references -------------------------.-------- 100 4. Sources for information about private contractors 122 Glossary ---------------------------------------- 103 5. Coastal Zone Management Act and Amendments - 123 6. Accuracy standards United States National Map Accuracy Standards 155 1. Cooperating agencies in the coastal zone --__------ 117for Sydro- Accuracy standards recommended for hydro- 2. USGS state mapping advisory committees in the graphic surveys ------_____----______---______- 155 coastal zone ----------------------------------- 119 7. Examples of products _--___-__-_-__.____. -..____ 157 3. State coastal zone management program managers 120 Index ---_____----______-_________-__.________ 199 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Page Figure 1. Solar and lunar tide-producing forces ---- 30 18. Application of waxed stickup type to a 2. Tidal datums and their relations to a gen- names sheet --------------------------- 52 eralized shore cross section ------------ 31 19. Five-color offset press ---_--------------- 53 3. Interrelations of tidal datums --_-------- 32 20. Stafford, Virginia, area at 1:250,000 scale 57 4. Distribution of tidal phases with diurnal, 21. Stafford, Virginia, area at 1:50,000 scale - 58 semidiurnal, and mixed tides ---------- 34 22. Stafford, Virginia, area at 1:24,000 scale - 59 5. Lambert conformal conic projection ------ 36as purple overprint 6 6. Polyconic projection --- __---------------- 37 7. Mercator projection ---------- 24. Overlay showing oil and gas fields ____--- 64 8. Transverse Mercator projection -_-------- 38 25. Base map used with oil and gas overlay _ 65 9. The electromagnetic spectrum .------------ 41 26. Roads ----------------------------------- 69 10. Typical aerial mapping cameras mounted 27. Culture __------_------------------------- 71 in an aircraft ------------------------ 43 28. Urban tint ------------------------------- 73 11. Automatic color film processor --_-------- 45 29. Black lettering ______----____-----_-_---- 75 12. Kelsh stereoplotting instrument -_____---- 46 30. Combined black __-------__--------------- 77 13. Wild STK stereocomparator ---___------ 46 31. Drainage ____--____-__---_____----____--- 79 14. Stereoscopic viewing of a stereopair of 32. Open water ----_------------------------- 81 aerial photographs -- --___----___------ 47 33. Blue lettering ___-____-___ ____-_______-- 83 15. Right- and wrong-reading positives and 34. Combined black, blue, and contours ------ 85 negatives ---__-------__--------__------ 49 35. Published map ___-___-___-____ --___-____ 87 16. Complete field scribing kit --------------- 50 36. Status of land use/land cover mapping ___ 95 17. Preparation of an open-window guide using 37. Level II land use and land cover --_____-- 97 peel coat ------------------------------ 51 38. Level III land use and land cover --------- 98 TABLES Page Page Table 1. Principal U.S. Geological Survey map series 12 4. Soil Conservation Service land use classifica- tion system -............................. 89 2. Plane coordinate systems in coastal States __ 39 tion system ____ 89 5. Florida land use and land cover classification 3. USGS land use and land cover classification system---------------------------------- .90 system for use with remote sensor data _-- 88 6. Standard land use coding manual ---------- 93 ABBREVIATIONS ASCS Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation IHB International Hydrographic Bureau Service LC Library of Congress BC Bureau of the Census MHW Mean high water BEG Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology MRC Mississippi River Commission BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs MSS Multispectral Scanner BLM Bureau of Land Management NAD North American Datum BM Bureau of Mines NARS National Archives and Records Service BOR Bureau of Outdoor Recreation NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration BPA Bonneville Power Administration NCIC USGS/National Cartographic Information Center BR Bureau of Reclamation NGS NOAA/NOS/National Geodetic Survey NGSIC NOAA/NOS/National Geodetic Survey Informa- COAP California, Comprehensive Ocean Area Plan tion Center CZMA Coastal Zone Management Act NGVD National Geodetic Vertical Datum DMATC Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric DOS Department of State Administration DRBC Delaware River Basin Commission NOS NOAA/National Ocean Survey DWP Deepwater ports NPS National Park Service EDC USGS/EROS Data Center NWS NOAA/National Weather Service EDS NOAA/Environmental Data Service OMB Office of Management and Budget EPA Environmental Protection Agency RBV Return Beam Vidicon ERC Energy Regulatory Commission SCS Soil Conservation Service ERL NOAA/Environmental Research Laboratories SGA State Geologic Agencies EROS Earth Resources Observation Systems SMSA Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas FCC Federal Communications Commission TVA Tennessee Valley Authority FHWA Federal Highway Administration USA U.S. Army FIA Federal Insurance Administration USAF U.S. Air Force FS Forest Service USCE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers FWS Fish and Wildlife Service USCG U.S. Coast Guard GPO Government Printing Office USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture HUD Housing and Urban Development USFS U.S. Forest Service IBC International Boundary Commission USGS U.S. Geological Survey IBWC International Boundary and Water Commission USMC U.S. Marine Corps IGLD International Great Lakes Datum USN U.S. Navy Any use of trade names and trademarks in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not constitute endorsement. COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK The coastal zone consists of open water, salt system should be explored because of the dynamic marshes, mudflats, twisting tidal channels, intra- nature of the features. coastal waterways, islands, bays, natural and man- Tides sometimes cover the wetlands and may be made levees, mosquito ditches, oceanfront and intra- of different phase and amplitude than the tide on coastal developments, and estuaries. The coastal wet- open beach only a few kilometers away. Tidal rivers, lands are generally composed of coastal vegetation streams, and freshwater surface runoff mix with and are under the influence, if not the daily flood, the ocean water to form a brackish zone of changing of the tide. They are the transition zone between the salinity with a relatively few species of vegetation. uplands and the sea and are influenced by both. The The freshwater flow causes a hydrodynamic stage coastal wetlands are classified according to State and related more to the hydrologic cycle than to the Federal definitions and interpretations. lunar cycle. Marsh grasses a meter tall preclude photogrammetric measurement of the ground sur- face where elevation differences of a few cen- DELIMITING THE COASTAL ZONE timeters are critical. It is not unusual for grass tops The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as on the levees to be level with grass tops on lower amended (see app. 5), defines the coastal zone as: ground behind the levee, giving the appearance of a continuous level surface. Tidal flow may reach an ... the coastal waters (including the lands therein and area by a long circuitous path through channels and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the breaks in natural levees. waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and in proximity to the shorelines of the A number of studies have attempted to relate several coastal states, and includes transitional and in- mean high water lines to vegetative boundaries. The tertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The change between high vigor spartina alterniflora zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, to the international (resulting from a daily flooding by saline water) boundary between the United States and Canada and, in and a lower vigor form (resulting from occasional other areas, seaward to the outer limit of the United States territorial sea. The zone extends inland from the flooding) probably indicates a biological mean high shorelines only to the extent necessary to control shore- water line. A similar effect has been noted between lands, the uses of which have a direct and significant red and black mangrove. This close relationship is impact on the coastal waters. Excluded from the coastal probably correct in many areas, but it is deficient zone are lands the use of which is by law subject solely in two operational criteria. First, establishing to the discretion of or which is held in trust by the Federal Government, its officers, or agents. cadastral boundaries by engineering tidal surveys is Federal Government, its officers, or agents. an accepted legal procedure, and a biological survey The complex part of this definition lies in the sen- may be supportive but not sufficient evidence in tence, "The zone extends inland from the shorelines court. Second, the wetlands as defined by the growth only to the extent necessary to control shorelands, of several species of vegetation often extend above the uses of which have a direct and significant im- the mean high water line. The regulation of wet- pact on the coastal waters." Selecting boundary lines lands is an exercise in the Government's authority based on this definition is not an easy task. The to zone land and control use regardless of owner- definition implies an inland boundary of the coastal ship. Therefore, the time, expense, and difficult zone which is basically delineated along natural ground surveying required to relate a vegetation features, especially rivers, streams, marshes, and boundary to a tidal datum may be unwarranted. their watersheds. When establishing boundaries If the only purpose of the mapping is to delineate along natural features, the interrelations of those the wetlands for regulatory action, then vegetative features and their relations to the coastal resource boundaries are appropriate. A cadastral survey re- 2 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK quires a tidal datum and is more costly; however, Other approaches to delimiting the coastal zone it provides legal boundaries. beyond those specified in the CZMA might include The species composition of a coastal marsh re- a concept of the seaward limit as the edge of the flects the salinity, soil characteristics, frequency of continental shelf rather than the outer limits of inundation, and elevation. Saline marshes contain the territorial seas. This might be a more logical Spartina alterniflora in three growth forms-the way to define the coastal zone if natural considera- largest up to 3 m tall. Other species are found where tions and features are most important. the elevation is higher or the tidal inundation less The coastal zone might also include those areas frequent. The different species can usually be clearly where the water influences the land, the reverse identified on color infrared film. of the concept cited in the CZMA. It might be The upper wetland boundary is often sharply de- easier to delineate the extent of the water's influ- fined by an abrupt change in topography. The marsh ence on the land, for example, by using the 100- may extend as much as 10 m under the canopy of yr flood plain for the boundaries of coastal wetlands large trees in the border zone. Where a broad and such as marshes and bogs. Numerous other schemes gradual transition occurs with a mixture of plant could be devised to define the coastal zone, each species present, the upper wetland boundary is more with its own advantages and disadvantages. How- difficult to define. With a knowledge of the plant ever, in this handbook the CZMA definition is species, the morphology of the land, the tidal cycle, used. and applicable laws, one can usually position the upper wetland boundary within 3-5 m horizontally during field inspection. The task is easier and equally accurate when the boundary is delineated from color A map is a pictorial or graphical representation infrared aerial photographs offering a much larger of a portion of the Earth's surface. In general, a view. For 5-10 percent of the area, the task is more coastal chart is a map that shows water depths, difficult than normal, whichever method is used. The coastlines, and land features in a narrow band transition in these areas may be very gradual and along the coast. Charts are generally used for indistinct and require more judgment, careful sur- navigation, but they have many other uses. veys, and intelligent legislation. Litigation may be Maps and charts may be classified as either necessary because there is no one technique for pro- metric or nonmetric in quality. Most road maps, viding unequivocal solutions to wetland boundary pictorial maps, and many atlas maps are for gen- problems. eral information only and are not of metric quality, In practice, some coastal States may define the that is, they cannot be relied upon to provide accu- landward boundaries of their coastal zone along rate measurements. Only metric quality maps are other than purely natural features. For example, a considered in the handbook. State may determine that the most feasible boundary A metric quality map usually contains a grati- might be based on a line, such as a 10-ft vertical cule of meridians and parallels and a plane rectangu- distance above mean high water, that may roughly lar coordinate system to define specific locations, approximate a flood-plain level. The line would then and it portrays the various map features in pre- be modified to correspond to the nearest township cise relation to each other and to the graticule or line or paved road. This modification would greatly grid (except in cases of deliberate misplacement simplify the administration of such a coastal zone of symbols to avoid overcrowding). Distances and boundary. Another approach might be to draw directions between features can be measured pre- boundaries at a fixed horizontal distance inland cisely, either on a single map sheet or between from the MHW line. adjoining sheets on the same reference system and For the purpose of planning topographic map- datum. A particular feature will have the same ping in the coastal zone, the U.S. Geological Survey geographic position on other maps of the same defines the inland edge of the zone as the landward area regardless of scale. boundaries of the coastal counties, townships, or Map scale is the ratio between a unit distance parishes within the States and Territories eligible (for example, 1 in or 1 cm) on the map and the for grants under the CZMA. Alaska's coastal area corresponding distance on the ground. The scale of is defined separately as the first two 15-min 1:24,000 means that 1 unit on the map represents quadrangles inland from the shore, because the 24,000 of the same units on the ground. Thus, 1 State is not organized by counties. cm on the map represents 24,000 cm (240 m) on COASTAL MAPS AND CHARTS 3 the ground. This rule applies to all units of linear to assist coastal planners to develop effective coastal measurement. mapping programs tailored to their needs. The larger the denominator of the scale ratio, the smaller the map scale; for example, a 1:10,000- MANAGEMENT USES scale map has a larger scale than a 1:24,000-scale map. A large-scale map usually portrays a smaller Maps for coastal management generally would area than a small-scale map, and the detail is be of larger scale than general planning maps. greater. The scale is generally given in the legend Whereas the small-scale maps suitable for plan- or margin of the map. ning are frequently available from Federal agencies, the basic responsibility for producing large-scale maps for management of the coastal zone rests with the users-State and local governments. State coast- The CZMA of 1972 provides a new mechanism al maps might range in scale from 1:2,400 to for planning and managing activities in the coastal 1:24,000, depending on the geographic area of con- zone. Coastal planners at the Federal, State, and cern, the intensity of its development, and the local levels will need maps of the coastal zone length of the coastline to be mapped. Local govern- covering their areas of interest. A set of maps for ments may need maps of even larger scale for more the entire coastal zone of the United States (in- detailed regulation and management of their coast- cluding the Great Lakes) and Territories is funda- al zone; perhaps in the range of 1:600 to 1:10,000. mental for an overview perspective. Federal and Large-scale maps for the entire coastline would be State planners will need maps at scales ranging quite expensive. They should be made first for from 1:10,000 to 1:250,000. Local government areas where immediate concentrated management is coastal zone planners also will need planning maps necessary, while somewhat smaller scale maps would to relate their activities to others in the State. Such suffice for areas needing less rigorous management. maps may be at scale ranging from of 1:2,400 to As the coastal management program evolves, larger 1:24,000. scale management maps could be produced to cover Effective planning can be simplified considerably the gaps. Management maps would be useful for if the data and results of resource inventories of monitoring, inventory, analysis, documentation, reg- the coastal zone are displayed graphically on the ulation, and enforcement. However, detailed maps planning maps. These inventories can include na- can sometimes be a liability for management if tural resources such as woodlands, estuarine areas, they are misleading or if they do not define the freshwater marshes, beaches, wildlife, geologic precise location of the area being regulated. Maps features, and marine life and minerals. Also, plan- are useful for indicating key natural areas or regu- ning maps can include statistical distributions, resi- latory boundaries, but maps used as management dential housing, commercial and industrial facili- or regulatory tools must be at an appropriately ties, transportation routes, flood plains, cultural large scale, meet National Map Accuracy Standards features, archeological sites, esthetic resources, and (app. 6), and be up-to-date. parks and other recreation areas. Furthermore, Large-scale maps, on which boundaries and other these maps can depict land and water use classifi- information can be delineated accurately, will also cations and such phenomena as estuarine circula- be needed in legal proceedings resulting from regu- tion patterns and predominant coastal currents. lating land and water use. Maps submitted as evi- The different types of information needed for dence in court are subject to critical review. The planning can be shown on maps in a variety of need for accuracy and up-to-date information can- ways. Sometimes the information is printed as a not be overemphasized. Old photographs are often part of the base map, sometimes as an overprint on compared with newer photographs of the same geo- the base map, and sometimes as overlays keyed graphic area (sometimes in the form of orthophoto- to the base map. The method used often depends maps) to demonstrate how change has occurred. upon the availability of existing maps, the variety Obviously, adequate documentation of when and and quantity of information to be displayed, the under what conditions the photographs were taken time allotted to display the information in carto- is vital. Accurate large-scale maps can also be used graphic form, and budget constraints. in court to indicate the proximity of proposed con- The sections on "Sources of assistance and ad- struction projects to valuable natural, esthetic, vice" and "Product and data sources" are included recreational, or economic resources that may be 4 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK affected by the proposed project. In these cases maps boundaries and other coastal features can be are best used in conjunction with such evidence as accurately plotted. expert testimony, actual site visits, and other * It is desirable to give map users an orthophoto- historical records and photographs. base showing more information about features Maps used in a group presentation must be large that are not specifically delineated or that are enough to be seen easily. Attempting to communi- necessarily generalized on the conventional cate a concept with an overly complex map can be map. counterproductive, especially if highly detailed keys * Vegetative boundaries can be identified and de- are used. Managers may want to use a simplified lineated on color infrared film and transferred version of the map or perhaps a sketch of the key to the orthophoto. information. Transparencies, slides, and overhead * Selected areas of the coastal zone require map projectors are often effective in enlarging a portion scales larger than 1:24,000. of a map so the audience is not distracted by ir- * There are no universal conversion factors for relevant information. In addition, the use of suc- relating tide, vegetation, contours, and cadas- cessive overlays on a base map can be most effec- tral boundaries. tive for some types of presentation. A planner or In many areas, available USGS 1:24,000-scale manager attempting to communicate with a di- topographic maps could be used as cartographic verse audience should use maps that are simple, bases. The upper wetland boundary could be inter- clear, and to the point. Complex maps tend to con- preted from recent color infrared photographs ac- fuse and overwhelm the general public. Obviously, cording to the applicable regulations and compiled those with specific interests such as coastal develop- on the map. This procedure would serve as a ers, local government officials, and members of practical inventory at minimum cost and would public or private interest groups will be concerned satisfy general zoning regulations. It would provide with selected aspects of the coastal area and con- a zone boundary between marsh and upland with sequently with maps dealing with those aspects. a horizontal accuracy of about 12 m (40 ft), In essence, considerable thought should be given which is within the National Map Accuracy to the type, format, content, scale, accuracy, and Standards. However, the increasingly popular ortho- frequency of revision of the maps included in State photo cartographic products have proved invaluable or local planning and management programs. for mapping swamps, marshes, and other regions It is important to note that coastal areas are of overwhelming detail usually lost in conventional dynamic biologically, geologically, demographically, map symbolization. Compared with line-map por- and legally, and therefore, maps depicting coastal trayal, the orthophoto of a coastal marsh provides information have to be updated frequently. Using more information on the many features associated overlays on a good base map makes updating easier. with identifying the boundary between upland and (See the section "Overprints and overlays.") marsh. Besides matching the accuracy of conven- Recent dramatic advances in remote-sensing tional maps, the orthophotos show the actual pat- technology have provided methods for revising maps tern of vegetation and woodland, all visible roads of dynamic coastal areas. A variety of options exist and trails, the intricate meanderings of waterways, with a wide cost range. and other detail useful for determining position. In the past, charts of water areas were used Information on current land use can be derived basically for navigation. However, as coastal pro- from tonal differences in the photograph. grams evolve water and land use management will The Geological Survey has recently prepared increase significantly, and new maps and charts several experimental color-image maps using two will be needed. synchronized cartographic cameras in a single air- craft. One camera contains black-and-white pan- chromatic film and the other black-and-white infra- MAPPING THE COASTAL WETLANDS red film. The two sets of photographs are processed into orthophotos at the correct scale. During print- ing, the two images are in perfect register. Through . r o the use of various inks, several different color land regulations of several States reveals that: renditions are possible. These simulated color in- * There is a requirement to provide an accurate frared composites represent a new dimension in the cartographic base on which upper wetland interpretation and delineation of coastal wetlands. SELECTING MAPS AND CHARTS 5 Vegetative boundaries can be compiled directly on is the nautical chart and its related products. Nauti- the orthographic color image base, thus eliminating cal charts may be subdivided according to type, all transfer of the wetland delineations from the color containing virtually the same information but dif- infrared photographs to an orthophoto image base. fering in scale and intended use. There are a number of special-purpose maps, charts, and diagrams deal- ing with water areas. SELECTING MAPS AND CHARTS ing with water areas. Bathymetric maps, produced by NOS at various The choice of a working map or chart for use scales and with varying content, are useful water- in a coastal management program depends on pro- related products. Some bathymetric maps show gram considerations, such as the type of program magnetic and gravity data in addition to water and the purpose for which the map or chart will be depths; most cover extensive offshore areas and used, and on map considerations, such as scale, con- are helpful in planning offshore resource develop- tent, and accuracy. ment. Generally, small-scale products (1:250,000 and More detailed information concerning water depths smaller) cover a large area and provide adequate in a relatively small area may be found on copies information of accuracy suitable for general plan- of the smooth sheet-an intermediate NOS carto- ning. A single map should be used for an entire graphic product on which all surveyed water depths management area if possible. However, it is better are numerically plotted. A smooth sheet is a by- to use several sheets at a larger scale if the area is product of the chartmaking process and is not so large that the scale required to fit onto one sheet normally published; however, copies can be obtained of paper is too small to provide the desired content on request. and accuracy. Specific management activities re- Topographic sheets (T-sheets)-also byproducts quiring greater accuracy and detail, such as boun- of the NOS chartmaking process--show detailed dary delineation and enforcement, require maps and information about a narrow strip of land and water charts at medium (1:100,000 to 1:50,000 scale) and alongshore. Topographic sheets dating back to the large (1:24,000 and larger) scales. early 19th century are available. A chronological Planimetric maps showing the position of major sequence of revised sheets provides useful informa- features (culture, transportation systems, wetlands, tion about shoreline and near-shore feature changes. vegetation, and sometimes historical sites) are fre- Aerial photographs and photographic products quently adequate for planning land and water re- are used by coastal planners and managers because sources in the coastal zone. Although they do not they show much more detail than conventional show continuous relief data, planimetric maps usu- line maps. For example, orthophotomaps can be ally indicate the position of major physiographic used to study vegetation and to determine the extent features. of wetlands. Spacecraft imagery can be used in wet- Topographic maps offer much general informa- land delineation and shallow-seas mapping. (See tion for land areas, although it is not all inclusive. app. 7, fig. 1 for an example of space imagery that Supplemental data from thematic maps covering can be used in coastal planning and management.) such fields as geology, land use, land ownership, USGS and NOS can provide technical assistance utilities, and population distribution are also needed for management projects requiring maps and charts by coastal managers. at scales larger than 1:10,000 (normally not avail- Topographic and bathymetric maps at medium or able from the Federal Government). Contact: large scale can be used to determine erosion and sedimentation locations. Although they do not direc- Chief, Office of Research and Technical tly represent erosion and sedimentation, they do Standards, Topographic Division depict relief and provide insight into land-mass U.S. Geological Survey denudation within the coastal zone. The topographic- MS 519 National Center bathymetric series being produced jointly by the Reston, Virginia 22092 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Telephone: 703-860-6291 Ocean Survey (NOS) is a good product for this or: purpose. These maps will be published at standard Chief, Coastal Mapping Division scales of 1:250,000, 1:100,000, and 1:24,000, with National Ocean Survey some at 1:10,000. National Oceanic and Atmospheric The greatest single source of data for water areas Administration 6 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK 6001 Executive Boulevard for numerous engineering and scientific activities. Rockville, Maryland 20852 Lake levels in the Great Lakes area occupy a Telephone: 301-443-8744 position comparable to that of tidal datums along the ocean coasts. Fluctuations of water levels in the There are a number of private mapping companies Great Lakes result chiefly from meteorological that produce aerial photographs and large-scale forces; the magnitude of astronomic tides is great- maps (see app. 4). ly reduced. A lake-level datum is established from information acquired by methods and equipment Help in selecting suitable maps, charts, and re- similar to those used for ocean-tide observations, lated data for coastal management may be obtained differently but the resulting data are processed differently from the Coastal Mapping Division (NOS) or because of the lack of lunisolar effect. from: User Services Section SHORELINE CHANGES National Cartographic Information Center Changes in the shoreline occur frequently, and U.S. Geological Survey often quickly, as a result of actions of both natural MS 507 National Center and man-induced forces. Alongshore features are Reston, Virginia 22092 subject to rapid change, principally through the Telephone: 703-860-6045 activities of man and most significantly in areas The section "Sources of assistance and advice" having the greatest development and congestion. gives a detailed description of Federal mapping and Such changes soon make maps and charts obsolete charting programs and sources of described prod- and increase the workload required to conduct ef- ucts. fective coastal management programs. BOUNDARIES SPECIAL PROBLEMS Boundaries in the coastal zone range from the Coastal managers should recognize that while limits of private property to the international private contractors routinely make topographic and boundary. All of them are affected to some degree planimetric maps of land areas, few make bathy- by tidal datums along the coast and along island metric maps. Therefore, care must be taken in shorelines. Corresponding boundaries in the Great choosing a contractor for maps displaying shore- Lakes area are fixed either by treaty or by acts of line detail and water depth. Coastal managers can Congress, or are controlled by a lake level. Of all direct questions to Federal agencies that make these boundaries, those between private and sover- bathymetric products (see the section, "Product eign lands cause the greatest problems. Recent and data sources"). maps (prepared by modern techniques) and related Some significant problems encountered in mapping data, such as aerial photographs and tidal informa- the coastal zone concern (1) tidal datums, (2) tion, are of great help in resolving boundary rapid changes in shoreline and alongshore features, problems. (3) coastal boundaries, and (4) data acquisition The recognized offshore boundary between Fed- procedures. eral and most State areas is the 3-nmi (5.5 km) limit. Florida and Texas use a 9-nmi (16.6 km) TIDAL DATUMS limit. Distances are measured seaward from the Tidal datums, base elevations defined by certain mean low water line (Atlantic and Gulf Coasts) or tide phases, are critical in the part of the coastal the mean lower low water line (Pacific Coast) as zone affected by tidal fluctuations. They provide the shown on the large-scale coast charts of NOS. bases for establishing coastal boundaries, limits of DATA ACQUISITION PROCEDURE the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, water depths and critical shorelines on maps and charts, Because tidal datums are usually needed before and the limits of various regulatory activities and aerial photographs can be taken for shoreline map- responsibilities affecting coastal management. ping, a long lead time is required for observations Knowledge of the tides and tidal datums is es- and data reduction. Analysis and integration of sential for promoting and regulating safe naviga- tidal data over an extended area can become very tion in a national water transportation system and complicated. STATE COASTAL MAPPING PROGRAMS 7 Procurement of acceptable aerial photographs for (6) cultivated agricultural lands and class I and II coastal mapping can present a number of problems soils, (7) forestry resource area, (8) mineral ex- that can be minimized through proper planning and traction area, (9) developed area, and (10) exist- patience. Tide-coordinated photographs must be ing recreation area. taken at the time the desired tide stage occurs. During the past few years, the State has been Clouds and haze must be minimal, especially for involved in litigation to determine ownership color photography. Loss of imagery because of boundaries in San Francisco Bay. In addition to sunspots (reflection of the Sun from the water's making limited ground and aerial surveys, the surface directly into the camera lens) can be mini- State has contracted with NOS for historical in- mized or eliminated by proper flight direction, end- formation about tidal datums in that area. Although lap, and time frame. the project was undertaken because of contested ownership, the results of the mapping and tidal- datum studies will be useful as a more compre- hensive program is established. California, Delaware, Florida, New Jersey, and Because of increasing statewide interest and Texas are some of the States that currently oper- problems associated with the coastal zone, the need ate coastal mapping programs. For detailed informa- for a comprehensive program has become apparent. tion write to the State coastal zone managers Coastal mapping needs have been identified in regu- listed in appendix 3. latory, ownership, development, and environmental fields. Mapping scales needed for such diversified in- CALIFORNIA terests would vary, and to date no technical speci- Various State agencies are engaged in projects fications have been adopted. for which accurate coastal maps would be useful. In 1967, under the California Comprehensive Ocean DELAWARE Area Plan (COAP), the first methodical aerial map- ping of the California coastline was completed. three mapping efforts: La nd use maps, a wetland three mapping efforts: Land use maps, a wetland Land use maps were compiled on USGS 7.5-min atlas, and coastal-flooding maps. Land-use/natural- base maps. Both land use site-characteristics in- y masadonrsi netrymp ee cover maps are being prepared for the entire State ventory maps and ownership inventory maps were based on interpretation of infrared satellite and air- printed at the scale of 1:31,680. For further infor- c raft photographs, USGS aerial photographs, and matioln, or to order maps, write to: craft photographs, USGS aerial photographs, and other data. The wetlands atlas is based on inter- California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission pretations of productivity, flood prevention, habitat, 1540 Market Street, 2nd Floor and water quality, and it includes data on signifi- San Francisco, California 94102 cant marine species. The coastal-flooding maps As part of COAP, the Department of Parks and (more detailed than the HUD flood-insurance maps) Recreation did a mapping study entitled "The indicate areas subject to flood damage, the frequen- California Coastal Preservation and Recreation cy and extent of damage, and other conditions for Plan." The Department does individual mapping proper coastal development. studies of priority areas but has no continuing Standard scales used (in order of decreasing use) coastal mapping program. are 1:24,000, 1:9,600, 1:4,800, 1:63,360, 1:126,720, The California Coastal Zone Conservation Com- 1:253,440, and 1:2,400. The 1:24,000-scale maps in mission presented its Coastal Plan to the State both aerial-mosaic and planimetric form are the Legislature in 1975. Its coastal resources maps base maps for Delaware's coastal zone program. show the distribution of resources as described in They are used for the land use maps, to plot permit the plan and identify problems concerning the and development activities, and as graphics related coastal zone. Regional commissions within the State to such studies as wetlands, coastal erosion, geolo- are expected to prepare more detailed maps at gy, and hydrology. larger scales. The State and all three county governments California coastal resources have been classified established the 1:9,600 scale as the standard for as follows: (1) Special marine environment, (2) most planning and management purposes. That wetland or estuary, (3) special land habitat, (4) scale, on aerial-mosaic and planimetric bases, has other land habitat or open space area, (5) grazing, been used since 1964. The maps were prepared by 8 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK a private contractor for the various governments as 1972" provides decisionmakers and concerned citi- part of a joint venture and are routinely updated. zens with an overview of the components that make Maps of the USGS 1:24,000-scale 7.5-min quad- up the coastal environment of Florida. The atlas rangle series have also been used as a planning base delineates the areas already developed and those in Delaware, and were supplemented with 1973 physically suited to future development where it aerial mosaics at quadrangle scale, although no new will have a minimum detrimental effect on the en- quadrangle maps were prepared. Other base ma- vironment. The atlas contains an inventory of terials are from the State Division of Highways and relatively undisturbed natural features and recom- from respective county tax-assessment/property- mends preservation of essential segments to ensure ownership mapping programs completed in the the maintenance of marine life, esthetic qualities of past few years for most of the State. the coast, and the physical integrity of the shore- The three county mapping efforts are being parti- lands. A conservation zone is recommended between ally completed by contractors. Private consultants development and preservation areas where develop- and the University of Delaware prepare draft ment is controlled by specific physical limitations. copies. Final graphics, including maps, are prepared The "Florida Keys Coastal Zone Management by the Delaware State Planning Office to assure Study-1974" was prepared as a model for state- consistency in format, scale, notation, and ma- wide coastal-zone planning. The design followed the terial. same biophysical outline as the Management Atlas, Major problems encountered to date include base- except that a level-III data base was generated to map obsolescense and inconsistencies in scales and provide site-analysis detail. Sections on socioeco- formats of source materials. These problems are nomic and environmental-quality analysis were ad- being overcome by centralizing the final mapping ded. and through acquisition of a set of USGS aerial The Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning and region- photographs that are being used to generate base al planning staffs have prepared a biophysical and maps. An unsolved problem relates to obtaining ac- socioeconomic analysis using the years 1973-74 as a curate topographic maps with either a 2- or 5-ft data generation base. The biophysical analysis is a (0.6- or 1.5-m) contour interval. This problem level II updating of the Management Atlas data will not be solved by the current coastal zone man- with a scale of 1:126,720 and 40-acre data cells. agement program because of the cost and time re- The socioeconomic analysis maps are at 1:24,000 quired. scale, with data cells ranging from 5 to 20 acres de- pending on the complexity of data and reproduction scale limitations. The methods and techniques for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data follow Florida's coastal zone program has had two; pri- much the same procedures used in the Florida Keys mary objectives: (1) To provide a comprehensive Management Study. data base (modified land use levels II and III of In FY 1977 data previously input on a site re- Anderson and others, 1976) to support activities of sponse basis will be revised and updated using the Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning, and (2) to level-III information and 1-5-acre data cells at provide county/regional site analysis for selected 1:24,000 scale. Another thematic project is a syn- work elements to support local requirements. optic map of the Florida coral reef system and "Coastal Zone Management in Florida-1971" is associated bottom detail. This interagency program a report on the pilot project used to design the is a long-term study of relations between nature format and methods for developing Florida's and man and their effect on the health of the reef coastal-zone management program. The report con- system. sists of text, thematic maps, and a matrix display A number of cooperative programs between Flori- for each zoning category showing defined criteria da and both USGS and NOS are discussed in and established and recommended State policy. The "Sources -of assistance and advice." counties selected for the study were Escambia and Santa Rosa (collectively referred to as Escarosa) NEW ERSEY because they contain prime examples of hydrology, physiography, and economics common to the entire New Jersey has two coastal mapping programs, Florida coastal zone. wetlands and tidelands. The wetlands mapping The "Florida Coastal Zone Management Atlas- program put into effect provisions of the New STATE COASTAL MAPPING PROGRAMS 9 Jersey Wetlands Act of 1970, which regulates The New Jersey tidelands mapping program private property to protect wetlands. Wetlands are catalogs State riparian (now or formerly below defined in the act as "any bank, marsh, swamp, mean high water) lands. Most maps will be made meadow, flat, or lowland subject to tidal action in-house; some may be contracted in the final along any inlet, estuary, or tributary waterway in- drafting stage. Data will be drawn from over 200 cluding those areas now or formerly connected to tide gaging stations throughout the State. Old tidal waters whose surface is at or below an eleva- photographs, maps, surveys, and biological data tion of 1 foot above local extreme high water, and (such as wetlands maps) will be used. NOS will which is capable of growing some but not all of" help with data analysis and field direction. specified species (list available from the New Final products will be base maps and overlays at Jersey coastal zone program manager, app. 3). 1:2,400 scale meeting National Map Accuracy A study was contracted to determine existing Standards. The mapping of State lands in the wetlands mapping methods, availability of data, and Hackensack Meadowlands was completed by 1974. funding. The study revealed that wetlands should Mapping for the entire State will be completed by be defined only in terms of the vegetation species 1980 at a cost of $6 million. without incorporating a specific elevation criterion. Photoquads were made to update land use pat- If these species are present, the elevation test is terns of the USGS topographic 7.5-min quadrangle automatically satisfied. Also, color infrared photog- maps of New Jersey. Aerial color infrared photo- raphy should be used as the primary method to de- graphs were taken under contract at 12,200 m fine plant species. (40,000 ft). Final maps are 1:24,000 scale on Aerial photographs with complete stereocoverage transparent stable plastic for overlay on USGS topo- were acquired at 1: 12,000 scale. Natural-color, color graphic maps. The program took approximately 4 infrared, and black-and-white panchromatic films mo and cost $60,000. Updates are planned at 3- were exposed simultaneously. Black-and-white pan- yr intervals. chromatic photographs also were acquired at 1: 30,000 scale for aerotriangulation. For delineation, base maps at 1:2,400 scale were developed using rectified black-and-white enlargements of color in- The Texas Coastal Management Program has de- frared photographs. fined two tiers of counties inland from the coast On each map the upper wetlands boundary and as the coastal region. Although the coastal manage- major vegetation associations were delineated by ment zone is only a fraction of this area, an in- interpreting signatures of color infrared photo- ventory of the whole region is necessary. graphs in conjunction with natural-color photo- The base map for the inventory is a 1:250,000- graphs. Major species associations were defined as scale composite of two kinds lof projections: the one or more species having an area of 5 acres (2 ha) polyconic of USGS 7.5-min sheets for wetlands, as or more and composing at least 25 percent of the prepared by the Bureau of Economic Geology, the vegetation. Stands of lesser size were not mapped University of Texas at Austin; and the universal unless it was in the interest of wildlife manage- transverse Mercator for inland areas, as prepared ment. For example, 1-acre (0.4 ha) stands of from Army Map Service-USGS 1:250,000-scale wild rice were mapped because of value to water- maps. The regional base map has been used for fowl. Subsequent field checking showed that in- compilation of geologic substrate, potential mineral terpretation of color infrared signatures provided deposits, active processes, natural biologic assem- 85-90 percent of required biological data. A report blages, soil (agronomic) capabilities, water features, containing explanations and names of the delinea- historical-archeological data, and current land use. tors accompanies each wetlands map. These maps have been published at 1:500,000 scale Property-line overlays for each base map were with an accompanying report entitled "Resources compiled from tax maps and show lot and block of the Texas Coastal Region." numbers, with tabular listing of ownership. The With the regional resource inventory as back- 1:2,400-scale base map was chosen because it is ground material, composite resource areas consti- similar to the scale of municipal tax maps, and tuting coastal waters (including all bay-estuarine the accuracy is defensible in court. Wetlands maps and nearshore Gulf systems) and shorelands (in- meet National Map Accuracy Standards below the cluding wetlands, active dune complexes, and elevation of 10 ft above mean sea level. beaches) have been mapped. Note that such 10 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK boundaries are not static but vary seasonally and � Land resources laboratory map series.-Land- secularly. Changes continually occur between State- and water-use maps of the area under the juris- owned (submerged) and private lands. Evaluation diction of the Houston-Galveston Area. Coun- of data on the composite resource-areas map will cil of Governments. Maps include vegetation, show where various human activities can be sus- minerals, energy, and subsidence and hurri- tained naturally. The composite resource-areas map cane flooding. was compiled at 1:24,000 scale and published at � "Publications of the Bureau of Economic Geolo- 1:250,000 scale and will be a basic planning docu- gy."-List of reports and maps published by ment. BEG. The Texas Coastal Management Program includes For more information on BEG or to obtain other important projects: literature, contact: * A coordinated ground-controlled aerial-photo- Bureau of Economic Geology graphic survey with color infrared stereo- The University of Texas scopic pairs of the Padre Island-Laguna Box X, University Station Madre area in south Texas at 1:24,000 scale. Austin, Texas 78712 Controlled imagery is needed because of chang- For more information on the Texas Coastal ing landforms due to shifting sands. Management Program, contact: * Controlled aerial photographs of the Padre Island-Laguna Madre area processed into Texas Coastal Management Program orthophotomaps at 1:24,000 scale in a 7.5-min General Land Office 1700 North Congress Avenue format conforming to USGS quadrangles in Austin, Texas 78701 the area to allow use of control points after future aerial photographic flights without SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE expensive ground resurveys. * New color infrared aerial photographs have been Many Federal agencies are experienced in selec- taken at 1:24,000 scale for all bay margins ting and developing maps and mapping programs. and coastal wetlands. Before undertaking an extensive mapping program, * New NASA color-infrared images of the coast. any agency should be aware of existing maps and * Reconnaissance offshore mapping by BEG. other data from Federal, regional, State, and local * Detailed revisions and updates of coastal wet- sources. Building on existing information is gener- lands maps at 1 :24,000 scale. ally the most economical and effective approach to coastal mapping. The establishment of intrastate, The BEG functions as the State geological sur- interstate, and State-Federal cooperative programs vey and focuses on problems concerning natural to maximize use of existing resources is particularly resources and engineering. Some BEG programs and important publications are: * Environmental geologic atlases of the Texas GENERAL INFORMATION CENTERS coastal zone.-A series of detailed reports on indvidlcoastal ae.as. srincesf detaildreson- General information concerning the availability individual coastal areas. Includes environ- al al esenviron- of map and chart data produced by Federal agen- mental geology, physical properties can be obtained from a number of sources in- ments and biologic assemblages, land use, cluding the National Cartographic Information mineral and energy resources, active (geo- Center (NCIC), the National Geodetic Survey In- logic) processes, manmade features and wa- formation Center (NGSIC), the Environmental ter systems, rainfall and ground water, and Data Service (EDS), and the EROS Data Center topographic-bathymetric maps. * "Natural Hazards of the Texas Coastal Zone." -Explains the natural hazards to life and property that result from such occurrences as hurricanes, floods, shoreline erosion, land-sur- The primary role of NCIC is to develop and face subsidence, and active surface faulting. maintain an information data base on the location * Geological Circular 75-4.-Analysis of the his- and availability of cartographic data. Generally, torical changes in the Texas coastline. De- mapping organizations store and distribute their scribe the cartographic procedures used. own cartographic data, and users are encouraged to SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE 11 deal directly with the agency concerned if they know Georgia what they need and where it can be found. How- G kologic and Water Resources Division ever, NCIC assists those who need help to determine Department of Natural Resources 19 Martin Luther King Drive what is avalable and where it is located. Atlanta, Georgia 30334 NCIC is headquartered at Reston, Virginia, and Telephone: 404-656-3214 has six regional offices around the country. Minnesota National Cartographic Information Center Minnesota State Planning Agency U.S. Geological Survey Environmental Planning Division MS 507 National Center 15 Capitol Square Reston, Virginia 22092 550 Cedar Street Telephone: 703-860-6045 Saint Paul, Minnesota 55101 National Cartographic Information Center Telephone: 612-296-2613 Eastern Mapping Center New Mexico U.S. Geological Survey Technology Application Center MS 536 National Center University of New Mexico Reston, Virginia 22092 2500 Central Avenue, SE. Telephone: 703-860-6336 Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131 National Cartographic Information Center Telephone: 505-277-3622 Mid-Continent Mapping Center South Carolina U.S. Geological Survey South Carolina Land Resources Conservation Commission 1400 Independence Road Suite 222 Rolla, Missouri 65401 2221 Devine Street Telephone: 314-364-3680 x107 Columbia, South Carolina 29205 National Cartographic Information Center Telephone: 803-758-7197 x41 Rocky Mountain Mapping Center Texas U.S. Geological Survey Texas Natural Resources Information System Step 510, Box 25046 P.O. Box 13087 Denver Federal Center Austin, Texas 78711 Denver, Colorado 80225 Telephone: 512-475-3321 Telephone: 303-234-2326 West Virginia National Cartographic Information Center West Virginia Cartographic Center Western Mapping Center West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey U.S. Geological Survey P.O. Box 879 Whitehall 345 Middlefield Road Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 Menlo Park, California 94025 Telephone: 304-292-6331 x256 Telephone: 415-323-8111 x2427 National Cartographic Information Center U.S. Geological Survey National Geodetic Survey Information Center National Space Technology Laboratories The National Geodetic Survey, an office of NOS, Building 1100 NSTL Station, Mississippi 89529 is responsible for establishing and maintaining the Telephone: 601-688-3544 Nation's horizontal and vertical control networks. National Cartographic Information Center Control survey data are available to the public EROS Data Center from the National Geodetic Survey Information U.S. Geological Survey Center. In addition to information about NGS Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198 control, NGSIC receives input from a number of Telephone: 605-594-6511 x507 Federal agencies, including USGS, and from some Some States established affiliated offices that oper- State agencies. Eventually, NUSIC will be able to provide information on control surveys established by a greater number of agencies. For assistance in Arizona obtaining control survey data, contact: Arizona Department of Revenue Arizona Resources Information System National Geodetic Survey Information Center, C18 Room 302 National Ocean Survey 1624 West Adams Street National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Phoenix, Arizona 85007 Rockville, Maryland 20852 Telephone: 602-271-4061 Telephone: 301-443-8631 12 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Environmental Data Service have microfilm copies of imagery held at EDC and provide assistance in determining what data are The resources of NOAA's Environmental Data available and in ordering desired data. Service are essential to environment-related coastal These offices include the NCIC offices previously programs. They comprise baseline knowledge needed These offices in clud e the to plan, design, build, operate, and monitor the environmental effect of offshore energy facilities, EROS Applications Assistance Facility such as drilling rigs, supertanker ports, and float- University of Alaska ing nuclear powerplants; to provide a, standard by Geophysical Institute College, Alaska 99701 which to measure pollution and its impact upon Telephone: 907-479-7558 the coastal environment; and to assess the natural state of the coastal environment for planning and MAJOR FEDERAL MAPPING AND CHARTING management. EDS works with Federal, State, and PROGRAMS local agencies to determine coastal environmental data and information needs and develops the neces- The two major mapping and charting programs sary data to meet those needs. In addition, EDS in the nited States that influence the coastal provides experiment-design and data-management zone are administered by USGS and NOS expertise plus referral to data and information hold- ings not in its own files. Finally, to meet NOAA's U.S. Geological Survey obligations under the Deepwater Ports Act of 1974, The U.S. Geological Survey, as the primary civi- EDS evaluates and prepares recommendations re- lian producer of maps, publishes several series garding DWP license applications, related environ- of topographic maps of the United States as part mental impact statements, and adjacent coastal of the Department of the Interior National Map- States statutes as specified in the Act. For assistance ping Program. Other Federal agencies that some- in -obtaining these data, contact: times prepare topographic maps in connection with Director, Environmental Data Service their regular activities are the Defense Mapping National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Agency Topographic Center (DMATC), NOS, Ten- Page Building 2 nessee Valley Authority (TVA), U.S. Forest Serv- 3300 Whitehaven Street, NW. ice (USFS), and Mississippi River Commission Washington, D.C. 20235 (MRC). Telephone: 202-634-7318 Telephone: 202-634-7818 The principal USGS map series and their charac- teristics are given in table 1. In addition to the maps listed, USGS produces a number -of others The EROS Data Center, near Sioux Falls, S. such as the National Park series (at various scales) Dak., is operated by the Earth Resources Observa- that covers national parks, monuments, and his- tion Systems (EROS) Program of the Department toric sites. Many of the maps are available in of the Interior, and is managed by the Geological shaded-relief editions on which the topography is Survey's Land Information and Analysis Office. It provides access to imagery from Landsat, Skylab, TABLE .-Principal U.S. Geological Survey map series USGS aerial photographs, NASA aircraft data, and 1 cm other remote sensing products and training and Series Scale represents Geographic 1 inch assistance in the use of these data. EDC currently (km) coverage represents stores approximately 5.5 million master reproduci- 7.5-min 1:24,000 0.24 7.5'x7.5' 2,000 ft Puerto Rico 1,667 ft bles that can be copied and sold to users. 7.5-min 1:20,000 .20 7.5'x7.5' 2,000 ft For assistance in selecting imagery or to place Alaska 1 :24,000 1:24,000 .24 7.5'x15' or 18' 2,083 ft Alaska 1:25,000 1:25,000 .25 7.5'x11.25' 4,167 ft an order, contact: 1:50,000 county 1:50,000 .50 County User Services Unit 15-min 1:62,500 .625 15'x15' nearly 1 mi EROS Data Center Alaska 1:63,360 1:63,360 .6336 15'x20', 22.5', 1 mi U.S. Geological Survey 30'. or 36' South Dakota 57198 :100,000 county 1:100,000 1.0 County 8,333 ft Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198 U.S. 1:100,000 1:100,000 1.0 30'xl� 8,333 ft Telephone: 605-594-6511 U.S. 1 :250,000 1 :250,000 2.5 Ilx2 � nearly 4 mi IMW 1 :1,000,000 1:1,000,000 10.0 40x60 nearly 16 ml In addition to EDC, a network of EROS and NCIC addffiliated offices has been established The Note.-In Alaska the sizes of the 1:250,000 and 1:1,000,000-scale NCIC affiliated offices has been established. They quadrangles vary from the above figures. SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE 13 made to appear three-dimensional by shadow ef- Rolla, Missouri 65401 fects. State base maps at scales of 1: 500,000 (1 cm Telephone: 314-364-3680 represents 5 km) and 1: 1,000,000 are available Pacific Coast States, Hawaii, American Samoa, and Guam for all States except Alaska and Hawaii, which Branch of Plans and Production are covered by maps at other scales. Byproducts of Western Mapping Center State base maps are State hydrologic unit maps that u.S. Geological Survey 345 Middlefield Road show regions and subregions used by the Water Menlo Park, California 94025 Resources Division to plan detailed studies of water Telephone: 415-323-2411 and related land resources. They also show account- Entire coastal zone Entire coastal zone ing units used for managing the national water data Office of Plans and Program Development system. For some States, topographic and shaded- u.S. Geological Survey relief editions are also available. Maps of the United MS 514 National Center States are available in sizes and scales ranging from 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive letter size (1:16,500,000 scale) to a two-sheet wall Reston, Virginia 22092 map (1:2,500,000 scale). A new 50-State map is the first detailed USGS map of the United States that National Cartographic Information Center shows Alaska and Hawaii in their proper size and U.S. Geological Survey MS 507 National Center position relative to the other 48 States. 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Topographic maps of special format are pro- Reston, Virginia 22092 duced for many principal rivers and their flood Telephone: 703-860-6045 plains. Topographic-bathymetric maps are also be- ing produced, and research is being conducted in The Geological Survey has a revision program wetlands mapping. In addition, land use overlays designed to update its standard products. Emphasis are being prepared for the Geography Program of is given to the 7.5-min topographic series because, the USGS Land Information and Analysis Office. besides being the primary series, it is also used The products mentioned in this section do not to update other products. Each year a number of define the limits of USGS mapping functions. USGS quadrangle maps are revised, based on periodic is receptive to the needs of map users and is pre- review in several categories. pared to undertake new programs and special Maps in urban areas are normally reviewed for projects, including cooperative mapping programs, revision every 5 years; those in agricultural areas, when they are needed. every 10 years; in remote areas, every 20 years. Detailed information on USGS mapping pro- Not all maps are revised on review; approximately grams can be obtained from the following sources: 50 percent of those reviewed warrent the expense of revision. Alaska and Texas Maps of urbanized portions of the Standard Branch of Plans and Production Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's) defined by Rocky Mountain Mapping Center U.S. Geological Survey the Bureau of the Census are maintained on a Stop 510, Box 25046 5-yr cycle. At the request of the Federal Aviation Denver Federal Center Administration, quadrangle maps within 10 nmi Denver, Colorado 80225 of 600 selected airports are revised on a 5-yr Telephone: 303-234-3739 cycle. Atlantic Coast States, Alabama, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsyl- Other categories considered for review (not neces- vania, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands sarily in the order listed) are: Branch of Plans and Production Eastern Mapping Center 1. SMSA's extended (nonurban portion). U.S. Geological Survey 2. Coastal zone. MS 559 National Center 3. A-16 multiple requests (quadrangles re- Reston, Virginia 22092 quested by other Federal agencies Telephone: 703-860-6393 through the Office of Management and Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Budget (OMB) Circular A-16. Wisconsin 4. Cities and towns outside SMSA's. Branch of Plans and Production Mid-Continent Mapping Center U.S. Geological Survey- 6. Parks and recreation areas. 1400 Independence Road 7. Transportation corridors. 14 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK There are some exceptions to the normal review. fic separation schemes, and navigation regulations- For example, a cooperative mapping program may can be realized only by bringing together all the call for review of an area on a shorter cycle. Such information on the charts in a form that is easily areas usually receive priority consideration. understood and readily usable by mariners. The Geological Survey is increasing emphasis on The large single-sheet flat charts usually averag- production and revision of maps in the coastal ing 33x42 in (84x107 cm) are called "conventional zone to provide users with accurate and up-to-date charts." This distinguishes them from the more maps for the entire zone. compact, folded, small-craft charts which vary in There are approximately 3,600 7.5-min quad- size, but are generally smaller than 8x19 in (20x48 rangle areas in the coastal zone of the conterminous cm) when folded. United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. The Chart maintenance is a vital part of charting number includes shoreline quadrangles plus adja- responsibility. Shoaling or dredging in channels, cent inland quadrangles. Of these, about 700 need changes in both visual and electronic aids to naviga- new mapping and 2,000 need revision. Quick-re- tion, and natural and manmade changes to the sponse products, such as orthophotoquads and in- shoreline and alongshore structures necessitate fre- terim revisions, will be provided for many coastal quent revision to provide navigators with up-to- areas. date information. Research projects have played an important role Revision of a chart is based on new aerial photo- in the USGS mapping program. For example, the graphs, field-generated data, or a combination of Water Resources and Topographic Divisions co- both, and is usually limited to specific areas on operated in mapping the wetlands on the Doboy the chart where sufficient -change has occurred to Sound, Ga., 7.5-min quadrangle. Spectral signatures warrant updating. For economic reasons, an area of vegetation groupings were interpreted from color is completely remapped only when the scope of the infrared photographs. Orthophotoquads (1:10,000 change so dictates or when new formats, larger scale, 2.5'x3.75' format) were used as bases for the scale products, or special-purpose charts are re- wetlands compilation. The experiment showed that quired. remote sensing coupled with field investigation can The charts are revised on various maintenance be used to delineate the defined wetlands. Two ad- schedules: 2-3 years for more active areas and ditional USGS projects dealing with mapping and 4-12 years for less active areas. A few, such as environmental assessments of wetlands are under- charts of New York and Baltimore Harbors, are way. revised and printed on a 6-month schedule. For further information on nautical charts, con- tact: National Ocean Survey Chief, Marine Chart Division The National Ocean Survey publishes nautical National Ocean Survey charts of the waters of the United States and its National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration territories. Charts of the coastal zone are available, Rockville, Maryland 20852 but not always at a scale suitable for all coastal Telephone: 301443-8741 management functions. Nautical charts are pro- In cooperation with USGS, NOS publishes a duced in various sizes and formats, with differing series of maps as primary planning bases to help degrees of detail. The charts are produced by the State and local communities and Federal agencies Marine Chart Division from basic hydrographic, optimize use of the coastal zone. Under this pro- oceanographic, and topographic surveys conducted gram, NOS provides information seaward of the by other NOS components. The Coastal Mapping shoreline, and USGS provides the landward de- and Oceanographic Divisions retain such data as tails. The maps include the following series: a aerial photographs, large-scale maps, tide and cur- 1: 10,000-scale series that depicts mean high water, rent data, and sea water temperatures, which are mean low water, or mean lower low water tidal of considerable value in coastal affairs. datum lines which are boundary base lines for the In addition to presenting data from NOS opera- United States and its possessions; an enhanced tions, nautical charts are the principal means for 1:24,000-scale series in the same format as the disseminating navigation data provided by other USGS standard 7.5-min quadrangle series; a new agencies. For example, the full benefit of aids to 1:100,000-scale series of particular value to States navigation-improved channels and harbors, traf- and regional commissions; and a 1:250,000-scale SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE 15 series useful for State, regional, and Federal plan- ration. For example, an agency could provide all or ning. These maps are produced after coordination some of the funds for compiling the planimetry of NOS and USGS mapping programs and after con- but not the contouring of a topographic map. Simi- sultation with State and Federal agencies. Priori- larly, State agencies have shared costs for deter- ties are established on the basis of State needs and mining tidal datums and coastal boundaries. If the the availability of cost-sharing funds. work to be performed does not directly contribute The coastal mapping program of NOS provides to national mapping and charting, a repay or reim- aerial photographic and office compilation services bursable project may be arranged. to map the shoreline and locate nearshore features. In repay projects the work is done by the Federal The estuarine and lake level programs provide Government, but the entire cost of the project is measurement, analysis, prediction, and dissemina- paid by the requesting agency. Acceptance of a re- tion services for tides, currents, lake levels, and imbursable agreement depends on the nature of the river flows in the coastal and estuarine areas of work and the ability of the Federal agency to fit the the United States, including the Great Lakes and job into its production schedule. interconnecting waterways. In addition to mapping and charting projects, the For further information, contact: Federal Government cooperates on surveying and Chief, Marine Chart Division tidal-determination projects. Recent cooperative geo- National Ocean -Survey detic surveying programs were undertaken with New National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration York, Georgia, Maine, Connecticut, Oregon, Califor- Rockville, Maryland 20852 TRokville, Maryland 20852 nia, and Louisiana. These programs vary widely; further information may be obtained from the Detailed field surveys at 600 airports designated Director of NOS. by the Federal Aviation Administration and pro- Since the mid1970s NOS has been conducting ,, Since the mid-1970's, NOS has been conducting duction of obstruction charts covering 10 n tidal datum surveys in cooperation with Florida, New around those airports have been assigned to NOS. Jersey, and California. In the near future coopera- Obstruction charts and control survey data near ,ajor .irport ,a be obtainedive tidal datum surveys and coastal mapping will major airports can be obtained from: be planned for all coastal areas. The planned pro- Chief, Coastal Mapping Division gram involves cooperative establishment of the tidal National Ocean Survey datums prior to mapping the desired tidal datum National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Rockville, Maryland 20852 lines to NOS accuracy specifications. Rockville, Maryland 20852 Telephone: 301-443-8744 For information about a cooperative agreement with USGS, the following offices may be contacted: USGS AND NOS COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS Alaska and Texas Chief, Rocky Mountain Mapping Center Federal mapping agencies. cooperate on projects Chief, Rocky Mountain Mapping Center U.S. Geological Survey that contribute to national mapping and charting, Stop 510, Box 25046 including special products as well as standard map Denver Federal Center series. States, Commonwealths, or Territories, their Denver, Colorado 80225 political subdivisions, and their agencies may enter Telephone: 303-234-2351 into cooperative agreement in which map produc- Atl tion is funded equally by the State agency and the vania, Ohio, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands Federal Government. The cost of publication normal- Chief, Eastern Mapping Center ly is borne by the Federal Government. The effect U.S. Geological Survey of cooperative agreements is to expedite mapping of MS 567 National Center areas of particular interest to the cooperating agen- Reston, Virginia 22092 cy because the cooperators help select new project areas. Cooperators are listed in appendix 1. The Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, and list is by no means exclusive; additional cooperative Wisconsin programs can be arranged with other organizations Chief, Mid-Continent Mapping Center within the same jurisdictions. U.S. Geological Survey 1400 Independence Road Occasionally agencies enter into cost-sharing Rolla, Missouri 65401 agreements to support specified parts of map prepa- Telephone: 314-364-3680 16 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Pacific Coast States plus Hawaii, American Samoa, and grated product is designed to serve the cartographic Guam needs of oceanographers, marine geologists, land use Chief, Western Mapping Center planners, physical scientists, conservationists, and U.S. Geological Survey 345 Middlefield Road others interested in managing the coastal zone, the Menlo Park, California 94075 wetlands, and the offshore environment. Telephone: 415-323-2411 A portion of the 1:250,000-scale topographic- Headquarters office bathymetric map for Wilmington, Del.-N.J.-Pa.-Md., Chief, Topographic Division is shown in appendix 7, figure 12. Other maps have U.S. Geological Survey been authorized at that scale and at 1:100,000 scale. MS 516 National Center Eventually such maps will be available at 1:24,000 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive scale and in some cases at 1:10,000 scale. Reston, Virginia 22092 Telephone: 703-860-6231 MAPPING AND CHARTING ACTIVITIES For information about a cooperative program with NOS, contact: The following offices are sources of information about the mapping and charting programs of the Director, National Ocean Survey National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration particular agency listed. Cartographic data are not National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6001 Executive Boulevard always available at these offices. See the following Rockville, Maryland 20852 section, "Product and data sources," for a list of Telephone: 301-443-8744 data distribution points. Both USGS and NOS recognize the need for pro- Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service viding technical assistance to other organizations- Aerial Photography Field Office Federal, State, or private. Technical information in Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (2222 West, 2800 South) the form of mapping instructions and professional Box 30010 papers may be obtained from: Salt Lake City, Utah 84109 Technical Information Office Telephone: 801-524-5856 U.S. Geological Survey Bonneville Power Administration MS 520 National Center Information Office Reston, Virginia 22092 Bonneville Power Administration Telephone: 703-860-6275 1002 NE. Holliday Street Coastal Mapping Division Portland, Oregon 97208 National Ocean Survey Telephone: 503-234-3361 x5133 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Bureau of Indian Affairs 6001 Executive Boulevard Public Information Office Rockville, Maryland 20852 Bureau of Indian Affairs Telephone: 301-443-8744 18th and C Streets, N.W. The USGS technical assistance program includes Washington, D.C. 20245 Telephone: 202-343-7435 such services as providing technical instructions, ac- cepting research projects on a repay basis, and train- Bureau of Land Management Division of Cadastral Survey ing non-Federal personnel at the headquarters or Bureau of Land Management (420) at any of the regional offices across the country. Re- Washington, D.C. 20240 quests for such arrangements should be directed to: Telephone: 202-343-8205 Office of Research and Technical Standards Bureau of Mines U.S. Geological Survey Office of Technical Data Services MS 519 National Center Bureau of Mines Reston, Virginia 22092 Columbia Plaza Telephone: 703-860-6291 2401 E St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20241 or to the Director of NOS. Telephone: 2026341110 Telephone: 202-634-1110 In addition to the handbook, there are other co- Bureau of Outdoor Recreation operative programs between NOS and USGS. One Deputy Director for Planning is the topographic-bathymetric map series which Bureau of Outdoor Recreation will incorporate the data previously shown sepa- 4415 Interior Building 18th and C Streets, NW. rately on USGS topographic maps and NOS bathy- Washington, D.C. 20240 metric maps into one format and edition. The inte- Telephone: 202-343-7375 SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE 17 Bureau of Reclamation Federal Insurance Administration Information Branch Assistant Administrator for Flood Insurance Office of Public Affairs Federal Insurance Administration Bureau of Reclamation Room 5272 7640 Interior Building 451 7th Street, SW. 18th and C Streets, NW. Washington, D.C. 20410 Washington, D.C. 20240 Telephone: 202-755-5581 Telephone: 202-343-4662 Fish and Wildlife Service Bureau of the Census Division of Realty Geography Division Fish and Wildlife Service Bureau of the Census 555 Matomic Building Washington, D.C. 20233 1717 H Street, NW. Telephone: 301-763-2668 Washington, D.C. 20240 Delaware River Basin Commission Telephone: 202-843-4676 Executive Director Delaware River Basin Commission Fons Office Publications Office (25 State Police Drive) Office of Information P.O. Box 7860 U.S. Forest Service West Trenton, New Jersey 08628 Washington, D.C. 20013 Telephone: 609-883-9500 Telephone: 202-447-3957 Department of State International Boundary Commission Office of the Geographer Bureau of Intelligence and Research u.Sr Commission International Boundary Commission 8744 State Department Building United States and Canada 2201 C Street, NW. United States Section Washington, D.C. 20520 Room 150 Telephone: 202-632-1428 425 I Street N.W. Washington, D.C. 20586 Energy Regulatory Commission W a s hone: 20 51 Telephone: 202-783-9151 Office of Public Information Energy Regulatory Commission International Boundary and Water Commission 825 North Capitol Street, N.E. U.S. Commissioner Washington, D.C. 20426 International Boundary and Water Commission Telephone: 202-275-4006 United States and Mexico United States Section Environmental Protection Agency (4110 Rio Bravo, Executive Center) Office of Public Awareness Environmental Protection Agency Pao, Tex 79998 El Paso, Texas 79998 401 M Street, SW. Telephone: 915-543-7300 Washington, D.C. 20460 Telephone: 202-755-0715 Mississippi River Commission Federal Communications Commission Executive Assistant Public Information Office Mississippi River Commission Federal Communications Commission (Mississippi River Commission Building) Room 202 P.O. Box 80 1919 M Street, NW. Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180 Washington, D.C. 20554 Telephone: 601-636-1311 x201 Telephone: 202-632-7260 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Federal Highway Administration User Affairs Office Office of Public Affairs Office of Applications Federal Highway Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration Room 4208 247 Federal Office Building 400 7th Street, SW. 600 Independence Avenue, SW. Washington, D.C. 20590 Washington, D.C. 20546 Telephone: 202-426-0677 Telephone: 202-755-2070 18 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Data Service Maps and charts Director Public Affairs Office Environmental Data Service Office of the Chief of Engineers National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Department of the Army 2001 Wisconsin Avenue, NW. James Forrestal Building Washington, D.C. 20235 Washington, D.C. 20314 Telephone: 202-634-731 8 Telephone: 202-693-6326 Environmental Research Laboratories Office of Programs Photographs Environmental Research Laboratories Coastal Engineering Research Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Kingman Building 3100 Marine Avenue Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060 Boulder, Colorado 80302 Telephone: 202-325-7000 Telephone: 303-499-6212 U.S. Coast Guard National Ocean Survey Public Affairs Division Program Development Division U.S. Coast Guard National Ocean Survey 400 7th Street, SW. 'NFational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Washington, D.C. 20590 Roekville, Maryland 20852 Telephone: 202-426-1587 Telephone: 801-443-8548 U.S. Geological Survey Physical Science Services Branch Scientific Services Division General cartographic information National Ocean Survey User Services Section National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Cartographic Information Center Rockville, Maryland 20852 U.S. Geological Survey Telephone: 301-443-8031 MS 507 National Center National Weather Service Reston, Virginia 22092 National Weather Service Telephone: 703-860-6045 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Map information Gramax Building Public Inquiries Office' 8060 13th Street U.S. Geological Survey Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 108 Skyline Building Telephone: 301-427-7622 508 2d Avenue National Park Service Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Office of Communications Telephone: 907-277-0577 National Park Service Public Inquiries Office2 3043 Interior Building U.S. Geological Survey 18th and C Streets, NW. 7638 Federal Building Washington, D.C. 20240 300 North Los Angeles Street Telephone: 202-343-6843 Los Angeles, California 90012 Soil Conservation Service Telephone: 213-688-2850 Education and Publication Branch Information Division Public Inquiries Office Soil Conservation Service U.S. Geological Survey 504 Customs House U.S. Department of Agriculture 504 Batoer Stre Washington, D.C. 20250 Telephone: 202-447-5063 San Francisco, California 94111 U.S. Air Force Telephone: 415-556-5627 Office of Information Public Inquiries Office 2 Office of the Secretary U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Air Force 1C45 Federal Building The Pentagon 1100 Commerce Street Washington, D.C. 20330 Dallas, Texas 75202 Telephone: 202-695-4602 Telephone: 214-749-3230 U.S. Army Public Affairs Office Office of the Chief of Engineers Department of the Army James Forrestal Building "Area of concern Is limited to Alaska. 'Area of concern is limited to the States within the particular Washington, D.C. 20314 region of the country. The Los Angeles and San Francisco offices Telephone: 202-693-6326 provide Information on Hawaii. PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES 19 U.S. Geological Survey-continued PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES Public Inquiries Office U.S. Geological Survey Maps, charts, and related data that may be helpful 1036 General Services Building in coastal management are listed below. Addresses 19th and F Streets, NW. of distribution offices follow. Information offices are Washington, D.C. 20240 listed in the preceding section, "Sources of assist- Telephone: 202-343-8073 ance and advice." Public Inquiries Office U.S. Geological Survey Producing Available MS 302 National Center Products agencp from Reston, Virginia 22092 Aeronautical charts ____- ----NOS NOS Telephone: 703-860-6167 Boundary information United States and Canada __IBC IBC Public Inquiries Office i United States and Mexico _ IBWC IBWC Publications Division U.S. Geological Survey Boundary and annexation sur- 678 U.S. Court House veys of incorporated places Wes t 920 RiversideAve nue Awith 2,500 or more inhabi- West 920 Riverside Avenue tants BC GPO Spokane, Washington 99201 Civil subdivisions .and Telephone: 509-456-2524 Civil subdivisions and Telephone: 509-456-2524 reservations ------------- BLM BLM Technical information State/Federal ------------- DOS DOS Technical Information Office U.S. Geological Survey economic statistics) BC GPO MS 520 National Center Reston, Virginia 22092 Climatic maps ___-_____-_____ NWS NWS Telephone: 703-860-6275 Earthquake hazard map ______USGS USGS Photographic information Federal property maps User Services Unit Bureau of Reclamation ___BR BR EROS Data Center U.S. Geological Survey Fish and Wildlife Service _ FWS FWS Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198 National Aeronautics and Telephone: 605-594-6511 Space Administration -----NASA NASA National forests ----------- FS FS NPS NPS U.S. Marine Corps National Park Service NP NP Information Branch Military reservations Information Division Air Force ---------- USAF USAF U.S. Marine Corps Army -------------------- USA USA Arlington Annex Coast Guard USCG USCG Columbia Pike and Arlington Ridge Rd. Marines __ --------.----- USMC USMC Arlington, Virginia 20370 Navy USN USN Telephone: 202-694-1492 State map of lands U.S. Navy administered by Bureau Research and Public Inquiries Office of Land Management BLM BLM Public Information Division U.S. map of lands Office of Information administered by Bureau U.S. Navy of Land Management ___BLM BLM The Pentagon Flood-plain maps -----------DRBC DRBC Washington, D.C. 20350 FIA FIA Telephone: 202-695-0965 MRC MRC NOS FIA SCS SCS For assistance and advice on State mapping pro- USCE USCE grams, contact the State representatives listed in USGS USGS appendixes 1, 2, and 3. These sources should also Geodetic control data ________NGS NGS be able to provide information about municipal and USCE USCE private mapping efforts in the States. Other sources USGS NGS/NCIC of information about private mapping and aerial Geologic maps surveying companies are listed in appendix 4. Coal investigations ____----- USGS USGS Area of concern is limited to the states within the particular region General geologic SGA SGA of the country. USGS USGS 20 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Producing Available Producing Available Products agency from Products agency from Geologic maps-continued Hydrographic charts and bathymetric maps-con- Geophysical investigations --NOAA EDS tinued NOAA ERL River basin/watershed USGS USGS studies _________________ERC Mineral investigations ------ USGS USGS SCS SCS Mines --------------------- BM BM USGS USGS Oil and gas investigations --USGS USGS River surveys -__________BR BR Geographic maps -------------NOS NOS USGS USGS Land use ------------------ USGS USGS Wildlife and scenic river Highway maps jurisdiction __________-_BLM BLM County --------------------- FHWA States Hydrologic investigation Indian lands --------------- BIA BIA atlases _-___ ._________--._ USGS USGS Federal lands ____-__--_---_ -FHWA FHWA Indian reservations Federally funded roads ----FHWA GPO land surveys --------------BIA GPO Federal primary and United States map of secondary __________-___ _ FHWA GPO Indian lands ___________- BIA GPO Interstate - -_______________ FHWA FHWA Land plats __-_E____________ BLM BLM Traffic flow ____________.-...FHWA States BLM NA Urban --___________________ FHWA States NPS NPS Federal Highway Map of USCE USCE the United States ------- FHWA GPO National Atlas of the United States ..- USGS USGS Historical maps and charts ----LC, All Fed- LC, NARS Photographic products eral agencies. Aerial photographs ---------ASCS ASCS Hydrographic charts and bathymetric maps ----------NOS NOS BLM EDO USCE USCE USGS USGS CUoastal dataUSGS DIA DIA NASA EDC Beach erosion -------- USCE USCE FHWA FHWA Coastal boundary FS EDC orthophotomaps _____ NOS NOS FS NCIC USGS USGS FWS EDC Coastal boundary FWS NCIC planimetric maps ---- NOS NOS NOS NOS USGS USGS NPS NPS Coastal United States SCS SCS shoreline survey USCE USCE maps _____________- NOS NOS USFS USFS Delaware River Basin USGS NCIC/EDC outline map -----____DRBC DRBC Orthophotomaps _____--_---BIA BIA Estuarine coastline NOS NOS measurement maps _ EPA EPA USGS USGS Outer continental shelf Space imagery diagram and re- Landsat (ERTS) --------NASA ASCS, EDC, source management EDS. maps ---------------BLM BLM NASA manned spacecraft_ NASA EDC USGS USGS Nimbus ___________________ NWS NWS Shellfish area map- Skylab NASAASCS, EDC. ping _- - ---------- EPA EPA Tiros --------------------NWS NWS Tidal data -__________NOS NOS Recreation maps ------------- LM ELM Water quality- BOR BOR digital data ---______EPA EPA Seismicity maps and charts _ERL ERL Great Lakes ---------NOS NOS USoilsSGS USGS Hydrog~raphic surveys ___ NO S NOS Soils-substation quality ___- _BPA BPA USGS USGS Topographic maps -----------MRC MRC Nautical charts -_________ NOS NOS NASA NASA USCE USCE USGS USGS Navigable waterways Utilities maps maps -- -------------USCE USCE Ground conductivity map River and stream surveys _MRC MRC of the United States ____FCC GPO PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES 21 Producing Available Bureau of Land Management Products agency from Utilities maps-continued Alaska Alaska State Office Major natural-gas-pipelines map of the United States -_ ERC GPO Bureau of Land Management 555 Cordova Street Principal electric-facilities map of the United States -_ ERC GPO Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Principal natural-gas-pipe- lines map of the United California States ------------------- ERC GPO California State Office Water resources development Bureau of Land Management data .-----------------------USGS USGS E-2841 Federal Office Building Miscellaneous data 2800 Cottage Way Clinometric (slope) maps---- USGS USGS Sacramento, California 95825 Gravity survey charts -----EDS EDS Telephone: 916-484-4724 NOS NOS USGS USGS Eastern States Income distribution maps ___BC GPO Eastern States Office Isogonic charts -------------USGS USGS Bureau of Land Management Isomagnetic charts ---------NOS NOS 7981 Eastern Avenue Magnetic charts ____________EDS EDS Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 National science trail Telephone: 301-427-7440 maps -------------------- SCS SCS State indexes of fish hatch- Oregon eries and national Oregon State Office wildlife refuges ---------- FWS FWS Bureau of Land Management Storm evacuation maps __-_NOS NOS (729 NE. Oregon Street) Tree danger (to power lines) P.O. Box 2965 detection map __-_______B--PA BPA Portland, Oregon 97208 U.S. location map of fish Telephone: 503-234-4024 hatcheries and national wildlife refuges ----------FWS FWS Denver Service Center DISTRIBUTION POINTS Bureau of Land Management Building 50 The following offices can provide maps, charts, and Denver Federal Center cartographic data. Catalogs, ordering instructions, Denver, Colorado 80225 and order forms are usually provided free on request. Telephone: 303-234-2204 Photocopies of published, but out-of-print, Federal Outer Continental Shelf Offices maps can be obtained from the Geography and Map Division of The Library of Congress, 845 S. Picket Alaska Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Office Street, Alexandria, Virginia 22034. Bureau of Land Management Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service (800 A Street) Aerial Photography Field Office P.O. Box 1159 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service Anchorage, Alaska 99510 (2222 West, 2300 South) Telephone: 907-276-2955 Box 30010 Atlantic (except Florida) Salt Lake City, Utah 84109 New York Outer Continental Shelf Office Telephone: 801-524-5856 Bureau of Land Management Bonneville Power Administration Room 32-120 Bonneville Power Administration 26 Federal Plaza (1002 NE. Holladay Street) New York, New York 10007 P.O. Box 3621 Telephone: 212-264-2961 Portland, Oregon 97208 Portland, Oregon 97208 Gulf of Mexico and Florida New Orleans Outer Continental Shelf Office Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Land Management Bureau of Indian Affairs 841 Hale Boggs Federal Building 18th and C Streets, N.W. 500 Camp Street Washington, D.C. 20245 New Orleans, Louisiana 70130 Telephone: 202-343-7435 Telephone: 504-589-6541 22 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Bureau of Land Management--continued 2201 C Street, NW. Outer Continental Shelf Offices--continued Washington, D.C. 20520 Pacific (excluding Alaska) Telephone: 202-632-1428 Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Office Energy Regulatory Commission Bureau of Land Management Office of Public Information Room 7127 Energy Regulatory Commission 300 North Los Angeles Street 825 North Capitol Street, NE. Los Angeles, California 90012 Washington, D.C. 20426 Telephone: 213-688-7234 Telephone: 202-275-4006 Bureau of Mines Environmental Protection Agency Mine Map Repository Office of Public Awareness Bureau of Mines Environmental Protection Agency 4800 Forbes Avenue 401 M Street, SW. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213 Washington, D.C. 20460 Telephone: 412-621-4500 Telephone: 202-755-0715 Mine Map Repository Federal Highway Administration Bureau of Mines Office of Public Affairs Denver Federal Center Federal Highway Administration Denver, Colorado 80225 Room 4208 Telephone: 303-234-4161 400 7th Street, SW. Environmental Affairs Field Office Washington, D.C. 20590 Bureau of Mines Telephone: 202-426-0677 Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania 18701 Aerial Surveys Branch Telephone: 717-825-6811 Highway Design Division Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Room 3130A Federal Land Acquisition Division 400 7th Street, SW. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Washington, D.C. 20590 4223 Interior Building Telephone: 202-426-0296 18th and C Streets, NW. Federal Insurance Administration Washington, D.C. 20240 National Flood Insurance Program Telephone: 202-343-7665 P.O. Box 34294 Bureau of Reclamation Bethesda, Maryland 20034 Chief, Publications and Photography Branch Telephone: 800-424-8872 General Services Division 800-638-6620 Bureau of Reclamation Fish and Wildlife Service 7442 Interior Building Division of Realty 18th and C Streets, NW. Fish and Wildlife Service Washington, D.C. 20240 555 Matomic Building Telephone: 202-343-4683 1717 H Street, NW. Bureau of the Census Washington, D.C. 20240 Users Services Staff Telephone: 202-343-4676 Data Users Services Division Forest Service Bureau of the Census Maps Washington, D.C. 20233 California Telephone: 301-763-2400 Headquarters, California Region Delaware River Basin Commission U.S. Forest Service Executive Director 630 Sansome Street Delaware River Basin Commission San Francisco, California 94111 (25 State Police Drive) Telephone: 415-556-7739 Post Office Box 7360 West Trenton, New Jersey 08628OrgnadWsito Headquarters, Northwest Region Telephone: 609-883-9500 U.S. Forest Service Department of State (319 SW. Pine Street) Office of the Geographer P.O. Box 3623 Bureau of Intelligence and Research Portland, Oregon 97208 8744 State Department Building Telephone: 503-221-3614 PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES 23 Forest Service-continued Mississippi River Commission Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Puerto Rico, and Executive Assistant South Carolina Mississippi River Commission (Mississippi River Commission Building) Headquarters, Southern RegionPO.Bx8 U.S. Forest Service 1720 Peachtree Road, NW. Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180 Atlanta, Georgia 30309 Telephone: 601-636-1311 x-201 Telephone: 404-526-3749 National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Contact Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin the facility office of the installation concerned. Headquarters, Eastern Region National Archives and Records Service U.S. Forest Service Cartographic Archives Division 710 N. 6th Street National Archives and Records Service Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203 Archives Building Telephone: 414-224-3193 Pennsylvania Avenue at 8th Street, NW. Alaska Washington, D.C. 20408 Headquarters, Alaska Region Telephone: 202-523-3062 U.S. Forest Service (Federal Office Building) P.O. Box 1628 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Juneau, Alaska 99801 Telephone: 907-586-7266 Environmental Data Service States not listed have no national forest lands within National Climatic Center Environmental Data Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Aerial photographs Federal Building U.S. Forest Service Asheville, North Carolina 28801 P.O. Box 2417 Telephone: 704-258-2850 Washington, D.C. 20013 Telephone: 703-235-8638 National Oceanographic Data Center Environmental Data Service Government PrintingOfficer National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Assistant Public Printer 8~~~300 Whitehaven Street, NW. (Superintendent of Documents) Whington, D. U.S. Government Printing Office W a s hone: 20235 N. Capitol and H Streets, NW. Washington, D.C. 20402 Environmental Research Laboratories Telephone: 202-275-3345 Environmental Research Laboratories National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration International Boundary Com mission 3100 Marine Avenue InternationalBounday Commissioner Boulder, Colorado 80302 International Boundary CommissionTephn:384961 United States and Canada United States Section National Ocean Survey Room 150 425 I Street, NW. Aerial photographs and shoreline maps Washington, D.C. 20536 Coastal Mapping Division, C3415 Telephone: 202-783-9151 National Ocean Survey International Boundary and Water Commission National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. Commissioner Rockville, Maryland 20852 International Boundary and Water Commission Telephone: 301-443-8744 United States and Mexico Charts United States Section Distribution Division, C-44 (4110 Rio Bravo, Executive Center) National Ocean Survey P.O. Box 20003 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration El Paso, Texas 79998 Riverdale, Maryland 20840 Telephone: 915-543-7300 Telephone: 301-436-6990 Library of Congress Chart sales Geography and Map Division Room 713, Building 1 Library of Congress Washington Science Center 845 S. Picket Street National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Alexandria, Virginia 22304 Rockville, Maryland 20840 Telephone: 202-370-1335 Telephone: 301-443-8031 24 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration- National Park Service continued Office of Communications National Ocean Survey-continued National Park Service Chart sales and geodetic data (limited area) 3043 Interior Building 18th and C Street, NW. Alaska Washington, D.C. 20240 Chart Sales and Control Data Office Telephone: 202-343-6843 National Ocean Survey National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Soil Conservation Service 652 6th Avenue Crorpi tf Anchorage, Alaska 99501 ~~Soil Conservation Service Telephone: 907-265-4476 Hyattsville, Maryland 20782 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts Telephone: 202-447-6923 Atlantic Marine Center, CAM02 National Ocean Survey National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration State Geologic Agencies 439 W. York Street Norfolk, Virginia 23510Albm Telephone: 804-441-6686 GelgclSre fAlabama Pacific Coast P.O. Drawer 0 Pacific Marine Center University, Alabama 35486 National Ocean Survey Telephone: 205-349-2852 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Alaska 1801 Fairview Avenue, E. Division of Geological and Geophysical Sciences Seattle, Washington 98102 Department of Natural Resources Telephone: 206-442-7657 3001 Porcupine Drive Anchorage, Alaska 99504 Control data Telephone. 927-586-6352 National Geodetic Survey Information Center, C1Caifoni National Ocean Survey Diviiforn oinsanGelg National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration DiiinoCie n elg Rockville, Maryland 20852 California Department of Conservation Telephone - 301-443-863 1 ~ Room 1341 Telephone: 301-443-8631 ~~~1416 9th Street General cartographic information Sacramento, California 95814 Physical Science Services Branch, C513 Telephone: 916-445-1825 National Ocean Survey Connecticut National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Natural Resource Center Rockville, Maryland 20852 Department of Environmental Protection Telephone: 301-443-8031 553 State Office Building Tidal data ~~~~~~~~~~Hartford, Connecticut 06115 Oceanographic Division, C33 Telephone: 203-566-3540 National Ocean Survey Delaware National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Delaware Geological Survey Rockville, Maryland 20852 University of Delaware Telephone: 301-443-8467 101 Penny Hall Newark, Delaware 19711 National Weather Service Telephone: 302-738-2833 National Climatic Center Florida National Weather ServiceBueuoGolg National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration D eprtent of NauaGesources Federal Building 903 W. Tennessee Street Asheville, North Carolina 28801 Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Telephone: 704-258-2850 Telephone: 904-488-4191 National Meteorological Center Georgia National Weather Service Geologic and Water Resources Division National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Georgia Department of Natural Resources 5200 Auth Road 19 Martin Luther King, Jr., Drive, SW. Camp Springs, Maryland 20233 Atlanta, Georgia 30334 Telephone: 301-763-8016 Telephone: 404-656-3214 PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES 25 State Geologic Agencies-continued State Geologic Agencies-continued Hawaii New Hampshire Division of Water and Land Development Department of Geology Department of Land and Natural Resources James Hall P.O. Box 621 University of New Hampshire Honolulu, Hawaii 96809 Durham, New Hampshire 03824 Telephone: 808-548-2211 Telephone: 603-862-1216 Illinois New Jersey Illinois State Geological Survey New Jersey Bureau of Geology and Topography Natural Resources Building Division of Natural Resources 6th and Peabody (709 John Fitch Plaza) Urbana, Illinois 61801 P.O. Box 2809 Telephone: 217-344-1481 Trenton, New Jersey 08625 Telephone: 609-292-2576 Indiana Geological Survey New York Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey 611 N. Walnut Grove New York State Museum and Science Service Bloomington, Indiana 47401 973 New York State Education Annex Telephone: 812-387-2862 Albany; New York 12224 Telephone: 518-474-5816 Louisiana Louisiana Geological Survey North Carolina Box G, University Station Office of Earth Resources Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893 Department of Natural and Economic Resources Telephone:- 504-389-5812 P.O. Box 27687 Raleigh, North Carolina 27611 Maine Telephone: 919-733-3883 Maine Geological Survey Department of Conservation Ohio Ray Building Division of Geological Survey Augusta, Maine 04330 Ohio Department of Natural Resources Telephone: 207-289-2801 Fountain Square Columbus, Ohio 43224 Maryland Telephone: 614-466-5344 Maryland Geological Survey Oregon JonMokisUierriymnal State Department of Geology and Mineral Industries Johns Hopkins University ~~~~1069 State Office Building Baltimore, Maryland 21218 Portland, Oregon 97201 Telephone: 301-235-0771 T e p h n : 5 32958 Massachusetts Pennsylvania State Geologist Bureau of Topographic and Geological Survey Room 532 914 Executive House 100 Nashua Street Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17101 Boston, Massachusetts 02114 Telephone: 717-787-2169 Telephone: 617-727-4793 Michigan South Carolina Geological Survey Division Division of Geology Michigan Department of Natural Resources South Carolina State Development Board Box 30028 Harbison Forest Road Lansing, Michigan 48909 Columbia, South Carolina 29210 Telephone: 517-373-1256 Telephone: 803-758-6431 Minnesota Texas Minnesota Geological Survey Bureau of Economic Geology University of Minnesota University of Texas at Austin 1633 Eustis Street University Station, Box X St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 Austin, Texas 78712 Telephone: 612-373-3372 Telephone: 512-471-1534 26 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK State Geologic Agencies-continued U.S. Corps of Engineers-continued Virginia Southern New Jersey and Delaware Division of Mineral Resources U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia Department of Conservation and Economic U.S. Customs Hi-use Development 2d and Chestnut Street (Natural Resources Building) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106 P.O. Box 3667 Telephone: 215-597-4848 Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Maryland Telephone: 804-293-5121 U.S. Army Engineer District, Baltimore (31 Hopkins Plaza) Washington P.O. Box 1715 Geologic and Earth Resources Division Baltimore, Maryland 21203 Department of Natural Resources Telephone: 301-962-4545 Olympia, Washington 98504 Virginia Telephone: 206-753-5327 'U.S. Army Engineer District, Norfolk 803 Front Street Wisconsin ~~~~~~~~~~~Norfolk, Virginia 23510 Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey Telephonia 2 350 University of Wisconsin 1815 University Avenue North Carolina Madison, Wisconsin 53706 U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington Telephone: 608-262-1705 (308 Federal Building) P.O. Box 1890 U.S. Army-Contact the commander of the base concerned. Wilmington, North Carolina 28402 Telephone: 919-763-9971 U.S. Air Force-Contact the information officer of the base South Carolina (Savannah River Basin excluded) concerned. U.S. Army Engineer District, Charleston U.S. Corps of Engineers (Federal Building, 334 Meeting Street) P.O. Box 919 Minnesota, Wisconsin (Lake Superior), and Michigan Charleston, South Carolina 29402 (western half of Upper Peninsula) Telephone: 803-577-4171 U.S. Army Engineer District, St. Paul Georgia and Savannah River Basin of South Carolina 1135 U.S. Post Office and Customs House U.S. Army Engineer District, Savannah St. Paul, Minnesota 55101 (200 E. Saint Julian Street) Telephone: 612-725-7501 P.O. Box 889 Savannah, Georgia 31402 Michigan (excluding western half of Upper Peninsu- Telephone: 912-233-8822 la), and Toledo, Ohio, area Florida Peninsula and Puerto Rico U.S. Army Engineer District, Detroit U.S. Army Engineer District, Jacksonville (477 Michigan Avenue) P.O. Box 1027 ~~~~~~~~~(400 W. Bay Street) P.O. Box 4970 Detroit, Michigan 48281 Jacksonville, Florida 32201 Telephone: 313-226-6762 Telephone: 904-791-2241 Ohio (excluding Toledo area), Pennsylvania, and Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida Panhandle western New York U.S. Army Engineer District, Mobile U.S. Army Engineer District, Buffalo (109 St. Joseph Street) 1776 Niagara Street P.O. Box 2288 Buffalo, New York 14207 Mobile, Alabama 36628 Telephone: 716-876-5454 Telephone: 205-690-2511 Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Louisiana and Connecticut U.S. Army Engineer District, New Orleans (Foot of Prytania Street) U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England ( of 60267 424 -Trapelo Road PO o 06 424WTrapelt Massachusetts 214New Orleans, Louisiana 70160 Waltham, Massachusetts 02154Tephn:546-12 Telephone: 617-894-2400 Texas Texas Long Island, New York City area, and northern New U.S. Army Engineer District, Galveston Jersey (155A Essayons Building) U.S. Army Engineer District, New York (400 Barracuda Avenue) 26 Federal Plaza P.O. Box 1229 New York, New York 10007 Galveston, Texas 77550 Telephone: 212-264-0100 Telephone: 713-763-1211 PRODUCT AND DATA SOURCES 27 U.S. Corps of Engineers-continued U.S. Geological Survey-continued Southern California States west of Mississippi River plus Hawaii, Guam, U.S. Army Engineer District, Los Angeles and American Samoa (300 N. Los Angeles Street) Branch of Distribution, Central Region P.O. Box 2711 Publications Division Los Angeles, California 90053 U.S. Geological Survey Telephone: 213-688-5300 MS 306, Box 25286 Northern and Central California Denver Federal Center U.S. Army Engineer District, San Francisco Denver, Colorado 80225 100 McAllister Street Telephone: 303-234-3832 San Francisco, California 94102 Maps over-the-countet Telephone: 415-556-3660 Alaska Oregon and Columbia River Basin of Washington Public Inquiries Office U.S. Army Engineer District, Portland Publications Division (2850 SE. 82d Avenue) U.S. Geological Survey P.O. Box 2946 108 Skyline Building Portland, Oregon 97208 508 2d Avenue Telephone: 503-777-4441 Anchorage, Alaska 99501 Washington (Columbia River Basin excluded) Telephone: 907-277-0577 U.S. Army Engineer District, Seattle Alaska (selected) 4785 E. Marginal Way S. Public Inquiries Office Seattle, Washington 98134 Publications Division Telephone: 206-764-3690 U.S. Geological Survey Alaska 1012 Federal Building U.S. Army Engineer District, Alaska 1961 Stout Street (Building 21-700) Denver, Colorado 80202 (Elmendorf Air Force Base) Telephone: 303-837-4169 P.O. Box 7002 Anchorage, Alaska 99510 Alaska, California, Washington, Oregon, and Hawaii Telephone: 907-752-9114 Public Inquiries Office Publications Division Hawaii, American Samoa, and Guam U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Army Engineer Division, Pacific Ocean 7638 Federal Building (Building 230) 300 N. Los Angeles Street (Fort Shafter, Hawaii) Los Angeles, California 90012 APO San Francisco 96558 Telephone: 213-688-2850 Telephone: 808-422-2711 or 471-7411 Public Inquiries Office U.S. Coast Guard Publications Division Oceanographic Unit U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Coast Guard 504 Custom House Building 159E, Washington Navy Yard Annex 555 Battery Street Washington, D.C. 20390 San Francisco, California 94111 Telephone: 202-426-4630 Telephone: 415-556-5627 U.S. Geological Survey Alaska (selected), Oregon, and Washington Maps by mail Public Inquiries Office Publications Division Alaska U.S. Geological Survey Distribution Section 678 U.S. Court House U.S. Geological Survey W. 920 Riverside Avenue 101 12th Avenue Spokane, Washington 99201 Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 Telephone: 509-838-4611 x111 Telephone: 907-456-7535 Louisiana and Texas States east of Mississippi River plus Puerto Rico Public Inquiries Office Branch of Distribution, Eastern Region Publications Division Publications Division U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey 1C45 Federal Building 1200 South Eads Street 1100 Commerce Street Arlington, Virginia 22202 Dallas, Texas 75202 Telephone: 703-557-2781 Telephone: 214-749-3230 28 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK U.S. Geological Survey--continued U.S. Geological Survey-continued Atlantic Coast States plus Alabama, Indiana, Pennsyl- Entire coastal zone vania, Ohio, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands Public Inquiries Office National Cartographic Information Center Publications Division Eastern Mapping Center U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey 1028 General Services Building MS 536, National Center 19th and F Streets, NW. Reston, Virginia 22092 Washington, D.C. 20242 Telephone: 703-860-6316 Telephone: 202-343-8073 Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Wisconsin Public Inquiries Office National Cartographic Information Center Publications Division Mid-Continent Mapping Center U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey National Center, Room 1C402 1400 Independence Road Reston, Virginia 22092 Rolla, Missouri 65401 Telephone: 703-860-6167 Telephone: 314-364-3680 x42 Pacific Coast (includes Hawaii, American Samoa, and Commercial dealers are listed on sales indexes which Guam) can be obtained from any of the above offices. National Cartographic Information Center Western Mapping Center Photographs and remote sensor imagery U.S. Geological Survey User Services Unit 345 Middlefield Road EROS Data Center Menlo Park, California 94075 U.S. Geological Survey Telephone: 415-323-2427 Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198 All cartographic data Telephone: 605-594-6511 User Services Section Maps, arial potograhs, an contrl dataNational Cartographic Information Center Alapskaeilpoorhs and coTrolxata U.S. Geological Survey National Cartographic Information Center M S 22071 NatinrsVallCney rie Rocky Mountain Mapping Center 120Suriestn Valeirgive)209 MS 510, Box 25046 Restpone:irginia0-6045 Denver Federal Center T e p h n : 7 3 8064 Denver, Colorado 80225 U.S. Navy and Marines Corps-Contact the commander Telephone: 303-234-2326 of the base concerned, TECHNICAL INFORMATION DATUMS of other points on the same datum, tying them into a unified survey. A datum is any numerical or geometrical quantity a unified survey. or set of quantities that serves as a reference or VERTICAL DATUMS base for other quantities. In surveying, mapping, and charting, datums are essential for correlation A vertical datum is the surface to which heights, of measurements and for determining and portray- elevations, or depths are referred. It can be a leveling ing relative positions and elevations (or other char- datum, a tidal datum, a chart datum, or a geodetic acteristics) of points at different locations. vertical datum. The two basic types of survey datums are hori- zontal and vertical. A datum is defined by quantities Tidal datums (for example, position, elevation, direction, a refer- ence surface) at an initial point from which measure- The simplest datum is the tidal datum-a base ments are made to other points. The reference elevation defined by a certain phase of the tide surface, particularly for the horizontal datum, (fig. 1) and used as a reference from which local usually is not the physical surface of the Earth but heights and depths are reckoned. Local datums some easily defined mathematical surface such as an should not be extended into adjacent areas where a ellipsoid, different tidal regime may exist. Mean high water, mean low water, and mean lower low water (fig. 2), HORIZONTAL DATUMS are the tidal datums most significant to mapping quantities: and charting in the coastal zone. Local mean sea A horizontal datum is defined by five quantities: level (that is, mean sea level at a tide station) is the latitude and longitude of an initial point; theth a lv l at a aton is the basic tidal datum for a harmonic analysis of azimuth of a line from that point; and two constants taziuth defaline fmthe c p ad twocstnears observations at that station. It does not have a direct that define the reference ellipsoid most nearly ap- relationship to either charting or mapping. Half-tide proximating the Earth in the area of interest. In the level (fig. 3) is halfway between mean high water level (fig. 3) is halfway between mean high water conterminous United States and Alaska, the current and mean low water and is computed for each tidal and mean low water and is computed for each tidal horizontal datum is the North American Datum station. However, it also has no direct; effect on (NAD) of 1927; its reference surface is the Clarke mapping and charting. Mean sea level and half-tide Spheroid of 1866. The following datums are used level may be equal or may differ depending on the level may be equal or may differ depending on the for the State of Hawaii and for the Territories, all tidal characteristics at the specific location. tidal characteristics at the specific location. on the Clarke Spheroid of 1866: Areal Datzum International Great Lakes Datum Hawaii .- - ------------ Old Hawaiian Datum. Puerto Rico ---------- Puerto Rico Datum. The International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD) Virgin Islands -------- Puerto Rico Datum. of 1955, established jointly with Canada, is the basic Guam - ---------------.. Guam Datum of 1963. level datum for charting water depths of the Great American Samoa---American Samoa Datum of Lakes and connecting waterways. The datum is 1962. Other Pacific Islands Various datums. used by NOS and the Corps of Engineers in Great Lakes operations that require a vertical datum. Al- From measurements of distances and directions though some bench marks are common to the IGLD from the initial (or subsequent) points and subse- of 1955 and the National Geodetic Vertical Datum quent computations, positions (latitude, longitude) (NGVD) of 1929, the two datums are not the same and distances can be determined for any number and cannot be converted mathematically. 29 80 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK First Quarter Looking down on the north pole of the earth's figure (central solid circle). The two solid ellipses represent the tidal force en- velopes produced bythe moon inthe positions of syzygy (new or full moon) and quadrature (first or third quarter), respectively; the dashed ellipse shows the smaller tidal force envelope pro- duced bythe sun. Neap Tides Full moon ~~~~~~~>~ Spring /~Spring NewTo Sun Full moon Tides Tides w Moon Neap Tides The Phase Inequality; Spring and Neap Tides Third Quarter The gravitational attractions (and resultant tidal force envelopes) produced by the moon and sun reinforce each other at times of new and full moon to increase the range of the tides, and counteract each other at first and third quarters to reduce the tidal range. FIGURE L-Solar and lunar tide-producing forces. Chart Datum observations for establishing the datum are made The surface to which depths are referred on during the course of the survey and several weeks The surface to which depths are referred on r ed t salh e riu tm t are needed to establish the various datums at a bathymetric maps and nautical charts is called a tide station, the hydrographer usually refers his chart datum. It is a tidal datum in tidal waters, observations to a temporary sounding datum that mean low water in the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf observations to a temporary sounding datum that of Mexico, and mean lower low water in the Pacific is corrected to the final datum before map or chart of Mexico, and mean lower low water in the Pacific rdcin and Arctic Oceans. Special datums sometimes are production. used for a body of coastal water where tidal char- National Geodetic Vertical Datum acteristics are significantly altered by the physiog- National Geodetic Vertical Datum raphy of the basin; each is generally based on a The National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) selected tidal datum. Chart datums for the Great of 1929 (formerly called the Sea Level Datum of Lakes are low lake levels, defined as elevations 1929) covers too large an area to be based on a referred to the IGLD of 1955 as determined from single local tidal datum. It is therefore based on, but water level observations at selected gaging stations. not necessarily equal to, mean sea level at 26 tide Sloping datums are necessary for some connecting stations in the United States and Canada, with the waterways because of the natural gradient of the best fit over a broad area resulting from the 1929 waterway bed. general adjustment of the United States and Cana- Soundings, or measurements of water depth, made dian leveling networks. The NGVD of 1929 and local during bathymetric and hydrographic surveys, must mean sea level cannot be interchanged because their be referred to the appropriate vertical datum. The relationship varies from place to place. All elevations preferred datum, especially in hydrographic survey- in the National Vertical Control Network are re- ing, is the chart datum. However, because the tide ferred to the NGVD of 1929. These elevations are DATUMS 31 Offshore -. Shoreface z Shore or Beach Coast Foreshore Backshore or or Beachface Backbeach 'aI EOrdinry o -' (Summr b ~ em Storm �V>Q4 C ~~~~~~~ 0 ~~~~~~(Winter) ~c~wt4 'a ~~~~~~~berm S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e _;: > I I / :.';jcliff 2 - Mean higher high watey - Mean high water - Mean low water - Mean lower low water 4>.~. Step'.." .- Inshore Trog J~j;~J~e"" bar j:Longshore bar FIGURE 2.-Tidal datums and their relations to a generalized shore cross section. Figure 4 shows the tidal heights in relation to a tidal day. used in topographic mapping, geodesy, engineering products are generally too small for them to be of studies, construction work, and similar activities. practical benefit to boundary affairs in the coastal The elevations are not applied directly to mapping zone. Furthermore, tidal datums at many places boundaries that depend on a tidal datum (in tidal were established for hydrographic surveys and may waters) or on a lake level (in the Great Lakes re- not be adequate for precise boundary applications. gion). Both the NGVD of 1929 and the National In seven of the ten exceptions noted above, the Vertical Control Network are used in the contermi- boundary between sovereign and private property is nous United States and part of Alaska. Other geo- the mean low water line. That line is compiled on detic vertical datums are used in Alaska, Puerto NOS nautical charts when scale permits. Except on Rico, the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Guam, other the 1:10,000-scale NOS boundary series (app. 7, fig. oceanic islands, and islands fairly near the mainland 22) it is not compiled on most small-scale charts or that cannot be connected to the NGVD by leveling. on any topographic maps published by USGS. They are based on tidal datums (usually local mean Anyone concerned with local boundaries based on sea level) where practical. tidal datums should assure himself that the maps and tidal datums he is using, or intends to use, are TIDAL DATUMS AND LOCAL MARINE adeqate for the purpose. Advice, assistance, and BOUNDARIES products can be obtained from: The mean high water line forms the boundary Oceanographic Division, C-33 between sovereign and private property in 14 of the National Ocean Survey National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 24 States bordering tidal waters. It is shown as the 6001 Ocecutm oulerd 6001 Executive Boulevard shoreline on USGS topographic maps and NOS nau- Rockville, Maryland 20852 tical charts. However, publication scales of those Telephone: 301-443-8274 32 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK mean higher high water mean high water mean high water *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ....... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..,..X..,......... mean low water mean low water mean lower low water Semidiurnal tides Mixed and diurnal tides FIGURE 8.-Interrelations of tidal datums. Mean sea level may coincide with half tide level, but seldom does; the variation (represented by the dot pattern) is generally about 8 cm (0.1 ft) and rarely exceeds 6 cm (0.2 ft). LAKE LEVELS AND RELATED LOCAL Since there is no measurable rise and fall of tide in BOUNDARIES the Great Lakes, it is not relevant to attempt to determine the ordinary high water mark by analysis The Great Lakes States have selected several ways of water level gage records for diurnal or semi- to define the boundary between public trust waters diurnal effects. and private property. Some States use the ordinary The height of water levels in the Great Lakes (mean) high water mark, others use a line which varies in an irregular and apparently noncyclical fluctuates with the lake level, and still others use a pattern due to meterological conditions (rainfall and specific lake level. Except on Lake Michigan, the snowfall) in the upper watershed areas. There is no States have proprietary interest in the waters of the predictable cycle, but the variation is predominantly Great Lakes lying between the appropriate State- annual. Thus to determine the ordinary* high water private line and the boundary between the United mark requires resolution and interpretation of water States and Canada, subject to the interest of the level gage recordings over many years. general public (including Canada and other foreign Advice, assistance, and products relative to the nations) in navigation and access. The boundary be- heights of the water surfaces of the Great Lakes tween Michigan and Illinois and Wisconsin follows can be obtained from: a large part of the approximate centerline of Lake Tides and Water Levels Branch Michigan. The States retain the right to control or National Ocean Survey limit access to natural resources in and under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration water outside the line chosen to represent the State- Rockville, Maryland 20852 private boundary. Telephone: 801-448-8441 . ... .... ............................ ------------------ - ---------------------- .......................... .............. .....~~~~'~`'"`~'~~'''~'~��::~��:: ~:� ::::::::;.:;::::::::::::: x:;;:....................~ ��~�� �;~~~~~~ mean low water mean low water mean lower low water Semidiurnal tides Mixed and diurnal tides FIGURE 3- Interrelations of tidal datums. Mean sea level may coincide with half tide level, but seldom does; the variation (represented by the dot pattern) is generally about 3 cm (0.1 ft) and rarely exceeds 6 era (0.2 ft). LAKE LEVELS AND RELATED LOCAL Since there is no measurable rise and fall of tide in BOUNDARIES the Great Lakes, it is not relevant to attempt to determine the ordinary high water mark by analysis The Great Lakes States have selected several ways of water level gage records for diurnal or sen-i- to define the boundary between public trust waters diurnal effects. and private property. Some States use the ordinary The height of water levels in the Great Lakes (mean) high water mark, others use a line which varies in an irregular and apparently noncyclical fluctuates with the lake level, and still others use a pattern due to meterological conditions (rainfall and specific lake level. Except on Lake Michigan, the snowfall) in the upper watershed areas. There is no States have proprietary interest in the waters of the predictable cycle, but the variation is predominantly Great Lakes lying between the appropriate State- annual. Thus to determine the ordinary'high water private line and the boundary between the United mark requires resolution and interpretation of water States and Canada, sub~ject to the interest of the level gage recordings over many years. general public (including Canada and other foreign Advice, assistance, and products relative to the nations) in navigation and access. The boundary be- heights of the water surfaces of the Great Lakes tween Michigan and Illinois and Wisconsin follows can be obtained from: a large part of the approximate centerline of Lake Tides and Water Levels Branch Michigan. The States retain the right to control or National Ocean Survey limit access to natural resources in and under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6001 Executive Boulevard water outside the line chosen to represent the State- Rockville, Maryland 20852 private boundary. Telephone. 301-443-8441 CONTROL SURVEYS 33 CONTROL SURVEYS proceed with reference only to the horizontal geo- Control, in general, consists of coordinated and detic datum. However, if relief is to be shown on correlated elevation or position data that form a the maps (that is, topographic maps) then a com- framework to which detailed surveys are adjusted. mon vertical datum must be used. In the contermi- Basic control is horizontal, vertical, or both, and is nous United States, the NGVD of 1929 is the verti- usually established with greater precision and ac- cal datum most suitable for showing relief. Local curacy than subsequent dependent surveys. Both datums are used in Hawaii, the Pacific islands, horizontal and vertical control are fundamental to Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and parts of mapping and charting. Except for operations direct- Alaska because the NGVD of 1929 does not extend to ly referenced to tidal datums, both horizontal and them. Each local datum is based on tidal datums vertical control for coastal mapping must be estab- established at selected tide stations and is specified lished by geodetic methods. in the geodetic control data provided for each of The two basic geodetic control networks in the these areas. United States are the National Horizontal Control Network and the National Vertical Control Network OTHER CONTROL established and maintained by the National Geodetic The vertical control of greatest significance to Survey, NOS. Other Federal agencies such as USGS, coastal mapping is provided by tidal observations. Bureau of Reclamation, and U.S. Army Corps of En- The datum computed from the observation depends gineers (USCE), as well as many State agencies, on tidal characteristics (fig. 4). In general, the tide establish geodetic control. For surveys of second along the Atlantic Coast is classified as semidiurnal or higher order accuracy, the instruments, methods, (two nearly equal high waters and two nearly equal and techniques must meet the criteria set by NGS, low waters each day). The elevations of tidal bench and the records and observations acquired by the marks refer to mean low water. In addition, data establishing agency are accepted by NGS and ad- are provided for mean high water, half tide level, justed to the national network. The National Hori- mean sea level, and mean low water. In the Gulf of zontal Control Network covers the conterminous Mexico and the Pacific Ocean the tide is classified United States and Alaska; independent networks either as diurnal (one high water and one low water cover Hawaii and the oceanic islands. The National each day) or as mixed. The mixed tide is similar to Vertical Control Network covers the conterminous the semidiurnal tide except that there is a marked United States and part of Alaska; independent net- difference in the height of the two high waters and works cover the rest of Alaska, Hawaii, and the (or) in the height of the two low waters each oceanic islands. day (called diurnal inequality). Tidal bench marks along the Gulf Coast refer HORIZONTAL CONTROL to mean low water and those along the Pacific Horizontal control makes it possible for cartog- Coast refer to mean lower low water. For many tide raphers to orient and scale their maps accurately, stations in the Gulf of Mexico, along the Pacific to position them properly on the Earth, and to com- Coast, Alaska, Hawaii, and the Pacific islands, data pile details in correct positions and relations. The are also provided for mean higher high water, mean network maintained by NGS usually provides con- high water, half tide level, mean sea level, mean low trol sufficient for mapping and charting. The few water, and mean lower low water. Mean sea level gaps in the basic schemes can normally be bridged at any point is simply the mean level of the sea at with modern photogrammetric techniques to avoid that point. Technically, it is the arithmetic mean the expense of field geodetic surveys, of hourly water elevations observed over a specific 19-year Metonic cycle (the National Tidal Datum Epoch). Mean sea level is the primary tidal datum. VERTICAL CONTROL All other tidal datums are derived from various The first operational use of vertical control for tide stages, but are referenced to mean sea level. coastal mapping is in photogrammetric aerotriangu- Local mean sea level is not generally valid elsewhere lation--a phase that does not necessarily require a and should not be confused with the NGVD of 1929 vertical geodetic -datum. Planimetric mapping can which is an average of numerous local stations. 34 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Distribution of Tidal Phases Tidal Day Tidal Period Tidal Period 2 1 / \ \ / \ \ / \ - Datum \ / -3 CU SEMIDIURNAL TIDE .U c i_ Tidal Period I_ Tidal Day 3 Higher Lower : 2 High --High Water TI \d \Water Tida - 1 Rise I /t\ / -o 0 I Datum Tidal I 1 / \ Range Tidal / \ Higher I I t Tidal U-2 Low Water Amplitude .2, 3 =1/2 Range- _,-4.I .. J Lower Low Water MIXED TIDE Tidal Day -_ Tidal Period 2 01~/ Datum -2\ / DIURNAL TIDE FIGURE 4.-Distribution of tidal phases of diurnal, semidiurnal, and mixed tides. MAP PROJECTIONS AND GRID SYSTEMS 35 MAP PROJECTIONS AND GRID SYSTEMS tain projections show true distances from a selected point and are termed equidistant. Most maps are printed on paper or other flat point and aretermed equidistant. Most directions between points on the Earth are surface. Since the Earth is nearly spherical, it is correctly shown on all conformal projections, but impossible to represent its features on a plane with- the longest distances a ccurately represented. the longest distances are less accurately represented. out introducing distortions. The method by which When exact directions from a specific point are the information is transferred determines the na- azimuthal (zenithal) projections are used. ture of the map projection, which is geometrically defined on the map by the graticule, representing DEVELOPABLE SURFACES parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The Greek astronomer, Hipparchus, is credited The term projection can be explained by the con- with superimposing on the Earth the system of cept of a point light source shining through a model parallels and meridians to provide the means by of the Earth causing the graticule to cast its shadow which the locations of features can be stated unique- on an object. The object can be any number of ly. Since only one meridian and one parallel can be geometric surfaces, but the most commonly used drawn through a given point, the intersection of a are the cone and its limiting shapes, the plane meridian and a parallel defines a single location. (cone with an altitude of 0 (zero) and an apex of When meridians and parallels are represented on 1800) and the cylinder (cone with an altitude of in- a flat surface by means of a projection, points on finity and an apex angle of 00). Both the cone and the Earth can be represented uniquely on that the cylinder can be flattened to a plane without surface to form a map. further distortions and thus are known as develop- able surfaces. PROPERTIES OF PROJECTIONS Conic projections are transferred to an imaginary cone placed over the Earth, sometimes obliquely All maps contain distortions inherent in their but usually so their axes coincide. The side of the particular projections. These 'distortions affect the cone can be tangent to the Earth along a selected portrayal of area, shape, direction, and distance. parallel of latitude or can intersect the Earth Projections can be selected to eliminate or minimize along two parallels. Parallels of tangency and se- one or more of the distortions at the expense of cancy are called standard parallels and maintain a others, or to partially control several and thereby constant scale. Distortions increase away from the minimize the general distortion. standard parallels. Some projections maintain a constant areal scale. Azimuthal projections are transferred to a plane In simple terms this means that an object, such as a that is intersecting the Earth, tangent to it, or coin, placed on a map covers the same amount of neither. The perspective center (light source) of geographical area wherever it is placed. Such pro- the projection can be at the center of the Earth, on jections are termed "equal-area" and are used when the surface, somewhere between, or at a point in measurements or comparisons of areas are of pri- space. mary importance. To achieve equal-area properties Cylindrical projections are transferred to an (equivalency) a projection must distort shapes and imaginary cylinder placed tangent to or intersecting angles. the Earth. The lines of tangency can be standard In contrast, a projection that retains shapes and parallels, standard meridians, or any selected great angles is called conformal and cannot be equal-area. circle (a circle whose center lies at the center of Conformal projections show small areas, such as the Earth and whose diameter equals that of the lakes and ponds, with the same shapes as they have Earth). Lines of intersection (secancy) are on the globe. To do so, the parallels and meridians standard lines and need not coincide with lines of must meet at right angles, and the local scale the graticule. around any point must not vary. Most modern Variations in projections also occur with changes maps, particularly at larger scales, are constructed in the orientation of the developable surface with on conformal projections because of the importance respect to the Earth's axis. The orientation of a of true shape and direction. plane can be polar (perpendicular to the axis and All projections have lines along which distances centered at a Pole), equatorial (parallel to the axis are shown correctly. They are called standard lines and centered at a point on the Equator), or oblique and are usually selected meridians or parallels. Cer- (intersecting the axis at an acute angle). Likewise, 36 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK the axis of a cylinder can be coincident with, per- pendicular to, or oblique from the Earth's axis. Generally, a cone's axis coincides with that of the Earth. Another fundamental of projections is the method of transfer (projection) from the Earth's surface. Transfer by extending rays from the perspective center is a simple geometric projection in which rays connect the Earth's surface features to the projection surface. However, most map projec- tions are mathematically transformed and are not defined geometrically. The mathematical transforma- tion is defined to provide the specific property sought, such as conformality or equivalency. Thus, a given projection involves three basic considerations, (1) selection of a developable sur- A S face, (2) orientation ,of the surface to the Earth's axis, and (3) a transformation (usually mathemati- E cal) by which the Earth's surface features are transferred to the projection surface. The projection / surface is then developed into a plane, resulting in a map with defined geometric characteristics. C D COMMONLY USED PROJECTIONS I Map projections are too numerous to give descrip- tions of all of them here. Therefore:, only a few of the projections more commonly used by engineers are discussed. Many other projections are available for particular uses, especially in small-scale map- ping. A number are described by Dietz and Adams (1944). FIGURE 5.-Lambert conformal conic projection; a secant Lambert Conformal Conic Projection cone having two standard parallels, lines AEB and CFD. Line EF is the central meridian. The Lambert conformal conic projection was de- vised in 1772 by Johann Heinrich Lambert. It as- scale State base maps, and the 1:24,000-scale sumes a cone intersecting (secant to) the Earth sumes a cone intersecting (secant to) the Earth 7.5-min topographic quadrangles that lie in zones along two standard parallels (fig. 5) passing through where t he L ambe rt projection is the basefor the the mapped area. The axis of the cone coincides with State plane coordinate system. State plane coordinate system. the Earth's axis. Scale is correct along both standard parallels, too small between them, and too large beyond them. The distortions grow as one moves away from the The polyconic projection (fig. 6) was devised by standard parallels. Because scale is correct along Ferdinand Hassler, the first superintendent of the two parallels, the Lambert projection is often pre- U.S. Coast Survey (later U.S. Coast and Geodetic ferred to the simple conic projection with only one Survey, now NOS). It projects the Earth's surface standard parallel. on a series of cones, each tangent to the Earth along Because of the north-south distortions, this pro- a different selected parallel of latitude. Scale is cor- jection is most suitable for mapping areas that rect along each standard parallel and along the are elongated east-west. It is used for the 1:1,000,- central meridian, but not elsewhere. 000-scale world aeronautical charts, the 1:500,000- The principal virtue of the polyconic projection is scale sectional aeronautical charts, the 1:500,000- that it is easy to construct and plot by hand on map MAP PROJECTIONS AND GRID SYSTEMS 37 grids can be superimposed on them without signifi- cant error. Although it has minimal -distortion over small areas, the polyconic projection is neither con- formal nor equal-area. The polyconic projection was widely used as the standard for medium- and large-scale maps of the United States. USGS used the projection for quad- rangle maps until the 1950's when rectangular co- ordinate plotters were adopted for plotting base sheets. Mercator Projection The Mercator projection takes its name from the Latin surname of Gerhard Kramer, who devised it. The projection first appeared in 1569 when Mercator published a map of the world. .:~:.'k.' ' : The Earth's surface is projected on a cylinder tangent at the Equator or secant along two parallels with its axis coincident with the Earth's axis (fig. 7), then the cylinder is cut and unrolled to a fiat .~~~~~f. ~~~~~surface. The Mercator projection is conformal. All meri- dians are straight parallel lines uniformly spaced. N /7' Lines of latitude are also straight and parallel and -5~/,~, ~lI/ - '""k~"~ are perpendicular to the meridians, but are not uni- ,./.r./* ....:. formly spaced. Scale is correct at the Equator, but increases rapidly with latitude. 1..,.:'?.:- :-- ... The original Mercator map became the prototype for nautical charts. The projection is particularly Equator A FIGURE 6-Polyconic projection uses a series of cones on identical axes. Line AB is the standard parallel for the largest cone shown; dashed lines parallel to AB are stand- - ard parallels for other cones .. - base sheets. Also, it minimizes the effects of all distortions over a limited area. For this reason it is suitable for large-scale sectional maps such as quadrangle maps. Because of the small distortion of FIGURE 7.-Mercator projection using a cylinder tangent polyconic projections, the State plane coordinate at the Equator, line AB. 38 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK A tion that might otherwise be desirable, the area can be divided into sections or zones, each to be mapped on its own projection, If an area is too large to be mapped on a single sheet at the desired scale, the / _ _ \ \ ~~\ | 1 projection can be designed for the entire area or f/ AL L \ zone, and each sheet mapped as part of the compre- hensive projection. GRID SYSTEMS It is difficult to measure the relations between \ [ / points referenced to the graticule because on most N\ / projections parallels or meridians are curved. Run- t r-_ _ [ - / ning plane land surveys with geographic coordinates B would require complex computations. Using plane rectangular grids alleviates the probem. FIGURE 8.-Transverse Mercator projection using a Plane rectangular grids are constructed as two cylinder tangent at a standard meridian, line AB. sets of straight parallel lines that intersect each sets of straight parallel lines that intersect each other at right angles to form squares. A grid is suitable for navigation because lines of fixed azi- superimposed on the graticule of a projection in muth (rhumb lines) form straight lines. Most of the such a way that there is a precise mathematical re- nautical charts issued by NOS are on the Mercator lationship between the grid lines and the graticule. projection. Then every grid intersection has a unique relation- ship to every graticule intersection, and every point Transverse Mercator Projection on the map (or on the Earth) has a unique latitude The transverse Mercator projection (fig. 8), orig- and longitude plus a unique location expressed in inally devised by Lambert, is essentially the stand- values of x and y on the selected grid. Thus, coordi- ard Mercator rotated through 900. However, its nates and other relations in one system can be easily appearance, characteristics, and use are quite dif- converted mathematically to the other. Grid systems ferent. The curved surface of the Earth is projected greatly simplify the use of maps and reduce com- to a cylinder that is tangent along a central meridian putations of distances, directions, coordinates, and or usually secant along small circles parallel to and areas to the realm of plane trigonometry. Neverthe- equidistant from the central meridian. The cylinder less, the grids are subject to the same distortions as is then cut and unrolled to a plane. projections. Scale is correct along the central meridian when a tangent cylinder is used, but increases rapidly east State Plane Coordinate Systems or west. Except for the central meridian, all meri- dians and parallels are curved lines. Because the Most modern large-scale maps show the State greatest distortions increase to the east and west, plane coordinate grid in addition to the graticule. the projection is suitable for mapping areas that are There is a plane coordinate system for each of the elongated north-south. 50 States and for the oceanic islands. All the systems The transverse Mercator projection is used for are presently expressed in feet, except the metric large-scale mapping throughout the world (in Europe grid for Guam. However, USGS maps of Puerto Rico it is sometimes called the Gauss-Kruger projection). show plane coordinates in meters. NOS publishes Many USGS 7.5-min quadrangle maps are cast on it. tables for converting positions between geographic A special use of this projection is as the basis for and plane coordinates for the 50 States plus Puerto the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid, Rico and the Virgin Islands, but not Guam. discussed later. Zones in which the longer dimension is north- south have a grid based on the transverse Mercator Combination Projections projection. Those in which the longer dimension is When the size or shape of an area is not ideally east-west have a grid based on the Lambert con- suited to the characteristics of a particular projec- formal conic projection. Table 2 lists the zones and MAP PROJECTIONS AND GRID SYSTEMS 39 TABLE 2.-Plane coordinate systems in coastal States State and Zone Grid State and Zone Grid Alabama Michigan' East ------------------Tr. Mere. North ------------------ Lambert West ------------------Tr. Mere. Central -----------------Lambert Alaska South------------------- Lamibert Zone 1------------------- Oblique Mere. Minnesota Zone 2.-------------------Tr. Mere. North -------------------Lambert Zone 3-------------------Tr. Mere. Central ------------------Lambert Zone 4------------------- Tr. Mere. South -------------------Lambert Zone 5 - ----------- ------Tr. Mere. Mississippi Zone 6------------------- Tr. Mere-. East -------------------Tr. Mere. Zone 7------------- - ----- Tr. Mere. West�------------------Tr. Mere. Zone 8------------------- Tr. Mere. NwHm Zone 9------------------- Tr. Mere. NwHmshire--.------------ Tr. Mere. Zone 10 ------------------Lambert New Jersey -----------------Tr. Mere. California New York Zone I------------ ------- Lambert Long Island---------------- Lambert Zone 2.-------------------Lambert East -------------------Tr. Mere. Zone 3-------------------Lambert Central ------------------Tr. Mere. Zone 4------------ ------- Lambert West -------------------Tr. Mere. Zone 5------------------Lamnbert North Carolina ---------------Lambert Zone 6------------ ------- Lambert Ohio Zone 7------------ ------- Lambert North------------------ Lambert Connecticut -----------------Lambert South------------------- Lambert Delaware--.----------- ---- Tr. Mere. Oregon Florida North------------------- Lambert E ast -------------------Tr. Mere. South------------------- Lambert West -------------------Tr. Mere. Pennsylvania North ------------ ------- Lambert North------------------- Lambert Georgia South------------------- Lambert East ------------------Tr. Mere. Rhode Island ---------------Tr. Mere. West------------- -------Tr. Mere. South Carolina Hawaii North------------------Lambert Zone I------------------- Tr. Mere. South------------------- Lambert Zone 2.-------------------Tr. Mere. Texas Zone 3-------------------Tr. Mere. North�-----------------Lambert Zone 4------------------- Tr. Mere. North Central -------------Lambert Zone 5------------------Tr. Mere. Central -----------------Lambert Illinois South Central--------------Lambert East -------------------Tr. Mere. South------------------- Lambert West -------------------Tr. Mere. Virginia Indiana North ------------------ Lambert East -------------------Tr. Mere. South ------------------- Lambert West -------------------Tr. Mere. Washington Louisiana North------------------ Lambert North------------ ------- Lambert South------------------- Lambert South------------ ------- Lambert Wisconsin Maine North ------------------Lambert East -------------------Tr. Mere. Central ------------------Lambert West -------------------Tr. Mere. South------------------- Lambert Maryland ------------------Lambert Massachusetts 'Coordinates in Michigan are also referenced to the transverse Mercator projection with east, central, and west zones, but this system Mainland � ---------- ------Lamnbert will be dropped with adoption of the North American Datum of 1983 Island�----------- ------- Lambert in favor of the State-legislated Lambert system. 40 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK projections for coastal States. Most zones within a observe conditions on the surface of the Earth, in single State are based on the same projection, but the atmosphere, and on other planets. Remote sens- Alaska, Florida, and New York have zones on both ing is used principally to detect and record energy projections. Alaska has 10 zones: zone 1 in south- (emitted or reflected radiation) in a selected portion east Alaska is on an oblique Mercator projection; of the electromagnetic spectrum (fig. 9). zone 2 through 9 are on the transverse Mercator Remote sensors operating in the electromagnetic projection; and zone 10 in the Aleutian Islands is on spectrum are either passive or active. Passive sys- the Lambert projection. tems record the natural level of radiation; active systems utilize artificial energy sources such as Universal Transverse Mercator Grid radar pulses and laser beams. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Photographic cameras operate in the visible, in- The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) frared, and ultraviolet portion of the spectrum. grid is designed for world use between 840 N. and frared, and ultraviolet portion of the spectrum. Black-and-white panchromatic film is the most 80� S. The area bounded by these latitudes is economical and most commonly used. Color film divided into 60 zones running north-south, each 60 economical and most commonly used. Color film wide and bounded by meridians that are multiples increases the value of photography for the identifi- wide and bounded by meridians that are multiples of 6. Each zone is projected on the transverse cation of features such as rocks and soils, vegeta- of 6�. Each zone is projected on the transverse tion, surface water conditions, and building materi- Mercator projection and has a central meridian that tion, surface water conditions, and building materi- is an odd multiple of 30 The zones are numbered als in houses, roads, and other structures. Infra- ls an odd multiple of 3�. The zones are numbered consecutively, starting with zone 1 between 1800 red films respond to wavelengths up to about 900 and 1740 W. and increasing eastward to zone 60 nm. Exposure is made through a yellow filter that and 174� W. and increasing eastward to zone 60 between 1740 and 1800 E. blocks the passage of blue light and admits green, between 174� and 180� E. Using the intersection of a central meridian red, and infrared light. One kind of infrared film Using the intersection of a central meridian produces a black-and-white image. A second type, and the Equator as an origin or starting point, a anth on an bigiven b statin g ioine tan color infrared, records in colors that are not true location can be given by stating its linear distance to nature but are designed to make it easier to north or south of the Equator and east or west of the central meridian of the zone. However, this distinguish conditions of vegetation. Originally de- the central meridian of the zone. However, this veloped for camouflage detection, color infrared would require the use of north or south and east or veloped for camouflage detection, color infrared film records infrared energy representative of live west or the use of plus and minus values to identify egtin eneg ecntat o i vegetation, enhancing the contrast between it and the location relative to the origin. This inconvenience has been diminished by assigning to the origin dead vegetation. Leaves of healthy plants generally has been diminished by assigning to the origin have high reflectance in the infrared; the amount numerical values that keep the coordinate values reflectance i th ifru a of reflectance varies with leaf structure and ge- positive for all points within a zone. ometry and with plant vitality and chlorophyll The value of 500,000 m east is assigned to the ometry and with plant vitality and chlorophyll level. Thus, variations of red on color infrared central meridian to avoid negative numbers at the prints may indicate the presence of different species, west or the use ,of plus or minus values to identify west or the use of plus or minus values to idean d the diminuation or absence of red in certain as false eastings and increase numerically from members of a single planting is likely to indicate west to east. For north-south values in the Northern diseased or dead plants. diseased or dead plants. Hemisphere the Equator is designated zero m Hemerethe E northis dsigncatse nerio Optical-mechanical scanning radiometers, or scan- north and northings increase numerically toward tenorth aPol. inche SoutmernHis r to r ners, operate in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, the North Pole. In the Southern Hemisphere the and microwave energy regions. Unlike cameras Equator is designated 10,000,000 m north and the a croa ene i ul aes that record all parts of a scene simultaneously, northings decrease toward the South Pole. These sa eon a a a ce te scanners sense one spot at a time, covering the are known as false northings. (For more informa- surface by sweeping their view from side to side tion on the UTM grid see Raisz, 1962, and Robin- as the aircraft proceeds. This is accomplished with son and Sale, 1969.) ~~son and Sale, 1969.) ~a rotating or oscillating mirror. The incoming radia- tion is focused on a detector, which translates its intensity into a corresponding electrical signal. ~REMOTE SENSING The signal may be used to activate a cathode-ray Remote sensing is the science of gathering in- tube that reconstructs the scene line by line in the formation from a distance. In practice, remote manner of a television set, and the resulting pic- sensing uses cameras and other information-gather- ture can then be photographed. Alternatively, the ing devices carried by aircraft and spacecraft to signal may be used to energize a glow tube that ex- PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 41 '~~~~~~~~~~ o,"~' ~~~A cm 10, 10l 109 o10 8 1 0-7 10-6 105 1 10-3 102 10r1 1 10 102 103 104 105 cm I __I I II I I op1 - 0,5 q.6 o~ffi 0.8 As 1,0 1.> --Normal TeM- 'ures . / Wavelength - 0 e9 /, NN A UV I VISIBLE REFLECTED INFRARED ERM INFRARED Panchromatic Film / 14.0 IM ..- / / I\ rA/t TherIal Scanners I /Color// I / 'Fi Aeia blue greeni red, Mapping Infrared Film/ ~Camera~ / Color Infrared FilmN .blue reen. red/ I / '" / I Panchromatic Film t. 55 8. 40g JLandsat Multispectrral Scanners RADARI Color Film/ 0.5 140 cm IFIGURE: 9.-The electromagnetic spectrum. poses film dibe ret ord t p aen recoed on the ground or on low- netic tape for later processing. altitude photographs. Landsat repeats each orbitm / Measur ing temperatures and mapping their dis- every 18 days. The repetitive coverage provides in- tributions are valuable in resource and environ- formation for land use planning and makes it pos- Cment studies. olor Infrared cnFilm / blsurfac e temperatures that indicate volcanic ac- tions, snow cover, floods, and many other dynamic tivity, burning in abandoned coal mines, diseased phenomena. The Landsat imagery is obtained in // plantLannimals obscured by darkness, and heated Multispectral ScandsneMSSr bRADARs) 0.5 140 cm FIGURE 9.-The electromagnetic spectrum. buposes film dit rectly, or it may be recorded on magdistr- not previously recognized on th e ground or on low- bunetionsc tape for which a ids in discovering sourcess bing. altion.tude photographs. Landsat red imagery (app. 7, fig. 1) en- of wMeasureing temperatures and mapping their dis- every 18 days. The id repetification ve coverage provides in-such as tributioea ns are valuable in fferesource andlso reveal curiron- vegeformation for land vigorous growth, wa ternning and makes it pos-ain ments and showtudies. Infrared scanner imagery can reveal sible to monitor crop production, rangeland condi- fresh and salt water in bays and estuaries. In- surface temperatures that indicate vlcanneric arec- tins, snow cover, floods, andin mappiny othe dynamicstribu- tivity, burning in abandoned coal mines, diseased phenomena. The Landsat imagery is obtained in p lants, animals obscured by darkne ss, and heated spec trause PHOTOGRAMMETRICee bands MAPPISS, four bands) buildings. It can reveal surface temperature distri- from which the data may be used alone or in com- butions ofin water which aids in discovering sources bination. Color infrared imagery (app. 7, fig. 1) en- Landof w at-1er or oil disach carryge into lakes, rivers, and Photogrammetry is the scidentification of special features such asking oceans. Temperature differences also reveal cur- vegetation in vigorous growth, water, and certain the return beam vidicon (RBV) cameras and show the accurface meboundariements between kindmeans of pollution. multispectral scannersh and salt water image Today maps are produced largely from aeriales. In- frared scanners a synoptic view of 34,253 keful2 (13,225 graphs ping thea minimum of fieldwork. i2) that permits recognition of some large feamoisture s Modern mapping profacedures rely almost ex- variations of soil temperature are related to varia- TCNQE tions of moisture. TCNQE Landsat-1 and -2 each carry two sensor systems, Photogrammetry is the science or art of making the return beam vidicon (REV) cameras and the accurate measurements by means of photography. multispectral scanner (MSS). Each Landsat image Today maps are produced largely from aerial photo- represents a synoptic view of 34,253 km2 (13,225 graphs with a minimum of fieldwork. mi2) that permits recognition of some large features Modern mapping procedures rely almost ex- 42 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK clusively on photogrammetry for preparation and both field and office operations are prepared either processing of basic data. Instruments and opera- as a part of planning or immediately before assign- tional phases vary among agencies and with appli- ment of each operation. cations, but basic procedures do not differ signifi- cantly. Costs increase rapidly when extensive fieldwork is required. Recent developments in GROUND CONTROL instruments, materials, and methods have elimi- Photogrammetric mapping requires adequate hated or rescheduled fieldwork, saving much time nated or rescheduled fieldwork, saving much time ground control to show map features in the correct and money. Teasicnd operationap ey.s arrelationship to each other and to the Earth's surface. The basic operational phases are: Both horizontal and vertical control are needed, � Project planning. horizontal to establish correct scale, position, and � Ground control. orientation, and vertical to establish the level datum. � Aerial photography. It is frequently difficult to evaluate established � Aerotriangulation. control because adequate and current information is � Compilation. lacking. However, extra effort in using established � Field completion. control may result in significant cost reduction and � Final drafting and review. improved scheduling by reducing or avoiding field- * Reproduction. work for supplemental control. In addition to pro- The order of phases may be altered, or two or viding published control data, NGS may be able to The order of phases may be altered, or two or supply advance information about data being pre- more may be combined. Each phase is discussed supply advance information about data being pre- pared for publication. briefly below. Consult references in the bibliography pared for publication. for technical details. Adequate horizontal control is essential in prepar- ing coastal maps that meet established accuracy standards. In most areas, the established network PROJECT PLANNING with the addition of a minimum of supplemental The first step in planning a mapping project is control will be adequate for modern techniques. The to define the boundaries. The entire coastal zone network meets all requirements in a few areas, but of a State may be too large to cover in one project. in others attrition of monuments from the network As a general rule mapping projects should be kept (from destruction or obliteration) may be serious to a managable size. Senior managers may define the enough to require extensive supplemental control. area, or it may be dictated by legislation. In either To prevent excessive costs, qualified personnel case, qualified mapping personnel should assist in should analyze and monitor requirements for hori- the decisionmaking. zontal control. The aerotriangulation method sig- Detailed technical planning can begin after map- nificantly affects the amount of required control ping limits have been determined. The planning and mapping costs. should be assigned to qualified personnel within Horizontal control points are often paneled or the organization, or arrangements should be made targeted in the field before mapping photographs to obtain their services from outside. are taken. Paneling consists in fastening three or Whether a mapping project is done in-house or four strips of cloth or plastic to the ground to form under contract, managers will be faced with many a pattern identifying the exact location of the con- of the same problems. Managers without a mapping trol monument (or some other precisely surveyed department will have the most difficult decisions. nearby point that is visible from the air). The color Some of the decisions will concern (1) publication of the marking material should provide good con- scale, map size, and paper size, (2) method of trast with the ground. aerotriangulation, (3) method and scale of compi- The spacing of horizontal control points depends lation, (4) contour interval (if relief is to be com- on the required accuracy and limitations of the piled), (5) evaluation of established control, (6) photogrammetric method. For example, in 7.5-min photography (camera, filter, emulsion, and scale of topographic quadrangle mapping, horizontal control photographs), and (7) operational schedules. stations are established at 7.5-min spacing on the A project diagram is prepared, showing map perimeter of the project. Horizontal control within limits and horizontal and vertical control stations. the project area is established by aerotriangulation. After photographs are acquired, the center of each Similarly, vertical control is needed for correct is marked on the diagram. Specific instructions for plotting of contours. Therefore, the elevations of PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 43 selected points must be determined in the field. As � Flight height: a rule, more vertical stations are required than a. Capabilities of stereoplotter; relation to horizontal stations. Vertical control is a major ex- stereomodel scale. pense in topographic mapping because of the amount b. Contour interval; C-factor of the stereoscopic needed. A minimum of four vertical control points, instrument system. which need not be (and seldom are) monumented c. Visibility and interpretability of planimetric control stations are needed for each stereomodel. detail. Many are image points whose positions and eleva- � Number and spacing of flight lines; width-height tions have been determined by photogrammetric ratio. methods: the important requirement is photoiden- � Spacing of photographs along flight lines; base- tiffability-examples are road intersections and height ratio. fence corners. Therefore, one of the major field * Federal Aviation Administration regulations gov- operations is establishing elevations (often by plane- erning flight operations in Federally controlled table and alidade). and special-use airspace. Vertical control for routine preparation of base A flight plan is plotted on the best available map maps, excluding mapping of most features below of the area, showing the centerline of each flight. the chart datum, usually can be obtained from tidal Photographs are taken with modern mapping data and from available topographic maps. cameras (fig. 10), on panchromatic, black-and-white infrared, natural color, and color infrared films. Panchromatic emulsions are the original and most AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY popular emulsions because they are lowest in cost Acquisition of aerial photographs for coastal map- and easy to use. Disadvantages result from the ren- ping is perhaps the easiest and least expensive phase dition of all images in shades of gray. Fieldwork is of mapping. Mapping quality, that is, clarity, ac- needed to resolve discrepancies. curacy, and stability sufficient for distance measure- ment, is the chief requisite of aerial photographs intended for aerotriangulation and basic compilation. Information such as thermal infrared data can be obtained only from instruments that do not have the necessary metric quality. Thermal information can, if needed, be added to manuscripts after proper processing despite the lack of metric quality. Optical systems of most modern mapping cameras, with appropriate filters and films, can yield photographs of the required quality provided that the exposed film and subsequent photographic products are proc- essed properly. Aerial photographs already available are often unsuitable for actual mapping for various reasons. For example, they may be outdated, at the wrong scale, or unsuitably spaced or oriented. Also, the photographs may have been taken with the tide at the wrong stage. Planning for aerial photography is based on the project specifications plus the following considera- tions: � Season of the year, affecting: a. Sun angle (shadows, reflections, glare). b. Ground cover (snow, leaves, crops, floods). c. Local weather conditions. � Type of photography (orientation, focal length, format, emulsion). FIGURE 10.-Typical aerial mapping cameras, the Wild RC � Direction of flights (for most efficient coverage). 10 and RC 8, mounted in an aircraft. 44 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Natural color aerial film was not readily available mapping project. Either horizontal or horizontal until the 1960's. Natural color emulsions record and vertical control can be extended, thereby re- images of objects in fairly natural hues, tints, and ducing or eliminating costly field surveys. tones insofar as these qualities are not altered by Various aerotriangulation methods have been de- atmospheric filtering. Reliability and speed of photo- vised since the advent of photogrammetry. Develop- interpretation essential to photogrammetric mapping ment has been successfully directed toward in- can be greatly improved by using color emulsions. creased accuracy and economy (mainly by reduction However, at higher flight altitudes, which vary with of field control) and capability to extend vertical location, color contrast is reduced to a monotone tint control that meets accuracy standards for mapping because of atmospheric effects. and charting. Also, general efficiency increased as Black-and-white infrared film has a special pan- stereoscopic plotting instruments and related sys- chromatic emulsion with response into the near tems were developed and improved. The aerotriangu- infrared. The film is normally exposed through a lation methods in use today can be broadly classed filter that blocks visible light. Spectral response is as graphic, analog, and analytical. In actual practice, thus rather narrow, about 740-900 nm in the near methods are combined and modified as needed to infrared region. The film is valuable in mapping produce results conforming to accuracy require- because it records the land-water relationship ac- ments and available resources. curately and sharply. It is not sensitive to long in- Graphical aerotriangulation, such as radial line frared waves and therefore does not record thermal plotting and using various types of templets, is sel- or heat energy. dom used now except in emergencies because of in- Color infrared film (sometimes called "false efficiency and relatively poor accuracy. A hybrid color") is a relative newcomer to aerial photography. type, stereotemplets, can be used effectively because The three sensitized layers of the emulsion respond the unit of measurement is a stereomodel rather to green, red, and near-infrared wavelengths. The than the single photograph, so that errors due to the film must be exposed through a filter such as the perspective nature of photographs are virtually Wratten 12 to stop the blue light to which all three eliminated before adjustment in the templet lay- layers are sensitive. When the emulsion is properly down. Another advantage of stereotemplets is the exposed and processed, infrared-reflective objects, use of simple, relatively inexpensive plotting instru- such as healthy trees, appear bright red, hence the ments to prepare the templets (fig. 12). However, use of the term "false color." The sharp contrasts none of the graphical methods can be used to extend between various types of features make color in- vertical control. frared film of special value in coastal mapping. Analog aerotriangulation requires use of some Photographs are taken within a specified time, form of stereoplotting instrument. The simplest with weather largely determining the actual flight form, now obsolete, is called long-bar bridging be- times. The exposed film is developed preferably in a cause as many as 20 projectors are successively modern automatic processor (fig. 11), which permits oriented to stimulate the flight strip in miniature. exact quality control. After processing, proof prints Adjustment of closure errors along the strip and are made and stapled together in relative position, between strips is by graphical or other approxima- and the composite is examined to determine whether tion methods. A similar procedure can be used with coverage is complete and has the required overlap, a single large and expensive stereoplotter, such as If the negatives are acceptable, contact prints are the Wild Autograph and Zeiss Stereoplanigraph made and each is marked with the date of photog- plotters. In these so-called bridging instruments, the raphy, frame number, and project code. An index left and right projectors can be interchanged by photomosaic is prepared to aid subsequent opera- optical switches. The principle is the same as with tions. Sometimes duplicate negatives are made to long-bar bridging, but the photographs are placed preserve the originals as archival material, and alternately left and right in the projectors of the transparent positives are made for checking and instrument as aerotriangulation proceeds along the editing. strip. The results of analog aerotriangulation can be ad- AEROTRIANGULATION justed by several methods, including mathematical computation by automatic data processing, which Aerotriangulation photogrammetrically extends effectively produces another hybrid system, semi- established control to meet the requirements of a analytical aerotriangulation. In this context, proce- PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 45 So 1 i 1i1 FIGURE 11.-Automatic color film processor for color films, plates, and prints. dures similar to those used for preparing stereo- coders. In some methods of analog aerotriangulation, templets can be used to gather digital x, y, and z vertical control can be extended, but not always axis measurements from individual stereomodels reliably and seldom for control of mapping at small set up by a stereoplotter equipped with digital en- contour intervals (1, 2, and 5 m). 46 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK contract and thereby apply the best methods avail- able. MAP COMPILATION After aerotriangulation, the map manuscripts are compiled. In compilation, mapworthy details are transferred from source materials to a specially pre- pared dimensionally stable manuscript base. Lines and symbols portray the details on conventional maps and charts. Orthophotomaps are compiled from rectified photographs, with selected features en- hanced by symbols. On topographic maps, relief is portrayed by contour lines. Features must be gener- alized on maps because the manuscript area is very small in relation to the ground area. Selection of features requires a knowledge of photogrammetry, the ability to interpret images correctly, and the FIGURE 12.-Kelsh stereoplotting instrument, which can be ability to draw lines and symbols accurately. used for aerotriangulation. Dimensional stability and suitability of the draw- ing surface are important factors in selecting a Fully analytical aerotriangulation is currently the medium for map manuscripts, now generally poly- most advanced method for extending control for ester sheets with a suitable coating. Variations in mapping, both horizontal and vertical. Except for temperature and humidity little affect polyester identifying and establishing a minimum of field con- bases, eliminating serious cartographic problems. trol, all operations can be completed within the office, Manuscript preparation begins with drawing the measuring coordinates on photographs with a com- geographic graticule on the selected map projection parator (fig. 13) and preparing the data for com- and the grid lines for a plane coordinate system. puter analysis. This method, which the celebrated Today, this operation is usually automated to the Otto von Gruber considered merely an academic ex- extent of using a coordinatograph, or x, y plotter. ercise in the 1930's, has become practical and cost Control data are plotted at the same time. The effective with the development of large computers. manuscript may be compiled in ink or pencil. Today even small firms can use computer services on Map manuscripts are also compiled on stereoscopic plotting instruments from diapositives, positive transparent prints on glass plates or film. The in- struments range from relatively simple types to complex plotters. Some complex plotters are being incorporated into automated mapping systems. When properly used, all are efficient and capable of producing maps that meet accuracy standards. In a stereoplotter two overlapping images are viewed simultaneously to provide a three-dimen- sional model. The stereoscopic effect is produced ...., _ a _ _ :tB~i~ when the operator views the same ground area on two perspective photos, one with each eye, at the same time (fig. 14). The different perspective views result from the progressive movement of the air- craft between exposure stations. Although stereocompilers can interpret much of the map detail from the stereomodel, they need help in interpreting some features and in distinguishing FIGURE 13.-Wild STK stereocomparator, used for accu- between others. Questions always arise, and regard- rate coordinate measurement for analytical aerotriangulation. less of how expert the compiler may be, errors in PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 47 A B FIGURE 14.-When viewed stereoscopieally this pair of photographs, A, gives the impression of a three-dimensional image. B, A simple pocket stereoscope. 48 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK interpretation can occur. In addition, changes in fea- and cable routing; aquaculture and mariculture de- tures, especially cultural features, may have oc- sign, location, and operation; and recovery of living curred since photography. and nonliving marine resources require a knowledge Field classification usually is an annotation di- of water circulation patterns. Lagrangian current rectly on the aerial photograph or the photoindex. measurements obtained by a photogrammetric cir- Annotations include (1) classification of buildings, culatory survey made concurrently with and in sup- (2) classification of roads and trails, (3) delineation port of a Eulerian current survey provides an enor- of boundaries, (4) identification of cultural features, mous quantity of data at reasonable cost. Acquisition (5) location and labeling of control stations, (6) of the same data by Eulerian methods exclusively delineation of streams and classification as inter- would be prohibitively expensive and, because of mittent or perennial, (7) delineation of wetlands, (8) equipment limitations, impossible in shallow water. delineation of U.S. land lines and labeling of town- The photogrammetric data can be processed rapidly ships and sections, (9) classification of sample wood- for presentation in tabular form or in chart format. land areas, and (10) identification of names. Classi- fication and various elements of map completion FIELD COMPLETION may occur after compilation of the map manuscript. As previously noted, efficient production combines However, these surveys are generally limited to we r, nts ar generall lited all field surveys into a single pass through the area specific problems and questions, not a general review specific problems and questions, not a general reviewto the extent possible, before the map is actually of the compiled map, so that time and money are compiled. If the combined operation is notrpossible, always saved by completing the classification in c field completion or field editing surveys remove de- advance along with the control. advancare e g with a ne ctrol ficiencies and resolve discrepancies noted during Stereoplotters are equipped with a reference mark in the field of view that can be moved in three di- c ompilation. The mapped f eatures are carefully and mensions by the operator. As the reference mark is methodically compared with ground detail, and hori- zontal and vertical accuracy tests are applied as re- moved in contact with the apparent surface of the quired. The field editor certifies that the map is stereomodel, a drawing pencil automatically tracescorenoeArh ditis ae the horizontal motions on the base sheet. Contours correct and complete. After the additions are com- are hdrawn by moving the reference mark along the pleted and verified in the office, the manuscript is are raw by ovig th reerene mrk aongtheready for final drafting and review, and copies can surface of the model at a preset elevation. Plani- ready for final drafting and review, and copies can be made for limited distribution and use. metric features are compiled first, directly on the base sheet. Other features, such as woodland and FINAL DRATING AND REVIEW FINAL DRAFTING AND REVIEW contours, usually are compiled on separate manu- scripts. Drainage may be compiled with either cul- Most maps are produced from either scribed or ture or contours. inked drawings. Scribing and inking differ in several The features compiled directly on the base sheet ways. Inking forms a positive image and is right- are usually scribed stereomodel by stereomodel. reading; scribing forms a negative image and is Then, the data are 'photoprinted onto successive normally wrong-reading (right and left reversed) so manuscript sheets to guide the compilation of other that positive contact prints are right-reading (fig. features. Each manuscript is reviewed after com- 15). pilation to assure compliance with established speci- In inking, the features to be shown in a specific fications and standards. Corrections are made after color are drawn in black ink on a nonphotographic review. blue guide image of the map detail. In scribing, Compilers record all difficulties encountered dur- plastic sheets coated with photographically opaque ing compilation. Sometimes they cannot positively paint are overprinted with the guide image, and the identify the image of an object. Sometimes struc- lines and symbols are cut into the coating with en- tures are only partially complete at the time of graving tools (see fig. 16). Corrections can easily photography. All problem areas are noted on the be made by covering mistakes with opaquing fluid copy of the manuscript that is sent to the field for and rescribing. final inspection. The effect of scribing can also be obtained photo- Photogrammetric techniques can be used to ac- mechanically. The scribecoated sheet is photosen- quire data vital to coastal management aside from sitized and contact-printed with a line drawing or production of maps and charts. For example, off- film positive. After exposure, the sheet is developed shore activities such as structure location; pipeline with an etching solution to remove the opaque coat- PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 49 A B C D FIGURE 15.-Sample of a topographic map showing production orientations. A, Right-reading positive, B, Wrong- reading positive, C, Right-reading negative, D, Wrong-reading negative. 50 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 16.--A field scribing kit includes (1) field scribing kit container (large), (2) instructions for use of plastic templet and for sharpening points, (3) thinner, (4) correction fluid, (5) Allen wrenches for swivel graver, (6) register studs, (7) scribing points, (8) combination straightedge-curve, (9) swivel graver, (10) rigid graver, (11) building graver, (12) screwdriver, (13) angle fineline graver, (14) straight fineline graver, (15) correction fluid brush, (16) sharpening stone, (17) Allen wrench for rigid graver, and (18) plastic symbol templet. ing wherever map detail prevented light from reach- sheet coated with a special "peelcoat" material. The ing the sheet so that a negative image of the original line image is etched into the peelcoat, and with the is produced. etched lines as a boundary, the tint areas are easily The etching process is used when a finished posi- peeled away with a small knife, leaving open win- tive copy is available, particularly if the reproduc- dows (fig. 17). tion contains a large quantity of numbers and sym- Sometimes lettering and symbols are prepared on bols. Often contours are thus reproduced when a transparent adhesive material called stickup or strip- map is being revised. Generally, contours do not need film (fig. 18), positioned on the appropriate manu- as much revision as other map features so that con- script, and burnished or rubbed on to adhere. Letter- tour guides frequently can be reused; the etching ing can also be applied manually or with an elec- process is a quick and easy way to prepare copy. The tronic lettering machine. disadvantage is that the lines sometimes print less If a map is to be multicolored, color-separation crisply than desired. However, minor repair work guides (not to be confused with feature-separation can be done with a simple scribing needle in much guides) must be made. The normal separation of less time than it would take to rescribe or reink the colors is: entire plate. Black---Culture, control, grids and coordinates, labels, Solid-tint areas, which symbolize water, woodland, marginal data. and urban areas on topographic maps or areas of Blue_....Drainage. equal distribution on thematic maps, usually are pro-Gre--Vgtain Brown__.Relief. duced by peeling or stripping. An outline of theRe---Hihanubradclsfctolndie, tinted area is compiled and contact-printed onto a and fence lines. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 51 FIGURE 17.-Preparing an open-window guide by peeling areas of the opaque layer from an etched peelcoat. At least one color separation guide must be pre- duction. The manuscript and accompanying data are pared for each color, containing only the data to be examined for accuracy, adequacy, completeness, and printed in that color. These guides can be scribed, conformance to specifications. The reproduction ma- film, or open-window negatives. For good register, terials are sent to the printing plant, and the related they are prepared on a printed image reproduced materials are sent for archival storage. Depending from the compilation manuscripts. The important on agency or company policy, when all maps in an difference between compilation manuscripts and individual project are finished, the reviewer may guides is that the manuscripts are normally drawn prepare a report summarizing information pertain- right-reading while guides are normally drawn ing to the production of the project, supplementing wrong-reading because they are used for the contact reports prepared for individual maps. The reports exposure of photosensitive pressplates. contain preparation data that cannot be shown on To make a color composite proof for checking, the the maps and that do not duplicate any of the map color-separation guides are successively contact content. The reports can be invaluable in answering printed in their assigned colors on a white base. The questions about how the maps were prepared, espe- editor easily identifies errors and indicates changes cially in case of litigation. on the guides. In a complex multicolored map, such as a topographic map, corrections can sometimes cause new errors. Therefore, the editing-correcting- editing cycle should be repeated once or twice before Most maps are now printed in quantity on rotary publication. offset presses from aluminum pressplates. For only Final review is the last phase before map repro- limited distribution, manuscripts can also be repro- 52 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK L: X V~~~~~~~~ ; ,.00 XFIGURE I.-Aplyn wae stiu or strifr to af nae she, on set used toj p', 0 r o d u :c: e S : the black''' pr'.+ 0in0, ;,. " 0'0 > -'' 2 "' ''''ting '' plae R . ^t . , , ; ; 0 .. Z ., ......0a 0;.............ti ,.,.E0 ,0 .: 0 0 0'''.90 j '.'t00000 's00 <t 'to-'sto>4Sk~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~y'sotog S 0 '~~~::I : '~~~FGR '0w-Appyn ae tcu r'tifl oanmsset, 'esetusdt g :0; < 0 f m L ' i 2( i A S - i f : th: blac prn i :;f: S; ; PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING TECHNIQUES 53 duced photomechanically. Other types of printing- one impression. For multicolor maps, a separate im- such as letterpress, gravure, and diazo-are de- pression is needed for each color. Moreover, the im- scribed by Melcher and Larick (1966). The alumi- pressions must be in exact register with each other num pressplates are prepared by contact photog- to form an accurate map. raphy using the color-separated reproducibles, one For the standard five-color topographic map plate for each color. Multiple exposures of a plate (black, blue, brown, red, and green) the impressions are needed if all the features to be printed in one can be obtained in five separate runs through a color have not been combined into a single repro- single press, which must be shut down, washed, re- ducible, for example, drainage detail may be on a plated, and reinked between runs. The same five scribed drawing with water tint on a separate open- impressions are more efficiently obtained on a five- window drawing. Various types of screens are used color press (fig. 19), which consists of five press to produce tints and shades by blocking out specific units operating in tandem, each unit printing a dif- percentages of the image. Therefore, it is possible ferent color. Blank paper is fed into one end of the to print several shades of a color from one pressplate. press, and completely printed maps emerge at the In offset printing the ink image is transferred other end. A large volume of maps must be produced from the pressplate to an intermediate rubber to justify spending the money needed to buy a five- blanket and from the blanket to the paper, forming color press. FIGURE 19.-Five-color offset press with five units in tandem, each printing a different color. 54 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK MAPS industrial sites, planning highways, routing utility lines, selecting damsites, and locating communica- A map is a graphic representation, usually on a tion facilities. They are also popular in recreation plane surface and at an established scale, of selected for hunting, fishing, and camping. natural and manmade features on or below the sur- o r ti fhi a ndcng Other types of topographic maps include engineer- face of the Earth. Symbolization is used to enhance ig foo rapcap n ngi ing, flood control, landscape, and bathymetric. Engi- certain details according to the intended purpose of neering maps are used for planning and cost estimat- the map. The number of types of maps that can be made for ing for projects. Flood control and storm evacuation The number of types of maps that can be made for a r seilppo togph ms e o different uses is practically unlimited. Generally, maps are spec ial-purpose topographic map s used to however, maps can be classified in one or more of the study areas subject to flooding. Landscape maps are following categories planimetric topographic, te- used by architects to plan buildings that will conform following categories: planimetric, topographic, the- to the topography of the site. Gardeners use land- matic, digital, line, or photographic. scape maps to maintain parks, playgrounds, and private estates. Bathymetric maps show water PLANIMETRIC MAPS depths and underwater topography. Water depth Planimetric maps present the horizontal position ranges are generally portrayed by various colors or of selected features but do not show relief in meas- shades. Usually, uniform depth intervals are con- urable form. Examples of planimetric maps are base, nected by solid lines called bottom contour lines. cadastral, line-route, and outline maps. USGS and NOS produce bathymetric maps. Base maps are used to plan or to compile data for the production of specialized maps. THEMATIC MAPS Cadastral maps show the boundaries of subdivi- sions of land (usually with bearings and lengths and Thematic maps are also called geographic, special- Thematic maps are also called geographic, special- the areas of individual tracts) for describing and purpose, or distribution maps. They emphasize a recording ownership. One type of cadastral map is single topic such as geology, climatology, or crop single topic such as geology, climatology, or crop the plat which often constitutes, or is an essential distribution, and the entire map is devoted to pre- distribution, and the entire map is devoted to pre- part of, a legal description of a parcel of land. The enting this distribution or concentration. Geogra- senting this distribution or concentration. Geogra- Bureau of Land Management is the major single Bureau of Land Mnagetis. phers use thematic maps to show the distribution producer of land plats. Line-route ms lard bopas. of subjects such as population, languages, crop pro- Line-route maps are used by utility companies. Liney-eroutemps ar ed type ui comnsti duction, soil, climate, vegetation, land use, and in- They show the routes and type of construction of dustry. The distributions are shown by several meth- pipelines or wire circuits, plus the locations of facili- ds iuin rehs b sleth ods, including dots, choropleths, or isopleths. ties such as switchboards, valves, and telegraph os ud torpes iths Dots are used to represent quantities such as stations. An outline map presents only the information 1,000 people or 500 acres of corn. The size and value of dots are selected so that the dots coalesce in areas needed to provide a basis for the compilation of addi- of deset st t te dots o ar of densest distribution. Sometimes dots of varying tional data. Outline maps often show only national es es disr utities sizes are used for different quantities. and State boundaries and major drainage systems. e s are ue f i wits Choropleth maps are thematic maps in which sec- tions determined by civil boundaries or other ar- TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS bitrary division are colored, shaded, dotted, or In addition to the features shown on planimetric hatched to make darker or lighter areas in propor- maps, topographic maps portray the shape and ele- tion to the density of distribution. Because of the vation of the terrain, usually by contours, form arbitrary selection of sections, choropleth maps can lines, shading, color gradients, or hachures. Any map be somewhat misleading by showing an abrupt portraying relief by one of these conventions can change between sections where the change is ac- be called a hypsometric map. A map on which the tually gradual. elevations are referred to a specific datum is called Isopleth maps are used to show numerical values a hypsographic map. Standard topographic maps are for continuous distributions (such as rainfall and in both categories. temperature) rather than discrete variables. Iso- In the United States the best known type of pleths are lines connecting places of equal value of topographic map is the quadrangle series, which distribution and have the same inherent virtues and range in scale from 1:20,000 to 1:250,000. The quad- deficiencies as contour lines. They provide exact rangle series are used in development, for selecting information throughout their entirety but do not MAPS 55 show what happens in the intervals. Tinting or rectification. Distortions caused by relief can be shading is sometimes used between isopleths. removed by an Orthophotoscope or other differen- There are various types of thematic maps, includ- tial-rectification system which produces orthophoto- ing geologic, forestry, soil, land use, slope, and his- graphs, correct in scale and relative position. torical. Geologic maps portray a number of differ- Orthophotoquads and orthophotomaps have been ent geologic conditions. Forestry maps show the size, developed using simple and differential rectification, density, kind, and values of trees in a given area. which remove tilt- and relief-caused scale distor- Soil maps portray soil conservation parameters. tions. Both are made from an orthophotograph or an Land use maps depict land use by colors, letters, or orthophotomosaic, and both contain marginal in- numbers within small areas. formation including grid and projection lines or Slope maps use colors or shades to graphically ticks. Orthophotoquads are black-and-white or color represent different degrees of slope and are used in orthophotographic images in quadrangle format studies related to land use. Slopes can be determined with a minimum of cartographic treatment. The mechanically by the distance between contours on major highways and a few principal places or fea- a relief map, or they may be generated by computer tures are labeled for orientation. The orthophoto- printout from digital terrain data. quad user must interpret most features for himself. Thematic maps dedicated to the explanation of Orthophotomaps are hybrids that contain both ortho- the past are called historical maps. They show such photoimagery and cartographic symbolization in- features as battlefields, military routes, and bound- cluding color separation and enhancement. Color ary changes. Although all maps are historical be- enhancement can often present features in colors cause of the time interval between compilation and more easily recognized than those nature provides. publication or use, not all historical maps are the- A variety of shades of green, blue, and brown ac- matic. Only those intended to illustrate statistics can centuate such detail as saltwater encroachment, be classified as thematic. marshland limits, faults, and physical characteristics of prominent geologic features. With additional car- DIGITAL MAPS tographic treatment (contours, elevations, bound- aries, labels), orthophotomaps require approxi- The digital map is a recent addition to map clas- mately the same production effort as line maps, but sifications. It is a graphic produced automatically the photoimagery is an advantage in the study of from a computer bank of map data. Often the user special interest areas by hydrologists, geologists, can retrieve selected information either in map or and other earth scientists. list form (see "Future outlook"). FORMAT LINE MAPS Maps generally have a rectangular format that Any map produced from scribed, inked, or paste- may include the entire area of a political division of on line copy is considered a line drawing or line map. interest. Generally, some map detail is shown beyond the political boundary to fill the entire area within PHOTOMAPS the outer drafted neatline. However, sometimes compilation ends at the political boundary, and the The photomap is an alternative to the line map-it map then conforms to the shape of the political unit. shows nonselective details requiring photointerpre- A quadrangle map is bounded by meridians of tation by the user. Any aerial photographic image longitude and parallels of latitude. Examples of can be considered a photomap. However, although standard quadrangle formats are 7.5'x7.5', 15'x15', aerial photographs are map substitutes because they 30'x10, and 10x20. Adjacent quadrangles can be show surface features, they may contain serious fitted together to form a large continuous map. Maps scale distortions caused by camera tilt or topo- and charts of water areas generally are bounded by graphic relief. Most photomaps include some car- meridians and parallels. tographic enhancement to help the user-perhaps only marginal information, an overprinted line draw- CONTENT ing, or names. Aircraft tilt and relief cause certain image distor- General-purpose maps contain all or some of the tions and displacements on photographs. Distortions following data: caused by camera tilt can be removed by simple * Control. 56 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK a. Horizontal and vertical stations. measured depths, the spacing of the sounding lines, b. Spot elevations. type of topographic detail encountered, and slope. * Reference systems. In accordance with the International Hydrographic a. Geographic (latitude and longitude). Bureau SP 44 and the NOS Hydrographic Manual b. Universal Transverse Mercator grid. (see app. 6.), continuous profile sounding lines are c. State plane coordinate grids. spaced at 1.0 cm (0.4 in) or less at the scale of the d. Public land system (township and section survey (not applicable to old surveys). Inshore at lines and corners). entrances to harbors, in areas adjacent to spits or * Culture-roads, buildings, dams, utility lines, and rocky points, and in areas where major changes in other works of man. bottom contours are found, the spacing is frequently * Drainage-swamps, rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, reduced to 0.5 cm or less. The maximum allowable and oceans. errors for depth measurements are: * Vegetation-woodland, scrub, orchards, and vine- Depth Alowable error yards. 0-20 m (0-11 fm) -_-___ . .........._ 0.3 m (1.0 ft). � Relief-contours, hachures, form lines, color gradi- 20-100 m (11-55 fm) - - ..-___------.. 1.0 m (0.5 fm). ents. Deeper than 100 m (55 fm) -_---- 1 percent of depth. SCALE CONTOUR INTERVAL The scale of a map is one of its most important The contour interval is the difference in elevation characteristics. Scale is the mathematical relation- between adjacent contours on a map. Selection of ship between a unit distance on the map and its cor- the interval is a basic consideration in topographic responding distance on the ground, and may be and bathymetric mapping, depending mainly on scale expressed as a representative fraction or ratio; thus and to some extent on the intended use of the map. 1/24,000 (or 1:24,000) indicates that any linear A large interval may be acceptable for small-scale measurement on the map represents 24,000 times and reconnaissance maps, but natural resource de- that measurement on the ground. The same scale velopment usually requires an interval small enough may also be shown by giving a unit distance on the to portray all significant details of the terrain. Too map and its equivalent on the ground; for example, small an interval may cause contour crowding or I cm on the map represents 24,000 cm (240 m) on show insignificant details; too large an interval may the ground. prevent adequate representation of the terrain. An The terms "small scale" and "large scale" are interval that is appropriate at one scale may not be relative and refer to ratios with large and small satisfactory at another. denominators; for example, 1:24,000 is a larger scale Occasionally, selecting a contour interval is diffi- than 1:250,000. Figures 20-22 show the Stafford, cult because portions of the terrain or sea bottom Va., area at different scales, 1:250,000, 1:50,000, need a smaller interval between contours more than and 1:24,000. A bar scale (graphic scale) is nor- other portions. For example, a 5,000-ft interval on a mally placed in the margin or legend of a map to bathymetric map may miss a 3,000-ft mountain aid linear measurements. The bar scale is a line of range within a 6,000-ft deep basin. Supplemen- convenient length which is subdivided and labeled tary contours (dashed or dotted) are frequently with the distances (generally in feet, miles, and shown between the regular contours in parts of a kilometers) that its parts represent on the Earth. map where finer detail would otherwise be missed. The amount of detail that can be shown on a map USGS adopted standard contour intervals of 5, 10, varies with the scale. Unexpected problems some- 20, 40, and 80 ft for large- and intermediate-scale times occur when the map scale is changed photo- topographic maps. Standard intervals for the 1: graphically. Enlargements can make symbolization 250,000-scale series are 25, 50, 100, and 200 ft. Other too big; reduction can make them too small. Chang- contour intervals are used for larger scales and for ing scale using a pantograph allows changes in maps of Alaska. (See "Future outlook" for how symbol size and detail. Some problems in map scale conversion to the metric system affects these in- reduction can be solved by removing some of the tervals.) separation guides. The map user must consider the The National Ocean Survey has established stand- effect that a change in scale has on detail. ards for using contour intervals on bathymetric On large-scale maps, such as standard 7.5-min maps and nautical charts based on the accuracy of topographic quadrangles, the scale is generally con- MAPS 57 i,~~~ ~~ ~~ , _~; e~~~~~�r - �... . nchei-ted e~sP` '~~~~t SINAAL OMINA STATION IN "IAN HE". Chdrry Hi II" -ater PlASOant~~~~p3 ONC D.C..~d.-�~., 1-'�-~0,008-~�~e te~o~ptd� qu~d~e n. 4-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~` Pt~~ Maqllhdtd 300 FIGURE 20.--Stafford, Va., area at 1:250,000 scale. From the USGS Washington, D.C.-Md.-Va., 1:250,000-scale topographic quadrangle map. 58 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Cal s ndi ~ 9~? Willow P- Lan!ing_14 , lli~~~~~~~~~~~E FIGURE 21.-Stafford, Va., area at 1:50,000 scale. From the USGS Stafford County, Va., topographic map. MAPS 59 ,~:~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~ )~1 )~a "' ~ '/JJ !L!/)' ''Yl', n!:~':r... . ,,~ ~: ... " ::.' ,, , '. �~~~ ,: if,', ~ih~,, : ':~':'h ;' :!~i-, , ' ~"'" g ::: :< , : ,' ~~ ~ ~ it~ 7!~_ F IGUE2.etfod aae t12,0 cl.Fo h SSafrV. 7.5-ra~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~in topographic quadrangle map.;;;;;; 60 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK sistent throughout the mapped area. However, on sions may be needed on nearly all map plates, most small-scale maps covering large areas, the scale can of the work concerns such features as new roads, change gradually from one point to another. Depend- buildings, and reservoirs. Changes also occur in the ing on the projection, the nominal scale shown may shape of the shoreline as a result of weathering and refer to the center of the map or to one or two lines erosion. Since rate and amount of change vary within the map. In a series of maps on the same greatly from area to area, not all maps are revised projection (such as a quadrangle series), the nomi- at definite intervals and to the same extent. Maps nal scale may apply to points or lines outside the are selected for revision according to the require- actual map sheet but within a block of adjacent ments of users for current maps that meet modern maps (as along standard parallels of the State plane standards. coordinate systems). Scale variations seldom concern map users working with paper prints and ordinary CHARTS rulers because paper distortion is likely to be greater than any scale change due to the projection. Maps are defined in the glossary and in the section "Maps." A chart is a map on which highly specialized ACCURACY data have been included to serve a specific purpose- most commonly, aerial or marine navigation. Map accuracy is closely related to map scale. The Various kinds and types of charts are prepared National Map Accuracy Standards (app. 6) were and published by NOS to promote safety in aerial devised to provide cartographers with practical cri- and marine navigation. Because charts are im- teria for certifying their maps. Note that the stand- portant to the safety of life and property, accuracy ards cannot be stated in positive terms because no sufficient for the intended purpose is basic in their practical amount of testing can assure them. data acquisition, design, and construction. Data in- The standard for horizontal accuracy requires valuable for coastal activities are available as by- that no more than 10 percent of the well-defined products from the sources used in chart production. map points tested be in error more than 0.02 in at the publication scale. The tolerance corresponds to TYPES 40 ft (12.2 m) on the ground for 1:24,000-scale maps and about 100 ft (30.5 m) for 1:62,500-scale In addition to aeronautical and nautical charts, maps. The standard for vertical accuracy requires airport obstruction, isogonic, isopach, and tidal cur- that no more than 10 percent of elevations i rent charts also present data of value in the coastal that no more than 10 percent of elevations inter- polated from the contour lines be in error more than zone. half the contour interval. In designing and preparing charts for aerial navi- The standards for hydrography (app. 6) adopted gation, features critical for the pilot and navigator by the Federal Government are those agreed upon are emphasized. Scale must be relatively small be- by the International Hydrographic Organization cause of the flight speed. Terminal control area (Accuracy Standards Recommended for Hydro- (TCA), sectional aeronautical, and world aeronau- graphic Surveys, IHB Special Publication 44, Mona- tical charts are the most likely to contain coastal in- graphic Surveys, IHB Special Publication 44, Mona- co, 1968). The standards are comparable to the Na- formation of any value; they are produced at 1 tional Map Accuracy Standards; however, they apply 250,000, 1:500,000, and 1:1,000,000-scale, respec- to the accuracy of basic control and the vertical tively. datum rather than the graphic product. The basic Nautical charts (app. 7, fig. 17) are classified ac- acceptable horizontal position error is 0.05 in (0.127 cording to the specific navigational phase each cm) on the map, and the acceptable vertical error is serves. For example, a sailing chart is appropriate 1 percent of the water depth. for an ocean crossing, but a coast chart is needed as land is approached or for a voyage generally REVISION parallel to the coast. Harbor charts (app. 7, fig. 18) replace the coast charts as vessels enter restricted In a sense, accuracy implies currentness. The waterways with congested traffic and navigational compilation date on a map indicates whether its con- hazards. Small-craft charts (app. 7, fig. 19) are con- tent is likely to be up-to-date. Certain types of maps venient aboard small craft and other vessels where generally need little revision, especially those show- space is limited. The primary differences between ing geology or relief. Major revisions are mainly these charts are scale and the features emphasized. needed for manmade features. Although minor revi- Isogonic charts show lines of equal variation of CHARTS 61 the magnetic compass. They are compiled on a ACCURACY suitable base map, usually at a small scale, to show Navigational charts are relied on for safety in the variation of magnetic bearing and its annual two major transportation systems. Accuracy is rate of change. The basic data are obtained from therefore a major concern in production. Accuracy therefore a major concern in production. Accuracy field observations. requirements vary with the kind of chart and are Tidal current charts (app. 7, fig. 24) provide in- most critical for nautical charts. most critical for nautical charts. formation about the direction and speed of the cur- B Base maps that meet National Map Accuracy rent in a specific area at intervals through the entire as p thte ai a a rac Standards provide the terrain data for aeronautical tidal cycle. They are currently limited to major har- and nautical chart bases. Base maps for nautical and nautical chart bases. Base maps for nautical bors, but coverage is being extended to important charts, except in rare instances, are prepared by coastal waters. These charts can be valuable in NOS f rom aerial photographs at a scale at least NOS from aerial photographs at a scale at least coastal management operations. twice that of the final chart. When a new hydro- With few exceptions, the charts mentioned are With few exceptions, the charts mentioned are graphic survey is not scheduled, base topography basically line drawings, relying on colors and sym- is sometimes prepared directly at charting scale. is sometimes prepared directly at charting scale. bols to emphasize significant features. A new series Features critical to safe marine navigation are Features critical to safe marine navigation are contains an orthophotomosaic base to present in- mapped to standards stricter than the national formation usually shown by lines and symbols. standards. For example, the shoreline (usually the Landmarks and similar features important to navi- mean high water line) and the mean low water line mean high water line) and the mean low water line gators are emphasized by color or symbolization. gators are emphasized by color or symbolization must be plotted within 0.5 mm (at map scale) of the true position, about 16 ft (4.9 m) on the ground at FORMAT 1:10,000 scale, compared to 28 ft (8.5 m) under the national standards. Fixed aids to navigation and The different charts are issued in various formats, objects to be charted as landmarks must be plotted depending principally on the intended use and the within 0.3 mm (about 10 ft.-3 i-at 1:10,000 environment. scale) of true position. Similar accuracy is not re- Aeronautical charts (app. 7, fig. 35) of value to quired for aeronautical charts, but radio naviga- coastal activities cover differing areas and are nor- tional aids and obstructions to safe operation of mally issued in accordion-folded format. Terminal aircraft are located and charted with accuracy Control Area charts, available only for selected suitable for publication scale. Bases for all the other major airports, cover the immediate vicinity. They types of charts usually are prepared from the most vary little in physical size. Sectional aeronautical suitable aeronautical or nautical charts. charts (scale 1:500,000) cover areas defined by geo- graphic coordinates. They are printed on both sides, each covering 2� latitude and from 6� to 80 longi- SCALE AND CONTENT tude. Because of the smaller scale (1:1,000,000), world aeronautical charts differ from sectional Chart content depends on use and publication charts in the area covered. Each side covers 40 lati- scale. At large scales more detail can be shown tude and from 120 to 160 longitude. Airport obstruc- without congestion and legibility can be increased tion charts cover approximately circular areas that with larger symbols and type, but areal coverage include runway approach and departure zones, and is reduced. At small scales larger areas can be are fairly uniform in dimensions. They are not pub- covered, but details must be omitted to avoid con- lished, but diazo copies are produced as needed. gestion. Nautical charts vary widely in physical dimen- Chart content of value in coastal activities varies sions. They are designed to cover all or part of a with the kind of chart. In general, small-scale body of water, or a section of coast between major charts are suitable for general planning or for pre- ports or other important geographic features. When paring gross inventories. For example, sectional practical, coverage and dimensions of individual aeronautical charts can be used for planning, but charts within each series are kept uniform for the large-scale charts are of the greatest value to convenience of the mariner. Depending on the area users. Scale can be changed by photographic or of coverage, isogonic charts vary widely in dimen- mechanical enlargement or reduction. However, en- sions and are usually small scale. Tidal current largement is not recommended (except as an expe- charts are issued in bound volumes consisting of 12 dient) because errors made in producing the chart or 13 diagrams prepared on the same base. are enlarged so that the new larger scale chart is 62 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK not as accurate as its scale implies. Excessive photo- � Compiling administrative data (costs, priori- enlargement can reduce legibility. ties, and locations of field parties). Some chart data may be common to several dif- � Planning control. ferent kinds of charts. Shoreline, for example, is � Planning, procuring, and annotating photo- critically important to a ship's navigator and is graphs. always shown prominently on nautical charts. The � Editing compilation manuscripts. shoreline is not as important to an aircraft naviga- � Layout of contour numbers or soundings. tor, and is therefore less prominently displayed on � Name placement and type style. aeronautical charts. ~aeronautical charts. The USGS Land Use Data and Analysis (LUDA) program is an example of the effective use of REVISION overlays. The 1:250,000-scale topographic maps are used as bases to produce overlays (film positives) Obsolete contents can quickly destroy a chart's used as bases to produce overlays (film positives) showing classification of land uses throughout the utility. Charts become obsolete mainly by the acts showing classification of land uses throughout the of man. Most aeronautical charts are revised semi- country. These film positives can be used in conjunc- of man. Most aeronautical charts are revised semi- tion with the base map, or they can be combined annually; those of remote areas are revised less tion with the base map, or they can be combined with selected plates from the base map and pub- often. Changes usually affect airways data and navi- with selected plates from the base map and pub- lished as land-use maps. gational facilities and they therefore have little af- lished as land-use maps. Figures 24 and 25 show a base map and a corres- fect on the coastal zone. Nautical charts are usually nd2 o a as m and fes ponding overlay locating oil and gas fields. revised annually for congested areas. Charts of re- mote areas are revised less often. Isogonic charts EXAMPLES OF OVERLAYS FOR COASTAL are recompiled every 5 years; isopach charts have MANAGEMENT no established revision schedule. Airport obstruc- Although overprints can be used in coastal map- tion charts are revised every 3 years when resources pg overs ae usi o sta ap ping, overlays are usually more suitable. Examples permit-less frequently for some smaller airports are are: with light traffic. 1. 100-year flood plain. 2. Soils. OVERPRINTS AND OVERLAYS 3. Soils. 3. Geology. Overprinting is printing additional information 4. Population. on an already printed map. An overlay is a trans- 5. Estuarine studies. parent or translucent photograph or drawing at the a. Discharge. same scale as the base map made to register with b. Run-off. it. The added information shows new details with- c. Physical characteristics. out changing the original. (1) Salinity. (2) Slope analysis. USES 6. Oceanography. a. Hydrodynamics. Overprints can be used to add new roads, build- b. Sediments. ings, dams, and reservoirs to original maps with a (1) Bottom. new press run. An extra color for revision data (2) Near-surface. permits users to readily identify and evaluate c. Currents. changes (fig. 23). Overprints can also be used to (1) Surface. direct attention to special data, such as by adding (2) Subsurface. an arrow pointing to the particular feature. d. Tidal. Overlays can provide the same information as an (1) Location of station. overprint. However, they are used in conjunction (2) Data. with the original base map and do not become a (3) Bench marks. permanent part of it. Sometimes several overlays 7. Climatic studies. are used in combination to show changes over a a. Temperature. prolonged period. b. Rainfall. Overlays are used in the planning and production (1) Seasonal. of maps in the following typical ways: (2) Annual. OVERPRINTS AND OVERLAYS 63 '3-1's "V 43 19 P 21 23 4 19 55 23 Easton Pond 44 G 22 /6 10 21 4 rys Se 44 R2 17 /4 .35 2 ay T HARB 10 14 [Z' Ro k Lig Z4 lung ?nton 15 -teps 3 St C ov 16 A "N 9 37 1K 46 A test\ L h wnz 56 J)"r 41) Ji 00 An I 62 FIGURE 23-Revision by purple overprint. From the USGS Newport, R.I., 7.5-min topographic -quadrangle map. 64 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK 8. Resources. quire special printing methods which consequently a. Living. increase costs. b. Nonliving. 9. Land use. DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 10. Wetlands. a. Vegetation. It is not generally practical to produce maps b. Limits. meeting the individual needs of every user, nor is 11. Sanctuaries and refuges. it practical to print every possible combination of a. Public. map guides. Most maps contain more information b. Private. than a user needs. Users must select data, and they 12. Historical and archeological sites. may have to be content with less information than 13. Land ownership. they need. 14. Recreation. a. Parks. VISUAL EXTRACTION b. Marinas. Whoever reads a map is extracting data. Whether 15. Pollution. he is conscious of the fact or not, a user selects a. Sewage outfalls, ocean dumping, etc. information that he wants and disregards the rest. b. Air. A person who reads a map to find his way visually c. Noise. interprets the data and chooses his route. Some 16. Support services. readers may be interested in interpreting every a. Primary. aspect of specific map features, by mental calcula- (1) Sewage disposal. tion or with aids such as scales, protractors, com- (2) Fresh water. passes, cartometers, and planimeters. (3) Solid waste disposal. (4) Electricity. FEATURE SEPARATION (5) Transportation. As explained in the section, "Photogrammetric b. Secondary. (1) Scools. mapping techniques," pressplates for multicolor (2) hoo ls. maps are produced from color-separation guides. (3) Hospitals. Each color can be broken down further. For example, (4) one blue pressplate can be made from several blue (4) Police stations. guides-one for lakes and ponds, one for streams, and one for swamps. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS There can be greater separation, as the follow- ing list shows: Overprints can be used to keep a map from be- 1. Black. coming cumbersome, in cases where more than one a. Transportation systems. overlay would be required. However, because an overprint is a permanent part of a map, the entire (2) Mar ro ads. map may have to be revised if the overprint be- (3) Tertiary roads. comes undesirable. Overprinting requires at least (4) Uniary roads. (4) Unimproved roads. one additional press run and register may not be (5) Trails. exact because of printing on top of published maps (6) Railroads. whose size may have changed with time. Over- (7) Airports. printing must be limited to data that will not cause b. Control. cluttered detail or confusion. C. Labels (names). The greatest advantage of overlays is that they avoid crowding map detail. Overlays, in keeping (1 Culture. with the feature-separation system, show unlimited types of information related to the same base map and to each other. Production costs for small quanti- FIGURE 24.-Overlay showing oil and gas fields. From the ties of overlays can be less than that for overprinting current land use plate of the Port Lavaca sheet, Environ- published maps. Nevertheless, overlays usually re- mental Geologic Atlas, Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. Do 1oUt OScan : :~~~~~~~~g RenreD-Insert Do Not Scan Document Here Document ID: ?2Qi 6 /bA / Page #: OVERPRINTS AND OVERLAYS 6 w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~el ~~ -< d~~~~O ~~* ~ ~ ~ -~~ ~~ Point~~~riomf o i-d\ \ZI eran~~~~~~~~~~ud Rpr Po C~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~on Comf t1) 5'IG~~~t~~E 25.-Bas~~e] mapued with oil anYa vra.Fo h SSBeilTxs 1:250,000-scale~~~~ Lipgrahic quaranle 66 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK (2) Schools, churches, or cemeteries. creasing the scale could cause data crowding, which (3) Wells: oil, gas, water. can be avoided by removing a number of guides from (4) Mines. the original map materials before reduction. For (5) Recreation areas. example, the primary and secondary road guides (6) Marinas. from several 1:24,000-scale feature-separated maps (7) Military reservations. could be reduced and combined to compile a road map (8) Boundaries. at 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 scale. (9) Utilities. Figures 26 through 35 show various 'sample (a) Power transmission lines. guides of a feature-separated map. (b) Pipelines. (c) Telephone lines. AUTOMATION 2. Brown. Computers and related machinery have eased the a. Contours. task of preparing maps and extracting map data. (1) Index contours. Although automated cartography still is in its in- (2) Intermediate contours. fancy, some steps have been taken toward the goal (3) Supplemental contours. of automation. b. Sand. One approach is an automated coordinatograph, (1) Beach. an instrument that plots points or lines by their x (2) Dunes. and y coordinates. Map data can be stored on c. Tailings. punched cards or magnetic tapes to be recalled d. Levees. later and fed to the coordinatograph to plot a e. Strip mines. graphic from the stored information. The plotted 3. Blue. data can be edited by correcting, deleting, or ad- a. Streams. ding, and the edited data can be returned to storage. (1) Perennial. Some editing can be done automatically. (2) Intermittent. The usefulness of stored data can be enhanced b. Ponds. by feature separation. Information can be stored c. Swamps. in a data bank for selective recall. For example, a d. Inundated areas. user can select all towns with a specific population e. Depth curves. or all contours within a stated range. The user can f. Rice paddies. make his own feature separation from the available 4. Green. information and can combine separate features as a. Woodland. he chooses. Sometimes he can select the scale or b. Orchards. even the projection on which the graphic output is c. Scrub. drawn. d. Mangrove (symbol usually requires blue If the user's goal is to compile statistics, he can also). extract the data from published maps and compile e. Vineyards. his lists manually. However, digitized map data 5. Red. can be retrieved in list form, eliminating the need a. Major highway classification. for map interpretation and saving the time needed b. Highway route numbers. to compile a list by hand. c. Land lines. d. Urban tint. LAND USE AND LAND COVER Feature separation makes it possible for a map CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING user to omit extraneous information and compile To make sound decisions, a modern nation needs his data with ease. He can also select from the adequate information about many complex, inter- available guides and combine them in different ways. related activities. Land use has become increasingly Changes in color combinations can be used in con- important in overcoming problems of haphazard, junction with feature separation to emphasize uncontrolled development, - deteriorating environ- features of particular interest. mental quality, loss of prime and unique agricultural By feature separation, users can select maps of lands, destruction of important wetlands, and loss of different scales from the same basic data. De- fish and wildlife habitat. Land use and land cover LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 67 data are needed to analyze environmental processes tion they provide is gathered at a specified time and and problems that must be understood to improve is usually obtained under conditions favorable to living conditions and standards or to maintain them identification. at current levels. Classification systems can be derived inductively Because of increasing emphasis on coastal develop- or deductively. In inductive classification, where ment, various agencies are collecting land use and observed features are recorded and categorized, the land cover data. The handbook should stimulate number of observable features is limited to what the more uniformity and standardization in this data remotely sensed source material can detect. There- collection. fore, the classification and inventory will be limited. In deductive classification, where preconceived cate- DEFINITION OF LAND USE gories are established, using remote sensors limits some of the categories because they may not be ob- Although most people have a general idea of servable. Usually, a miscellaneous category is used what constitutes "land use," the term is surrounded r ulas ae atue for unclassifiable features. by confusion and misunderstanding. In the hand- A land use and land cover classification system book lan useis omprsed f to copone ts-A land use and land cover classification system book, land use is comprised of two components-- that can effectively use orbital and high-altitude land use and land cover. Land use is activity related, tata ee e olan i- remote-sensor data should meet the following cri- that is, how a parcel of land or water is used. Land teria (Anderson, 1971). cover refers to vegetation or artificial structures on the land. The land cover of an area might be classi- � The minimum level of interpretation accuracy fled as nonforested wetland, whereas the actual use in the identification of land use and land cover may be as a wildlife refuge, an oil extraction opera- categories from remote-sensor data is at least tion, or a waste disposal operation. Aircraft or 85 percent. satellite remote sensing used to map these data * The accuracy of interpretation for the categories makes the distinction more important because activi- is approximately equal. ty is not always discernible. Land cover can be used � Repeatable or repetitive results are obtainable sometimes instead of activity, but not always. from one interpreter to another and from one time of sensing to another. CLASSIFICATION THEORY AND PRINCIPLES a The system is applicable over extensive areas. The categories permit vegetation and other land There are no ideal methods for inventorying or cover to be used to replace activity. classifying natural resources or land use and land . The system is usable with remote-sensor data cover. A detailed inventory is adequate only for obtained at different times of the year. a relatively short time because land use patterns * Subcategories that c6n be obtained from ground change with resource demands. Users of this type surveys or from larger scale or enhanced remote- of information want an inventory that reflects sensor data are used. change and satisfies most of their needs. � Aggregation of'categories is possible. Depending on needs, a classification system can * Comparison with future land use data is possi- be oriented to people, resources, or both. Wide ac- ble. ceptance and use shows that a combination is * Multiple uses of land are recognized when possi- preferred. ble. As remote sensing technology improves, more and more inventories are made with remote-sensor THE DECISION PROCESS THE DECISION PROCESS source material obtained from both aircraft and satellites. Whether it is an aerial photograph or a Clearly defined categories are rarely found in Landsat image in digital tape format, the source land use classification. Fine points, such as how to material requires interpretation for use in the in- separate water and land, are debated. At first the ventory. Although supplemental material may be class selection seems obvious, but becomes clouded needed, the inventory will include only what can be when one considers problems of seasonally wet identified with acceptable accuracy. Remote sensors areas or coastal tidal fiats, or marshes, swamps, and using relatively inexpensive and generally unbiased bogs with various types of plants providing some source material provide many desirable features degree of crown cover. that may outweigh their limitations. The informa- Most types of land use classified in the inventory 68 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 26 Roads. Primary roads are shown in red; secon- dary roads are in black. Primary roads could have been shown in black as in figure 29. Guides included: 1. Primary roads--------------------red 2. Secondary roads - - --------------black 3. Red lettering--- --------------------red DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 69 70 COASTAL MIAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 27 Culture. Primary and secondary culture are com- bined on one guide. The secondary culture can be eliminated, if desired. Guides included: 1. Primary culture - ------------------black 2. Secondary culture - - --------------black DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 71 la~~~~~~~~~~~~- A19.;. ~ ~ ~ ~ / ! \"~~~~~~~I 47~~~~~ '-4~~" - /~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 ,~.~ ~, ~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0~~~~~~~~~~ / 4 d"d � <' iE-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N *s-v%-, . ! 72 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 28 Urban tint. House omission area shown in gray. Feature separation allows users to change colors. For example, red could be used. Guide included: 1. Urban tint ---------------------black DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES '73 "''4 4 4' v' 4 4" '1 ' V v"'"''4'" "4 ''4 'P 4, 44 4','"' a' 4' "4' A" 4 ',., ' "4 '4'4 '444 ''A "4 4474 " 4" "''4 '"44 "a"' ph' Spa ""9'"'., '2"" 47474" "444" 47 '4" "4' 4"'-' $7444747444' 47" 4"4' PS '* 44 '44 '4''4 7'"" 0 44"4" f 'SI at '<"''4"'' '45' .&'4 �4%44a7 '4W'\ '-"4 44 '47' ""k p "44 444 47"' "$77' 744'4 '�{' '4"'"4""'-' "">"'"""'" "4' ""4' 474 '4& '4PSr ''4 <" 'fr at4 a'-' ,' ' '4"' 447. AS' """'�''"4"4 "'4' 9,'-"" 4'' '74 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 29 Black lettering. Names shown in black can be de- leted by removing one guide or can be used in combination with other black guides. Another pos- sibility is combining black and blue guides (including blue names, fig. 32) to make a monocolored map,. Guide included: 1. Black lettering -----------------black DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 75 Hogar Estatal de Ninas Miramar U S NAVAL RESERVATION Escuela Rafael Cordero BM 7.9 Tras Tallere Pta Cataho I Escuelo Voello Faro Faros Faro C BM ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Faro . PUENTE CONSTITUCIdN 1 .2 Centro de Faro Obras POblicas Elevador Faro Faro 4'Q Subestaci6n Faro 0 TUBERiAS ISOBRE TERRENOJ Faro HFA 2.5 1.5 US NAVAL RESERVATION Bechara Industrial Neni 2.0 Cane Cantera de Caneja tOkes Escuela Intermedia MOWS ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Luis Pales Maobs Ha PUEBLO VIEJO Escuela Mu: Pedro Carlos Timothee Golf 3.3 Puerto Nuevo Norte Course 70 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 30 Combined black. All black plates are combined into a single guide. Primary roads shown in red in figure 25 are shown in solid black here. Guides included: 1. Base format - - -- -----------------black 2. Primary roads -- - -- -------------black 3. Secondary roads ---- --------------black 4. Primary culture - - - ---------- - -black 5. Secondary culture - --------------black 6. Urban tint ------------------------ black 7. Sand - - -- ------------------------black S. Black lettering------- - - ----------black 9. Road lettering - - - ---------------black DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 77 t~4$WVaeIlloar Faros C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Faro oao PUENTE COrSTITUCI6N 1.2 Elevador ~~~~~~~~~~o Faro Obs POblicas ifrievac~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~or-e~aj o aro oH EBL-6~~~~~~~~~~ VTE ( S ar <I~~~g 78 ~~~~~~COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 31 Drainage. Drainage usually includes any blue line- work such as channel outlines, shore- lines, and depth curves as well as streams. Wide streams and open bodies of water require a blue tint in addition to the linework shown here. Guide included: 1. Drainage-------------------------- blue DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 79 N I '2 N I Nil / N N N N N N 'N N K -, N I N / ' / - 7I I - N - K I N K\I c, / I, II / K / \ / A A A I I A II j'A 80 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 32 Open water. The blue tint is usually shown with the drainage guide, but here the tint is on a separate guide so that the drainage can be used alone. Guide included: 1. Open water-----------------------blue DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 82 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 33 Blue lettering. Blue names can be combined with other blue guides, combined with black and blue guides in a mono- colored map, or deleted. Guides included: 1. Blue lettering --------------------blue DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 83 I ~~~Bahia de Puerto Nuevo 4.0 0 10, WVqc~~ 84 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 34 Combined black, blue, and contours. All of the black guides (primary roads and road let- tering could have been shown in red), all of the blue guides, and contour guides are combined. Having three contour guides fa- cilitates scale reduction, since guides may be deleted as -necessary. Guides included: 1. Base f ormat --- ----------------black 2. Primary roads -------------------black 3. Secondary roads - - ------------ --black 4. Primary culture - - ---------------black 5. Secondary culture - ---------------black 6. Urban tint -- ----------- --------black 7. Sand --------------------------black S. Black lettering --- ----------------black 9. Road lettering - - ----------------black 10. Index contours - - ---------------brown 11. Intermediate contours - -- --------brown 12. Supplementary contours and levees ----------------------brown 13. Contour numbers - - -------------brown 14. Drainage---- -- - -----------------blue 15. Open water----------------------blue 16. Mangrove-----------------------blue 17. Blue lettering--------------------blue 18. Depth curve numbers- - -----------blue DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES' 85 IN "tI N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ c N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5: N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ET N ~ ~~Pet I ue 2.5K "Y~~~~~~~~~ SER 40in/,sra :"Acquired ig~ ON/~ ca 16r Pta~~~~~~~~~~~taI~ ~ ~~~~, urg " IM-1 86 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 35 Published map, San Juan, P.R., 1:20,000-scale. All guides are shown in standard colors. Guides included: 1. Base format _- - -----------------.---........... black 2. Secondary roads - --.. - ------------------ black 3. Primary culture - - - --------------------------- black 4. Secondary culture - - - ----------------------- black 5. Urban tint - - - ----------------------------------- black 6. Sand - - - ------------------------------------- black 7. Black lettering - - - ---------.-.-.............._ black 8. Index contours - - - ----------------------..._ brown 9. Intermediate contours - - - --------------- brown 10. Supplementary contours and levees - - -. - ------------------------- brown 11. Boundary tint - - - ----------------------------- brown 12. Contour numbers - --. - --------------------- brown 13. Drainage - - - ------------------------------------- blue 14. Open water - --. ---------------------------------- blue 15. Blue lettering - - -...---- blue 16. Mangrove - - - ------------------------------------- blue 17. Woodland' - - - ------------------------------------- blue 18. Depth curve numbers - - - ------------------- blue 19. Primary roads _ .- - -----.-..-.-------............. red 20. Red lettering - - - ----------------------------------- red 21. Base tint - - -- -----------------------..........._ yellow 22. Cemetery and park tint -------------_ yellow 23. Boundary tint - -..-................_ yellow 24. Woodland' - - - -----.. yellow 'The woodland plate is printed in both blue and yellow to form a green tint that represents woodland (mangrove where the blue man- grove symbol also appears). DATA EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES 87 N~~~~~~~~~~~4 N I~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r N ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rs N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ r 40~~~~~~~~~~~~~` VI,N ,' I! t~~~~O 88 ~~~~~~COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK appear in a continuous gradation from 0 (no use) Sometimes problems of dual land use can be to 100 (full use). The problem is where to place solved by classifying the land according to greatest boundaries. How large an area should have a use, significant information, or point information particular use before that use is acknowledged? How sources. Areas with multiple uses can be mapped are the problems resolved in areas having hetero- TABLE 3.-USGS land use and land cover classification geneous mixtures of equally significant land use? system for use with re'mo te-sensor data Such questions are not easily answered. Documentation and description of classification LEVEL I LEVEL II criteria help identify where on the gradation scale a I Urban or built-up land 11 Residential. land use change occurs. If the size of an area is a 12 Commercial and services. deciding factor, the size should be stated on the 13 Industrial. basis of the information source and the decision 14 Transportation, commnu- criteria. nications, and utilities. 15 Industrial and commer- For example, on land where agriculture has ceased cial complexes. there are various stages of reforestation. Much of 16 Mixed urban or built-up the land cannot be properly classified as forestland land. because there is gradation of cover beginning with 17 Other urban or built-up land. woody plant materials that start to grow when the 2Arclua ad2 rpadadpsue land is dropped from crop production. There are 22 Orchards, groves, vine- areas with no, discernible line where low sparse yards, nurseries, and bush growth changes to stands of marketable timber. ornamental horticul- In the past, the solution has hinged on well-docu- tural areas. mented decisions about where the line should be 23 Confined feeding opera- drawn. Remote-sensing platforms can help by pro- 2Othe gioutrllns. viding a vantage point that is not available on the24Ohraiclullnd ground. 8 Rangeland 31 Herbaceous rangeland. 32 Shrub and brush range- The above example reemphasizes the significance land. of user needs in developing a classification system. 33 Mixed rangeland. The interest of commercial foresters differs from 4 Forest land 41 Deciduous forest land. that of planners or transportation engineers. Ex- 42 Evergreen forest land. pected use usually determines where boundaries are 43 Mixed forest land. drawn. 5 Water 51 Streams and canals. Another problem is the interface of land uses. 52 Lakes. An example is the large area of suburban-influenced 53 Reservoirs. land around urban areas. Factors, including infor- 54 Bays and estuaries. mation sources, available funds, significance -of land 6 Wetland 61 Forested wetland. use area, and minimum map units, are used to de- 62 Nonforested wetland. cide how the land use should be classified and 7 Barren land 71 Dry salt flats. mapped. Similarly, in areas of multiple uses (such 72 Beaches. as grazed woodlands), several factors are considered. 73 Sandy areas other than Sometimes a separate class is used to avoid making beaches. a decision favoring one class over the other. 74 Bare exposed rock. a decision favoring one class over the other.75 Strip mines, quarries, Problems also arise in satisfying inventory users and gravel pits. when there is a conflict between cover and activity. 76 Transitional areas. Many recreational activities are in this category. 77 Mixed barren land. For example, hunting is a common recreational land 8 Tundra 81 Shrub and brush tundra. use, but most hunting is done on land that is better 82 Herbaceous tundra. classified as forestland, rangeland, or agricultural 83 Bare ground tundra. land. Consequently, hunting as a land use may re- 84 Wet tundra. quire a different classification. Hunting does not 8 ie uda easily fit into an inventory based on remote-sensing 9 Perenial snow or ice 91 Perennial snowfields. sources. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~92 Glaciers. LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 89 efficiently by putting each use on a separate overlay, TABLE 4.-Land use classification system developed for the thus retaining the basic data for map users who are Soil Conservation Service not interested in the combination of uses. 1. Urban or built-up land. In other cases, confusion over large areas of multi- 1.1 Roads and railroads. ple land uses can be clarified by including general 1.2 Residential, commercial, industrial, mixed, and other. statements or guidelines as marginal information. 2. Agricultural land. Technically, grazing is rangeland use whether it is 2.1 Nonirrigated cropland. in the East or the West. However, management prac- 2.11 Row crops. 2.12 Close grown crops. tices in the East are substantially different from 2.13 Summer fallow. those in the West, and it is hard to resolve the 2.14 Rotation hay and pasture. difference in classification description. Deciding 2.15 Hayland. where the term "range" is to be used instead of the 2.16 In conservation use. term "pasture" will resolve most of the conflict. 2.17 Temporarily idle. 2.2 Irrigated cropland. 2.21 Row crops. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS 2.22 Close grown crops. 2.23 Summer fallow. Land use classification schemes are abundant. 2.23 Summer fallow. 2.24 Rotation hay and pasture. Some are very general; others are highly detailed, 2.25 Hayland. having as many as four levels. It is not practical to 2.26 In conservation use. discuss all classification systems here. The examples 2.27 Temporarily idle. included in the handbook were chosen because of 2.3 Nonirrigated pasture. 2.4 Irrigated pasture. their wide acceptance or appropriateness. 2.5 Nonirrigated orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, National in scope, the USGS land use classifica- and ornamental horticultural areas. tion system (Anderson and others, 1976) relies 2.6 Irrigated orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and mostly on remote-sensor data. The system was de- ornamental horticultural areas. veloped for Federal and State agencies that needed 2.7 Confined feeding operations. a current overview of land use and land cover with 3. Rangeland. uniform categories at the more generalized levels I . R angeland. 3.1 Herbaceous range. and II, and that is receptive to data from satellite 3.2 Shrub-brushland range. and aircraft remote sensors. The system incorpor- 3.3 Mixed range. ates features from widely used classification sys- 4. Forest land. terns that are compatible with data derived from 4.1 Deciduous forest. remote sensing. The classification is intentionally 4.11 Grazed commercial forestland. left open-ended so that Federal, regional, State, and 4.12 Not grazed commercial forestland. 4.13 Grazed noncommercial forestland. local agencies can be flexible in developing more de- 4.13 Grazed noncommercial forestland. 4.14 Not grazed noncommercial forestland. tailed classifications at the third and fourth levels 4.2 Evergreen forest. to meet their needs, and so that they can remain 4.21 Grazed commercial forestland. compatible with each other and the national system. 4.22 Not grazed commercial forestland. The revised system incorporates the results of ex- 4.23 Grazed noncommercial forestland. tensive testing and reviewing of categorization and 4.24 NotMixed orest definitions. The classification is shown in table 3. 4.31 Grazed commercial forestland. An example of how the USGS classification sys- 4.32 Not grazed commercial forestland. tem can be used as a framework for more detailed 4.833 Grazed noncommercial forestland. categorization is the system that was developed in 4.34 Not grazed noncommercial forestland. the Land Inventory and Monitoring Division of 5- Water. the Soil Conservation Service (table 4). Categories 5.1 Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, 2.5 to 40 acres in size. 5.2 Ponds, lakes, and reservoirs more than 40 acres in such as cropland in conservation use, or temporarily size. idle and grazed and nongrazed commercial and non- 5.3 Canals, streams, and rivers 165 to 660 ft wide. commercial forestland cannot be identified solely 5.4 Canals, streams, and rivers more than 660 ft wide. from remote-sensor data. Therefore, other sources 6. Wetlands. of information are needed. 6.1 Deciduous forest wetlands. 6.2 Evergreen forest wetlands. Many States have developed and used their own 6.8 Mixed forest wetlands. classification system or have modified existing sys- 6.4 Nonforested wetlands. 90 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK TABLE 4.-Continued tems. Florida needed a coordinated land-data classi- 7. Barren land. fication system as a first step in establishing an 7.1 Salt flats. overall information program. A committee of repre- 7.2 Beaches and mudflats. 7.2 NonBeachs sandy aras. sentatives from the State land-use and resource- 7.3 Nonbeach sandy areas. 7.4 Exposed rock. planning agencies compiled a workable system. They 7.5 Stripmines, quarries, sand and gravel pits. added level III categories to the USGS classifica- 7.6 Mixed. tion system (table 5) to provide additional detail 7.7 Other. that was needed for various land use planning and 8. Tundra. management activities in Florida. 8.1 Shrub and brush tundra. The "Standard Land Use Coding Manual," pub- 8.2 Herbaceous tundra. lished in 1965, achieved greater uniformity in classi- 8.3 Bare ground tundra. 8.3 Baretground tundra. fying land use. The coding manual was released 8.4 Wet tundra. 8.5 Mixed tundra. jointly by the Urban Renewal Administration and the Bureau of Public Roads. It incorporated the 9. Perennial snow and ice. 9.1 Perennial snowfields. "Standard Industrial Code" prepared by the Bureau 9.2 Glaciers. of the Budget and published in 1957. TABLE 5.-Florida Land Use/Cover Classification System Level I Level II Level IHI 100 Urban or 110 Residential 111 Single unit, low density (less than 2 DUPA'). built-up land. 112 Single unit, medium density (2-5 DUPA). 113 Single unit, high density (6 & over DUPA). 114 Mobile homes, medium density (less than 6 DUPA). 115 Mobile homes, high density (6 & over DUPA). 116 Multiple dwelling, low-rise (2 stories or less) DUPA may be designated by user. 117 Multiple dwelling, high-rise (3 stories or more) DUPA may be designated by user. 118 Mixed residential. 119 Residential under construction. 120 Commercial and services 121 Retail sales and services. 122 Wholesale sales and services, including trucking & warehousing (except warehousing associated with industrial use). 123 Offices and professional services. 124 Hotels and motels. 125 Cultural and entertainment. 126 Oil & gas storage facilities (except where associated with industrial use). 127 Mixed commercial and services. 128 Commercial under construction. 130 Industrial 131 Light industrial. 132 Heavy industrial. 133 Industrial under construction. 140 Transportation 141 Airports, including runways, parking areas, hangers, and terminals. 142 Railroads, including yards and terminals. 143 Bus and truck terminals. 144 Major roads and highways. 145 Port facilities. 146 Navigable waterways. 147 Auto parking facilities (when not directly related to another land use). I DUPA-Gross dwelling units per acre. NOTE.-At level IT, low, medium, and high residential density may be designated as in level III, based upon visual impact assessment from stereo viewing, and the resolution of the level II imagery. Numbers shown may be used for computer programing and mapping designations. LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 91 TABLE 5.-Florida Land Use/Cover Classification System-Continued Level I Level II Level HII 148 Oil and gas long-distance transmission pipeline. 149 Transportation facilities under construction. 150 Communications and utilities 151 Electrical power facilities. 152 Major long-distance transmission lines. 153 Broadcasting or transmission towers. 154 Water supply plants (including pumping stations). 155 Sewage treatment facilities. 156 Solid waste disposal site. 157 Other communication facilities. 158 Other utility facilities. 159 Communication and utilities under construction. 160 Institutional 161 Educational facilities, including colleges, universi- ties, high schools, and elementary schools. 162 Religious facilities, excluding schools. 163 Medical and health care facilities. 164 Correctional facilities. 165 Military facilities. 166 Governmental, administrative, and service facilities. 167 Cemeteries. 168 Institutional facilities under construction. 169 Other. 170 Recreational 171 Swimming beaches and shores. 172 Golf courses. 173 Parks, zoos. 174 Marinas. 175 Stadiums. 176 Fairgrounds. 177 Community recreational facilities. 178 Racing tracks. 179 Other recreational. 180 Mixed-any mixture of urban or built-up where no single use predominates. 190 Open land and other 191 Undeveloped land within urban areas. 192 Inactive land with street patterns but without structures. 193 Land undergoing active development without indica- tion of intended use. 200 Agriculture 210 Cropland and pastureland 211 Row crops. 212 Field crops. 213 Improved pasture. 220 Orchards, groves (except cit- 221 Tropical fruit orchards. rus), vineyards, nurseries, and 222 Deciduous fruit orchards. ornamental horticultural areas. 223 Nurseries. 224 Ornamental horticultural areas. 225 Vineyards. 230 Citrus groves 231 Orange. 232 Grapef ruit. 233 Other citrus. 240 Confined feeding operations 241 Cattle. 242 Poultry. 243 Hogs. 244 Other. 250 Specialty farms 251 Horse farms. 252 Kennels. 92 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK TABLE 5.-Florida Land Use/Cover Classification System-Continued Level I Leve II Level III 253 Mariculture. 254 Other. 260 Other agriculture. 261 Inactive agricultural lands. 262 Other. 300 Rangeland 310 Grassland 320 Shrub and brushland 321 Palmetto prairies. 322 Coastal scrub. 323 Other scrub and brush. 330 Mixed rangeland 400 Forested uplands 10 Coniferous forest 411 Pine flatwoods. 412 Longleaf pine. 413 Sand pine scrub. 414 Other. 420 Hardwood forest. 421 Xeric oak. 422 Other hardwood. 430 Mixed forest. 431 Mixed coniferous-hardwood forest. 440 Planted forest 441 Coniferous. 442 Hardwood. 450 Clear-cut areas 500 Water 510 Streams and canals 520 Lakes 530 Reservoirs 540 Bays and estuaries 550 Open marine waters 560 Open water areas 561 Marine grass beds. 562 Coral reefs. 563 Oyster beds. 600 Wetlands 610 Wetland-coniferous forest 611 Cypress. 612 Pond pine. 620 Wetland-hardwood forest. 621 Freshwater swamp. 622 Saltwater swamp (mangroves). 630 Wetland-mixed forest. 631 Mixed coniferous-hardwood forest. 640 Wetland-vegetated non-forested 641 Freshwater marsh. 642 Saltwater marsh. 650 Non-vegetated wetland. 651 Tidal flats. 652 Other non-vegetated wetlands. 700 Barren land 710 Beaches 720 Sand other than beaches. 730 Exposed rock 740 Altered lands 741 Scraped areas. 742 Dredge and fill. 743 Spoil banks. 750 Extractive 751 Mineral extraction. 752 Stone quarries. 753 Sand, gravel, clay. 754 Oil and gas wells. 755 Abandoned mining operations. 760 Other barren lands LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 93 The "Standard Land Use Coding Manual" (table 28 Chemicals and allied products. 6), provides a four-digit categorization of land use 29 Petroleum refining and related industries. developed mainly for urban and suburban areas in 3 Manufacturing (continued). the United States. Ground observation and enumera- 31 Rubber and miscellaneous plastic products. tion are essential; consequently, the system is not 32 Stone, clay, and glass products. 33 Primary metal industries. designed to be used with remote sensors. Inventory ria metal duts. 34 Fabricated metal products. of the whole nation would be very expensive to corn- 35 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; plete and maintain. However, for limited areas photographic and optical goods; watches and clocks. where detailed land use information is needed, 39 Miscellaneous manufacturing, NEC. this system provides a useful framework. The first 4 Transportation, communication, and utilities. two levels are presented here. A further breakdown 41 Railroad, rapid rail transit, and street railway trans- to levels III and IV for selected manufacturing and portation. recreation categories is also presented to illustrate 42 Motor vehicle transportation. the detailed aspects of the system. 43 Aircraft transportation. 44 Marine craft transportation. 45 Highway and street right-of-way. 46 Automobile parking. TABLE 6.-Portion of land use classification system used in 47 Communication. the "Standard Land Use Coding Manual" 48 Utilities. 49 Other transportation, communication, and utilities, [Selected manufacturing and recreation categories are presented at NEC. levels III and IV. NEC, not elsewhere coded.] 5 Trade. 1 Residential. 5Trade. ~~~~11 Household units. ~51 Wholesale trade. 11 Household units. ~~~~12 Group quarters. ~52 Retail trade-building materials, hardware, and farm 12 Group quarters. equipment. 13 Residential hotels. 14 Mobilent homeparksorrtels. 53 Retail trade-general merchandise. 14 Mobile home parks or courts. 54 Retail trade--food. t5 Transient lodgings. 195 Otheranresidential ,NEg. 55 Retail trade-automotive, marine craft, aircraft, and 19 Other residential, NEC. accessories. 2 Manufacturing. 56 Retail trade-apparel and accessories. 21 Food and kindred products. 57 Retail trade-furniture, home furnishings, and equip- 22 Textile mill products. ment. 23 Apparel and other finished products made from fabrics, 58 Retail trade--eating and drinking. leather, and similar materials. 59 Other retail trade, NEC. 231 Men's, youth's, and boy's suits, coats, and over- 6 Services. coats. 61 Finance, insurance, and real estate services. 232 Men's, youth's, and boy's furnishings, work clothing, 62 Personal services. and allied garments. 68 Business services. 2383 Women's, misses', juniors', girls', children's, and 64 Repair services. infants' outerwear. 65 Professional services. 234 Women's, misses' children's, and infants' under- 66 Contract construction services. garments. 67 Government services. 235 Hats, caps, and millinery. 68 Educational services. 236 Leather and leather products. 69 Miscellaneous services. 2361 Leather tanning and finishing. 7 Cultural, entertainment, and recreational. 2362 Industrial leather belting and packing. 71 Cultural activities and nature exhibitions. 2363 Boot and shoe cut stock and findings. 72 Public assembly. 2364 Footwear (except rubber). 73 Amusements. 2365 Leather gloves and mittens. 74 Recreational activities. 2366 Luggage. 75 Resorts and group camps. 2367 Handbags and other personal leather goods. 751 Resorts. 2369 Other leather products manufacturing, NEC. 7511 General resorts. 237 Fur goods. 7512 Dude ranches. 238 Miscellaneous apparel and accessories. 7513 Health resorts. 289 Other fabricated textile products manufacturing, 7514 Ski resorts. NEC. 7515 Hunting and fishing clubs. 24 Lumber and wood products (except furniture). 7519 Other resorts, NEC. 25 Furniture and fixtures. 752 Group or organized camps. 26 Paper and allied products. 76 Parks. 27 Printing, publishing, and allied industries. 79 Other cultural, entertainment, and recreational, NEC. 94 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK TABLE 6.-Continued The coastal States that are completely mapped 8 Resource production and extraction. under 50-50 cost-sharing agreements with USGS 81 Agriculture. are Louisiana and Florida. Mapping is in progress 82 Agricultural related activities. under similar agreements with Alabama, Georgia, 83 Forestry activities and related services. and Pennsylvania. 84 Fishing activities and related services. 85 Mining activities and related services. LAND USE AND LAND COVER MAPPING 89 Other resource production and extraction, NEC. 9 Undeveloped land and water areas. Land use maps are usually the result of an in- 91 Undeveloped and unused land area (excluding noncom- ventory. The maps may be made for a specific pur- mercial forest development). pose and are not necessarily in reproducible form for 92 Noncommercial forest development. public use. The lack of comparable land use maps 93 Water areas. for extensive areas has often been a handicap to the 94 Vacant flood area. 95 Under construction. 95 Under construction. planning process, at least at the Federal level and 99 Other undeveloped land and water areas, NEC. usually at the regional and State levels. USGS has begun nationwide land use mapping to provide a systematic and comprehensive collection Other States besides Florida have developed classi- of land use and land cover data appropriate for fication systems and made land use maps in varying large areas which are expensive to map in great degrees of detail and sophistication. Below are some detail. Figure 36 shows the current status of this coastal State organizations that have made land use mapping. maps. Specific products provided by the land use map- ping program are: Alabama Development Office * Maps at 1:250,000 scale showing the present Montgomery, Alabama 36104 land use at level II of the classification system California developed by USGS in conjunction with Federal California Department of Water Resources and State agencies and others. For each of the Sacramento, California 95814 land use/land cover maps produced, overlays Connecticut are also compiled to show Federal land owner- State of Connecticut ship, river basins and subbasins, counties, and Planning and Budgeting Division census county subdivisions. State land owner- 340 Capital Avenue ship is shown when USGS has the appropriate Hartford, Connecticut 06115 information from the State. Delaware Land use and land cover data are keyed to the Director, State Planning Office enlarged culture and drainage color-separation Office of the Governor plates of the standard USGS 1:100,000- or 1:- Dover, Delaware 19901 250,000-scale topographic sheets. The minimum Maryland mapping unit for urban and built-up uses, water Maryland Department of State Planning areas, confined feeding operations, other agricul- 301 W. Preston Street tural land, and strip mines, quarries, and gravel Baltimore, Maryland 21201 pits is 10 acres. The minimum mapping unit for Massachusetts and Rhode Island other categories is 40 acres. Federal land hold- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management ings are shown for tracts of 40 acres or larger, Holdsworth Hall University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01002 when data are available. * Selected experimental demonstration land use Minnesota State Planning Agency and land cover maps at 1:24,000 or 1:50,000 St. Paul, Minnesota 55101 scale are also being prepared for selected areas. These maps show how land use and land cover State of New York mapping at a regional scale can be related to State of New York Office of Planning Services more detailed mapping at larger scales. 488 Broadway � Computerized graphic displays and statistical Albany, New York 12207 data on current land use and land cover will be LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 95 EXPLANATI O N L a ;::::::::::::ro- September 1977 FIGURE 36.-Land use/land cover map production status in the United States. available through this program for use with uses advanced technology, NASA high-altitude pho- other data. Statistical data are compiled by tographs, aerial photographs acquired for USGS counties, areas of Federal ownership, river topographic mapping, and Landsat data. basins and subbasins, and statistical units such For more information on land use and land cover as census tracts or other census county subdi- mapping, contact: visions. Land use and land cover data are digitized in Chief Geographer polygon format (each individual area comprises U.S. Geological Survey a polygon). Conversion of land-use polygons to MS 710 National Center land-use grid cells of varying sizes can be made Reston, Virginia 22092 when desired. Telephone: 703-860-6344 Because of the dynamics of land use, the em- phasis for preparing and distributing all products The rest of this section concentrates on the gen- is on supplying information to the users as soon as eral aspects of land-use mapping, such as source possible. Research in data and information require- material, minimum size, and accuracy. Procedures ments, inventory methods and data use, and inter- are not described in the handbook because several pretative studies is also being carried out under the books and manuals are already available (see "Selec- USGS land use mapping program. The program ted references"). 96 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK The types and amounts of land use and land high-altitude photographs at present. Some level cover information that can be obtained from differ- III and IV land use and land cover data can also ent sensors depend on the altitude and the resolution be obtained from high-altitude imagery. This cate- of each sensor. Presently, no one sensor or system gorization level can also be presented at a wide will produce good data at all altitudes. Each source range of scales. However, as the more detailed and application of remote-sensing data must be categorization levels are used, more dependence evaluated solely on the basis of its qualities and must be placed on higher resolution remote-sensor characteristics. Data are usually transferred to a data and supplemental ground surveys. base map, although a base map is difficult to use The principal remote-sensor source for level II without extracting some additional data from it. data is high-altitude color infrared photographs. Topographic maps, road maps, and detailed city Scales smaller than 1:80,000 are characteristic of maps generally contribute detail beyond the capa- high-altitude photographs, although scales from bilities of the remote-sensor data. 1:24,000 to 1:250,000 generally have been used for Different sensors provide data at varying resolu- final map products. tions depending on altitude and scale. In general, the The same photographs used to construct or up- following relationships are true for a camera with a date 1:24,000-scale topographic maps or similarly 6-in focal length. scaled orthophotoquads are potential sources for Level Tyicael data characteristics inventorying land use and land cover. The ortho- Level ~~Typical data oharacteristics I- - -----Landsat type data. photo bases permit rapid interpretation of level I I _--------Landsat type data. II ----------.. High-altitude data at 12,200 m (40,000 ft) or and II information at relatively low cost. However, above, (less than 1:80,000 scale). the cost of acquiring more detailed levels of land use III ---------- Medium-altitude data obtained between 3,000 and land cover data may be too expensive to include and 12,200 m (10,000 and 40,000 ft) (1: the data on large-scale maps. 20,000 to 1:80,000 scale). In most land use applications, USGS is interested IV --------.... Low-altitude data taken below 3,000 m (10,000 in the smallest area that can be recognized to have ft) (ore han :20,00 scle),in the smallest area that can be recognized to have ft) (more than 1:20,000 scale). an interpretable type of land use or land cover. The Although land use data obtained at any level smallest area that can be recognized depends not certainly is neither restricted to a particular user only on the type and characteristics of the imaging group nor to a particular presentation scale, in- system, but also on the order of image generation formation at levels I and II (fig. 37) usually inter- (how many reproduction stages is the study image ests users who need data on a nationwide, interstate, from the original). The user needs the most recent or statewide basis. Generally, more detailed land information available to determine the resolution use and land cover data, such as that categorized at parameters of the system. levels III (fig. 38) and IV is used more frequently The smallest area that can be placed in a land use by those who need and who generate local informa- category also depends on the compilation and publi- tion at the intrastate, regional, county, or municipal cation scales. Sometimes land uses cannot be identi- level. fled with the accuracy level needed for the smallest The relationship between the categorization level unit being mapped. At other times, specific land uses and the data source is not intended to restrict users can be identified, although they are too small to to particular scales, either in the original source be mapped. For example, farmsteads are not usually from which the land use information is compiled or distinguished from other agricultural land uses when in the final graphic. For example, level I land use mapping at more generalized classification levels. information, while efficiently and economically On the other hand, these farmsteads may be gathered over large areas by a Landsat-type satellite interpretable at more detailed levels, but they may or from high-altitude imagery, could also be in- be too small to be represented at the final scale. terpreted from conventional large-scale aircraft Similar situations may arise when using other imagery or compiled by ground survey. The same categories. information can be displayed at a wide variety of When a map is the medium for presenting land scales ranging from a standard 1:24,000-scale topo- use data, any unit area smaller than 2.5 mm (0.1 in) graphic map to the much smaller 1:1,000,000-scale on a side is difficult to represent. Smaller areas also orbital imagery overlay. Similarly, several level II cause legibility problems for the map reader. Users categories have been interpreted from Landsat data of computer-generated graphics are similarly con- although they can be obtained more accurately from strained by the computer printout size. LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING 97 86�15' 86�10' al, \~1 941 .2 9 L CA _.tzWit'~1 V1ac 1An || ............. ' '1' .............. ' Q 1 2 KEXPLANATION ,! tC - - 14A 14 LV L11 Residential n ~12 Commercial and services 390 :,�4' 86� 14 FIGUR'E 239v 13 Industrial There4 45arethreetype 14 Transportation, communications, and utilities f15o 12 mapping 15 Industrial and commercial complexes 16 Mixed urban or built-up land delie1 ae 17 Other urban or built-up land 21 Cropland and pasture 12" 5222 Orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and ornamental some evr, using photograph12horticultural areas 23 Confined feeding operations 41 Deciduous forest land , 217 Y'ar~ ~I~~ ~~~~~11~~~, 51 Streams and canals 53 Reservoirs scale allo.75 Strip mines, quarries, and gravel pits Va-rioI f c or76 Transitional areas 9. ~ "r39o 40' mfr 40' 21 1 a s~I,, 4~~~~~~1 Al% 0 1 2 MILES 0 1 2 KILOMETERS 86015' 86�10' FIGURE 37.--Level II land use and land cover in an enlarged part of the northeast quarter of the USGS Indianapolis, Ind.-Ill., 1:250,000-scale quadrangle base map. The area outlined in the center is shown in figure 38. There are three types of accuracy considerations and processes can establish interpretation accuracy. for mapping land use and land cover by remote An accuracy of 85 percent or better can be achieved sensing. First is the accuracy with which areas are by using qualified interpreters. Third is the posi- delineated to show the exact outline as it exists on the Earth's surface. The compilation scale will have nal a ra scae th the pl i some effect; however, using photographic source Generally, the larger the scale, the better the posi- materials will make the outline as precise as the tional accuracy. Rectified photomosaics and large- scale allows. Second is the interpretation accuracy. scale topographic quadrangles have very good posi- Various field checks or field validation techniques tional accuracy. 98 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK 86'12'30" 86�11'15" L174. ]-Q. 211 122 Retail trade 131 Primary processing 28 ~1= = ==~1� l$//4t~3 2VI - 132 Fabrication 27. ~ ~ 21'14~ 134 Extraction facilities X4511 PoN erplant 414 Highways 664 S2-- '1�- sat n/~p-w--- -,l~i- 144 Airports 145 Communications �2 ../I 147 Utilities 39,. 8 /.'2 A 173 Waste dumps !,~ 5 211 212 _ 42' 174 Urban undeveloped 30o" 414 Ago~ ~~Ci~ / \ `C .Well. ..... 30" 211 Cropland ~-II 7t~( Jz *212 Pastureland 4X 212 2 *i224 224 Nurseries and floriculture f \ '? 211 242 Farmsteads 412 10-30 percent crown cover, '3 � bideciduous 12}, A\ _ A , 2 413 30-70 percent crown cover, 678 deciduous Grtav,1 56 2 it 414 >70 percent crown cover, deciduous S <%.I34 424 >70 percent crown cover, evergreen 4 AA 11 .' \.~~~ 122 432 10-30 percent crown cover, mixed X1e \ V1 511 Streams xV\r3~e5~ ' ah ' ~U12t2 212 521 Lakes /753 Gravel Ho '1 It -Age==--11532 Water-filled quarries .Pit 212 _3 27Fi 622 Mudflats 860it~ 2 !3 FIGUR 38.- e174l 753 and usand lan velin pt te d UTO9MAION212 asure and p 212 15" 1, ( ( l N / .5 MILE .lf132 �1 -,T==L,_ L ,=g_, 1 7 .; KILOMETER FIGURE 38.-Level III land use and land cover in part of the Maywood, Ind., 7.5-min quadrangle base map. This area is included in fig. 37. FUTURE OUTLOOK ing at the same time that the demand for maps AUTOMATION rises. The Federal Government is solving this prob- lem by automating as many surveying and mapping Maps and charts are based on a framework of operations as are practical. ground-survey control points. The cost of providing Field surveying is being augmented by new com- the framework and producing the maps is increas- puter techniques for photogrammetric control ex- FUTURE OUTLOOK 99 tension (aerotriangulation). Satellites also are being The satellite signals are received by a sophisticated used to extend control to regions where none has ground receiver and processed by computer. This been established. These developments and other elec- surveying method will be used more in the future. tronic advances have contributed greatly to automat- ing procedures for acquiring and processing ground Computer-stored Data Computer-stored Data survey data. Hydrographic chart production is also being auto- When cartographic information is stored in digital mated. Water depths and ship positions are being form, the data can be retrieved and processed later recorded in automated format. Along with digitized by automatic means. The primary advantage of the land features, data are being processed by computer digital form is the capability of automatic access. and will be eventually plotted by machine. It is important to provide the most efficient and Topographic surveys are a different problem be- flexible storage system possible. cause the basic map data are still generally inter- Digital map data fall into three basic categories- preted by an operator. Some work is now being done point data, line data, and area data. Point data in- by semiautomated stereoplotting machines under clude such features as control stations, boundary operator control. Development of automatic scan- monuments, and wells. They are recorded by coordi- ning and correlating devices may eventually remove nates and include any feature that can be located by the major burden of interpretation from the oper- a point. An expansion of the point concept leads to ator, allowing him to monitor the machine operation line data, which include roads, railroads, and and intervene when necessary. streams. Linear features constitute sequences of Remote-sensing techniques to inventory and man- closely spaced point coordinates. Area data are age the Nation's resources and monitor the environ- those that require a tint or pattern, such as wood- ment show great promise. For example, because if land, swamp, and urban areas. Although the bounda- its synoptic coverage, Landsat imagery has permit- ries of areas can be defined by lines, use of a pixel ted identification of previously unmapped geologic (picture element) array simplifies the task of digitiz- structures as targets for exploration for oil, gas, ing area data. copper, and other minerals, and is being used to In general, the larger the amount of stored data, inventory water impoundment areas. the greater are the accuracy and flexibility in selec- The repetitive coverage of satellite data provides tive retrieval; however, an attempt to record an information for land use planning with a timeliness overabundance of data may result in both storage not previously possible. The capability of detecting problems and high costs. Compacting the digital changes in land and water use has proved effective information and developing a less costly storage in monitoring strip mines and reclaiming worked- system should be considered. out areas. The coverage will be useful in identify- Data directly available in digital form can be ing beach erosion and gaging the environmental input to a map data bank with relative ease. How- impact of projects, such as construction of the ever, most of the data would come from line draw- Alaskan pipeline. ings and published maps. Automatic line-following Satellite-collected data, in addition to that of devices are being developed for digitizing drawings. Landsat, include the monitoring capability of Sky- Similar scanning devices for area data and tech- lab and other spacecraft, such as weather satellites. niques for digitizing map data during compilation In the cartographic field these data may be used to are also being studied. identify and locate new features, such as interstate Computer-stored cartographic data can be re- highways, and to monitor the spread of urban areas. trieved automatically either as a printout or as a Revision of small-scale maps from data obtained by line drawing, depending upon whether statistical satellite remote sensing is already a reality. For data or a graphical analysis is desired. example, the maps of the Amazon Basin were re- The statistics derived from a single data base may vised after space imagery resolved misconceptions vary according to the judgment of the statisticians. concerning the drainage pattern. Because the original source data are retained, a The technique of satellite geodesy has proved to digital map allows each user to judge for himself be extremely valuable in remote parts of the world. without the influence of prejudices inevitably im- Tracking systems can produce ground accuracies of posed on a printed map by its compilers. Because � 1.5 m. Geodetic positions are derived from proces- the basic data are somewhat permanent, the user sing radio signals transmitted by special satellites. is free to make his own interpretation. 100 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Updating tions for symbol size and line weight usually are stated as fractions of an inch; they can easily be Often a map or chart is out of date before it is stated as fractions of an inch; they can easily be rewritten in millimeters. However, some tools may published because of the time needed for the many have to be modified to accomodate this change. steps of compilation and publication. However, a Probably the greatest problem of metric conver- computerized map or chart can be corrected regu- sion will be changing contour intervals. Commonly larly Erroneous or obsolete information can be used intervals of 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 ft will be re- changed by inserting a correction instruction; actual placed intervals of 1, 2, 50, and 20 m. Thou- additions or deletions to copy are unnecessary. The sands of contour manuscripts must be redrawn initial task of digitizing published maps and charts is monumental, but digital maps and charts of the when interal s become met ric. future will be produced and revised more easily. Federal plans include complete conversion to metric products as soon as practical. All new series will be metric when feasible. Series that are nearly rent methods in automated cartography, refer to finished probably will be completed in the U.S. the journals and information services of the tech- customary system, but revisions will be metricated. customary system, but revisions will be metricated. nical sources listed in appendix 4. THE FUTURE THE METRIC SYSTEM No doubt there will be significant changes in Adoption of the metric system in the United the techniques of surveying and mapping during the States is having a marked effect on mapping pro- next few decades. M.M. Thompson (1974) discus- cedures. For the most part, cartographers will deal ses changes in methods that have taken place in with metric units of length. Fortunately, the ground the last quarter century, the current procedures and control used in mapping is generally extended from equipment that are likely to be replaced by new the National Geodetic Network, which has always systems, and a projected state of the art in survey- been based on the meter. Many of the electronic ing and mapping for the year 2000. Predictions distance-measuring devices used for horizontal con- of the shape of surveying techniques in the years to trol measurements read out in meters. Vertical come can be based on advanced systems already control by leveling has been measured in either under development. feet or meters, depending on the equipment used -the trend is toward the use of metric rods and SELECTED REFERENCES compatible instruments. Where elevations have al- ready been obtained in feet, conversion to meters is simple. However, rewriting station descriptions cluded in this list. Some of the publications are that are referenced to feet, yards, and miles would used frequently by USGS and NOAA to establish be a monumental task. policies or to provide mapping and charting speci- Manufacturers of photogrammetric instruments fications. The rest contain information and data of usually design their products in the metric system. general interest and value. Most stereocompilation instruments provide for American Congress on Surveying and Mapping and the direct elevation readout in either system. With in- American Society of Civil Engineers, 1972, Definitions struments whose elevation readout is in the U.S. of surveying and associated terms: Washington, 205 p. customary system, metrication is being effected American Society of Photogrammetry, 1966, Manual of photogrammetry, Morris M. Thompson, Editor-in-Chief: by a minor change in equipment. Falls Church, Va., v. 1 and 2, 1,199 p. Because of the conversion to the metric system, 1968, Manual of color aerial photography, John T. changes in format, scale, contour intervals and Smith, Editor-in-Chief: Falls Church, Va., 550 p. drafting specifications are necessary. To facilitate 1975, Manual of remote sensing, Robert G. Reeves, metric scaling there may be greater use of even Editor-in-Chief: Falls Church, Va., v. 1 and 2, 2,144 p. Anderson, J. R., 1971, Land use classification schemes and publication scales such as 1:20,000 and 1:100,000. the need for standardization: Proceedings of the Con- The scales of previously published maps may be ference on Land Use Information and Classification, changed photomechanically with a minimum of cart- June 28-30, 1971, Washington, U.S. Department of the ographic work. Scale changes may require format Interior, Geological Survey, and the National Aeronautics changes to reduce sheet size; for example, a series and Space Administration, p. 4-25. 1971, Land use classification schemes used in selected with a 7.5-mn quadrangle format could be replaced orecent geographic applications of remote sensing: Photo- by one with a metric grid format. Drafting specifica- grammetric Engineering, v. 37, no. 4, p. 379-387. SELECTED REFERENCES 101 Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., and Whitmer, ards of accuracy and general specifications of geodetic R. E., 1976, A land use and land cover classification control surveys: Rockville, Md., 12 p. system for use with remote sensor data: U.S. Geol. -- 1975, Specifications to support classification, standards Survey Prof. Paper 964, 28 p., 4 figs., 4 tables. of accuracy, and general specifications of geodetic con- Anderson, R. R., 1972, Applications of high-altitude remote trol surveys: Rockville, Md., 30 p. sensing to coastal zone ecological studies: Proceedings Photogrammetric instructions: NOAA/NOS, Rock- of Seminar on Operational Remote Sensing, American ville, Md. (issued irregularly). Society of Photogrammetry, p. 191-195. Nunnally, N. R., and Whitmer, R. E., 1970, Remote sensing Anderson, R.R., and Wobber, F. J., 1973, Wetlands mapping for land-use studies: Photogrammetric Engineering, v. in New Jersey: Photogrammetric Engineering, v. 39, no. 36, no. 5, p. 449-453. 4, p. 353-358. O'Hargan, P. T., 1973, Wetland boundaries: Proceedings of Bartlett, D. S., Daiber, F. C., and Klemas, V., 1973, Mapping the Fall Convention, American Congress on Surveying Delaware's coastal vegetation and land use from aircraft and Mapping, p. 179-185. and satellites: Proceedings of the Fall Convention, Raisz, Erwin, 1962, Principles of cartography: New York, American Society of Photogrammetry, p. 926-937. McGraw-Hill, 315 p. Bouchard, Harry, 1965, Surveying, revised by F. H. Moffitt: Reimold, R. J., Gallagher, J. L., and Thompson, D. E., 1973, Remote sensing of tidal marsh: Photogrammetric Engi- Scranton, Pa., International Textbook Co., 754 p. neering, v. 39, no. 5, p. 477-488 Clawson, Marion, 1972, America's land and its uses: Balti- Robinson, A. H., and Sale, R. D., 1969, Elements of car- more, Resources for the Future, by The Johns Hopkins Press, 166 p. tography: New York, John Wiley and Sons, 415 p. Press, 166 p. Rosenberg, Paul, Erikson, K. E., and Rowe, G. C., 1974, Clawson, Marion, and Stewart, C. L., 1965, Land use in- Digital mapping glossary: Prepared by Keuffel and Esser formation: A critical survey of U.S. statistics including Company, Morristown, New Jersey, for the U.S. Army possibilities for greater uniformity: Baltimore, Resources Engineer Topographic Laboratories, U.S. Army Mobility for the Future, by The Johns Hopkins Press, 102 p. Equipment Research and Development Center, Fort Bel- Cravat, H. R., and Glaser, Raymond, 1971, Color aerial voir, Va., 62 p. stereograms of selected coastal areas of the United Shalowitz, A. L., 1962, Shore and sea boundaries: Washing- States: NOAA/National Ocean Survey, 93 p. ton, U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 1, 420 p. Csati, Erno, ed., 1974, Automation and new trends in car- -- 1964, Shore and sea boundaries: Washington, U.S. tography, Final report on the CIA Commission III Government Printing Office, v. 2, 749 p. (Automation in Cartography) Scientific Working Ses- Shaw, S. P. and Fredine, C. G., 1971, Wetlands of the United sion, August 1973: Budapest, The Geocartographic Re- States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Circ. 39, 67 p. search Department, Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Schureman, Paul, and Hicks, S. D., 1975, Tide and current 372 p. glossary: Rockville, Md., NOAA/National Ocean Survey, Davis, R. E., Foote, F. S., and Kelly, J. W., 1966, Surveying 25 p. theory and practice: New York, McGraw-Hill. Strahler, A. N., 1969, Physical geography: New York, John Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center, 1973, Glossary Wiley and Sons, Third ed., 733 p. of mapping, charting, and geodetic terms: Washington, Swanson, R. L., 1974, Variability of tidal datums and ac- Department of Defense, 281 p. curacy in determining datums from short series of ob- Dietz, C. H., and Adams, O. S., 1944, Elements of map pro- servation: NOAA Tech. Rept. NOS 64, 41 p. jection: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Spec. Pub. 68, Thompson, D. E., 1972, Airborne remote sensing of Georgia 200 p. tidal marshes: Proceedings of Seminar on Operational Grimes, B. H., and Hubbard, J. C. E., 1971, A comparison of Remote Sensing, American Society of Photogrammetry, film type and the importance of season for interpretation p. 126-139. of coastal marshland vegetation: Photogrammetric Thompson, Morris M., 1972, Water Features on Topographic Record, v. 7, no. 38, p. 213-222. Maps: Journal of the Surveying and Mapping Division, Klemas, V., Bartlett, D., and Rogers, R., 1975, Coastal zone ASCE, v. 98, no. SU 1, p. 1-16. classification from satellite imagery: Photogrammetric - 1974, Surveying and mapping in the year 2000. Pro- Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 41, no. 4, p. 499-513. ceedings of the ASP/ACSM Fall 1975 Technical Meeting, Maloney, F. E., and Ausness, R. C., 1974, The use and legal Phoenix, Ariz., p. 362-368. significance of the mean high water line in coastal Umbach, M. J., 1960, Hydrographic manual: NOAA/National boundary mapping: North Carolina Law Review, v. 53, Ocean Survey: Rockville, Md., 283 p. no. 2, p. 185-273. U.S. Geological Survey, Topographic Instructions of the McEwen, R. B., Kosco, W. J., and Carter, V. P., 1976, Coastal United States Geological Survey: Reston, Va. (issued wetland mapping: Photogrammetric Engineering and irregularly). Remote Sensing, v. 42, no. 2, p. 221-232. U.S. Urban Renewal Administration, Housing and Home Fi- Melcher, Daniel, and Larick, Nancy, 1966, Printing and Pro- nance Agency, and Bureau of Public Roads, 1965, Stand- motion Handbook: New York, McGraw-Hill, 451 p. ard land use coding manual, a standard system for Mitchell, H. C., 1948, Definitions of terms used in geodetic identifying and coding land use activities: Washington, and other surveys: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Spec. D.C., 111 p. Pub. 242, 87 p. Weidel, J. W., and Kleckner, Richard, 1974, Using remote Moffitt, F. H., 1967, Photogrammetry: Scranton, Pa., 2nd edi- sensor data for land use mapping and inventory: A user tion, International Textbook Co., 540 p. guide: U.S. Geol. Survey Interagency Rept., USGS-253, NOAA/National Ocean Survey, 1974, Classification, stand- 63 p. GLOSSARY accretion-Accumulation resulting from the action of natural base line (triangulation)-One side of a series of connected forces. triangles, the length of which is measured with prescribed accuracy-Degree of conformity with a standard. Accuracy accuracy and precision, and from which the lengths of the relates to the quality of a result and is distinguished from other triangle sides are obtained by computation. Im- precision which relates to the quality of the operation by portant factors in the accuracy and precision of base meas- which the result is obtained, urements are the use of standardized invar tapes, con- adjustment-Equitable distribution, of errors and known trolled conditions of support and tension, and corrections distortions, which affect a computed result. for temperatures, inclination, and alinement. Base lines aerotriangulation (aerial triangulation) --Triangulation for in triangulation are classified according to the character the extension of horizontal and (or) vertical control ac- of the work they are intended to control, and the instru- complished by means of aerial photographs. ments and methods used in their measurement are such that prescribed probable errors for each class are not ex- angle--Relationship of lines or surfaces which is measured ceeded. These probable errors, expressed in terms of the by the amount of rotation necessary to make one coincide by th e amoun t of rotation necessary to make one coincide lengths, are as follows: first order, 1 part in 1,000,000; ~~with or parallel another. ~second order, 1 part in 500,000; and third order, 1 part in angle of coverage-Apex angle of the cone of rays passing 250,000. 250,000. through the front nodal point of a lens. bathymetry-Science of measuring water depths (usually in apparent shoreline-Line drawn on a map or chart in lieu the ocean) in order to determine bottom topography. the ocean) in order to determine bottom topog~raphy. of the mean high water line (MHWL) or the mean water of the mean high water line (MHWL) or the mean water beach (or seabeach)-Zone of unconsolidated material that level line (MWLL) in areas where either may be obscured extends landward from the low water line to the place by marsh, mangrove, cypress, or other types of marine where there is marked change in material or physiographic vegetation. This line represents the intersection of the form, or to the line of permanent vegetation (usually the appropriate datum with the outer limits of vegetation and effective limit of storm waves). A beach includes foreshore appears to the navigator as the shoreline. and backshore. automatic tide gage-Instrument that automatically records beach berm-Nearly horizontal portion of the beach or back- the rise and fall of the tide. Some instruments print the shore formed by the deposit of material by wave action. heights at regular intervals; others print a continuous Some beaches have no berms, others have one or several. graph in which the height of the tide is represented by the beach erosion-Carrying away of beach materials by wave ordinates of the curve and the corresponding time by the action, tidal or littoral currents, or wind. abscissae. bench mark-Relatively permanent material object, natural avulsion-Rapid erosion of shoreland by waves during a or artificial, bearing a marked point whose elevation above storm. or below an adopted datum is known. azimuth-Horizontal direction reckoned clockwise from the bench mark, tidal-Bench mark set to reference a tide staff meridian plane. at a tidal station, the elevation of which is determined azimuth mark (geodetic)-Marked point established in con- with relation to the local tidal station. nection with a triangulation (or traverse) station to pro- berm-Nearly horizontal portion of a beach or backshore vide a starting azimuth for dependent surveys. having an abrupt fall and formed by wave deposition of backshore-That part of a beach which is usually dry, being material and marking the limit of ordinary high tides. reached only by the highest tides, and by extension, a nar- berm crest (berm edge)-Seaward limit of a berm. row strip of relatively fiat coast bordering the sea. boundary monument-Material object placed on or near a bank-Edge of a cut or fill; the margin of a watercourse; boundary line to preserve and identify the location of the an elevation of the sea floor located on a continental shelf boundary line on the ground. or an island shelf and over which the depth of water is boundary survey-Survey made to establish or to reestablish relatively shallow but sufficient for safe surface navigation a boundary line on the ground, or to obtain data for con- (reefs or shoals, dangerous to surface navigation, may rise structing a map or plat showing a boundary line. above the general depths of a bank). C-factor-Empirical evaluation of the vertical (elevation) base line (seaward boundaries)-Reference used to position measuring capability of a stereoscopic instrument system. limits of the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. cartometer-Device consisting of a small wheel and a cali- Source data from which the base line is determined are brated dial used to measure distances on a map by follow- the mean low water line (MLWL) on the Atlantic and ing the desired route. Gulf Coasts and the mean lower low water line (MLLWL) chart-Special-purpose may designed for navigation or to on the Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii. The United present specific data or information. The term chart is Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea defined the low applied chiefly to maps made primarily for nautical and waterline along a coast, as shown on large-scale charts aeronautical navigation, and to maps of the heavens, al- of the coastal State (country) to be the base line for de- though the term is sometimes used to describe other special- termining the limit of the territorial sea. purpose maps. 103 104 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK chart, aeronautical-Chart designed to meet requirements of comparison of simultaneous observations-Reduction process aerial navigating, produced in several series, each on a in which a short series of tide or current observations at specified map projection and differing in scale, format, any place is compared with simultaneous observations at and content, for use as dictated by type of aircraft and a control station where tidal or tidal current constants whether flight is to be conducted under visual or instrument have previously been determined from a long series of flight rules, observations. For tides, the technique is generally used to chart, airport obstruction-Chart depicting the major plani- adjust constants from a subordinate station to the equiva- metric features in the vicinity of U.S. commercial airports lent of that which would be obtained from a 19-year placing emphasis on all objects, whether natural or arti- series. ficial, that penetrate any of variously defined imaginary compass direction-Direction as indicated by a compass surfaces and thereby constitute obstruction to flight, without any allowances for instrument error. chart, bathmetric-See map, bathymetric. compilation-Preparation of a new or revised map or chart, chart, isoclinic-Chart showing magnetic dip with isoporic or portion thereof, from existing maps, aerial photographs, lines. field surveys, and other sources. chart, isogonic-Chart showing magnetic declination with contiguous zone--Band of water outside or beyond the ter- isogonic lines and the annual rate of change in declination ritorial sea in which the coastal nation may exercise with isoporic lines. custom control and enforce public health regulations, etc. chart, isopach-Chart employing a system of lines joining It is measured from the same base line as the territorial points of equal thickness of a sedimentary layer. sea, and may extend no more than 12 miles seaward from chart, nautical-Representation of a portion of the navigable it. waters of the Earth and adjacent coastal areas on a speci- continuous tone-Image not broken into dots by photo- fled map projection, and designed specifically to meet re- graphic screen; contains unbroken gradient tones from quirements of marine navigation. Included on most nau- black to white, and may be either in negative or positive tical charts are: depths of water, characteristics of the bot- form. Aerial photographs are examples of continuous-tone tom, elevations of selected topographic features, general prints. Contrasted with halftone (screened) and line copy. configuration and characteristics of the coast, the shoreline contour -Imaginary line on the ground, all points of which (usually the mean high water line), dangers, obstructions are at the same elevation above or below a specified datum. and aids to navigation, limited tidal data, and information contour interval-Difference in elevation between two adja- about magnetic variation in the charted area, cent contours. chart, tidal current-Set of twelve charts depicting, by means control, basic-Coordinated and correlated positional data of arrows and numerals, the direction and speed of the forming a framework to which detail surveys are ad- tidal current for each hour of the tidal cycle. These charts, justed. which may be used for any year, present a comprehensive control, geodetic-System of control stations established by view of the tidal current movement in twelve major geodetic methods. harbors and waterways as a whole and provide a means control, National, survey nets-Two control survey nets for readily determining the direction and speed of the being extended over the United States by the National current at various places throughout the water areas Geodetic Survey for the control of nautical charts and covered. topographic maps, and comprising: chart datum-Datum to which soundings on a chart are re- 1. The horizontal-control survey net consisting of arcs ferred. It is usually taken to correspond to a low water of first- and second-order triangulation, and lines of first- stage of the tide, and its depression below mean sea level and second-order traverse, a few of which have been run is represented by the symbol Z. by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Corps of Engineers, charted depth-Vertical distance from the chart datum to and other organizations. The derived data in this survey the bottom. are being coordinated and correlated on the North Ameri- coast-General region of indefinite width that extends from can Datum of 1927. the sea inland to the first major change in terrain features. 2. The vertical-control survey net consisting of lines coastal area-Land and sea area bordering the shoreline. of first- and second-order spirit leveling which determine coastal boundary-Boundary within the coastal zone, exclud- the elevations of thousands of bench marks above a com- ing one established by treaty or by the U.S. Congress. A mon datum, mean sea level. This net also includes lines general term for a boundary defined as the line (or meas- run by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Corps of Engi- ured from the line or points thereon) used to depict the neers, and other organizations. intersection of the ocean surface and the land at an eleva- control station-Point on the ground whose position (hori- tion of a particular datum. zontal or vertical) is used as a base for a dependent sur- coastal plain-Any plain which has its margin on the shore vey. of a large body of water, particularly the sea, and gen- convergent photography-Aerial photography using an as, erally represents a strip of geologically recent emerged sembly of two cameras that take simultaneous photographs sea bottom. and are mounted so as to maintain a fixed angle between coastline-Configuration made by the meeting of land and their optical axes. The effect is to increase the angular sea. coverage in one direction, usually along the longitudinal color separation-Process of preparing a separate drawing, axis of the aircraft. engraving, or negative for each color required in the coordinates-Linear and (or) angular quantities that desig- printing production of a map or chart. nate the position of a point in relation to a given refer- GLOSSARY 105 ence frame. There are two general divisions of coordi- Datum, North American, of 1927-Geodetic datum which is nates used in surveying, polar and rectangular. Each defined by the following geographic position of triangula- may be subdivided into three classes: plane, spherical, and tion station Meades Ranch and the azimuth from that space coordinates. station to Waldo, on the Clarke spheroid of 1866: coordinates, origin of-Point in a system of coordinates Latitude of Meades Ranch 39013'26.686" N. which serves as zero point in computing its elements or in Longitude of Meades Ranch 98o32'30.506" W. prescribing its use. Azimuth, Meades Ranch to Waldo 75�28P09.64" coordinatograph-Instrument used in cartography and photo- datum plane-Misnomer for collection of datums used in grammetry to plot in terms of plane coordinates. mapping-charting and geodesy are not strictly planar. culture-Features that are under, on, and above the ground This term should not be used. which are delineated on the map and were constructed by datum, vertical-For marine applications, a base elevation man. These features include roads, trails, buildings, canals, used as a reference from which to reckon heights or sewer systems, and boundary lines. In a broad sense, the depths. It is called a tidal datum when defined by a certain term also applies to all names, other identification, and stage of the tide. Tidal datums are local datums and legends on a map. should not be extended into areas which have differing current meter-Instrument for measuring current speed. topographic features without substantiating measure- ments. (In general, these local datums are valid only in current speed-Rate at which the water moves either hori- ments. (In general, these local datums are valid only in zontally or vertically; usually expressed in knots, mi/day, the general vicinity of the tide station recording the ft/s, or cm/s. observations from which the datums were determined.) See chart datum. current velocity-Rate of motion in which direction as well See chart datum. The basic vertical datum for the Great Lakes and con- as speed of flow is considered. datum-Any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of necting waterways is a level datum, designated the Inter- such quantities which may serve as a reference or base national Great Lakes Datum, 1955. Topographic mapping such ~~~~~~~~~~~~of the contermuinous United States is based on the Na- for other quantities. For a group of statistical refer- of th e conterminous United States is based on the Na- tional Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. Various vertical ences, the plural form is data, as geographic data for a tia ed ial a t ocai vr i list of latitudes and longitudes. Where the concept is geo- datums are used in Ala ska, Hawaii, the oceanic islands, metrical and particular, rather than statistical and in- and other offshore areas not accessible for connecting to metrical and particular, rather than statistical and in- thNVDo19,eahbsdnmanealvlta elusive, the plural form is datums. For example, "Two the NGVD of 1929, each based on mean sea level at a geodetic horizontal datums.... specified tide station. Datum, Mean Sea Level, 1929-Determination of mean sea depth curve-Line on a map or chart connecting points of D~atum, Mean Sea Level, 1929--Determination of mean sea euldphblwtedtm level (last adjusted in 1929) that has been adopted as a equal d epth below the datum. standard datum for heights. The sea level is subject to diapositive-P hotographic positive transparency on glass or some variations from year to year, but as the permanency film often used in photogrammetrya of any datum is of prime importance in engineering work, dike- ank of earth or stone used to form a barrier, fre- a sea-level datum should in general be maintained inde- quently and confusingly interchanged with levee. A dike a sea-level datum should in general be maintained indc restan-ae ihna ra htnral sfodd finitely even though differing slightly from later determina- restrains wate r within an area that normally is flooded. See levee. tions based on longer series of observations. The datum it- ee le self can be considered to be an adjustment based on the displacement-Horizontal shift of the plotted positions of a tide observations taken at various tide stations along the topographic feature from its true position, caused by re- tide observations taken at various tide stations along the qie deec opecie iewihsadsmo coasts of the United States over a number of years. quired adherence to prescribed line weights and symbol coasts of the United States over a number of years. Datum, National Geodetic Vertical (NGVD)-Fixed refer- sizes. Any shift in the position of an image on a photo- graph which does not alter the perspective characteristics ence adopted as a standard geodetic datum for heights. of the photograph; that is, shift due to tilt of the photo- The datum was derived for land surveys from a gener al of the photograph; that is, shift due to r tilt of the photo- adjustment of the first-order level nets of both the United objects photographed. States and Canada. In the adjustment 21 tide stations in ebb current-Movement of a tidal current away from shore the United States and 5 in Canada were held as fixed. The geodetic datum now in use in the United States is the o down a tidal stream. National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. The year in- e ho sounder-Instrument u sed to determine water depth by dicates the time of the last general adjustment. dicates the time of the last general adjustment. measuring the time interval required for sound waves The geodetic datum is fixed and does not take into account to go from a source of sound near the surface to the bot- the changing stands of sea level. Because there are many tom and back again. variables affecting sea level, and because the geodetic da- electronic distance measuring (EDM) devices-Instruments tum represents a best fit over a broad area, the relationship that measure the phase difference between transmitted and between the geodetic datum and local mean sea level is not reflected or retransmitted electromagnetic waves of known consistent from one location to another in either time or frequency, or that measure the round-trip transit time of space. For this reason, the National Geodetic Vertical a pulsed signal, from which distance is computed. Datum should not be confused with mean sea level. elevation-Vertical distance of a point above or below a Datum, National Geodetic Vertical, of 1929 (NGVD 1929; reference surface or datum. formerly the Mean Sea Level Datum of 1929)-Datum to emulsion-Suspension of a light-sensitive silver salt (es- which all elevations in the National Geodetic Vertical Net- pecially silver chloride or silver bromide) in a colloidal work are referred, as well as terrain elevations on maps medium (usually gelatin), which is used for coating photo- of the National Topographic Map Series. graphic films, plates, and papers. Types of photographic 106 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK emulsions commonly used are panchromatic (black and 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the terri- white), color negative, color positive, color infrared, and torial sea is measured." black-and-white infrared, flood plain-Belt of low flat ground bordering a stream chan- epoch-As used in tidal datum determinations, the 19-year nel that is flooded when runoff exceeds the capacity of the Metonic cycle over which tidal height observations are stream channel. meaned in order to establish the various datums. As there focal length-Distance between the center, vertex, or rear are periodic and apparent secular trends in sea level, a spe- node of a lens (or the vertex of a mirror), and the point cific 19-year cycle called the National Tidal Datum Epoch where the image of an infinitely distant object comes into (NTDE) is selected so that all tidal datum determinations critical focus. throughout the United States and its possessions will geodesy-Often used to include both the science which must have a common reference. The NTDE officially adopted by depend upon determinations of the figure and size of the NOS is 1941-59. The NTDE will be reviewed for possible Earth from direct measurements made on its surface revision at 25-year intervals. (triangulation, leveling, astronomic, and gravity determina- tions), and the art which utilizes the scientific determina- erosion-Transportation of weathered (decomposed) rock material or soil by natural forces. estuary-That portion of a stream influenced by the tide surveying or geodetic engineering. geographic graticule-System of coordinates of latitude and of the body of water into which it flows;n a rm of uthe longitude used to define the position of a point on the sur- sea at a river mouth. face of the Earth with respect to the reference spheroid. etch-To move selected areas of emulsion either chemically (Use of the word "grid" with geographic in this applica- or manually. Chemical treatment of a lithographic plate tion is incorrect.) to make nonprinting areas grease-repellent and water- geoid-Figure of the Earth visualized as a mean sea-level receptive or to produce the image on deep-etch plates. An surface extended continuously through the continents. acid solution mixed with the dampening fountain water geological oceanography-Study of the floors and margins on an offset press to help control ink on the pressplate. of the oceans, including description of submarine relief Eulerian current measurement-Direct observation of the features, chemical and physical composition of bottom ma- current speed and (or) direction during a period of time terials, interaction of sediments and rocks with air and as it flows past a recording instrument such as the seawater, and action of various forms of wave energy in Ekman or Roberts current meters. See Lagrangian cur- the submarine crust of the Earth. rent measurement. geomagnetism (terrestrial magnetism)--Magnetic phenom- exposure-Total quantity of light received per unit area on a ena, collectively considered, exhibited by the Earth and its sensitized plate or film; may be expressed as the product of atmosphere. the light intensity and the exposure time; the act of ex- geomorphology-Branch of both geography and geology that posing a light-sensitive material to a light source. One deals with the form of the Earth, the general configuration individual picture of a strip of photographs. of its surface, and the changes that take place in the fathom-Common unit of depth in the ocean equal to 1.83 m evolution of land forms. (6 ft). Also, it is sometimes used in expressing horizontal geophysics-Study of the composition and physical phenom- distances, in which case 120 fathoms make 1 cable. ena of the Earth and its liquid and gaseous envelopes; it feature separation-Process of preparing a separate drawing, embraces the study of terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and gravity; and it includes seismology, vol- engraving, or negative for selected types of data in the canology, oceanography, meterology, and related sciences. preparation of a map or chart. geosphere-Portion of the Earth, including land (litho- field edit (field completion)-Final field operation in the sphere) and water (hydrosphere) masses, but excluding production of a map or chart, where the manuscript is the atmosphere. compared to ground conditions to correct deficiencies and hachures-Short lines on topographic maps or nautical charts to resolve discrepancies. to indicate the slope of the ground or submarine bottom. field inspection-Initial field operation in the preparation They usually follow the direction of the slope. See contour. (through modern techniques employing aerial photogram- Also, inward-pointing short lines or "ticks" around the cir- metry) of a map or chart scheduled before the start of cumference of a closed contour indicating a depression or manuscript compilation and intended to provide informa- a minimum. tion needed to correctly interpret photographic images, half tide level (mean tide level)-Hypothetical surface mid- hues, and tones. The inspection provides data not obtain- way between mean high water and mean low water. able from photographs. Development of new materials and halftone-Photomechanical printing surface or the impres- methods in recent years has reduced the scope of field in- sion therefrom in which detail and tone values are repre- spection and, in some cases, has made it unnecessary. sented by a series of evenly spaced dots of varying size fishing zone-Offshore zone in which exclusive fishing rights and shape, varying in direct proportion to the intensity and management are held by the coastal nation. The U.S. of the tones they represent. fishing zone, known as the fishery conservation zone, is harmonic analysis-Process by which the observed tide or defined under P.L. 94-265. The law states, "The inner current at any place is separated into elementary harmonic boundary of the fishery conservation zone is a line co- constituents, terminous with the seaward boundary of each of the harmonic prediction-Method of predicting tides and tidal coastal States, and the outer boundary of such zone is a currents by combining the harmonic constituents into a line drawn in such a manner that each point on it is single tide curve. The work is usually done mechanically GLOSSARY 107 by means of a machine designed for the purpose. respect to either space or time. Examples of isopleths are height of the tide-Vertical distance from a reference datum contours, connecting points of equal elevation, isobars, to the water surface at any stage of the tide. connecting points of equal barometric pressure, and iso- high seas-All water beyond the outer limit of the territorial gons, connecting points of equal magnetic declination. sea. Although the high seas are in part coextensive with Lagrangian current measurement-Direct observation of the the waters of the contiguous zone, the fishing zone, and current speed and (or) direction by a recording device such those over the continental shelf, freedom of the seas is as a parachute drogue, which follows the movement of a not invalidated by the zonal overlap, water mass through the ocean. See Eulerian current high water (HW)--Maximum height reached by a rising measurement. tide. The height may be due solely to the periodic tidal landmark-Monument or material mark or fixed object used forces or it may have superimposed upon it the effects of to designate a land boundary on the ground; any prominent prevailing meteorological conditions. Use of the term "high object on land that may be used to determine a location or ~~~~tide" is discouraged. ~a direction in navigation or surveying. tide" is discouraged. land-mass denudation-Evolution (erosion) of a large re- high water line--Intersection of the land with the water - surfaceataneleva tion of high water. gion, such as the Eastern United States, through the stages surface at an elevation of high water. of youth, maturity, and old age as the result of the in- high water mark-Line or mark left upon tidal flats, beach, fluence of the forces of nature. or alongshore objects indicating the elevation of the intru- land use classification system-Coding system of categories land use classification system--Coding system of categories sion of high water. and subcategories designed for use on a map to designate horizon, apparent-Apparent intersection of the Earth and land or water use. sky as seen by an observer, latitude-Coordinate distance, linear or angular, from an hydrographic survey-Survey of a water area, with par- east-west reference line; on a sphere, the angle at the ticular reference to submarine relief, and any adjacent center of the sphere between the plane of the Equator and land. See oceanographic survey. the line to the point on the surface of the sphere; in plane hydrography-Science that deals with the measurement and surveying, the perpendicular distance in a horizontal plane description of the physical features of the oceans, seas, of a point from an east-west axis of reference. lakes, rivers, and their adjoining coastal areas, with par- lens distortion-Lens aberrations shifting the position of ticular reference to their use for navigation. images off the axis in which objects at different angular hydrology-Scientific study of the waters of the Earth, espe- distances from the axis undergo different magnifications. cially with relation to the effects of precipitation and levee-Artificial bank confining a stream channel or limiting evaporation upon the occurrence and character of ground adjacent areas subject to flooding; an embankment border- water. ing a submarine canyon or channel, usually occurring hypsography-Topography referred to a sea-level datum. along the outer edge of a curve. The science or art of describing heights of land surfaces leveling-Surveying operation in which heights of objects and with reference to sea level. points are determined relative to a specified datum. imagery-Visible representation of objects and (or) phenom- level surface-Surface which at every point is perpendicular ena as sensed or detected by cameras, infrared and multi- to the plumb line or the direction in which gravity acts. spectral scanners, radar, and photometers. Recording may line drawing-Map copy suitable for reproduction without be on a photographic emulsion (directly as in a camera or the use of a screen; a drawing composed of lines as dis- indirectly after being first recorded on magnetic tape as tinguished from continuous-tone copy. an electrical signal) or recorded on magnetic tape for sub- lithography-Planographic printing method based on the sequent conversion and display on a cathode-ray tube. chemical repulsion between grease and water to separate infrared scanner (thermal mapper)-Instrument that detects the printing from nonprinting areas. infrared radiation and converts the detected energy to an longitude-Angular distance in a great circle of reference electrical signal for recording on photographic film or reckoned from an accepted origin to the projection of any magnetic tape. point on that circle. Longitude on the Earth's surface is inshore-In beach terminology, the zone of variable width measured on the Equator east and west of the meridian of between the shoreface and the seaward limit of the breaker Greenwich, England, and may be expressed either in de- zone. grees or in hours, the hour being equivalent to 15� of inshore limits of wetland-Junction of wetland and stable longitude. ground. lower high water (LHW)-The lower of the two high waters International Hydrographic Organization-Institution for co- of any tidal day. ordinating the hydrographic work of the participating lower low water (LLW)-The lower of the two low waters of governments. It had its origin in the International Hydro- any tidal day. The single low water occurring daily during graphic Conference in London in 1919 and was finally periods when the tide is diurnal is considered to be a lower organized in June 1921. It has permanent headquarters low water. (International Hydrographic Bureau) in the Principality lower low water datum (LLWD)-Approximation to the of Monaco and is supported by funds provided by the par- hypothetical surface of mean lower low water that has been ticipating nations. adopted as a standard reference for a limited area, and interpolated water elevation (IWE)-Water elevation inter- is retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact polated from established datums at two adjacent tide that it may differ slightly from a better determination of stations. mean lower low water from a subsequent series of observa- isopleth-Line of constant value of a given quantity with tions. Used primarily for river and harbor engineering 108 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK purposes. The Columbia River lower low water datum is The mean high and the mean low water lines (the mean an example. lower-low where applicable), aids to navigation, land- low water (LW)-Minimum height reached by a falling tide. marks for charts, and other data of specific interest are The height may be due solely to the periodic tidal forces printed in red. The scale is usually 1:10,000. or it may have superimposed upon it the effects of map, engineering-Map showing information that is essen- meteorological conditions. tial for planning an engineering project or development and low water datum (LWD)-1. The dynamic elevation for each for estimating its cost. It usually is a large-scale map of of the Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair and the correspond- a small area or of a route. It may be entirely the product ing sloping surfaces of the St. Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, of an engineering survey, or reliable information may be Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers to which are referred collected from various sources for the purpose, and as- the depths shown on the navigation charts and the author- sembled on a base map. ized depths for navigation improvement projects. Eleva- map, flood control-Map designed for studying and planning tions of these planes are referred to the International control projects in areas subject to flooding. Great Lakes of Datum of 1955 and are: map, forestry-Map prepared principally to show the size, Lake Superior -----------------------------------600.0 ft density, kind, and value of trees in a designated area. Lakes Michigan and Huro n ---------------------------- 576.8 ft map, geologic-Map showing the structure and composition Lake St. Clair -------------------------------------- 571.7 ft of geologic features. Lake Ontrie�568.6 ft Lake Erie ---------------------------------------- - 58.6 ft map, historical-Map showing data of historical significance Lake Ontario --------------------------------------- 242.8 ft or one that has been replaced by a more recent publication. 2. An approximation of mean low water that has been map, hypsographic-Map showing relief with elevations re- adopted as a standard reference for a limited area and is ferred to a sea-level datum. retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact map, hypsometric--Map showing relief by any convention, that it may differ slightly from a better determination of such as contours, hachures, shading, or tinting. mean low water from a subsequent series of observations. map, isopleth-Map showing statistical data by use of lines Used primarily for river and harbor engineering purposes. connecting points of equal value. Boston Harbor low water datum is an example. map, land use-Map showing by means of a coding system low water line-Intersection of the land with the water sur- the various purposes for which parcels of land are being face at an elevation of low water. Not to be confused with used by man. mean low water line. map, line--Map composed of lines as distinguished from con- magnetometer-Instrument for measuring the intensity and tinuous-tone copy. Strictly, the map material may consist (or) direction of the Earth's magnetic field. only of copy suitable for reproduction without use of a manuscript, map-The original drawing of a map on a suit- screen. Broadly, the term may be applied to maps composed able medium, usually dimensionally stable, from which of open-window copy, which requires tint screening. direct reproduction copies are sometimes made. map, line-route-Map showing the routes and types of con- map-Graphic representation of the physical features (na- struction of utility lines. tural, artificial, or both) of a part or the whole of the map, outline--Map that presents just sufficient geographic Earth's surface, by means of signs and symbols or photo- information to permit the correlation of additional data graphic imagery, at an established scale, on a specified placed upon it. projection and with the means of orientation indicated, map, planimetric-Map that presents only the horizontal map, base-Map on which information may be placed for positions for features represented; distinguished from a purposes of comparison or geographical correlation. The topographic map by the omission of relief in measurable term "base map" was at one time applied to a class of maps form. The natural features usually shown on a planimetric now known as outline maps. It may be applied to topo- map include rivers, lakes, and seas; mountains, valleys, graphic maps, also termed "mother" maps, that are used in and plains; forests, prairies, cities, farms, transportation the construction of other types of maps by the addition of routes, and public utility facilities; and political and pri- particular data. vate boundary lines. A planimetric map intended for spe- map, bathymetric--Map delineating the form of the bottom cial use may present only those features that are essential of a body of water, or a portion thereof, by the use of to the purpose to be served. depth contours (isobaths). map, shoreline-Map prepared to provide data required for map, cadastral-Map showing the boundaries of subdivisions nautical charting operations. Similar to a planimetric map of land, often with the bearings and lengths thereof and in content except limited to a relatively narrow zone the areas of individual tracts, for purposes of describing parallel to the shore. The most common scale is 1:10,000, and recording ownership. It may also show culture, drain- but maps at 1:5,000 and 1:20,000 scale are available in age, and other features relating to the value and use of many areas. land. See plat. map, slope (clinometric map)-Map showing the degree of map, choropleth-Map showing statistical data by means of steepness of the Earth's surface by the use of various shading, dotting, hatching, coloring, or otherwise identify- colors or shading for critical ranges of slope. ing a range of distribution within an area determined by map, soil-Map that shows the constitution, structure, and political boundaries. texture of the soil and identifies ongoing erosion. map, coastal zone-Map that depicts natural and cultural map, storm evacuation-Map designed to identify coastal features in a section of the coastal zone. An orthophoto areas subject to flooding, to indicate recommended areas of base is sometimes used for the area immediately inshore. refuge, and to emphasize available evacuation routes. GLOSSARY 109 map, thematic-Map designed to provide information on a mean lower low water (MLLW)-Tidal datum that is the single topic, such as geology, rainfall, population. arithmetic mean of the lower low water heights of a map, topographic-Map that presents the horizontal and ver- mixed tide observed over a specific 19-year Metonic cycle tical positions of the features represented; distinguished (the National Tidal Datum Epoch). Only the lower low from a planimetric map by the addition of relief in meas- water of each pair of low waters of a tidal day is in- urable form. cluded in the mean. For stations with shorter series, map digitization-Conversion of map data from graphic to simultaneous observations are made with a primary con- digital form. trol tide station to derive the equivalent of a 19-year value. map projection-Orderly system of lines on a plane repre- See datum and type of tide. senting a corresponding system of imaginary lines on an mean lower low water line (MLLWL)-Intersection of the adopted terrestrial or celestial datum surface. Also the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean lower mathematical concept of such a system. low water. See base line (seaward boundaries). marsh, coastal-Area of salt-tolerant vegetation in brackish- mean range of tide (Mn) -Difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. and (or) saline-water habitats subject to tidal inundation high water and mean low water. mean river level--Tidal datum that is the average height of marsh, fresh-water-Tract of low wet ground, usually miry mar, oeres-wiate-rac o vgetaround the surface of a tidal river at any point for all stages of and covered with rank vegfetation. meand highovwaered dat ra eation the tide observed over a 19-year Metonic cycle (the Na- mean high water (MHW)--Tidal datum that is the arith- tional Tidal Datum Epoch), usually determined from metic mean of the high water heights observed over a hourly height readings. In rivers subject to occasional specific 19-year Metonic cycle (the National Tidal Datum freshets the river level may undergo wide variations, and freshets the river level may undergo wide variations, and Epoch). For stations with shorter series, simultaneous ob- for practical purposes certain months of the year may be servations are made with a primary control tide station excluded in the determination of tidal datums. For chart- to derive the equivalent of a 19-year value. Use of the term ing purposes, tidal datums for rivers are usually based "mean high tide" is discouraged. on observations during selected periods when the river is For a semidiurnal or mixed tide, the two high waters at or near low water stage. of each tidal day are included in the mean. When any mean sea level (MSL)-Tidal datum that is the arithmetic lower high water is indistinct, it is determined by record mean of hourly water elevations observed over a specific examination. For a diurnal tide, the one high water of each 19-year Metonic cycle (the National Tidal Datum Epoch). tidal day is used in the mean. In the event a second high Shorter series are specified in the name; that is, monthly water occurs, only the diurnal high water is included. So mean sea level and yearly mean sea level. See datum. determined, this mean high water, based on the diurnal mean tide level (TML)-See half tide level. tide, is the equivalent of mean higher high water of a mean water level (MWL)-Mean surface elevation as deter- mixed tide. See datum and type of tide, mined by averaging the height of the water at equal in- mean high water line (MHWL)-Intersection of the land tervals of time, usually at hourly intervals. MWL is used with the water surface at the elevation of mean high water. in lieu of MHW in inland tidal waters when the nontidal See shoreline. changes in water level are greater than, or on the same mean higher high water (MHHW)-Tidal datum that is the order of magnitude as, the range of tide. arithmetic mean of the higher high waters of a mixed tide mean water level line (MWLL)-Line formed by the inter- observed over a specific 19-year Metonic cycle (the National section of the land with the water surface at an elevation Tidal Datum Epoch). Only the higher high water of each of mean water.level. pair of high waters of a tidal day is included in the mean. meridian-North-south line from which longitudes (or de- For stations with shorter series, simultaneous observations partures) and azimuths are reckoned; or a plane, normal to are made with a primary control tide station to derive the the geoid or spheroid, defining such a line. equivalent of a 19-year value. See datum and type of tide. Metonic cycle-Period of 235 lunations or about 19 years. mean low water (MLW)-Tidal datum that is the arithmetic Devised by Meton, an Athenian astronomer (5th century mean of the low water heights observed over a specific 19- B.C.) for the purpose of obtaining a period at the end of year Metonic cycle (the National Tidal Datum Epoch). For which the phases of the Moon recur in the same order stations with shorter series, simultaneous observations are and on the same days as in the preceding cycle. made with a primary control tide station in order to derive metric system-Decimal system of weights and measures the equivalent of a 19-year value. Use of the synonymous based on the meter as a unit length and the kilogram as a term "mean low tide" is discouraged. unit mass. For a semidiurnal or mixed tide, the two low waters of mixed current-Tidal current characterized by a conspicuous each tidal day are included in the mean. When any higher speed difference between the two floods and (or) two ebbs low water is indistinct, it is determined by record examina- usually occurring each tidal day. See type of tide. tion. For a diurnal tide, the first low water of each tidal mixed tide-Tide with a large inequality in either the high day is used in the mean. In the event a second low water and (or) low water heights, with two high waters and occurs, only the diurnal low water is included. So deter- two low waters usually occurring each tidal day. Strictly, mined, this mean low water, based on the diurnal tide, is all tides are mixed as the name is usually applied to the the equivalent of mean lower low water of a mixed tide. tides intermediate to those predominantly semidiurnal and See datum and type of tide. those predominantly diurnal. See type of tide. mean low water line (MLWL)-Intersection of the land monument--Material object or collection of objects that in- with the water surface at the elevation of mean low dicate the position a survey station or land corner. water. See base line (seaward boundaries), mosaic, aerial-Assembly of aerial photographs whose edges 110 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK usually have been torn or cut selectively and matched to dinary high water line" may be assumed to be the same as the imagery on adjoining photographs to form a continuous "mean high water line." representation of a portion of the Earth's surface, origin of coordinates-Point in a coordinate system that nadir-Point on the celestial sphere vertically below the oh- serves as zero-point in computing its elements or in pre- server; 1800 from the zenith. scribing its use. Narrow-angle lens-Lens whose focal length is equal approxi- orientation-Establishing correct relationship in direction mately to twice the diagonal of the format. with reference to points of the compass; the state of being National Map Accuracy Standards-Specifications promul- in correct relationship in direction with reference to the gated by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget to points of the compass. govern accuracy of topographic and other maps produced orthophotograph-Photographic copy prepared from a per- ~~~by Federal agencies. ~spective photograph in which the displacements of images by Federal agencies. due to tilt and relief have been removed. National Tidal Datum Epoch-Specific 19-year cycle adopted due to tilt and relief have been removed. orthophotomap-A photomap made from an assembly of by the National Ocean Survey as the official time segment orthophotoap It incorporates special cartographic orthophotographs. I noprtsseilcrorpi over which tide observations are taken and reduced to rtphotographi ncoor seara obtain mean values for tidal datums. It is necessary for treatment, photographic edge enhancement, color separa- tion, or a combination of these. standardization because of apparent periodic and apparent tion, or a combination of these. outer edge of vegetation--See apparent shoreline. secular trends in sea level. The present National Tidal ter edge of vegetation-See apparent shoreline. orthophotomosaic-Assembly of orthophotographs forming Datum Epoch is 1941-59. It will be reviewed for possible a uniform-scale mosaic. revision every 25 years. a uniform-scale mosaic. ~revision every 25 years. orthophotoscope-Photomechanical device used in conjunc- navigable waters-Waters usable, with or without improve- tion with a double-projection stereoplotter for producing ments, as routes for commerce in the customary means of orthophotographs. travel on water. orthophotoquad-Orthophotograph or orthophotomosaic pre- negative-Photographic image on film, plate, or paper, in sented in quadrangle format with marginal data but with which the subject tones to which the emulsion is sensitive little or no cartographic enhancement are reversed or complementary. In cartography, any draw- overlay-Printing or drawing on a transparent or translucent ing or film on which map copy is either white or trans- medium intended to be placed in register on a map or other parent against a black or opaque background. graphic and which shows details not appearing, or requir- normal-angle lens-Lens whose focal length is equal approxi- ing special emphasis on the base material. mately to the diagonal of the format. overprint-New material printed on a map or chart to show ocean-Great body of salt water which occupies two-thirds data of importance or special use, in addition to that of the surface of the Earth, or one of its major subdivi- originally printed. sions. The sea as opposed to the land. paneling-Marking a ground station in advance of scheduled oceanographic survey-Study or examination of conditions aerial photography to positively identify the station with- in the ocean or any part of it, with reference to animal or out additional fieldwork; the position of the marked sta- plant life, chemical elements present, temperature gradi- tion may or may not be known. Panels constitute a ma- ents, etc. See hydrographic survey. terial marking so arranged as to form a distinctive pattern oceanography-Study of the sea, embracing and integrating over a geodetic or other control-point marker, on a property all knowledge pertaining to the sea's physical boundaries, corner or line, or at the position of an identifying point the chemistry and physics of sea water, and marine biology. above an underground facility or feature. Strictly, oceanography is the description of the marine parallel of latitude-A circle, or approximation of a circle, environment, whereas oceanology is the study of the on the surface of the Earth, parallel to the equator, and oceans and related sciences. connecting points of equal latitude; a circle of the celestial ocean waters-For application to provisions of the Marine sphere parallel to the ecliptic, and connecting points of Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, those equal celestial latitude. waters of the open seas lying seaward of the base line physiography-Classification of the genesis of land forms. from which the territorial sea is measured. pixel (picture element)-Smallest resolvable element in a offshore-Comparatively flat zone of variable width that ex- scanned remote-sensor image. tends from the outer margin of the rather steeply sloping plain-Region of uniform general slope, comparatively level, shoreface to the edge of the continental shelf. of considerable extent, and not broken by marked eleva- offshore water-Water adjacent to land in which the physi- tions and depressions (it may be an extensive valley floor cal properties are slightly influenced by continental con- or a plateau summit); an extent of level or nearly level ditions. land; a flat, gently sloping, or nearly level region of the offset lithography-Indirect method of printing whereby an sea floor. ink image is transferred from a pressplate to an inter- plat-Diagram drawn to scale showing all essential data per- mediate rubber blanket and from that to the paper. taining to the boundaries and subdivisions of a tract of order of accuracy-Accuracy specifications governing the land, as determined by survey or protraction. As used by establishment of horizontal and vertical control for map- BLM, the drawing which represents the particular area ping, charting, and geodesy, promulgated under auspices included in a survey, such as a township, private land of the Office of Management and Budget. claim, or mineral claim, and the lines surveyed, established, ordinary tides-Expression not used in a technical sense by or retraced, showing the direction and length of each such NOS; the word "ordinary," when applied to tides, may be line; the relation to the adjoining official surveys; the taken as the equivalent of the word "mean." Thus, "or- boundaries, descriptions, and area of each parcel of land GLOSSARY 111 subdivided; and, as nearly as may be practicable, a repre- covered land whose title then vests in the owner of adja- sentation of the relief and improvements within the limits cent land. See accretion. of the survey. relief-Elevations and depressions of the land or sea bot- positive-Photographic image on film, plate, or paper having tom. approximately the same tonal rendition as the original sub- remote sensing-Process of detecting and (or) monitoring ject; that is light for light and dark for dark. chemical or physical properties of an area by measuring pressplate--Thin metal, plastic, or paper sheet that carries its reflected and emmitted radiation. representative fraction-Scale of a map or chart expressed the printing image. the printing image, ~~~~~as a fraction or ratio that relates unit distance on the primary control tide station-Tide station at which con- as a fraction or ratio that relates unit distance on the tinuous observations have been made over a minimum of a map to distance measured in the same unit on the 19-year Metonic cycle. Its purpose is to provide data for ground. computing accepted values of the harmonic and nonhar- reproduction-Summation of all the processes involved in monic constants essential to tide predictions and to the printing copies from an original drawing. A printed copy determination of tidal datums for charting and coastal of an original drawing made by the processes of repro- duction. boundaries. The data series from this station serves as a d c i o n right-reading copy---Printed or drawn page on which the primary control for the reduction of relatively short series lettering and or) images are presented in their normal from subordinate tide stations by comparing simultaneous observations, and for monitoring long-period sea-level orientation, for example, reading from left to right. See wrong-reading copy. trends and variations. See tide station and subordinate tide wrong-reading copy. salt-water wedge-Intrusion of a tidal estuary by sea water station. in the form of a wedge underneath the less-dense fresh prime meridian--Meridian of longitude 0%, used as the origin water. for measurements of longitude. The meridian of Greenwich, sanctuary, estuarine-Research area which may include England, is the internationally accepted prime meridian any part or all of an estuary, adjoining transitional areas, on most charts. However, local or national prime meridians and adjacent uplands, constituting tao the extent feasible a are occasionally use~~~~~~~ and adjacent uplands, constituting to the extent feasible a are occasionally used. natural unit, set aside to provide scientists and students projection, map-Systematic formation of lines on a surface the opportunity to examine over a period of time the (usually a plane) to represent the parallels of latitudethoprunytoeaievraprodftiete (usually a plane) to represent the parallels of latitude ecological relationships within the area. Established under and the meridians of longitude of the Earth, provisions of CZMA. public land system-Public lands are subdivided by a rec- tangular system of s urveys established and regulated by sanctuary, habitat-Marine sanctuary established for the preservation, protection, and management of essential or BLM. The standard format for subdivision is by townships specialized habitats representative of important marine measuring 6 miles (480 chains, 9.6 km) on a side. Town- systems. ships are further subdivided into 36 numbered sections f sanctuary, marine-Area established under provisions of sanctuary, marine--Area established under provisions of 1 square mile (640 acres, 259 ha) each. the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of quadrangle-Four-sided area, bounded by parallels of lati- 1972, Public Law 92-532 (86 Stat. 1052), for the preser- tude and meridians of longitude used as an area unit vation and restoration of its conservation, recreational, in mapping (dimensions are not necessarily the same in ecological, or esthetic values. Such an area may lie in both directions). Also a geometric figure of significance in ocean waters as far seaward as the outer edge of the geodetic surveying. continental shelf, in coastal waters where the tide ebbs range of tide-Difference in height between consecutive high and flows, or in the Great Lakes and connecting waters, and low waters. The mean range is the difference in height and, may be classified as a habitat, species, research, between mean high water and mean low water. recreational and esthetic, or unique area. recession (retrogression)--Continuing landward movement sanctuary, recreational and esthetic-Marine sanctuary of the shoreline; a net landward movement of the shore- established for its esthetic or recreational value. line over a specified time. sanctuary, research-Marine sanctuary established for scien- rectification, simple-Projection of an aerial photograph tific research in support of management programs, and (mathematically, graphically, or photographically) from to establish ecological baselines. its plane onto a horizontal plans by translation, rotation, sanctuary, species-Sanctuary established for the conserva- and (or) scale change to remove displacement due to tion of marine life. tilt of the aircraft. sanctuary, unique-Marine sanctuary established to pro- reference station-Tide or current station for which inde- tect a unique or nearly unique geologic, oceanographic, or pendent daily predictions are given in tide or current living resource feature. tables from which corresponding predictions are obtained scale-Relationship existing between a distance on a map, for other stations by means of differences and ratios, chart, photograph, and the corresponding distance on the registration-Correct positioning of one component of a Earth. composite map image in relation to the other components. screen-Grating of opaque lines on glass or film, crossing Achieved, for example, by punching sets of holes, having a at right angles, producing transparent apertures be- fixed horizontal relationship to each other, in each com- tween intersections. Screens are used to break up a solid ponent sheet and then attaching the components together or continuous-tone image into a pattern of small dots. using specially designed fasteners. scribing-Marking material with a pointed instrument. Re- reliction-Gradual withdrawal of the water in the sea, a moval of portions of a photographically opaque coating lake, or a stream leaving permanently exposed and un- from a transparent base with engraving tools. 112 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK sea level (water level)-Height of the surface of the sea National Ocean Survey), one for each State, for use at any time. in defining positions of geodetic stations in terms of seaward boundary-Limits of any area or zone offshore plane rectangular (x,y) coordinates. from the mean low, or mean lower low water line and stereocompilation-Production of a map or chart manu- established by an act of the U.S. Congress, or agreed to script from aerial photographs and geodetic control data by treaty. See mean low water line. by means of photogrammetric instruments. sedimentation-Deposition of eroded particles by hydraulic stereomodel (stereoscopic model)--Mental impression of a action. three-dimensional model which results from two over- seiche-Stationary wave oscillation of a water body with a lapping perspective views, as in photogrammetric instru- period varying from a few minutes to an hour or more, ments. but somewhat less than the tidal periods. They are usually stereoplotter-Instrument for plotting a map or obtaining attributed to strong winds or changes in barometric pres- spatial solutions by observation of stereomodels formed by sure and are found both in enclosed bodies of water and pairs of photographs. superimposed upon the tide waves of the open ocean. stereoscopic vision-Binocular vision that enables the ob- seismic sea wave-Wave caused by an earthquake. server to obtain the impression of depth by means of two sensor-Technical means, usually electronic, to extend man's different perspectives of an object (as two photographs natural senses by detecting emmitted or reflected energy. taken from different camera stations). The energy may be nuclear, electromagnetic, including the stick-up-Adhesive-backed or wax-backed film or paper on visible and invisible portions of the spectrum, chemical, which map names, symbols, and descriptive terms, have biological, thermal, or mechanical. been printed for application to a transparent base in map shore-Land covered and uncovered by the rise and fall of and chart production. the normal tide. In its strictest use, the term applies only still water level-Level that the sea surface would assume to land along tidal water. in the absence of wind waves; not to be confused with shoreface-Narrow zone seaward from the low tide shore- mean sea level or half tide level. line, permanently covered by water, over which the beach storm surge (storm tide, storm wave, tidal wave)-Rise sands and gravels actively oscillate with changing wave above normal water level on the open coast due to the conditions. action of wind stress on the water surface. Storm surge shoreline-Intersection of the land with the water surface. resulting from a hurricane or other intense storm also The shoreline shown on charts represents the line of includes the rise in level due to atmospheric pressure contact between the land and a selected water elevation. reduction as well as that due to wind stress. A storm surge In areas affected by tidal fluctuations, this line of contact is more severe when it occurs in conjunction with a high is usually the mean high water line. In confined coastal tide. waters of diminished tidal influence, the mean water level subordinate tide station--i. Tide station from which a line may be used. relatively short series of observations is reduced by com- shore profile-Intersection of the shore with a vertical plane parison with simultaneous observations from a tide station that is perpendicular to the shoreline. The profile may ex- with a relatively long series of observations. 2. A station tend from the top of the dune line to the seaward limit of listed in the tide tables for which predictions are to be sand movement; but for shoreline mapping purposes, ex- obtained by means of differences and ratios applied to tends from the berm crest offshore of the mean low water the full predictions at a reference station. See primary line or mean lower low water line. control tide station and reference station. smooth sheet-Final plot of field control and hydrographic subsidence-Decrease in the elevation of land without removal development such as soundings, fathom curves, bottom of surface material due to tectonic, seismic, or artificial samples, and obstructions, dangers, and aids to navigation forces. resulting from a hydrographic survey. surf zone-Area between the outermost breaker and the spectrum-Visual display, a photographic record, or a plot limit of wave uprush. of the distribution of the intensity of energy dispersion of survey-Orderly process of determining data relating to any a given kind as a function of its wavelength, frequency, physical or chemical characteristics of the Earth. The momentum, mass, or any related quantity. associated data obtained in a survey. An organization en- spot elevation-Point on a map or chart whose height above gaged in making a survey. a specified datum is noted, usually by a dot or a small territorial sea-Zone off the coast of a nation immediately sawbuck and elevation value. Elevations are shown, seaward from a base line. Complete sovereignty is main- wherever practicable, for road forks and intersections, tained over this zone by the coastal nation, subject to the grade crossings, summits of hills, mountains and mountain right of innocent passage to ships of all nations. The passes, water surfaces of lakes and ponds, stream forks, United States recognizes this zone as extending 3 mi bottom elevations in depressions, and large fiat areas. (4.8 kin) from the base line. See fishing zone. standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA)-Integrated tidal basin-Basin affected by tides, particularly one in economic and social unit with a population nucleus of at which water can be kept at a desired level by means of a least 50,000. An SMSA always includes a city (cities) of gate. specified population which constitutes the central city and tidal bench mark-See bench mark. the county (counties) in which it is located, tidal current-Horizontal movement of the water caused by state plane coordinate systems-Coordinate systems estab- gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and lished by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (now the Earth. The horizontal component of the particulate motion GLOSSARY 113 of a tidal wave. Part of same general movement of the sea staff itself has a metal stop secured to the back so that that is manifested in the vertical rise and fall, called tide. it will always have the same elevation when installed. See tidal wave, tide, and current. tide station-Geographic location at which tidal observations tidal current chart diagrams-Series of 12 monthly diagrams are conducted. Also, the facilities used to make tidal obser- to be used with the tidal current charts. Each diagram vations. These may include a tide house, tide gage, tide contains lines that indicate the specific tidal current chart staff, and tidal bench marks. See primary control tide of each series to use, and the speed factor to apply to station and subordinate tide station. that chart. tide tables-Tables which give daily predictions of the times tidal current charts-Charts on which tidal current data are and heights of high and low waters. These predictions graphically depicted. Tidal current charts for a number of are usually supplemented by tidal differences and constants through which additional predictions can be obtained for important waterways are published by NOS. Each consists through which additional predictions can be obtained for of a set of charts giving the speed and direction of the numerous other places. current for each hour or equal interval of the tidal cycle tidewater or tidal water-Water affected by tides or some- current for each hourehensqua iew of the tidal cycle, times that part of it which covers the tideland. The term times that part of it which covers the tideland. The term thus presenting a comprehensive view of the tidal current thuspresntinmaomprehevement. ~ is sometimes used broadly to designate the seaboard. movement. topography--Configuration (relief) of the land surface; the tidal current tables-Tables which give daily predictions of topography-Configuration (relief) of the land surface; the graphic delineation or portrayal of that configuration in the times and velocities of the tidal currents. These predic- apc line in o oray th t map form, as by contour lines; in oceanography the term tions are usually supplemented by current differences and apfo a urfe ch the e m is applied to a surface such as the sea bottom or a surface constants through which additional predictions can be ob- i ie aacescs the atr as of given characteristics within the water mass. tained for numerous other places. tilave-w wtr wveraused thegral transparency-Photograph on a clear base, especially adapt- tidal wave-Shallow water wave caused by the gravitational able for viewing by transmitted light. Also, the light- interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. High wa- transmitteligtAste ter is the crest of a tidal wave and low water is the transmitting capability of a material. triangulation-Method of extending horizontal position on trough. Tide is the vertical component of the particulate the surface of the Earth by measuring the angles of tri- motion; tidal current is the horizontal. The observed tide angles and the included sides of selected triangles. and tidal current can be considered the result of the trilateration-Method of surveying wherein the lengths of combination of several tidal waves, each of which may the triangle sides are measured, usually by electronic vary from nearly pure progressive to nearly pure stand- methods, and the angles are computed from the measured ing and with differing periods, heights, phase relation- lengths. Compares with triangulation. ships, and directions. turbidity-Reduced water clarity resulting from the presence tide-Periodic rise and fall of the water resulting from of suspended matter. Water is considered turbid when its gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and load of suspended matter is conspicuous, but all waters Earth. The vertical component of the particulate motion of contain some suspended matter and therefore are turbid. a tidal wave. Although the accompanying horizontal move- tsunami-Sea wave caused by an earthquake. ment of the water is part of the same phenomenon, it is type of tide--Classification based on characteristic forms of a preferable to designate this motion as tidal current. tide curve. Qualitatively, when the two high waters and tide, diurnal-Having a period or cycle of approximately two low waters of each tidal day are approximately equal one tidal day. in height, the tide is said to be semidiurnal; when there tide, semidiurnal-Having a period or cycle of approximately is a relatively large diurnal inequality in the high or low one-half of a tidal day. The predominating type of tide waters or both, it is said to be mixed; and when there is throughout the world is semidiurnal, with two high wa- only one high water and one low water in each tidal day, ters and two low waters each tidal day. The tidal current it is said to be diurnal. is said to be semidiurnal when there are two flood and Universal Transverse Mercator grid-Military grid system two ebb periods each day. based on the transverse Mercator projection, applied to tide curve-Graphic representation of the rise and fall of maps of the Earth's surface extending from the Equator the tide in which time is represented by the abscissas and to 84� N. and 80� S. latitudes. the height of the tide by ordinates of the curve. For a upland-Highland; ground elevation above the lowlands normal tide, the graphic representation approximates a along rivers or between hills. cosine curve. upper wetland boundary-Junction of wetland and stable tide gage-Instrument for measuring the rise and fall of the ground. tide. vanishing tide-In a mixed tide with very large diurnal in- tidehead-Inland limit of water affected by a tide, equality, the lower high water (or higher low water) fre- tidemark-High-water mark left by tidal water; the highest quently becomes indistinct (or vanishes) at times of point reached by a high tide; a mark placed to indicate extreme declinations. During these periods the diurnal the highest point reached by a high tide, or occasionally, tide has such overriding dominance that the semidiurnal any specified stage of tide. tide, although still present, cannot be readily seen on the tide staff-Tide gage consisting of a vertical graduated staff tide curve. from which the height of the tide can be read directly. velocity of current-Rate at which the water moves hori- It is called a fixed staff when it is secured in place so zontally, usually expressed in knots (nautical miles per that is cannot be easily removed. A portable staff is one hour), but sometimes in ft/s or cm/s. that is designed for removal from the water when not in waterline-Juncture of land and sea. This line fluctuates, use. For such a staff a fixed support is provided, and the changing with the tide or other fluctuations in the water APPENDIXES Appendix I Cooperating Agencies in the Coastal Zone The following State organizations were cooper- ators with USGS in 1977 but not all had active pro- grams during the year. Cooperative agreements with several agencies may be established within the same State. Alabama Hawaii State Geologist and Oil and Gas Supervisor Manager and Chief Engineer Geological Survey of Alabama Division of Water and Land Development P.O. Drawer 0 Department of Land and Natural Resources University, Alabama 35486 P.O. Box 373 California Honolulu, Hawaii 96809 Chief, Statewide Planning Branch Illinois Division of Planning Chief Department of Water Resources Illinois State Geological Survey P.O. Box 388 State Department of Registration and Education Sacramento, California 95802 121 Natural Resources Building Connecticut Urbana, Illinois 61801 Director and State Geologist Indiana Connecticut Geological and National History Survey Head, Surveying and Mapping Section Department of Environmental Protection Division of Water 561 State Office Building Department of Natural Resources Hartford, Connecticut 06115 606 State Office Building Delaware 100 North Senate Avenue State Geologist Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 Delaware Geological Survey Louisiana University of Delaware Chief Engineer 101 Penny Hall Department of Public Works Newark, Delaware 19799 P.O. Box 44155, Capitol Station Florida Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804 State Topographic Engineer Department of Transportation Maine Burns Building Director and State Geologist 605 Suwannee Street Bureau of Geology Tallahassee, Florida 82304 Department of Conservation 211 State Office Building Executive Director Augusta, Maine 04830 Department of Natural Resources Maryland 513 Crown Building Director 202 Blount Street Maryland Geological Survey Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Merryman Hall Georgia The Johns Hopkins University Director and State Geologist Baltimore, Maryland 21218 Geologic and Water Resources Division Massachusetts Georgia Department of Natural Resources Department of Public Works 19 Martin Luther King, Jr., Drive, SW. 100 Nashua Street Atlanta, Georgia 30334 Boston, Massachusetts 02114 117 118 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Deputy Chief Engineer Water Resources Division Bureau of Project Development 778 Chemeketa Street, NE. Executive Office of Transportation and Construction Salem, Oregon 97310 100 Nashua Street Boston, Massachusetts 02114 Pennsylvania Director and State Geologist Michigan Department of Environmental Resources State Geologist Bureau of Topographic and Geological Survey Department of Natural Resources P.O. Box 2357 Stevens T. Mason Building Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120 Lansing, Michigan 48926 Puerto Rico Minnesota Executive Director Director Puerto Rico Highway Authority Minnesota Geological Survey G.P.O. Box 3909 1633 Eustis Street Santurce, Puerto Rico 00910 St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 Rhode Island Natural Resources Planner ~~~Marine Specialist StatuaResore PlannigAenc Coastal Resources Center 10CptlSquare Buldning AgnyUniversity of Rhode Island 100 Ceario StureeBilin Kingston, Rhode Island 02881 St. Paul, Minnesota 55101 South Carolina State Geologist New Hampshire Division of Geology State Geologist South Carolina State Development Board Department of Resources and Economic Development H larbison Forest Road Geologic Branch, Department of Geology Columbia, South Carolina 29210 James Hall University of New Hampshire Texas Durham, New Hampshire 03824 Principal Engineer New Jersey ~~~~~~~~~Texas Water Development Board Staew Geolgsey P.O. Box 13087, Capitol Station New Jersey Bureau of Geology and Topography Austin, Texas 78711 Division of Natural Resources Virginia (709 John Fitch Plaza) State Geologist and Commissioner P.O. Box 1889 Division of Mineral Resources Trenton, New Jersey 08625 Department of Conservation and Economic Development New York ~~~~~~~~~~~P.O. Box 3667 Chef, CarograpySeto Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Program Analysis Bureau Washington New York State Department of Transportation State Geologist 1220 Washington Avenue Geologic and Earth Resources Division Albany, New York 12226 Department of Natural Resources North Carolina ~~~~~~~~Olympia, Washington 98501 Director Wisconsin Division of Resource Planning and Evaluation State Geologist and Director Department of Natural and Economic Resources Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey P.O. Box 27687 1815 University Avenue Raleigh, North Carolina 27611 Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Ohio Chief, Engineering Services Section Chief Engineer Wisconsin Division of Highways Aerial Engineering Section P.O. Box 1487 Ohio Department of Transportation Madison, Wisconsin 53702 25 South Front Street ~~~~Wisconsin State Cartographer Columbus, Ohio 43216 144 Science Hall Oregon 544 North Park Street State Engineer Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Appendix 2 USGS State Mapping Advisory Committees in the Coastal Zone Alaska 515 West Michigan Chairman Lansing, Michigan 48926 State Mapping Advisory Committee Department of Natural Resources Minnesota Juneau, Alaska 99801 Chairman Maine State Mapping Advisory Committee Chairman Environmental Quality Control State Planning Agency State Mapping Advisory Committee 550 Cedar Street Maine Geological Survey St. Paul, Minnesota 55101 Augusta, Maine 04330 Texas Michigan Chairman Chairman State Mapping Advisory Committee State Mapping Advisory Committee Texas Water Development Board Michigan Department of Natural Resources Austin, Texas 78701 119 Appendix 3 State Coastal Zone Management Program Managers Alabama Hawaii Alabama Development Office Department of Planning and Economic Development State Capitol P.O. Box 2359 Montgomery, Alabama 36130 Honolulu, Hawaii 96804 Alaska Ilni Policy Development and Planning Division IllinoisCosaZneMagetPrrm Office of the Governor Rlioioasa oneMngmen Progra Pouch AD 30Rorth StteStee Juneau, Alaska 99801 Chiago Ilnorth Stae6Sree American SamoaChcgIlni601 Executive Secretary Indiana Environmental Quality Commission State Planning Services Agency Office of the Governor Harrison Building Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799 143 West Market Street California Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 Chairman Louisiana California Coastal Zone Conservation Commission State Planning Office 1540 Market Street 4528 Bennington Avenue San Francisco, California 94102 Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808 Bay Conservation and Development Commission Room 2011 Maine 30 Van Ness Avenue State Planning Office San Francisco, California 94102 Resource Planning Division Connecticut 189 State Street Coastal Area Management Program Augusta, Maine 04338 Department of Environmental Protection Maryland 71 Capitol Avenue Energy and Coastal Zone Administration Hartford, Connecticut 06115 Department of Natural Resources Delaware Tawes State Office Building State Planning Office Annapolis, Maryland 21401 Thomas Collins BuildingMascuet 50SuhDuontr Highware190 Executive Office of Environmental Affairs Dover, Delaware 19901 ~~~~100 Cambridge Street Florida Boston, Massachusetts 02202 Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning Pennington Building Michigan 115 Bl1oxham Street Division of Land Use Programs Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Department of Natural Resources Georgia Stevens T. Mason Building Planning Division Lansing, Michigan 48926 Office of Planning and Budget Minnesota Room 618 State Planning Agency 270 Washington Street, SW. 100 Capitol Square Building Atlanta, Georgia 30334 550 Cedar Street Guam St. Paul, Minnesota 55155 Bureau of Planning Mississippi Government of Guam Mississippi Marine Resources Council P.O. Box 2950 P.O. Drawer 959 Agana, Guam 96910 Long Beach, Mississippi 39560 120 APPENDIX 3 121 Now Hampshire P.O. Box 5887 Office of Comprehensive Planning Puerto de Tierra, Puerto Rico 00906 Division of Regional Planning Rhode Island State Annex Statewide Planning Program Concord, New Hampshire 03301 Department of Administration New Jersey 265 Melrose Street Office of Coastal Zone Management Providence, Rhode Island 02907 Department of Environmental Protection South Carolina P.O. Box 1889 Wildlife and Marine Resources Department Trenton, New Jersey 08625 1116 Bankers Trust Tower New York Columbia, South Carolina 29201 Division of State PlanningTea Department of StateTea 162 Washington Street State Land Commissioner Albany, New York 12231 Texas Coastal Management Program North Carolina 1705 Guadelupe Department of Natural and Economic Resources 170usothiCngTexas Avenue Box 27687AutnTea781 Raleigh, North Carolina 27611 Virgin Islands Ohio Virgin Islands Planning Office Division of Water P.O. Box 2606 Department of Natural Resources Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas Building E U.S. Virgin Islands 00801 Fountain Square Virginia 1930 Belcher Drive Office of Commerce and Resources Columbus, Ohio 43224 Division of State Planning and Community Affairs Oregon 5th floor, Ninth Street Office Building Land Conservation and Development Commission Richmond, Virginia 23219 1175 Court Street, NE. Washington Salem, Oregon 97310 Department of Ecology Pennsylvania State of Washington Division of Outdoor Recreation Olympia, Washington 98504 Third and Reily Streets Wisconsin P.O. Box 1467 State Planning Office Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120 Room B-130 Puerto Rico I West Wilson Street Department of Natural Resources Madison, Wisconsin 53702 ITpendix 4 Sources for Information About Private Contractors American Congress on Surveying and Mapping Engineers Joint Council 210 Little Falls Street 2029 K Street, NW. Falls Church, Virginia 22046 Washington, D.C. 20006 American Society of Cartographers International Remote Sensing Institute P.O. Box 1493 6151 Freeport Boulevard Louisville, Kentucky 40201 Sacramento, California 95822 American Society of Civil Engineers Technical Officer-Mapping Contracts 345 East 47th Street Office of Research and Technical Standards New York, New York 10017 Topographic Division American Society of Photogrammetry U.S. Geological Survey 105 N. Virginia Avenue MS 519 National Center Falls Church, Virginia 22046 Reston, Virginia 22092 Association of American Geographers 1710 16th Street, NW. Washington, D.C. 20009 122 APPENDIX 5 COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ACT AND AMENDMENTS 124 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Public Law 92-583 92nd Congress, S. 3507 October 27, 1972 3n g(t 86 STAT. 1280 To establish a national policy and develop a national program for the manage- ment, beneficial use, protection, and development of the land and water resources of the Nation's coastal zones, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Act entitled Marine Re- "An Act to provide for a comprehensive, long-range, and coordinated sources and national program in marine science, to establish a National Council on Egneering Marine Resources and Engineering Development, and a Commission Developmen on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, and for other pur- Aet of 1966, poses", approved June 1I, 1966 (80 Stat. 203), as amended (33 U.S.C. 1101-1124), is further amended by adding at the end thereof the fol- 80 Stat. 9983 lowing new title: 84 Stat. 865. TITLE III-MANAGEMENT OF THE COASTAL ZONE SHORT TITLE SEC. 301. This title may be cited as the "Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972". CONGRESSIONAL FINDINGS SEC. 302. The Congress finds that- (a) There is a national interest in the effective management, bene- ficial use, protection, and development of the coastal zone; (b) The coastal zone is rich in a variety of natural, commercial, rec- reational, industrial, and esthetic resources of immediate and potential value to the present and future well-being of the Nation; (c) The increasing and competing demands upon the lands and waters of our coastal zone occasioned by population growth and eco- nomic development, including requirements for industry, commerce, residential development, recreation, extraction of mineral resources and fossil fuels, transportation and navigation, waste disposal, and har- vesting of fish, shellfish, and other living marine resources, have resulted in the loss of living marine resources, wildlife, nutrient-rich areas, permanent and adverse changes to ecological systems, decreasing open space for public use, and shoreline erosion; (d) The coastal zone, and the fish, shellfish, other living marine resources, and wildlife therein, are ecologically fragile and conse- quently extremely vulnerable to destruction by man's alterations; (e) Important ecological, cultural, historic, and esthetic values in the coastal zone which are essential to the well-being of all citizens are being irretrievably damaged or lost; (f) Special natural and scenic characteristics are being damaged by ill-planned development that threatens these values; (g) In light of competing demands and the urgent need to protect and to give high priority to natural systems in the coastal zone, pres- ent state and local institutional arrangements for planning and regu- lating land and water uses in such areas are inadequate; and (h) The key to more effective protection and use of the land and water resources of the coastal zone is to encourage the states to exercise their full authority over the lands and waters in the coastal zone by assisting the states, in cooperation with Federal and local governments and other vitally affected interests, in developing land and water use programs for the coastal zone, including unified policies, criteria. standards, methods, and processes for dealing with land and water use decisions of more than local significance. APPENDIX 5 125 86 STAT. 1281 Pub. Law 92-583 October 27, 1972 DECLARATION OF POLICY SEC. 303. The Congress finds and declares that it is the national policy (a) to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance, the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding generations, (b) to encourage and assist the states to exercise effectively their responsibilities in the coastal zone through the devel- opment and implementation of management programs to achieve wise use of the land and water resources of the coastal zone giving full consideration to ecological, cultural, historic, and esthetic values as well as to needs for economic development, (c) for all Federal agencies engaged in programs affecting the coastal zone to cooperate and par- ticipate with state and local governments and regional agencies in effectuating the purposes of this title, and (d) to encourage the par- ticipation of the public, of Federal, state, and local governments and of regional agencies in the development of coastal zone management programs. With respect to implementation of such management pro- grams, it is the national policy to encourage cooperation among the various state and regional agencies including establishment of inter- state and regional agreements, cooperative procedures, and joint action particularly regarding environmental problems. DEFINITIONS SEC. 304. For the purposes of this title- (a) "Coastal zone" means the coastal waters (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and in proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, to the international bound- ary between the United States and Canada and, in other areas, seaward to the outer limit of the United States territorial sea. The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the extent necessary to control shorelands, the uses of which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. Excluded from the coastal zone are lands the use of which is by law subject solely to the discretion of or which is held in trust by the Federal Government, its officers or agents. (b) "Coastal waters" means (1) in the Great Lakes area, the waters within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States consisting of the Great Lakes, their connecting waters, harbors, roadsteads, and estuary-type areas such as bays, shallows, and marshes and (2) in other areas, those waters, adjacent to the shorelines, which contain a measurable quantity or percentage of sea water, including, but not limited to, sounds, bays, lagoons, bayous, ponds, and estuaries. (c) "Coastal state" means a state of the United States in, or bor- dering on, the Atlantic, Pacific, or Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, Long Island Sound, or one or more of the Great Lakes. For the pur- poses of this title, the term also includes Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. (d) "Estuary" means that part of a river or stream or other body of water having unimpaired connection with the open sea, where the sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage. The term includes estuary-type areas of the Great Lakes. (e) "Estuarine sanctuary" means a research area which may include any part or all of an estuary, adjoining transitional areas, and adja- cent uplands, constituting to the extent feasible a natural unit, set 126 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK October 27, 1972 Pub. Law 92-583 86 STAT. 1282 aside to provide scientists and students the opportunity to examine over a period of time the ecological relationships within the area. (f) "Secretary" means the Secretary of Commerce. (g) "Management program" includes, but is not limited to, a com- prehensive statement in words, maps, illustrations, or other media of communication, prepared and adopted by the state in accordance with the provisions of this title, setting forth objectives, policies, and stand- ards to guide public and private uses of lands and waters in the coastal zone. (h) "Water use" means activities which are conducted in or on the water; but does not mean or include the establishment of any water quality standard or criteria or the regulation of the discharge or runoff of water pollutants except the standards, criteria, or regulations which are incorporated in any program as required by the provisions of section 307(f). (i) "Land use" means activities which are conducted in or on the shorelands within the coastal zone, subject to the requirements out- lined in section 307(g). MANAGEMENT PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT GRANTS SEC. 305. (a) The Secretary is authorized to make annual grants to any coastal state for the purpose of assisting in the development of a management program for the land and water resources of its coastal zone. (b) Such management program shall include: (1) an identification of the boundaries of the coastal zone sub- ject to the management program; (2) a definition of what shall constitute permissible land and water uses within the coastal zone which have a direct and signifi- cant impact on the coastal waters; (3) an inventory and designation of areas of particular con- cern within the coastal zone; (4) an identification of the means by which the state proposes to exert control over the land and water uses referred to in para- graph (2) of this subsection, including a listing of relevant con- stitutional provisions, legislative enactments, regulations, and judicial decisions; (5) broad guidelines on priority of uses in particular areas, including specifically those uses of lowest priority; (6) a description of the organizational structure proposed to implement the management program, including the responsibili- ties and interrelationships of local, areawide, state, regional, and interstate agencies in the management process. (c) The grants shall not exceed 66% per centum of the costs of the Limitation. program in any one year and no state shall be eligible to receive more than three annual grants pursuant to this section. Federal funds received from other sources shall not be used to match such grants. In order to qualify for grants under this section, the state must reasonably demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Secretary that such grants will be used to develop a management program consistent with tte require- ments set forth in section 306 of this title. After making the initial grant to a coastal state, no subsequent grant shall be made under this section unless the Secretary finds that the state is satisfactorily devel- oping such management program. (d) Upon completion of the development of the state's management program, the state shall submit such program to the Secretary for APPENDIX 5 127 86 STAT. 1283 Pub. Law 92-583 October 27, 1972 review and approval pursuant to the provisions of section 306 of this title, or such other action as he deems necessary. On final approval of such program by the Secretary, the state's eligibility for further grants under this section shall terminate, and the state shall be eligible for grants under section 306 of this title. Grants, (e) Grants under this section shall be allocated to the states based allooation. on rules and regulations promulgated by the Secretary: Provided, however, That no management program development grant under this section shall be made in excess of 10 per centum nor less than 1 per centum of the total amount appropriated to carry out the purposes of this section. (f) Grants or portions thereof not obligated by a state during the fiscal year for which they were first authorized to be obligated by the state, or during the fiscal year immediately following, shall revert to the Secretary, and shall be added by him to the funds available for grants under this section. (g) With the approval of the Secretary, the state may allocate to a local government, to an areawide agency designated under section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 80 Stat. 1262; 1966, to a regional agency, or to an interstate agency, a portion of the 82 Stat. 208. grant under this section, for the purpose of carrying out the provi- 42 USC 3334. sions of this section. Expiration (h) The authority to make grants under this section shall expire on date. June 30, 1977. ADMINISTRATIVE GRANTS Limitation. SEC. 306. (a) The Secretary is authorized to make annual grants to any coastal state for not more than 66%3 per centumr of the costs of administering the state's management program, if he approves such program in accordance with subsection (c) hereof. Federal funds received from other sources shall not be used to pay the state's share of costs. Allocation. (b) Such grants shall be allocated to the states with approved pro- grams based on rules and regulations promulgated by the Secretary which shall take into account the extent and nature of the shoreline and area covered by the plan, population of the area, and other rele- vant factors: Provided, however, That no annual administrative grant under this section shall be made in excess of 10 per centum nor less than 1 per centum of the total amount appropriated to carry out the pur- poses of this section. Program (c) Prior to granting approval of a management program submitted requirements. by a coastal state, the Secretary shall find that: (1) The state has developed and adopted a management program for its coastal zone in accordance with rules and regulations promulgated by the Secretary, after notice, and with the opportunity of full partici- pation by relevant Federal agencies, state agencies, local governments, regional organizations, port authorities, and other interested parties, public and private, which is adequate to carry out the purposes of this title and is consistent with the policy declared in section 303 of this title. (2) The state has: (A) coordinated its program with local, areawide, and inter- state plans applicable to areas within the coastal zone existing on January 1 of the year in which the state's management program is submitted to the Secretary, which plans have been developed by a local government, an areawide agency designated pursuant to regulations established under section 204 of the Demonstration 128 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK October 27, 1972 Pub. Law 92-583 86 STAT. 1284 Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966, a regional 80 Stat. 1262; agency, or an interstate agency; and 82 Stat. 208. (B) established an effective mechanism for continuing con- 42 USC 3334. sultation and coordination between the management agency desig- nated pursuant to paragraph (5) of this subsection and with local governments, interstate agencies, regional agencies, and areawide agencies within the coastal zone to assure the full participation of such local governments and agencies in carrying out the pur- poses of this title. (3) The state has held public hearings in the development of the management program. (4) The management program and any changes thereto have been reviewed and approved by the Governor. (5) The Governor of the state has designated a single agency to receive and administer the grants for implementing the management program required under paragraph (1) of this subsection. (6) The state is organized to implement the management program required under paragraph (1) of this subsection. (7) The state has the authorities necessary to implement the pro- gram, including the authority required under subsection (d) of this section. (8) The management program provides for adequate consideration of the national interest involved m the siting of facilities necessary to meet requirements which are other than local in nature. (9) The management program makes provision for procedures whereby specific areas may be designated for the purpose of preserv- ing or restoring them for their conservation, recreational, ecological, or esthetic values. (d) Prior to granting approval of the management program, the Secretary shall find that the state, acting through its chosen agency or agencies, including local governments, areawide agencies designated under section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966, regional agencies, or interstate agencies, has authority for the management of the coastal zone in accordance with the management program. Such authority shall include power- (1) to administer land and water use regulations, control devel- opment in order to ensure compliance with the management pro- gram, and to resolve conflicts among competing uses; and (2) to acquire fee simple and less than fee simpie interests in lands, waters, and other property through condemnation or other means when necessary to achieve conformance with the manage- ment program. (e) Prior to granting approval, the Secretary shall also find that the program provides: (1) for any one or a combination of the following general tech- niques for control of land and water uses within the coastal zone; (A) State establishment of criteria and standards for local implementation, subject to administrative review and enforce- ment of compliance; (B) Direct state land and water use planning and regula- tion; or (C) State administrative review for consistency with the management program of all development plans, projects, or land and water use regulations, including exceptions and variances thereto, proposed by any state or local authority or private developer, with power to approve or disapprove after public notice and an opportunity for hearings. APPENDIX 5 129 86 STAT. 1285 Pub. Law 92-583 October 27, 1972 (2) for a method of assuring that local land and water use regulations within the coastal zone do not unreasonably restrict or exclude land and water uses of regional benefit. (f) With the approval of the Secretary, a state may allocate to a local government, an areawide agency designated under section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 80 Stat. 1262; 1966, a regional agency, or an interstate agency, a portion of the grant 82 Stat. 208. under this section for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this 42 USC 3334. section: Provided, That such allocation shall not relieve the state of the responsibility for ensuring that any funds so allocated are applied in furtherance of such state's approved management program. Program (g) The state shall be authorized to amend the management pro- modifioation. gram. The modification shall be in accordance with the procedures required under subsection (c) of this section. Any amendment or modification of the program must be approved by the Secretary before additional administrative grants are made to the state under the pro- gram as amended. Segmiental (h) At the discretion of the state and with the approval of the development. Secretary, a management program may be developed and adopted in segments so that immediate attention may be devoted to those areas within the coastal zone which most urgently need management pro- grams: Provided, That the state adequately provides for the ultimate coordination of the various segments of the management program into a single unified program and that the unified program will be com- pleted as soon as is reasonably practicable. IN'ERAGENCY COORDINATION AND COOPERATION SEC. 307. (a) In carrying out his functions and responsibilities under this title, the Secretary shall consult with, cooperate with, and, to the maximum extent practicable, coordinate his activities with other interested Federal agencies. (b) The Secretary shall not approve the management program sub- mitted by a state pursuant to section 306 unless the views of Federal agencies principally affected by such program have been adequately considered. In case of serious disagreement between any Federal agency and the state in the development of the program the Secre- tary, inm cooperation with the Executive Office of the President, shall seek to mediate the differences. (c) (1) Each Federal agency conducting or supporting activities directly affecting the coastal zone shall conduct or support those activities in a manner which is, to the maximum extent practicable, consistent with approved state management programs. (2) Any Federal agency which shall undertake any development project in the coastal zone of a state shall insure that the project is, to the maximum extent practicable, consistent with approved state management programs. Certifioation. (3) After final approval by the Secretary of a state's management program, any applicant for a required Federal license or permit to conduct an activity affecting land or water uses in the coastal zone of that state shall provide in the application to the licensing or permit- ting agency a certification that the proposed activity complies with the state's approved program and that such activity will be conducted in a manner consistent with the program. At the same time, the appli- cant shall furnish to the state or its designated agency a copy of the certification, with all necessary information and data. Each coastal state shall establish procedures for public notice in the case of all such 130 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK October 27, 1972 Pub. Law 92-583 86 STAT. 1286 certifications and, to the extent it deems appropriate, procedures for public hearings in connection therewith. At the earliest practicable Notification. time, the state or its designated agency shall notify the Federal agency concerned that the state concurs with or objects to the applicant's certification. If the state or its designated agency fails to furnish the required notification within six months after receipt of its copy of the applicant's certification, the state's concurrence with the certification shall be conclusively presumed. No license or permit shall be granted by the Federal agency until the state or its designated agency has con- curred with the applicant's certification or until, by the state's failure to act, the concurrence is conclusively presumed, unless the Secretary, on his own initiative or upon appeal by the applicant, finds, after pro- viding a reasonable opportunity for detailed comments from the Fed- eral agency involved and from the state, that the activity is consistent with the objectives of this-title or is otherwise necessary in the interest of national security. (d) State and local governments submitting applications for Fed- eral assistance under other Federal programs affecting the coastal zone shall indicate the views of the appropriate state or local agency as to the relationship of such activities to the approved management pro- gram for the coastal zone. Such applications shall be submitted and coordinated in accordance with the provisions of title IV of the Inter- governmental Coordination Act of 1968 (82 Stat. 1098). Federal agen- 42 USC 4231. cies shall not approve proposed projects that are inconsistent with a coastal state's management program, except upon a finding by the Secretary that such project is consistent with the purposes of this title or necessary in the interest of national security. (e) Nothing in this title shall be construed- (1) to diminish either Federal or state jurisdiction, responsi- bility, or rights in the field of planning, development, or control of water resources, submerged lands, or navigable waters; nor to displace, supersede, limit, or modify any interstate compact or the jurisdiction or responsibility of any legally established joint or common agency of two or more states or of two or more states and the Federal Government; nor to limit the authority of Congress to authorize and fund projects; (2) as superseding, modifying, or repealing existing laws appli- cable to the various Federal agencies; nor to affect the jurisdiction, powers, or prerogatives of the International Joint Commission, United States and Canada, the Permanent Engineering Board, and the United States operating entity or entities established pur- suant to the Columbia River Basin Treaty, signed at Washington, January 17, 1961, or the International Boundary and Water Com- mission, United States and Mexico. (f) Notwithstanding any other provision of this title, nothing in this title shall in any way affect any requirement (1) established by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, or the Clean Air Ante, p. 816. Act, as amended, or (2) established by the Federal Government or by 81 Stat. 485; any state or local government pursuant to such Acts. Such require- 84 Stat. 1676. ments shall be incorporated in any program developed pursuant to 42 USC 1857 this title and shall be the water pollution control and air pollution note. control requirements applicable to such program. (g) When any state's coastal zone management program, submitted for approval or proposed for modification pursuant to section 306 of this title, includes requirements as to shorelands which also would be subject to any Federally supported national land use program which may be hereafter enacted, the Secretary, prior to approving such pro- APPENDIX 5 131 Pub. Law 92-583 October 27, 1972 86 STAT. 1287 gram, shall obtain the concurrence of the Secretary of the Interior, or such other Federal official as may be designated to administer the national land use program, with respect to that portion of the coastal zone management program affecting shch inland areas. PUBLIC HEARINGS SEC. 308. All public hearings required under this title must be announced at least thirty days prior to the hearing date. At the time of the announcement, all agency materials pertinent to the hearings, including documents, studies, and other data, must be made available to the public for review and study. As similar materials are subse- quently developed, they shall be made available to the public as they become available to the agency. REVIEW OF PERFORMANCE SEC. 309. (a) The Secretary shall conduct a continuing review of the management programs of the coastal states and of the performance of each state. Finanoial (b) The Secretary shall have the authority to terminate any financial assistance, assistance extended under section 306 and to withdraw any unexpended temnination. portion of such assistance if (1) he determines that the state is failing to adhere to and is not justified in deviating from the program approved by the Secretary; and (2) the state has been given notice of the proposed termination and withdrawal and given an opportunity to present evidence of adherence or justification for altering its program. RECORDS SEC. 310. (a) Each recipient of a grant under this title shall keep such records as the Secretary shall prescribe, including records which fully disclose the amount and disposition of the funds received under the grant, the total cost of the project or undertaking supplied by other sources, and such other records as will facilitate an effective audit. Audit. (b) The Secretary and the Comptroller General of the United States, or any of their duly authorized representatives, shall have access for the purpose of audit and examination to any books, docu- ments, papers, and records of the recipient of the grant that are perti- nent to the determination that funds granted are used in accordance with this title. ADVISORY COMMITrEE Costal Zone SEC. 311. (a) The Secretary is authorized and directed to establish Managenent a Coastal Zone Management Advisory Committee to advise, consult Advisory with, and make recommendations to the Secretary on matters of policy cmnomittee, concerning the coastal zone. Such committee shall be composed of not establishmert; more than fifteen persons designated by the Secretary and shall per- membership. form such functions and operate in such a manner as the Secretary may direct. The Secretary shall insure that the committee member- ship as a group possesses a broad range of experience and knowledge relating to problems involving management, use, conservation, pro- tection, and development of coastal zone resources. Compensation$ (b) Members of the committee who are not regular full-time travel ex- employees of the United States, while serving on the business of the penses. committee, including traveltime, may receive compensation at rates not exceeding $100 per diem; and while so serving away from their 132 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK October 27, 1972 Pub. Law 92-583 86 STAT. 1288 homes or regular places of business may be allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, as authorized by section 5703 of title 5, United States Code, for individuals in the Govern- 80 Stat. 499; ment service employed intermittently. 83 Stat. 190. ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES SEC. 312. The Secretary, in accordance with rules and regulations Grants. promulgated by him, is authorized to make available to a coastal state grants of up to 50 per centum of the costs of acquisition, development, and operation of estuarine sanctuaries for the purpose of creating natural field laboratories to gather data and make studies of the natural and human processes occurring within the estuaries of the coastal zone. The Federal share of the cost for each such sanctuary Federal share. shall not exceed $2,000,000. No Federal funds received pursuant to section 305 or section 306 shall be used for the purpose of this section. ANNUAL REPORT SEC. 313. (a) The Secretary shall prepare and submit to the Presi- dent for transmittal to the Congress not later than November 1 of each year a report on the administration of this title for the preceding fiscal year. The report shall include but not be restricted to (1) an identifi- cation of the state programs approved pursuant to this title during the preceding Federal fiscal year and a description of those programs; (2) a listing of the states participating in the provisions of this title and a description of the status of each state's programs and its accom- plishments during the preceding Federal fiscal year; (3) an itemiza- tion of the allocation of funds to the various coastal states and a breakdown of the major projects and areas on which these funds were expended; (4) an identification of any state programs which have been reviewed and disapproved or with respect to which grants have been terminated under this title, and a statement of the reasons for such action; (5) a listing of all activities and projects which, pursuant to the provisions of subsection (c) or subsection (d) of section 307, are not consistent with an applicable approved state management pro- gram; (6) a summary of the regulations issued by the Secretary or in effect during the preceding Federal fiscal year; (7) a summary of a coordinated national strategy and program for the Nation's coastal zone including identification and discussion of Federal, regional, state and local responsibilities and functions therein; (8) a summary of outstanding problems arising in the administration of this title in order of priority; and (9) such other information as may be appro- priate. (b) The report required by subsection (a) shall contain such recom- mendations for additional legislation as the Secretary deems necessary to achieve the objectives of this title and enhance its effective operation. RULES AND REGULATIONS SEC. 314. The Secretary shall develop and promulgate, pursuant to section 553 of title 5, United States Code, after notice and oppor- 80 state 383. tunity for full participation by relevant Federal agencies, state agencies, local governments, regional organizations, port authorities, and other interested parties, both public and private, such rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this title. APPENDIX 5 Pub. Law 92-583 October 27, 1972 86 STAT. 1289 AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS SEc. 315. (a) Thereareauthorizedtobe appropriated- (1) the sum of $9,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1973, and for each of the fiscal years 1974 through 1977 for grants under section 305, to remain available until expended; (2) such sums, not to exceed $30,000,000, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1974, and for each of the fiscal years 1975 through 1977, as may be necessary, for grants under section 306 to remain available until expended; and (3) such sums, not to exceed $6,000,000 for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1974, as may be necessary, for grants under section 312, to remain available until expended. (b) There are also authorized to be appropriated such sums, not to exceed $3,000,000, for fiscal year 1973 and for each of the four succeed- ing fiscal years, as may be necessary for administrative expenses incident to the administration of this title. Approved October 27, 1972. LEGISLATIVE HISTORY: HOUSE REPORTS: No. 92-1049 aoompairying H.R. 14146 (Comm, on Merchant Marine and Fisheries) and No, 92-1544 (Camnm. of Conference). SENATE REPORT No. 92-753 (Comm. on Commeroe). CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 118 (1972): Apr. 25, oonsidered and passed Senate. Aug. 2, considered and passed House, amended, in lieu of H.R. 14146. Oct. 12, House and Senate agreed to oonference report. WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS, Vol. 8, No. 44: Oct. 28, Presidential statement. O 134 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Public Law 94-370 94th Congress, S. 586 July 26, 1976 An srt To ilmprove coastal zone management in the United States, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may Coastal Zone be cited as the "Coastal Zone Management Act Amendments of 1976". Management Act Amendments of SEC. 2. FINDINGS. 1976. Section 302 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 16 usC 1451 1451) is alnended- note. (1) by inserting "ecological," immediately after "recreational," in subsection (b); (2) by striking out- (A) the semicolon at the end of subsections (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f),respectively, and (B) "; and" at the end of subsection (g), and inserting in lieu of such matter at each such place a period; and (3) by inserting immediately after subsection (h) the follow- ing: "(i) The national objective of attaining a greater degree of energy self-sufficiency would be advanced by providing Federal financial assistance to meet state and local needs resulting from new or expanded energy activity in or affecting the coastal zone.". SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS. Section 304 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1453) is amended- (1) by redesignating paragraph (a) as paragraph (1), and by amending the first sentence of such paragraph (1) (as so redesignated)-- (A) by striking out "'Coastal" and inserting in lieu thereof "The term 'coastal"; and (B) by inserting immediately after "and includes" the following: "islands,"; (2) by redesignating paragraph (b) as paragraph (2), and by amending such paragraph (2) (as so redesignated)- (A) by striking out "'Coastal" and inserting in lieu thereof "The term 'coastal"; and (B) by striking out "(1)" and "(2)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(A)" and "(B)", respectively; (3) by striking out " (c) 'Coastal" and inserting in lieu thereof "(3) The term 'coastal"; (4) by inserting immediately before paragraph (d) thereof the following: '" (4) The term 'coastal energy activity' means any of the following activities if, and to the extent that (A) the conduct, support, or facili- tation of such activity requires and involves the siting, construction, expansion, or operation of any equipment or facility; and (B) any technical requirement exists which, in the determination of the Secretary, necessitates that the siting, construction, expansion, or 90 STAT. 1013 74-836 0 APPENDIX 5 135 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 operation of such equipment or facility be carried out in, or in close proximity to, the coastal zone of any coastal state; "(i) Any outer Continental Shelf energy activity. "(ii) Any transportation, conversion, treatment, transfer, or storage of liquefied natural gas. "(ili) Any transportation, transfer, or storage of oil, natural gas, or coal (including, but not limited to, by means of any deep- water port, as defined in section 3(10) of the Deepwater Port Act of 1974 (33 U.S.C. 1502(10))). For purposes of this paragraph, the siting, construction, expansion, or operation of any equipment or facility shall be 'in close proximity to' the coastal zone of any coastal state if such siting, construction, expansion, or operation has, or is likely to have, a significant effect on such coastal zone. "(5) The term 'energy facilities' means any equipment or facility which is or will be used primarily- "(A) in the exploration for, or the development, production, conversion, storage, transfer, processing, or transportation of, any energy resource; or "(B) for the manufacture, production, or assembly of equip- ment, machinery, products, or devices which are involved in any activity described in subparagraph (A). The term includes, but is not limited to (i) electric generating plants; (ii) petroleum refineries and associated facilities; (iii) gasification plants; (iv) facilities used for the transportation, conversion, treat- ment, transfer, or storage of liquefied natural gas; (v) uranium enrichment or nuclear fuel processing facilities; (vi) oil and gas facilities, including platforms, assembly plants, storage depots, tank farms, crew and supply bases, and refining complexes; (vii) facilities including deepwater ports, for the transfer of petroleum; (viii) pipe- lines and transmission facilities; and (ix) terminals which are asso- ciated with any of the foregoing."; (5) by striking out " (d) 'Estuary' "and inserting in lieu thereof "(6) The term 'estuary' "; (6) by redesignating paragraph (e) as paragraph (7) and by amending such paragraph (7) (as so redesignated)-- (A) by striking out "'Estuarine" and inserting in lieu thereof "The term 'estuarine", and (B) by striking out "estuary, adjoining transitional areas, and adjacent uplands, constituting" and inserting in lieu thereof the following: "estuary and any island, transitional area, and upland in, adjoining, or adjacent to such estuary, and which constitutes"; (7) by striking out paragraph (f) and inserting in lieu thereof the following: "(8) The term 'Fund' means the Coastal Energy Impact Fund Post, p. 1019. established by section 308 (h). "(9) The term 'land use' means activities which are conducted in, or on the shorelands within, the coastal zone, subject to the require- Post, p. 101. ments outlined in section 307(g). "(10) The term 'local government' means any political subdivision of, or any special entity created by, any coastal state which (in whole or part) is located in, or has authority over, such state's coastal zone and which (A) has authority to levy taxes, or to establish and collect user fees, or (B) provides any public facility or public service which is financed in whole or part by taxes or user fees. The term includes, but is not limited to, any school district, fire district, transportation authority, and any other special purpose district or authority."; 90 STAT. 1014 136 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 (8) by striking out '5(g) 'Management" and inserting in lieu thereof "(11) The term 'management"; (9) by inserting immediately after paragraph (11) (as redesig- nated by paragraph (8) of this section) the following: "(12) The term 'outer Continental Shelf energy activity' means any exploration for, or any development or production of, oil or natu- ral gas from the outer Continental Shelf (as defined in section 2(a) of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (43 U.S.C. 1331 (a) ) ), or the siting, construction, expansion, or operation of any new or expanded energy facilities directly required by such exploration, development, or production. "(13) The term 'person' means any individual; any corporation, partnership, association, or other entity organized or existing under the laws of any state; the Federal Government; any state, regional, or local government; or any entity of any such Federal, state, regional, or local government. "(14) The term 'public facilities and public services' means facili- ties or services which are financed, in whole or in part, by any state or political subdivision thereof, including, but not limited to, highways and secondary roads, parking, mass transit, docks, navigation aids, fire and police protection, water supply, waste collection and treat- ment (including drainage), schools and education, and hospitals and health care. Such term may also include any other facility or service so financed which the Secretary finds will support increased population. "(15) The term 'Secretary' means the Secretary of Commerce."; (10) by striking out "(h) 'Water" and inserting in lieu thereof "(16) The term 'water"; and (11) by striking out paragraph (i). SEC. 4. MANAGEMENT PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT GRANTS. Section 305 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1454) is amended to read as follows: 1"MANAGEMENT PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT GRANTS "SEc. 305. (a) The Secretary may make grants to any coastal state- "(1) under subsection (c) for the purpose of assisting such state in the development of a management program for the land and water resources of its coastal zone; and "(2) under subsection (d) for the purpose of assisting such state in the completion of the development, and the initial imple- mentation, of its management program before such state qualifies for administrative grants under section 306. Post, p. 1017. "(b) The management program for each coastal state shall include Requirements. each of the following requirements: "(1) An identification of the boundaries of the coastal zone subject to the management program. "(2) A definition of what shall constitute permissible land uses and water uses within the coastal zone which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. "(3) An inventory and designation of areas of particular con- cern within the coastal zone. " (4) An identification of the means by which the state proposes to exert control over the land uses and water uses referred to in 90 STAT, 1015 APPENDIX 5 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 paragraph (2), including a listing of relevant constitutional pro- visions, laws, regulations, and judicial decisions. "(5) Broad guidelines on priorities of uses in particular areas, including specifically those uses of lowest priority. "(6) A description of the organizational structure proposed to implement such management program, including the responsi- bilities and interrelationships of local, areawide, state, regional, and interstate agencies in the management process. "(7) A definition of the term 'beach' and a planning process for the protection of, and access to, public beaches and other public coastal areas of environmental, recreational, historical, esthetic, ecological, or cultural value. " (8) A planning process for energy facilities likely to be located in, or which may significantly affect, the coastal zone, including, but not limited to, a process for anticipating and managing the impacts from such facilities. "(9) A planning process for (A) assessing the effects of shore- line erosion (however caused), and (B) studying and evaluating ways to control, or lessen the impact of, such erosion, and to restore areas adversely affected by such erosion. No management program is required to meet the requirements in para- graphs (7), (8), and (9) before October 1, 1978. " (c) The Secretary may make a grant annually to any coastal state for the purposes described in subsection (a) (1) if such state reason- ably demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Secretary that such grant will be used to develop a management program consistent with the Post, p. 1017. requirements set forth in section 306. The amount of any such grant shall not exceed 80 per centum of such state's costs for such purposes in any one year. No coastal state is eligible to receive more than four grants pursuant to this subsection. After the initial grant is made to any coastal state pursuant to this subsection, no subsequent grant shall be made to such state pursuant to this subsection unless the Secretary finds that such state is satisfactorily developing its management program. "(d) (1) The Secretary may make a grant annually to any coastal state for the purposes described in subsection (a) (2) if the Secretary finds that such state meets the eligibility requirements set forth in paragraph (2). The amount of any such grant shall not exceed 80 per centum of the costs for such purposes in any one year. Eligibility. "(2) A coastal state is eligible to receive grants under this subsec- tion if it has-- "(A) developed a management program which- (i) is in compliance with the rules and regulations pro- mulgated to carry out subsection (b), but "(ii) has not yet been approved by the Secretary under section 306; "(B) specifically identified, after consultation with the Secre- tary, any deficiency in such program which makes it ineligible for approval by the Secretary pursuant to section 306, and has established a reasonable time schedule during which it can remedy any such deficiency; " (C) specified the purposes for which any such grant will be used; "(D) taken or is taking adequate steps to meet any require- Post, p. 1018. ment under section 306 or 307 which involves any Federal official or agency; and 90 STAT. 1016 138 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 " (E) complied with any other requirement which the Secretary, by rules and regulations, prescribes as being necessary and appro- priate to carry out the purposes of this subsection. "(3) No management program for which grants are made under this subsection shall be considered an approved program for purposes of section 307. Post, p. 1018. "(e) Grants under this section shall be made to, and allocated among, Rules and the coastal states pursuant to rules and regulations promulgated by regulations. the Secretary; except that- "(1) no grant shall be made under this section in an amount which is more than 10 per centum of the total amount appropri- ated to carry out the purposes of this section, but the Secretary: may waive this limitation in the case of any coastal state which is eligible for grants under subsection (d) ; and "(2) no grant shall be made under this section in an amount which is less than 1 per centum of the total amount appropriated to carry out the purposes of this section, but the Secretary shall waive this limitation in the case of any coastal state which requests such a waiver. "(f) The amount of any grant (or portion thereof) made under this section which is not obligated by the coastal state concerned during the fiscal year for which it was first authorized to be obligated by such state, or during the fiscal year immediately following, Shall revert to the Secretary who shall add such amount to the funds available for grants under this section. "(g) With the approval of the Secretary, any coastal state may allo- cate to any local government, to any areawide agency designated under section 204 of the Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966, to any regional agency, or to any interstate agency, a portion of any grant received by it under this section for the pur- pose of carrying out the provisions of this section. "'(h) Any coastal state which has completed the development of its management program shall submit such program to the Secretary for review and approval pursuant to section 306. Whenever the Secretary Infra. approves the management program of any coastal state under section 306, such state thereafter- "(1) shall not be eligible for grants under this section; except that such state may receive grants under subsection (c) in order to comply 'with the requirements of paragraphs (7), (8), and (9) of subsection (b); and "(2) shall be eligible for grants under section 306. "(i) The authority to make grants under this section shall expire on Expiration September 30, 1979.". date. SEC. 5. ADMINISTRATIVE GRANTS. Section 306 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1455) is amended- (1) by amending subsection (a) to read as follows: "(a) The Secretary may make a grant annually to any coastal state for not more than 80 per centum of the costs of administering such state's management program if the Secretary (1) finds that such pro- gram meets the requirements of section 305 (b), and (2) approves such Ante, p. 1015. program in accordance with subsections (c), (d), and (e)."; (2) by amending subsection (c) (2) (B) by striking out the period at the end thereof and inserting in lieu thereof the follow- ing: "; except that the Secretary shall not find any mechanism to be 'effective' for purposes of this subparagraph unless it includes each of the following requirements: 90 STAT. 1017 APPENDIX 5 139 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 Notice. "(i) Such management agency is required, before imple- menting any management program decision which would conflict with any local zoning ordinance, decision, or other action, to send a notice of such management program decision to any local government whose zoning authority is affected thereby. "(ii) Any such notice shall provide that such local govern- ment may, within the 30-day period commencing on the date of receipt of such notice, submit to the management agency written comments on such management program decision, and any recommendation for alternatives thereto, if no action is taken during such period which would conflict or interfere with such management program decision, unless such local government waives its right to comment. "(iii) Such management agency, if any such comments are submitted to it, with such 30-day period, by any local government- "(I) is required to consider any such comments, "(II) is authorized, in its discretion, to hold a public hearing on such comments, and "(III) may not take any action within such 30-day period to implement the management program decision, whether or not modified on the basis of such comments."; (3) by amending subsection (c) (8) to read as follows- "(8) The management program provides for adequate consid- eration of the national interest involved in planning for, and in the siting of, facilities (including energy facilities in, or which significantly affect, such state's coastal zone) which are necessary to meet requirements which are other than local in nature. In the case of such energy facilities, the Secretary shall find that the state has given such consideration to any applicable interstate energy plan or program."; (4) by amending subsection (g) to. read as follows: "(g) Any coastal state may amend or modify the management pro- gram which it has submitted and which has been approved by the Sec- retary under this section, pursuant to the required procedures described in subsection (c). Except with respect to any such amendment which is made before October 1, 1978, for the purpose of complying with the Ante, p. 1015. requirements of paragraphs (7), (8), and (9) of section 305(b), no grant shall be made under this section to any coastal state after the date of such an amendment or modification, until the Secretary approves such amendment or modification.". SEC. 6. CONSISTENCY AND MEDIATION. Section 307 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1456) is amended- (1) by striking out "INTERAGENCY" in the title of such section; (2) by striking out the last sentence of subsection (b); (3) by amending subsection (c) (3) by inserting " (A) " immedi- ately after "(3)", and by adding at the end thereof the following: "(B) After the management program of any coastal state has been Ante, p. 1017. approved by the Secretary under section 306, any person who submits to the Secretary of the Interior any plan for the exploration or devel- opment of, or production from, any area which has been leased under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (43 U.S.C. 1331 et seq.) and regulations under such Act shall, with respect to any exploration, development, or production described in such plan and affecting any land use or water use in the coastal zone of such state, attach to such 90 STAT. 1018 140 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 plan a certification that each activity which is described in detail in such plan complies with such state's approved management program and will be carried out in a manner consistent with such program. No Federal official or agency shall grant such person any license or permit for any activity described in detail in such plan until such state or its designated agency receives a copy of such certification and plan, together with any other necessary data and information, and until- "(i) such state or its designated agency, in accordance with the procedures required to be established by such state pursuant to subparagraph (A), concurs with such person's certification and notifies the Secretary and the Secretary of the Interior of such concurrence; "(ii) concurrence by such state with such certification is con- clusively presumed, as provided for in subparagraph (A); or "(iii) the Secretary finds, pursuant to subparagraph (A), that each activity which is described in detail in such plan is consistent with the objectives of this title or is otherwise necessary in the interest of national security. If a state concurs or is conclusively presumed to concur, or if the Secretary makes such a finding, the provisions of subparagraph (A) are not applicable with respect to such person, such state, and any Federal license or permit which is required to conduct any activity affecting land uses or water uses in the coastal zone of such state which is described in detail in the plan to which such concurrence or find- ing applies. If such state objects to such certification and if the Secretary fails to make a finding under clause (iii) with respect to such certification, or if such person fails substantially to comply with such plan as submitted, such person shall submit an amendment to such plan, or a new plan, to the Secretary of the Interior. With respect to any amendment or new plan submitted to the Secretary of the Interior pursuant to the preceding sentence, the applicable time period for purposes of concurrence by conclusive presumption under subpara- graph (A) is 3 months."; and (4) by adding at the end thereof the following new subsec- tion: "(h) In case of serious disagreement between any Federal agency and a coastal state- "(1) in the development or the initial implementation of a management program under section 305; or Ante, p. 1015. (2) in the administration of a management program approved under section 306; Ante, p. 1017. the Secretary, with the cooperation of the Executive Office of the Presi- dent, shall seek to mediate the differences involved in such disagree- ment. The process of such mediation shall, with respect to any disagreement described in paragraph (2), include public hearings which shall be conducted in the local area concerned.". SEC. 7. COASTAL ENERGY IMPACT PROGRAM. The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 is further amended by redesignating sections 308 through 315 as sections 311 through 318, 16 USC 1457- respectively; and by inserting immediately after section 307 the 1464. following: 49COASTAL ENERGY IMPACT PROGOAM "SEC. 308. (a) (1) The Secretary shall administer and coordinate, 16 Usc 1456a. as part of the coastal zone management activities of the Federal Gov- ernment provided for under this title, a coastal energy impact program. Such program shall consist of the provision of financial 90 STAT, 1019 APPENDIX 5 141 Pub. Law 94-370 - 8 - July 26, 1976 assistance to meet the needs of coastal states and local governments in such states resulting from specified activities involving energy devel- opment. Such assistance, which includes- "(A) grants, under subsection (b), to coastal states for the purposes set forth in subsection (b) (4) with respect to conse- quences resulting from the energy activities specified therein; "(B) grants, under subsection (c), to coastal states for study of, and planning for, consequences relating to new or expanded energy facilities in, or which significantly affect, the coastal zone; " (C) loans, under subsection (d) (1), to coastal states and units of general purpose local government to assist such states and units to provide new or improved public facilities or public serv- ices which are required as a result of coastal energy activity; "(D) guarantees, under subsection (d) (2) and subject to the provisions of subsection (f), of bonds or other evidences of in- debtedness issued by coastal states and units of general purpose local government for the purpose of providing new or improved public facilities or public services which are required as a result of coastal energy activity; "(E) grants or other assistance, under subsection (d) (3), to coastal states and units of general purpose local government to enable such states and units to meet obligations under loans or guarantees under subsection (d) (1) or (2) which they are unable to meet as they mature, for reasons specified in subsection (d) (3); and "(F) grants, under subsection (d)(4), to coastal states which have suffered, are suffering, or will suffer any unavoidable loss of a valuable environmental or recreational resource; shall be provided, administered, and coordinated by the Secretary in accordance with the provisions of this section and under the rules and regulations required to be promulgated pursuant to paragraph (2). Any such financial assistance shall be subject to audit under section Post, p. 1030. 313. Rules and regu- "(2) The Secretary shall promulgate, in accordance with section 317, lations. such rules and regulations (including, but not limited to, those 16 USC 1463. required under subsection (e)) as may be necessary and appropriate to carry out the provisions of this section. " (b) (1) The Secretary shall make grants annually to coastal states, in accordance with the provisions of this subsection. Calculations. '(2) The amounts granted to coastal states under this subsection shall be, with respect to any such state for any fiscal year, the sum of the amounts calculated, with respect to such state, pursuant to subpara- graphs (A), (B), (C),and (D): "(A) An amount which bears, to one-third of the amount appropriated for the purpose of funding grants under this subsec- tion for such fiscal year, the same ratio that the amount of outer Continental Shelf acreage which is adjacent to such state and which is newly leased by the Federal Government in the immedi- ately preceding fiscal year bears to the total amount of outer Continental Shelf acreage which is newly leased by the Federal Government in such preceding year. "(B) An amount which bears, to one-sixth of the amount appropriated for such purpose for such fiscal year, the same ratio that the volume of oil and natural gas produced in the immediately preceding fiscal year from the outer Continental Shelf acreage which is adjacent to such state and which is leased by the Federal 90 STAT. 1020 142 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 Government bears to the total volume of oil and natural gas pro- duced in such year from all of the outer Continental Shelf acre- age which is leased by the Federal Government. "(C) An amount which bears, to one-sixth of the amount appropriated for such purpose for such fiscal year, the same ratio that the volume of oil and natural gas produced from outer Con- tinental Shelf acreage leased by the Federal Government which is first landed in such state in the immediately preceding fiscal year bears to the total volume of oil and natural gas produced from all outer Continental Shelf acreage leased by the Federal Government which is first landed in all of the coastal states in such year. "(D) An amount which bears, to one-third of the amount appropriated for such purpose for such fiscal year, the same ratio that the number of individuals residing in such state in the imme- diately preceding fiscal year who obtain new employment in such year as a result of new or expanded outer Continental Shelf energy activities bears to the total number of individuals residing in all of the coastal states in such year who obtain new employment in such year as a result of such outer Continental Shelf energy activities. "(3) (A) The Secretary shall determine annually the amounts of the grants to be provided under this subsection and shall collect and evaluate such information as may be necessary to make such deter- minations. Each Federal department, agency, and instrumentality shall provide to the Secretary such assistance in collecting and evaluat- ing relevant information as the Secretary may request. The Secretary shall request the assistance of any appropriate state agency in collect- ing and evaluating such information. "(B) For purposes of making calculations under paragraph (2), outer Continental Shelf acreage is adjacent to a particular coastal state if such acreage lies on that state's side of the extended lateral seaward boundaries of such state. The extended lateral seaward boundaries of a coastal state shall be determined as follows: "(i) If lateral seaward 'boundaries have been clearly defined or fixed by an interstate compact, agreement, or judicial decision (if entered into, agreed to, or issued before the date of the enactment of this paragraph), such boundaries shall be extended on the basis of the principles of delimitation used to so define or fix them in such compact, agreement, or decision. "(ii) If no lateral seaward boundaries, or any portion thereof, have been clearly defined or fixed by an interstate compact, agree- ment, or judicial decision, lateral seaward boundaries shall be determined according to the applicable principles of law, includ- ing the principles of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, and extended on the basis of such principles. "(iii) If, after the date of enactment of this paragraph, two or more coastal states enter into or amend an interstate compact or agreement in order to clearly define or fix lateral seaward bound- aries, such boundaries shall thereafter be extended on the basis of the principles of delimitation used to so define or fix them in such compact or agreement. "(C) For purposes of making calculations under this subsection, the transitional quarter beginning July 1, 1976, and ending Septem- ber 30, 1976, shall be included within the fiscal year ending June 30, 1976. 90 STAT. 1021 APPENDI 5 143 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 "(4) Each coastal state shall use the proceeds of grants received by it under this subsection for the following purposes (except that priority shall be given to the use of such proceeds for the purpose set forth in subparagraph (A)): "(A) The retirement of state and local bonds, if any, which are guaranteed under subsection (d) (2); except that, if the amount of such grants is insufficient to retire both state and local bonds, priority shall be given to retiring local bonds. "(B) The study of, planning for, development of, and the carrying out of projects and programs in such state which are- "(i) necessary, because of the unavailability of adequate financing under any other subsection, to provide new or improved public facilities and public services which are required as a direct result of new or expanded outer Conti- nental Shelf energy activity; and "(ii) of a type approved by the Secretary as eligible for grants under this paragraph, except that the Secretary may not disapprove any project or program for highways and secondary roads, docks, navigation aids, fire and police pro- tection, water supply, waste collection and treatment (including drainage), schools and education, and hospitals and health care. "(C) The prevention, reduction, or amelioration of any unavoidable loss in such state's coastal zone of any valuable environmental or recreational resource if such loss results from coastal energy activity. "(5) The Secretary, in a timely manner, shall determine that each coastal state has expended or committed, and may determine that such state will expend or commit, grants which such state has received under this subsection in accordance with the purposes set forth in paragraph (4). The United States shall be entitled to recover from any coastal state an amount equal to any portion of any such grant received by such state under this subsection which- "(A) is not expended or committed by such state before the close of the fiscal year immediately following the fiscal year in which the grant was disbursed, or "(B) is expended or committed by such state for any purpose other than a purpose set forth in paragraph (4). Before disbursing the proceeds of any grant under this subsection to any coastal state, the Secretary shall require such state to provide adequate assurances of being able to return to the United States any amounts to which the preceding sentence may apply. " (c) The Secretary shall make grants to any coastal state if the Sec- retary finds that the coastal zone of such state is being, or is likely to be, significantly affected by the siting, construction, expansion, or oper- ation of new or expanded energy facilities. Such grants shall be used for the study of, and planning for (including, but not limited to, the application of the planning process included in a management pro- Ante, p. lt15. gram pursuant to section 305 (b) (8)) any economic, social, or environ- mental consequence which has occurred, is occurring, or is likely to occur in such state's coastal zone as a result of the siting, construction, expansion, or operation of such new or expanded energy facilities. The amount of any such grant shall not exceed 80 per centum of the cost of such study and planning. Loans. "(d) (1) The Secretary shall make loans to any coastal state and to any unit of general purpose local government to assist such state or unit to provide new or improved public facilities or public services, or 90 STAT. 1022 144 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 both, which are required as a result of coastal energy activity. Such loans shall be made solely pursuant to this title, and no such loan shall require as a condition thereof that any such state or unit pledge its full faith and credit to the repayment thereof. No loan shall be made under this paragraph after September 30, 1986. "(2) The Secretary shall, subject to the provisions of subsection (f), guarantee, or enter into commitments to guarantee, the payment of interest on, and the principal amount of, any bond or other evidence of indebtedness if it is issued by a coastal state or a unit of general purpose local government for the purpose of providing new or improved public facilities or public services, or both, which are required as a result of a coastal energy activity. "(3) If the Secretary finds that any coastal state or unit of general purpose local government is unable to meet its obligations pursuant to a loan or guarantee made under paragraph (1) or (2) because the actual increases in employment and related population resulting from coastal energy activity and the facilities associated with such activity do not provide adequate revenues to enable such state or unit to meet such obligations in accordance with the appropriate repayment sched- ule, the Secretary shall, after review of the information submitted by such state or unit pursuant to subsection (e)(3), take any of the following actions: "(A) Modify appropriately the terms and conditions of such loan or guarantee. "' ((B) Refinance such loan. "(C) Make a supplemental loan to such state or unit the pro- ceeds of which shall be applied to the payment of principal and interest due under such loan or guarantee. "(D) Make a grant to such state or unit the proceeds of which shall be applied to the payment of principal and interest due under such loan or guarantee. Notwithstanding the preceding sentence, if the Secretary- "(i) has taken action under subparagraph (A), (B), or (C) with respect to any loan or guarantee made under paragraph (1) or (2), and "(ii) finds that additional action under subparagraph (A), (B), or (C) will not enable such state or unit to meet, within a reasonable time, its obligations under such loan or guarantee and any additional obligations related to such loan or guarantee; the Secretary shall make a grant or grants under subparagraph (D) to such state or unit in an amount sufficient to enable such state or unit to meet such outstanding obligations. " (4) The Secretary shall make grants to any coastal state to enable such state to prevent, reduce, or ameliorate any unavoidable loss in such state's coastal zone of any valuable environmental or recreational resource, if such loss results from coastal energy activity, if the Secre- tary finds that such state has not received amounts under subsection (b) which are sufficient to prevent, reduce, or ameliorate such loss. "(e) Rules and regulations with respect to the following matters Rules and regu- shall be promulgated by the Secretary as soon as practicable, but not lations. later than 270 days after the date of the enactment of this section: "(1) A formula and procedures for apportioning equitably, Financial assist- among the coastal states, the amounts which are available for the ance, formula provision of financial assistance under subsection (d). Such for- and procedures. mula shall be based on, and limited to, the following factors: "(A) The number of additional individuals who are expected to become employed in new or expanded coastal 90 STAT. 1023 APPENDIX 5 145 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 energy activity, and the related new population, who reside in the respective coastal states. "(B) The standardized unit costs (as determined by the Secretary by rule), in the relevant regions of such states, for new or improved public facilities and public services which are required as a result of such expected employment and the related new population. "(2) Criteria under which the Secretary shall review each coastal state's compliance with the requirements of subsection (g) (2). Criteria and pro- "(3) Criteria and procedures for evaluating the extent to which cedures for repay- any loan or guarantee under subsection (d) (1) or (2) which is ment. applied for by any coastal state or unit of general purpose local government can be repaid through its ordinary methods and rates for generating tax revenues. Such procedures shall require such state or unit to submit to the Secretary such information which is specified by the Secretary to be necessary for such evaluation, including, but not limited to- "(A) a statement as to the number of additional indi- viduals who are expected to become employed in the new or expanded coastal energy activity involved, and the related new population, who reside in such state or unit; "(B) a description, and the estimated costs, of the new or improved public facilities or public services needed or likely to be needed as a result of such expected employment and related new population; "(C) a projection of such state's or unit's estimated tax receipts during such reasonable time thereafter, not to exceed 30 years, which will be available for the repayment of such loan or guarantee; and " (D) a proposed repayment schedule. The procedures required by this paragraph shall also provide for the periodic verification, review, and modification (if necessary) by the Secretary of the information or other material required to be submitted pursuant to this paragraph. "(4) Requirements, terms, and conditions (which may include the posting of security) which shall be imposed by the Secretary, in connection with loans and guarantees made under subsections (d) (1) and (2), in order to assure repayment within the time fixed, to assure that the proceeds thereof may not be used to pro- vide public services for an unreasonable length of time, and other- wise to protect the financial interests of the United States. Interest rate. "(5) Criteria under which the Secretary shall establish rates of interest on loans made under subsections (d) (1) and (3). Such rates shall not exceed the current average market yield on out- standing marketable obligations of the United States with remaining periods to maturity comparable to the maturity of such loans. In developing rules and regulations under this subsection, the Secre- tary shall, to the extent practicable, request the views of, or consult with, appropriate persons regarding impacts resulting from coastal energy activity. "(f) (1) Bonds or other evidences of indebtedness guaranteed under subsection (d) (2) shall be guaranteed on such terms and conditions as the Secretary shall prescribe, except that- " (A) no guarantee shall be made unless the indebtedness involved will be completely amortized within a reasonable period, not to exceed 30 years; 90 STAT. 1024 146 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 "(B) no guarantee shall be made unless the Secretary determines that such bonds or other evidences of indebtedness will- "(i) be issued only to investors who meet the requirements prescribed by the Secretary, or, if an offering to the public is. contemplated, be underwritten upon terms and conditions approved by the Secretary; "(ii) bear interest at a rate found not to be excessive by the Secretary; and "(iii) contain, or be subject to, repayment, maturity, and other provisions which are satisfactory to the Secretary; "(C) the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury shall be required with respect to any such guarantee, unless the Secretary of the Treasury waives such approval; and "(D) no guarantee shall be made after September 30, 1986. "(2) The full faith and credit of the United States is pledged to the payment, under paragraph (5), of any default on any indebted- ness guaranteed under subsection (d) (2). Any such guarantee made by the Secretary shall be conclusive evidence of the eligibility of the obligation involved for such guarantee, and the validity of any such guarantee so made shall be incontestable in the hands of a holder of the guaranteed obligation, except for fraud or material misrepre- sentation on the part of the holder, or known to the holder at the time acquired. '(3) The Secretary shall prescribe and collect fees in connection Fees. with guarantees made under subsection (d) (2). These fees may not exceed the amount which the Secretary estimates to be necessary to cover the administrative costs pertaining to such guarantees. "(4) The interest paid on any obligation which is guaranteed under subsection (d) (2) and which is received by the purchaser thereof (or the purchaser's successor in interest), shall be included in gross income for the purpose of chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954. 26 USC I et The Secretary may pay out of the Fund to the coastal state or the unit seq. of general purpose local government issuing such obligations not more than such portion of the interest on such obligations as exceeds the amount of interest that would be due at a comparable rate determined for loans made under subsection (d) (1). "(5) (A) Payments required to be made as a result of any guaran- tee made under subsection (d) (2) shall be made by the Secretary from sums appropriated to the Fund or from moneys obtained from the Sec- retary of the Treasury pursuant to paragraph (6). "(B) If there is a default by a coastal state or unit of general pur- pose local government in any payment of principal or interest due under a bond or other evidence of indebtedness guaranteed by the Secretary under subsection (d) (2), any holder of such bond or other evidence of indebtedness may demand payment by the Secretary of the unpaid interest on and the unpaid principal of such obligation as they become due. The Secretary, after investigating the facts presented by the holder, shall pay to the holder the amount which is due such holder, unless the Secretary finds that there was no default by such state or unit or that such default has been remedied. "(C) If the Secretary makes a payment to a holder under subpara- graph (B), the Secretary shall- "(i) have all of the rights granted to the Secretary or the United States by law or by agreement with the obligor; and " (ii) be subrogated to all of the rights which were granted such holder, by law, assignment, or security agreement between such holder and the obligor. 90 STAT. 1025 ~~~~~~~~I ~~APPENDIX 5 147 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 Such rights shall include, but not be limited to, a right of reimburse- ment to the United States against the coastal state or unit of general purpose local government for which the payment was made for the amount of such payment plus interest at the prevailing current rate as determined by the Secretary. If such coastal state, or the coastal state in which such unit is located, is due to receive any amount under sub- section (b), the Secretary shall, in lieu of paying such amount to such state, deposit such amount in the Fund until such right of reim- bursement has been satisfied. The Secretary may accept, in complete or partial satisfaction of any such rights, a conveyance of property or interests therein. Any property so obtained by the Secretary may be completed, maintained, operated, held, rented, sold, or otherwise dealt with or disposed of on such terms or conditions as the Secretary prescribes or approves. If, in any case, the sum received through the sale of such property is greater than the amount paid to the holder under subparagraph (D) plus costs, the Secretary shall pay any such excess to the obligor. "(D) The Attorney General shall, upon the request of the Secretary, take such action as may be appropriate to enforce any right accruing to the Secretary or the United States as a result of the making of any guarantee under subsection (d) (2). Any sums received through any sale under subparagraph (C) or recovered pursuant to this subpara- graph shall be paid into the Fund. "(6) If the moneys available to the Secretary are not sufficient to pay any amount which the Secretary is obligated to pay under para- graph (5), the Secretary shall issue to the Secretary of the Treasury notes or other obligations (only to such extent and in such amounts as may be provided for in appropriation Acts) in such forms and denomi- nations, bearing such maturities, and subject to such terms and con- ditions as the Secretary of the Treasury prescribes. Such notes or other obligations shall bear interest at a rate determined by the Secre- tary of the Treasury on the basis of the current average market yield on outstanding marketable obligations of the United States on com- parable maturities during the month preceding the issuance of such notes or other obligations. Any sums received by the Secretary through such issuance shall be deposited in the Fund. The Secretary of the Treasury shall purchase any notes or other obligations issued under this paragraph, and for this purpose such Secretary may use as a public debt transaction the proceeds from the sale of any securities 31 Usc 774. issued under the Second Liberty Bond Act, as now or hereafter in force. The purposes for which securities may be issued under that Act are extended to include any purchase of notes or other obligations issued under this paragraph. The Secretary of the Treasury may at any time sell any of the notes or other obligations so acquired under this paragraph. All redemptions, purchases, and sales of such notes or other obligations by the Secretary of the Treasury shall be treated as public debt transactions of the United States. "(g) (1) No coastal state is eligible to receive any financial assist- ance under this section unless such state- "(A) has a management program which has been approved Ante, p. 1017. under section 306; Ante, p. 1015. (B) is receiving a grant under section 305(c) or (d); or "(C) is, in the judgment of the Secretary, making satisfactory progress toward the development of a management program 16 USC 1433. which is consistent with the policies set forth in section 303. 90 STAT. 1026 148 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 "(2) Each coastal state shall, to the maximum extent practicable, provide that financial assistance provided under this section be appor- tioned, allocated, and granted to units of local government within such state on a basis which is proportional to the extent to which such units need such assistance. "(h) There is established in the Treasury of the United States the Coastal Energy Coastal Energy Impact Fund. The Fund shall be available to the Sec- Impact Fund. retary without fiscal year limitation as a revolving fund for the Establishment. purposes of carrying out subsections (c) and (d). The Fund shall consist of- "(1) any sums appropriated to the Fund; "(2) payments of principal and interest received under any loan made under subsection (d) (1); "(3) any fees received in connection with any guarantee made under subsection (d) (2); and "(4) any recoveries and receipts under security, subrogation, and other rights and authorities described in subsection (f). All payments made by the Secretary to carry out the provisions of subsections (c), (d), and (f) (including reimbursements to other Government accounts) shall be paid from the Fund, only to the extent provided for in appropriation Acts. Sums in the Fund which are not currently needed for the purposes of subsections (c), (d), and (f) shall be kept on deposit or invested in obligations of, or guaranteed by, the United States. "(i) The Secretary shall not intercede in any land use or water use decision of any coastal state with respect to the siting of any energy facility or public facility by making siting in a particular location a prerequisite to, or a condition of, financial assistance under this section. "(j) The Secretary may evaluate, and report to the Congress, on the efforts of the coastal states and units of local government therein to reduce or ameliorate adverse consequences resulting from coastal energy activity and on the extent to which such efforts involve adequate consideration of alternative sites. "(k) To the extent that Federal funds are available under, or pur- suant to, any other law with respect to- "(1) study and planning for which financial assistance may be provided under subsection (b) (4) (B) and (c), or "(2) public facilities and public services for which financial assistance may be provided under subsection (b) (4) (B) and (d), the Secretary shall, to the extent practicable, administer such sub- sections- "(A) on the basis that the financial assistance shall be in addi- tion to, and not in lieu of, any Federal funds which any coastal state or unit of general purpose local government may obtain under any other. law; and " (B) to avoid duplication. "(1) As used in this section- Definitions. "(1) The term 'retirement', when used with respect to bonds, means the redemption in full and the withdrawal from circula- tion of those which cannot be repaid by the issuing jurisdiction in accordance with the appropriate repayment schedule. "(2) The term 'unavoidable', when used with respect to a loss of any valuable environmental or recreational resource, means a loss, in whole or in part- "(A) the costs of prevention, reduction, or amelioration of which cannot be directly or indirectly attributed to, or assessed against, any identifiable person; and 90 STAT, 1027 APPENDIX 5 149 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 "(B) cannot be paid for with funds which are available under, or pursuant to, any provision of Federal law other than this section. "(3) The term 'unit of general purpose local government' means 'any political subdivision of any coastal state or any special entity created by such a state or subdivision which (in whole or part) is located in, or has authority over, such state's coastal zone, and which (A) has authority to levy taxes or establish and collect user fees, and (B) provides any public facility or public service which is financed in whole or part by taxes or user fees.". SEC. 8. INTERSTATE GRANTS. The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 is further amended by adding immediately after section 308 (as added by section 7 of this Act) the following: "INTERSTATE GRANTS 16 USC 1456b. "SEc. 309. (a) The coastal states are encouraged to give high priority- "(1) to coordinating state coastal zone planning, policies, and programs with respect to contiguous areas of such states; and "(2) to studying, planning, and implementing unified coastal zone policies with respect to such areas. Such coordination, study, planning, and implementation may be con- ducted pursuant to interstate agreements or compacts. The Secretary may make grants annually, in amounts not to exceed 90 per centum of the cost of such coordination, study, planning, or implementation, if the Secretary finds that the proceeds of such grants will be used for Ante. 1015 purposes consistent with sections 305 and 306. 1017. "(b) The consent of the Congress is hereby given to two or more Agreements or coastal states to negotiate, and to enter into, agreements or compacts, compact. which do not conflict with any law or treaty of the United States, for- "(1) developing and administering coordinated coastal zone planning, policies, and programs pursuant to sections 305 and 306; and "(2) establishing executive instrumentalities or agencies which such states deem desirable for the effective implementation of such agreements or compacts. Such agreements or compacts shall be binding and obligatory upon any state or party thereto without further approved by the Congress. "(c) Each executive instrumentality or agency which is established by an interstate agreement or compact pursuant to this section is encouraged to adopt a Federal-State consultation procedure for the identification, examination, and cooperative resolution of mutual prob- lems with respect to the marine and coastal areas which affect, directly or indirectly, the applicable coastal zone. The Secretary, the Secretary of the Interior, the Chairman of the Council on Environmental Qual- ity, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating, and the Administrator of the Federal Energy Administration, or their designated representatives, shall participate ex officio on behalf of the Federal Government whenever any such Federal-State consultation is requested by such an instrumentality or agency. "(d) If no applicable interstate agreement or compact exists, the Secretary may coordinate coastal zone activities described in sub- section (a) and may make grants to assist any group of two or more coastal states to create and maintain a temporary planning and coordinating entity to- 90 STAT. 1028 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 "(1) coordinate state coastal zone planning, policies, and pro- grams with respect to contiguous areas of the states 'involved; "(2) study, plan, and implement unified coastal zone policies with respect to such areas; and "(3) establish an effective mechanism, and adopt a Federal- State consultation procedure, for the identification, examination, and cooperative resolution of mutual problems with respect to the marine and coastal areas which affect, directly or indirectly, the applicable coastal zone. The amount of such grants shall not exceed 90 per centum of the cost of creating and maintaining such an entity. The Federal officials specified in subsection (c), or their designated representatives, shall participate on behalf of the Federal Government, upon the request of any such temporary planning and coordinating entity."'!. SEC. 9. RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE. The Coastal Management Act of 1972 is further amended by adding immediately after section 309 (as added by section 8 of this Act) the following: "RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMEN'T "SEC. 310. (a) The Secretary may conduct a program of research, 16 usC 1456c. study, and training to support the development and implementation of management programs. Each department, agency, and instrumentality of the executive branch of the Federal Government may assist the Secretary, on a reimbursable basis or otherwise, in carrying out the purposes of this section, including, [but not limited to, the furnishing of information to the extent permitted by law, the transfer of personnel with their consent and without prejudice to their position and rating, and the performance of any research, study, and training which does not interfere with the performance of the primary duties of such department, agency, or instrumentality. The Secretary may enter into Contracts or contracts or other arrangements with any qualified person for the pur- other arrange- poses of carrying out this subsection. ments. " (b) The Secretary may make grants to coastal states to assist such states in carrying out research, studies, and training required with respect to coastal zone management. The amount of any grant made under this subsection shall not exceed 80 per centum of the cost of such research, studies, and training. "(c) (1) The Secretary shall provide for the coordination of research, studies, and training activities under this section with any other such activities that are conducted by, or subject to the authority of, the Secretary. "(2) The Secretary shall make the results of research conducted pursuant to this section available to any interested person.". SEC. 10. REVIEW OF PERFORMANCE. Section 312(a) of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as redesignated by section 7 of this Act (16 U.S.C. 1458(a)) is amended to read as follows: "(a) The Secretary shall conduct a continuing review of- "(1) the management programs of the coastal states and the performance of such states with respect to coastal zone manage- ment; and "(2) the coastal energy impact program provided for under section 308.". Ante, p. 1017. 90 STAT. 1029 APPENDIX 55 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 SEC. 11. AUDIT OF TRANSACTIONS. Section 313 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as redesig- nated by section 7 of this Act (16 U.S.C. 1459), is amended-- (1) by inserting "AND AUDIT" after "RECORDs" in the title of such section; (2) by amending subsection (a)- (A) by inserting immediately after "grant under this title" the following: "or of financial assistance under section 308", and (B) by inserting after "received under the grant" the fol- lowing: "and of the proceeds of such assistance"; and (3) by amending subsection (b) to read as follows: "(b) The Secretary and the Comptroller General of the United States, or any of their duly authorized representatives, shall- "(1) after any grant is made under this title or any financial Ante, p. 1017. assistance is provided under section 308(d); and "(2) until the expiration of 3 years after- "(A) completion of the project, program, or other under- taking for which such grant was made or used, or "(B) repayment of the loan or guaranteed indebtedness for which such financial assistance was provided, have access for purposes of audit and examination to any record, book, document, and paper which belongs to or is used or controlled by, any recipient of the grant funds or any person who entered into any trans- action relating to such financial assistance and which is pertinent for purposes of determining if the grant funds or the proceeds of such financial assistance are being, or were, used in accordance with the provisions of this title.". SEC. 12. ACQUISITION OF ACCESS TO PUBLIC BEACHES AND OTHER PUBLIC COASTAL AREAS. Section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as redes- ignated by section 7 of this Act (16 U.S.C. 1461), is amended to read as follows: "ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES AND BEACH ACCESS "SEC. 315. The Secretary may, in accordance with this section and in accordance with such rules and regulations as the Secretary shall promulgate, make grants to any coastal state for the purpose of- "(1) acquiring, developing, or operating estuarine sanctuaries, to serve as natural field laboratories in which to study and gather data on the natural and human processes occurring within the estuaries of the coastal zone; and " (2) acquiring lands to provide for access to public beaches and other public coastal areas of environmental, recreational, historical, esthetic, ecological, or cultural value, and for the pres- ervation of islands. The amount of any such grant shall not exceed 50 per centum of the cost of the project involved; except that, in the case of acquisition of any estuarine sanctuary, the Federal share of the cost thereof shall not exceed $2,000,000.". SEC. 13. ANNUAL REPORT. The second sentence of section 316(a) of the Coastal Zone Manage- ment Act of 1972, as redesignated by section 7 of this Act (16 U.S.C. 1462(a)), is amended by striking out "and (9)" and inserting in lieu thereof "(12)"; and by inserting immediately after clause (8) the following: "(9) a description of the economic, environmental, and 90 STAT, 1030 152 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 social consequences of energy activity affecting the coastal zone and an evaluation of the effectiveness of financial assistance under section 308 in dealing with such consequences; (10) a description and evaluation of applicable interstate and regional planning and coordination mechanisms developed by the coastal states; (11) a summary and evaluation of the research, studies, and training conducted in support of coastal zone management; and". SEC. 14. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. Section 318 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as redesig- nated by section 7 of this Act (16 U.S.C. 1464), is amended to read as follows: C"AUTrHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS "SEC. 318. (a) There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary- "(1) such sums, not to exceed $20,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30,1978, and Septem- ber 30, 1979, respectively, as may be necessary for grants under section 305, to remain available until expended; "(2) such sums, not to exceed $50,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30, 1978, Septem- ber 30, 1979, and September 30, 1980, respectively, as may be necessary for grants under section 306, to remain available until expended; "(3) such sums, not to exceed $50,000,000 for each of the 8 fiscal years occurring during the period beginning October 1,1976, and ending September 30, 1984, as may be necessary for grants under section 308(b); Ante, p. 1017. "(4) such sums, not to exceed $5,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30, 1978, Septem- ber 30, 1979, and September 30,1980, respectively, as may be neces- sary for grants under section 309, to remain available until Ante, p. 1028. expended; " (5) such sums, not to exceed $10,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30, 1978, Septem- ber 30, 1979; and September 30, 1980, respectively, as may be neces- sary for financial assistance under section 310, of which 50 per centum shall be for financial assistance under section 310(a) and 50 per centum shall be for financial assistance under section 310(b), to remain available until expended; "(6) such sums, not to exceed $6,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30. 1978, Septem- ber 30, 1979, and September 30, 1980, respectively, as may be neces- sary for grants under section 315(1), to remain available until expended; "(7) such sums, not to exceed $25,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30, 1978, September 30, 1979, and September 30, 1980, respectively, as may be neces- sary for grants under section 315(2), to remain available until expended; and "(8) such sums, not to exceed $5,000,000 for each of the fiscal years ending September 30, 1977, September 30, 1978, Septem- ber 30, 1979, and September 30, 1980, respectively, as may be necessary for administrative expenses incident to the adminis- tration of this title. "(b) There are authorized to be appropriated until October 1, 1986, to the Fund, such sums, not to exceed $800,000,000, for the purposes of 90 STAT, 1031 APPENDIX 5 Pub. Law 94-370 July 26, 1976 Ante, p. 1017. carrying out the provisions of section 308, other than subsection (b), of which not to exceed $50,000,000 shall be for purposes of subsections (c) and (d) (4) of such section. "(c) Federal funds received from other sources shall not be used Ante,p. 101s, to pay a coastal state's share of costs under section 305, 306, 309, or 1017, 1028, 310.". 1029. SEC. 15. ADMINISTRATION. 15 USC 151lla. (a) There shall be in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration an Associate Administrator for Coastal Zone Manage- ment, who shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Such Associate Administrator shall be an individual who is, by reason of background and experience, especially qualified to direct the implementation and administration of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1451 et seq.). Such Associate Administrator shall be compensated at the rate now or here- after provided for level V of the Executive Schedule Pay Rates (5 U.S.C. 5316). (b) Section 5316 of title 5, United States Code, is amended by adding at the end thereof the following new paragraph: "(140) Associate Administrator for Coastal Zone Manage- ment, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.". 15 USC 151 la (c) The Secretary may, to carry out the provisions of the amend- note. ments made by this Act, establish, and fix the compensation for, four new positions without regard to the provision of chapter 51 of title 5, United States Code, at rates not in excess of the maximum rate for 5 USC 5332 note. GS-18 of the General Schedule under section 5332 of such title. Any such appointment may, at the discretion of the Secretary, be made without regard to the provisions of such title 5 governing appoint- ments in the competitive service. SEC. 16. SHELLFISH SANITATION REGULATIONS. 16 USC 1462 (a) The Secretary of Commerce shall- note. (1) undertake a comprehensive review of all aspects of the molluscan shellfish industry, including, but not limited to, the harvesting, processing, and transportation of such shellfish; and (2) evaluate the impact of Federal law concerning water qual- ity on the molluscan shellfish industry. Report to The Secretary of Commerce shall, not later than April 30, 1977, sub- Congress. mit a report to the Congress of the findings, comments, and recom- mendations (if any) which result from such review and evaluation. 90 STATS 1032 154 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK July 26, 1976 Pub. Law 94-370 (b) The Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare shall not pro- Analysis, mulgate final regulations concerning the national shellfish safety pro- publication. gram before June 80, 1977. At least 60 days prior to the promulgation of any such regulations, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Wel- fare, in consultation with the Secretary of Commerce, shall publish an analysis (1) of the economic impact of such regulations on the domestic shellfish industry, and (2) the cost of such national shellfish safety program relative to the benefits that it is expected to achieve. Approved July 26, 1976. LEGISLATIVE HISTORY: HOUSE REPORTS: No. 94-878 accompanying H. R. 3981 (Comm. on Merchant Marine and Fisheries) and No. 94-1298 (Comm. of Conference). SENATE REPORTS: No. 94-277 (Comm. on Commerce) and No. 94-987 (Comm. of Conference). CONGRESSIONAL RECORD: Vol. 121 (1975): July 16, considered and passed Senate. Vol. 122 (1976): Mar. 11, considered and passed House, amended, in lieu of H. R. 3981. June 29, Senate agreed to conference report. June 30, House agreed to conference report. WEEKLY COMPILATION CF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS: Vol. 12, No. 31 (1976): July 26, Presidential statement. 0 90 STAT. 1033 Appendix 6 Accuracy Standards I. United States National Map Accuracy Standards 7. To facilitate ready interchange and use of basic in- formation for map construction among all Federal mapmak- With a view to the utmost economy and expedition in pro- ing agencies, manuscript maps and published maps, where ing agencies, manuscript maps and published maps, where during maps which fulfill not only the broad needs for ducing maps which fulfill not only the broad needs for economically feasible and consistent with the uses to which standard or principal maps, but also the reasonable particu- the map is to be put, shall conform to latitude and longitude the map is to be put, shall conform to latitude and longitude lar needs of individual agencies, standards of accuracy for boundaries being 15 minutes, of latitude and longitude, or boundaries, being 15 minutes, of latitude and longitude, or published maps are defined as follows: 7.5 minutes, or 3 3/4 minutes in size. 1. Horizontal accuracy.-For maps on publication scales 7.5 minutes, or 3 3/4 minutes in size. larger than 1:20,000, not more than 10 percent of the points U.S. Bureau of the Budget tested shall be in error by more than 1/30 in [0.846 mm] Issued June 10, 1941 measured on the publication scale; for maps on publication Revised April 26, 1943 scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, 1/50 in [0.508 mm]. These Revised June 17, 1947 limits of accuracy shall apply in all cases to positions of well-defined points only. Well-defined points are those that II Accuracy standards recommended for hydrographic are easily visible or recoverable on the ground, such as the surveys following: monuments or markets, such as bench marks, A. General Standards property boundary monuments; intersections of roads, rail- 1 Scale of survey 1. Scale of survey roads, etc.; corners of large buildings or structures (or a. The scale adopted for a survey of a particular a. The scale adopted for a survey of a particular center points of small buildings); etc. In general what is area should not be smaller than the scale of the existing or well defined will also be determined by what is plottable on the scale of the map within 1/100 in 0.254 mm]. Thuproposed chart of the area and preferably should be at least the scale of the map within 1/100 in [0.254 mm]. Thus while twice as large as that of the largest scale of the published or the intersection of two road or property lines meeting at s e hat of the are a proposed chart of the area. right angles would come within a sensible interpretation, ros cha ote ar b. Ports, harbors, channels, and pilotage waters identification of the intersection of such lines meeting at an should be surveyed on a scale of 1:10,000 or larger. should be surveyed on a scale of 1:10,000 or larger. acute angle would obviously not be practicable within 1/100 c. Other waters used by shipping with possible shoals in [0.254 mm]. Similarly, features not identifiable upon the ther aers t niin h e soa or other dangers to navigation should be sounded on a ground within close limits are not to be considered as test scale of 1:20,000 or larger. scale of 1:20,000 or larger. points within the limits quoted, even though their positions d. Surveys of coastal and harbor approach areas to a d. Surveys of coastal and harbor approach areas to a may be scaled closely upon the map. In this class would depth of at least 20 (11 f) should be conducted on a depth of at least 20 m (11 fm) should be conducted on a come timber lines, soil boundaries, etc. scale of 1:50,000 or larger. 2. Vertical accuracy, as applied to contour maps on all e for arer e. Offshore hydrog~raphic surveys in depths greater publication scales, shall be such that not more than 10 than 20 m (11 fm) may be plotted on a scale smaller than percent of the elevations tested shall be in error more than than 20 (11 f) may be plotted on a scale smaller than 1:50,000 dependent on the importance of the area covered, the one-half the contour interval. In checking elevations taken depth, and bottom configuration. The scale of the offshore depth, and bottom configuration. The scale of the offshore from the map, the apparent vertical error may be decreased plotting sheet should not be smaller than is necessary to plotting sheet should not be smaller than is necessary to by assuming a horizontal displacement within the permissible provide a sheet of convenient size that will extend a short provide a sheet of convenient size that will extend a short horizontal error for a map of that scale. horizontal error for a map of that scale. distance beyond the offshore limit of the survey and will, 3. The accuracy of any map may be tested by comparing 3. The accuracy of any map may be tested by comparing where feasible, include the stations necessary for control the positions of point whose locations or elevations are showno the s upon it with ~~~~~~~~~of the survey. upon it with corresponding positions as determined by surveys of a higher accuracy. Tests shall be made by the 2. Interval of sounding lines at the scale of the survey producing agency, which shall also determine which of its a. Spacing of principal sounding lines: maps are to be tested, and the extent of such testing. 1.0 cm (0.4 in) or less, as may be needed to 4. Published maps meeting these accuracy requirements thoroughly develop the area at the scale of the survey, ex- shall note this fact on their legends, as follows: "This map cept where depth and character of the bottom will permit complies with National Map Accuracy Standards." wider spacing. 5. Published maps whose errors exceed those aforestated b. Spacing of cross-check lines: shall omit from their legends all mention of standard accu- 7.5 cm (3.0 in) or less. racy. 3. Interval of plotted soundings 6. When a published map is a considerable enlargement of Frequency along sounding lines: a map drawing (manuscript) or of a published map, that Spacing should be less than the interval with peak and fact shall be stated in the legend. For example, "This map deep soundings shown, but this interval may be increased in is an enlargement of a 1:20,000-scale map drawing," or "This areas of even bottom, and where the soundings are recorded map is an enlargement of a 1:24,000-scale published map." on an echogram. 155 156 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK 4. Sampling of bottom characteristics of location referred to shore control) in the operating area, In general, sufficient sampling should be done to whether observed by visual or electronic methods, combined demarcate the limits where one general type of bottom with the plotting error, shall seldom exceed 1.5 mm (0.06 changes to another. in) at the scale of the survey. In waters that may be used for anchoring, samples (2) Ocean surveys for nautical charts (shoal should be taken at regular intervals not to exceed 5 cm searches, investigation of doubtful soundings, etc.): ac- (2 in) at the scale of the survey. In other areas, shoaler or ceptable error when fixing a reference beacon by astronomic deeper, a spacing of 8 cm (3 in) is sufficient depending on the or electronic means: 1 km (0.6 mi). regularity of the bottom. Deep-water bottom samples, over d. Aids to navigation 100 m (55 fm), are classed as oceanographic observations (1) Fixed aids to navigation shall be located with- requiring special equipment and samples will be taken as in the same limits of accuracy as primary shore stations required. stated in paragraph 1. 5. Spacing of position fixes (2) Floating aids to navigation shall be located The spacing of position fixes on the survey sheets shall within the same limits of accuracy as position fixes stated be from 2 to 4 cm (1-1.5 in). in paragraph 8. 6. Current observations e. Offshore installations dangerous to navigation. When velocity is expected to exceed 0.2 kn, both Location of offshore installations, dangerous to velocity and direction of currents shall be observed at en- navigation should, when feasible, meet the require- trances to harbors or channels, at any change in direction of ments for third-order control. channels, in anchorages, and adjacent to a pier or wharf 2. Vertical control area. It is also desirable to measure coastal and offshore cur- a. Measurements of depth rents when they are of sufficient strength to affect shipping. Allowable errors: (Editor's note: Current observations for a circulating survey (1) 0-20 m (0-11 fm): 0.3 m (1.0 ft) by NOS are made under more rigid and exacting specifica- (2) 20-100 m (11-55 fm): 1.0 m (0.5 fm) tions). (3) Deeper than 100 m (55 fm): 1 percent of B. Specific Standards depth Normally, a disagreement of cross-check lines with 1. Horizontal control principal sounding lines of three times or more the allowable a. Primary shore stations error stated above indicates error in either position, depth, The location of primary shore control stations and or both, and should be further investigated. electronic positioning stations shall be within the limits of b. Sweeping over wrecks, obstructions, and shoals accuracy for third-order control when the geodetic survey The same accuracy as that specified for the extends no more than 50 km (31 mi) from the point of measurement of depths (art. B.2.a.) to a depth of 30 m origin or from stations of a geodetic net of higher order (16 fm). In depths greater than 30 m (16 fm) the same ac- used as the origin. When the extent of the geodetic survey is curacies as for measurement of depth (art. B.2.a.) where the in excess of 50 km the use of second-order control methods depth and equipment available permit these accuraries. is desirable, and if the stations of an electronic positioning c. Reference of sounding to vertical datum system are separated by distances in excess of 200 km (124 Location and duration of tidal observations to be mi) ties shall be made to basic first-order control whenever such that each sounding can be referred to the sounding possible. datum with an error no greater than one-half that specified b. Hydrographic signals in art. B.2.a., above. Tidal reductions are not usually ap- The error in location of hydrographic signals used plied to oceanic soundings over 200 m (109 fm). for visual fixing, with relation to the primary shore control 3. Current measurements should not exceed 1 mm (0.04 in) at the scale of the survey. The velocity of the current at each station should be c. Position fixes and floating aids determined to the nearest 0.1 kn and the direction of the (1) The indicated repeatability of a fix (accuracy current to the nearest 10�. APPENDIX 7 On the following pages are samples of cartographic data provided by NOAA, USGS, and other Federal agencies. As most of the maps are at publication scale, only a portion of each published map is shown. Colors may vary from the original maps because of printing restrictions. Not all products or agencies are represented here, but the samples rep- resent many of the products available from the Federal Government. 158 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK USGS EROS DATR CENTER 6OCT73 C N38-53/W076-55 N N38-52/W076-48 MSS 5 SUN EL40 R14? 190-61 34- -1- 0- NSR ERTS E-1l40-15175-9 01 016-033 FIGURE 1.--Upper Chesapeake Bay, approximately 1:990,000 scale. This NASA Landsat scene is a color composite of three simultaneously recorded spectral bands; color response is similar to that of color infrared film. Black-and-white copies of Landsat scenes are available for the entire coastal zone, and color composites are available for selected areas. APPENDIX 7 159 J I FIGURE 2.-Aerial photograph, approximately 1:21,000 scale, of part of the coast of North Carolina. A typical black-and- white large-scale mapping photograph, taken at a flight height of 1,830 m with a Wild RC 9 camera, 88-mm super-wide- angle lens. Specifications and equipment for photography vary with the project area and conditions. 160 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK ' ; ; . ''8s;L-,�, ''U, I '.... '' - ~'. .=,, ;; 5 .......... , ;''i7R'j46 ...........0 ;i!*"* 0?;51XiZt .. . '0 0 Y : T .... , . . .:�. ..... .: ~ i; ; 4. % .1~iUEj~ l.~ ~~-2;,X I' *;C/ gg / ' - i .2: ' :.1 .:i ! VX j i n- 1 M i .: ,, , .i , W s: gaS *;~ i! i:iii'li X "1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i i' '-'.'-.iti; / o;[: ' W..1 ...../ /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~21 "'/;''""" '" J,?l:""": FIGURE 3.--Devlin, Minn.-Ont., 1:24,000-scale orthophotemap/line map, showing the standard line map (Canadian portion) and the orthophotomap (U.S. portion) on a single sheet. The orthophotomap/line map combination is not standard. a~~~~~~~~ s ~~!tzz l a r~~~ WE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~isl~ YP~~~~~~~~~~.al~E' P~~ g-oi! -�~ ~ ~~']:i -e-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ili ~~3i .V~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r " 01~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U~li~l Al~~~~~~~~~~~~I6~~f FIUR 3DvlnMinOn.,1:400-sal rtopotmp/in ap sown te tadrdlie a (andinpotin an te rhohooap(US.prton n sngeshet heorhphtoaplnema omintinisno tadad APPENDIX 7 161 'P? -" �I C f .'? N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ble ~ ~ itl : :�u~~~~~~~. ~ ',;.: FIGURE 4.-Upper Matecumbe Key, Fla., 1:24,000-scale orthophotomap. This type of map is available for selected coastal areas. It shows excellent underwater detail in areas like the Florida Keys. 162 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK ! ! FIGURE 5.-Sterling, Va.-Md., 1:24,000-scale orthophotoquad, showing the same area as appendix figure 6; it is a photographic base with limited cartographic enhancement. APPENDIX 7 163 1". M,(\-k S -Ck-;~~~~~~~~~~4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~--St;-: ;;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~; ?l~~~~~~~~~~~? FIGURE 6.--Sterling, Va.-Md., l:24,000-scale, 7.5-rain topographic quadrangle map, showing the same area as appendix figure 5. Maps in this USGS series (either line or orthophoto) will be available for the entire coastal zone. 164 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Rocky o Hor ses oi ~~~~~~~~204 N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i~~~~~~~~~C '�~ R~~~ N\ ao ~ S~TASTE H[STOR[P Fort Toss\Ree * FIGURE ,7.-Sonoma County, Calif., 1:100,000-scale topographic map, one of the first in a new USGS county series at scales of 1:100,000 or 1:50,000. The maps are formatted on county boundaries rather than parallels and meridians. APPENDIX 7 165 FIGURE 8.-Hershey, Pa., 1 :24,000-scale slope map. Slope maps are available for selected areas. Ranges of slope percentage are shown by various shades~ of gray. Some USGS slope maps are available with slope zone ranges distinguished by ~~~~~~~~~different colors.~~1% 3% Inclination Grdet0 FIGURE 8.-Hershey, Pa., 1:24,000-scale slope map. Slope maps are available for selected areas. Ranges of slope percentage are shown by various shades-of gray. Some USGS slope maps are available with slope zone ranges distinguished by different colors. 166 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 9.-Hyannis, Mass., 1:24,000-scale geologic quadrangle, a type available for many parts of the coastal zone. These USGS maps show the structure and composition of the Earth's crust and include text describing the geologic history of the area. APPENDIX 7 167 25 Q cT E8 , ,oo 34 3~t5;~P6'~,","~4 >-GAG. !;A 2 3 4. 5 FIGURE 10.-Queets River, Wash., 1:31,680-scale plan and profile. USGS river surveys, available for selected streams, consist of a topographic map, a centerline profile, and special damsite insets (app. fig. 11). On the published map, contours are brown. contours are brown. 168 ~~~~~~COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Sec 32 .T.25.N R.F2 173 9 Sec 6 T. 241.N R.12.W ~ 8- ~ 7 178 ISO /80 70 70 60 f60 .5-0 I 0 40 1 90 .30 30 1 ~~~~~~~~~/0 /00 L TBNK 2/00 90 LETBANK RIGH4T BANK Cross section loolking down stream HUNT CREEK DAM SITE Plan Scale 1:4800 orlinich=400 feet 400 200- 0 400 Soo 1200 Feet Cross section scales. horizontal, I inch= 200(feet: vertical, I inch= 410 feet Contour interval 10 feet Datum is mean sea level FIGURE II.-Hunt Creek Dam Site, Wash., 1 :4,800-scale topographic map and cross-sectional profile; an inset from the USGS Queets River, Wash., plan and profile (app. fig. 10). On the published map, contours are brown. APPENDIX 7 169 ~GA T~k ' IFXE '~d 3 (~4 f~ti AI9nA<~'rz~e ar3/ ' 39 1, 392 ,n~ ~ 3~, Gaunt~~~'i PeapI4aven 431 <'4~~~~~~~~~~~4 / ('1Bay 6%" 7A$E ~7 Thi.~~~~~~~~,~ 2 "'2/ 521 3 522 2 B,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' I D 0 j/, 6 z567Z 568 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 0 7Th 8t Y 737 ~74~~7'/ 735 -,-71j- -' - FIGURE 12.-Wilmi-ngton, Del.-N.J.-Pa.-Md., 1 :250,000-scale topographic map. The red lines beyond the 3-mi limit show areas designated on BLM Outer Continental Shelf Protraction Diagrams. These lines and bathymetric data are being added to the 1:250,000-scale maps during revision. 170 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK FIGURE 13.-Fort Pierce, Fla., 1:24,000-scale orthophotoquad. This is a standard USGS orthophotoquad with bathymetric contours added from data furnished by NOS. The same area is shown in appendix figures 14 and 15 and partly in appendix figure 16. APPENDIX 7 171 Li0 * Hart~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~cr C., -~ 0~Th FIGURE 14.-Fort Pierce, Fla., 1 :24,000-scale orthophotomnap. This is a standard USGS orthophotomap with bathymetric contours added from data furnished by NOS. The same area is shown in appendix figures 13 and 15 and partly in appendix figure 16. 172 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK iWK'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Q~~~~~~~~~~ N I0~t? &~~~~~~~~~~ i~~~~~~ CC o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~ U _ __- ar\ i s� FIGURE 15.-Fort Pierce, Fla., 1:24,000-scale topographic map. This is a standard USGS 7.5-min quadrangle with bathymetric contours added from data furnished by NOS. The same area is shown in appendix figures 13 and 14 and partly in appendix figure 16. APPENDIX 7 173 tii ONTT PiT E 'q'um ~ ,,C o 67-- 15 ( , F', � ;,\\ C,. dkhd FIGURE 16.-Fort Pierce, Fla., 1:10,000-scale prototype coastal zone map. This NOS map includes the mean low and mean high waterlines and bathymetric detail. Land areas are enhanced by an orthophotographic image. The same area is shown at 1:24,000 scale in appendix figures 13, 14, and 15. shown at 1:24,000 scale in appendix figures 13, 14, and 15. 174 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK / - ~~~~~~~STAC ITV TOWER FL HLt. 49F I \4 ~~TANST _~~~~~R N TR E mt.6sE In5f G 'A aL E m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N uecarsh 115244 ~~~~~~~~e~~~~~MST A 'I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F 8" 8h15 10~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~ 10 ~~~~~~~'~~~he Tree -. .3.4.7. . ~ 2 is ~~~~Alsshwinapnifiue1819,321 30"ad 4 APPENDIX 7 175 20 , A. IE S ~~~~~~~~~J7 I I ~~~~~~23Z ;1~~~~~~~~" ~~~~\223 4,1 Ii 3 73 IO32 , 7 RO 30 R 4se, 4l I A j'IL 27 (29 Qk Fl 16ft A 23 b i42 25 ':2" It ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~28 t~~G 6sM , ~I~~St~ht"l I9 396~ Rt2 2 �-- 397P~t 30 27 Obstr: .~' I--29 39R 1uns1 28 "36" - -30 - 37 34 S31 bd2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~23*--'--�".EF : ZO t1k15 eg--'9 - ~~ I6~ Cob' ~ Ar 4 Sm,, dol Z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ )I~ N-.y hrd 161 '2' -~~ 27 S5i -i 9 C I 2 0 ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ 5 7 - r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 1 3 62 5 136 28 i; ;. B ~13 ,&15 N-2 22 Submple N3 A5 N ry 15 A 33' 26 4 ~~~~~~~28Af 26 rep 2 WOr 22 20 21 ��'' 'G 3 ~~~~~~~151920 20 21 20 19 20 6 19-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 21 _-) f~S 20c92 2 2 16 17 21 20 8 10 Potts 17 1 21 1 60 C ' 2 2 20 2 3 *14~ir I 2 2 ~~~13 * m iiul15 20 2 1F7 14 232 20 2 4 4 5 1 6 24 7 ~, 1 2 6 . . :.. 1 4 11 F 3 3 Z3 24 14 1 1~21 14 2 2 . 13 15\ E Int 1346"s.46ft 8 62 6k F G 23ft I~~~~~~F G 4sec 20ft-__ 20 2 10 3 4 3 -Pile I r 2 2122 19 1, I* ~ ly-1, .. ...... FIGURE 18.-Charleston Harbor, S.C., (Chart 11524), 1:20,000-scale harbor chart. This NOS chart is published specifically for harbor piloting. Generally harbor charts are at 1:10,000 scale; a few include an orthophotographic image. This general area is also shown in appendix figures 17, 19, 21, 30, and 34. 176 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK ~~ P~~~~e�~~~ant o -~~~~~~~~ ,z'.~~~~~ Is~~~~~~~~~~~~ '0"' 74 ., ch~~~~ 6 48,.- \27~~~~~ F ~~~~~~~~~~~13 2 . ... 4 (387I9q 14OR,~~ ~ ~ ~ ci. 6 v/ /16 F 41, ~' N- .25p/ -4O 14'0 'RT~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 CL ''3 suii fl6e-7 2"61 / ~~ /'~~"7G4Sec3 6 ~ ~ ~~~67 / /f ~~e0 ~2~~~'4soc/ ~ I8~45'l7 i k. 7Rlng22C Poe UU(JP.L~~~~~4R RIE 7. MarshW'9 I 3 I4.~~~~ 12 ,f t I3 IGURE 19.-Casino CErektBeuotRvrSC (ht158) 140,0-cl InrcatlWtrwycat hs NOS small-craft charts range in scale from 1:10,000 to 1:80,000 and cover areas where recreational small-craft~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~( 2 ,92~ boating ispopular.FThi geea2ra sas honi peni iue 17, 8 1,8,an 4 APPENDIX 7 177 2. 12 i5 8 ~~5 2 ~~~~~~~~~2 127 5 247 25~~ 1212 2. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 24 ~~~~~63 24 22 1 Ii 6 ~~24 21 6~~~1 260 2742 1 64 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~27 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~21c~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~27 25 28 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~26 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~32 28 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F24 2 3t 3 453 22 17 96 16 126 5 2 20 ~ - 2 r~ 24-,Mseo aeL HORNMS ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4117 Petrimrd- 38~ ~~~1 /0 G ru C 4 omm A.ilf-~ 49 3,''7 Oe. 9 12 H 82 1' 4 46 9 Sand Pro~~~~~~~~~~~~~cts Cor~~~~~~~p~ 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~041 24 4 1 d 25 to 60 ) \ FIUR 2.-usegn ak, ic.,(Car 193),1:5,00sclelae hat.Ths s tpialNO lkechrtavilbl fo teGratLke oata on. hrei acopet stoflkechrs anig nsclefom1:,00t 14,0,00 178 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK WrA Rernleys Pt CHARLESTON (66,000) B Shutes Foll y Island %;/A~E: ~ CHARLESTON r ,'~~~~HABO les slan H~~~~~~~. A R B 0R Seawall m n. elev. 7 ft. J A M E E L A N D Y~~~88~~~ ~'~ ,~94) 14-~.;/(S"C' c . / n 4 Incl. in~BB~ dg~~I FIGURE 21.Charleston, S.C., l:62,500-scale storm evacuation map. This type of map is prepared by NOS from USGS base maps. They are designed to aid evacuation due to flooding and show only enough planimetrie detail for that purpose. This general area is also shown in appendix figures 17, 18, 19, 30, and 34. APPENDIX 7 179 j HUbF'1AL WUIN I Li 7Mackerel Cove Re2W s/ ~ Hoprrins Point SabmRk lx~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Aawash H -/ --------" ~~~~~~~~~~Woodbury Point 65-S(C)-7220 BEVERLY HARBOR A MONUMENT BAR DAYBEACON L2s..(MONUMENT BAR BEACON 1914) Monument Bar Saliem Willows Yacht Club er r~~~~~~~~ins ~~~~~App-a Pos of Suhm prefIxO * *(4) Juniper Point Abbot Rock AABBOT ROCK DAYBEACON Winter Island (6) ~~~~ (ABBOT ROCK STONE BEACON 1848) ~~Aa'~~ash ~""~hML W 65-S- 6 9 1 7 (3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .1'~~~~~~~~~~~i mash /LfHW ~ rir,~/ ~ . FORT PICKERING LIGHT 3.<) area ~~~(FORT PICKERING LIGHTHOUSE 1877) GET AQUAVITAE 0D LITT DABEACON 1967 DAY - (6) S~Ap~aneramp in rins Seapane amp n rins FIGURE 22.-Marblehead Harbor, Mass., 1:10,000-scale shoreline map. These NOS maps show precisely determined high and low waterlines and limited planimetry and are used in chart construction. Scales range from 1:5,000 to 1:20,000. Part of this area is shown in appendix figure 23. ISO COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK SalemN Neck'n Juniper-Po Out fall 0 need fiau wM rockah SbiItt d ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ABT ROKD '5)~~~~~ A' J'4'shL FotPicering (.)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ABT RORTPCKERN LIGH 65-S-7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ICEIGLIHHUE183R Rese,,oo (6 L6)<~ V/ with rocks ~ ~ ~ / ......~~~~~~~~~ 'ePlaneramping ruins FIGURE 2.-Beverl Cove, Mss., 1.5000-scal shorelie map. Tese NOS aps are tored onfilm, an diazo cpies ar reproduced ~~~~~~~~onreqet SoeiemPs aingfo h al 9hckentryaevilb.Thsraisinglddi appendixa-s figre22 APPENDIX 7 181 W 0 ~SLACK 2 u (:raton MWyat My(t c NEW LONDON et MTON Niat V ~~i~ll j" , S P~ Old Lyme .cS 0 NIANTIC 0iJN x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~HlllI large, ~ ~ Ba 0~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~o-- _.w3-~ East Pt. - Black Pt. Clay t 0.2- WEAK Pt. J valiant 0.6J~~~~~0 'Ad'- NIUK ~~~~Rk Great . "a-, 0.4 0.5 1 4 5:0 L LNaf 0.2 ~- ~0.2-Y fA 4 ~�*~: Pine Pt. 0. 0f51" WEAKI~ C B L 0.3 A-0.3-'4 0.2 Hill Pt. te Plain Pt. 0.2 4' 0.1 .O, X.i A '-~~~C.2 Pt 0.1 o.,r "-"'""" a MON t Hog Creek Pt. -W Ita a' Pt. 0 NAPEAGUE BAY North I \.. .1t. Goff Pt. efliosula ~~~~~~Sprtmes ack SAG HARBOR A-d...nett East Hampton E Wainscott Airport as Statio. FIGURE 24.-Block Island Sound and Eastern Long Island Sound, N.Y.-Conn.-N.J., 1:210,000-scale tidal current chart. This NOS chart shows current direction and spring speed in knots. Data are based on predicted times and velocities at a selected location. The charts are available for major harbors. COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK CHARLESTON HARBOR (OFF FT. SUMTER), S.C,, 1977 F-FLOOD, DIR, 335� TRUE E-EBB, 0IR. 120� TRUE NOVEMBER DECEMBER SLACK MAXIMUM SLACK MAXIMUM SLACK MAXIMUM SLACK MAXIMUM WATER CURRENT WATER CURRENT WATER CURRENT WATER CURRENT TIME TIME VEL. TIME TIME VEL, TIHE TIME VEL, TIME TIME VEL. DAY DAY DAY DAY H.M. H.M. KNOTS H.M. HM. KNOTS H.M. H.M, KNOTS H.M. B.M, KNOTS 1 0222 1,9E 16 0004 0304 2,6E 1 0236 1.9E 16 0049 0349 2.5E TU 0541 0819 1.8F W 0623 0907 2,6F TH 0555 0835 1,gF F 0707 0949 2,2F 1146 1451 2.0E 1242 1546 2.8E 1155 1512 2.1E 1318 1626 2.6E 1832 2048 1.4F 1916 2143 2.OF 1845 2107 I.SF 1949 2225 1.9F 2354 2 0307 1.7E 17 0109 0409 2,4E 2 0010 0327 1.8E 17 0152 0457 2.3E W 0629 0908 1,7F TH 0728 1009 2.2F F 0645 0926 1.8F SA 0811 1048 t,9F 1232 1543 1.9E 1345 1654 2.5E 1241 1559 2.0E 1417 1727 2.3E 1924 2137 1.3F 2019 2251 1.8F 1933 2156 1,5F 2048 2334 1.8F 3 0047 0402 1,6E 18 0217 0522 2,2E 3 0106 0421 1.8E 18 0256 0607 2.1E TH 0724 0959 1.6F F 0837 lll9 1.9F SA 0742 lO18 1.7F SU 0917 1202 1,6F 1326 1638 l.SE 1449 1804 2,4E 1334 1654 2.0E 1518 1834 2.2E 2018 2233 1.3F 2121 2025 2253 1.6F 2145 4 0150 0459 1.6E 19 0009 1.SF 4 0209 0518 1.9E 19 0045 1.7F F 0825 1056 1.5F SA 0325 0637 2,2E SU 0844 lll5 1,7F M 0359 0716 2.1E 1426 1735 1.BE 0944 1242 1,SF 1433 1750 2.1E 1021 1321 1.4F 2113 2332 1.3F 1552 lgll 2.3E 2118 2348 1,SF 1616 1938 2.1E 2220 2240 5 0256 0601 1.7E 20 0130 1.8F 5 0315 0621 2.0E 20 0155 1.7F SA 0927 1155 1.6F SU 0428 0745 2.3E M 0947 1214 1.7F TU 0457 0821 2.1E 1526 1834 1.9E 1049 1358 1.7F 1534 1845 2.2E 1121 1430 1.4F 2206 1650 2012 2,3E 2212 1711 2031 2.1E 2314 2331 6 0029 1.5F 21 0231 1.9F 6 0046 2.OF 21 0254 1.8F SU 0358 0700 1,9E 11 0525 0844 2,4E TU 0417 0721 2,3E W 0550 0913 2,2E 1026 1255 1,7F 1147 1457 1.7F 1048 1313 1.9F 1215 1523 1.4F 1623 1928 2,IE 1743 2100 2.3E 1633 1942 2,4E 1801 2118 2,1E 2255 2304 7 0124 1,8F 22 0002 0316 2.OF 7 0145 2,3F 22 0018 0335 1,9F M 0454 0756 2.2E TU 0616 0935 2.4E W 0516 0818 2.6E TH 0637 0958 2.2E 1i21 1349 1.9F 1239 1542 1.7F 1145 1412 2.1F 1303 1559 1.4F 1715 2021 2,4E 1831 2147 2,3E 1730 2037 2;7E 1846 2201 2olE 2342 2356 8 0220 2.2F 23 0046 0358 2.1F 8 0240 2.7F 23 0101 0404 1.9F TU 0547 0847 2.6E W 0701 1016 2.5E TH 0612 0916 2.9E F 0720 1039 2.3E i213 1443 2.2F 1325 1623 1,7F 1241 1510 2,3F 1345 1630 1,4F i805 2109 2.7E 1913 2224 2,3E 1825 2129 2.9E 1927 2234 2,1E 9 0028 0309 2,6F 24 0127 0425 2.1F 9 0047 0335 3.OF 24 0140 0433 2,OF W 0636 0940 2.9E TN 0742 1057 2,5E F 0705 lOlO 3.2E SA 0759 1112 2,3E i303 1534 2o4F 1407 1648 1.7F 1334 1604 2.5F 1425 1653 1.SF 1852 2155 2.9E 1952 2257 2.3E 1918 2222 3.1E 2005 2307 2,1E lO 0113 0358 2,9F 25 0205 0452 2,1F lO 0137 0427 3,2F 25 0218 0501 2,1F TH 0724 1029 3o2E F 0820 1128 2,5E SA 0757 1101 3.4E SU 0835 ll41 2.3E 1352 1624 2,6F 1446 1714 1,6F 1425 1656 2,6F 1SO2 1721 1,6F i939 2242 3.1E 2028 2328 2,2E 2010 2314 3.2E 2040 2339 2.2E 11 0159 0445 3.1F 26 0241 0522 2.1F ll 0228 0518 3.3F 26 0255 0534 2.1F F 0813 1117 3.4E SA 0856 1201 2.4E SU 0848 1153 3.5E M 0910 1212 2,4E 1441 1713 2.7F 1523 1743 1.6F 1517 1749 2.6F 1538 1756 1.6F 2027 2330 3,2E 2102 2103 2114 12 0246 0536 3.3F 27 0001 2,2E 12 0006 3o2E 27 0013 2,2E SA 0902 1206 3,4E SU 0317 0555 2,2F M 0320 0611 3.3F TU 0331 0609 2o2F 1532 1804 2.7F 0930 1230 2.4E 0940 1243 3o5E 0943 1244 2.4E 2116 1601 1818 1.6F 1609 1841 2.6F 1614 1833 1.7f 2135 2156 2147 13 0021 3.2E 28 0033 2,1E 13 0057 3.2E 28 0050 2.2E SU 0335 0625 3.3F M 0353 0632 2.1F TU 0413 0702 3o2F W 0407 0646 2,2F 0953 1258 3.4E 1004 1305 2,3E 1032 1337 3.3E 1015 1319 2,4E 1624 1853 2,6F 1638 1855 1.6F 1702 1932 2.5F 1650 1912 1,8F 2208 2208 2251 2221 14 0112 3.IE 29 Oll2 2.1E 14 O151 3.0E 29 0129 2,2E M 0427 0715 3.1F TU 0430 07ll 2.1F W 0608 0755 2.9F TH 0446 0729 2.2F 1046 1350 3,3E 1039 1344 2~2E 1125 1429 3.1E 1049 1400 2,3E 1718 1948 2.4F 1718 1934 1.6F 1756 2029 2.3F 1728 1951 1.8F 2304 2244 2348 2258 15 0207 2,9E 30 0155 2,0E 15 0249 2,7E 30 0210 2.1E TU 0523 0810 2,9F W 0510 0754 2,OF TH 0606 0851 2,6F F 0527 0811 2.1F 1142 1445 3,0E 1115 1423 2.1E 1221 1525 2.8E 1125 1439 2,3E 1816 2042 2.2F 1800 2020 1.SF 1852 2124 2.1F 1807 2036 1.SF 2323 2341 31 0257 2.1E SA 0614 0858 2.OF 1205 1526 2.3E 1852 2125 1.9F TIME MERIDIAN 75� W, 0000 IS MIDNIGHT, 1200 IS NOON, FIGURE 25.--Charleston Harbor, S.C., tidal current predictions from NOS. APPENDIX 7 183 70-00' 69'30' 69'00' 68'30' 6800 6730 67 ' 00 45'00O F'%0 IN E ang 'OI Mx / a APR LEV/ISTON 2 + U DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 13 65 t B41O N H E GANI G Washi ngtn, D. C. 3,4-)c~li VbeUX i TIDAL BENCH MARKS " 'f 44'oMAINE30 if]$ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~The red dots and numbers indicate the localities at which tidal bench mark data are available. See reverse side for place names corresponding to numbers. FIGURE 26.-NOS index map of tidal bench marks for the State of Maine. Indexes are available for other coastal States. FIUE 2.- S inde ma ftdlbnc ak o h Saeo an. nee r vilbefrohr osa tts 184 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK 2/18/76 SOUTH CAROLINA U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL OCEAN SURVEY The difference between the National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) 1929 (formerly Sea Level Datum 1929) and the mean low water (MLW) for each location where the tidal bench marks and the geodetic bench marks of the National Geodetic Network have been connected by differential levels is given below. Bench mark elevations above the National Geodetic Vertical Datum (1929) may-be obtained by applying the tabular difference to the published elevations above mean low water, subtracting the difference when positive and adding the difference when negative. Index Map NGVD-MLW Number Locality Feet 3A Myrtle Beach (Ocean) ................... 2.21 9 Georgetown, Samnpit River Entrance ............1.03 39A Fort Johnson, South Channel, Charleston Harbor......2.22 40 Charleston (Custonhouse Wharf), Cooper River Entrance. 2.65** 42 Cainhoy, Wando, River...................2.81 46 Port Terminal, Cooper River ...............2.16 52 Ashley River, Highway Bridge, Charleston.........2.50 53 Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company Wharf, Ashley River. 2.45 54 Bees Ferry Bridge (Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Bridge), Ashley River .................2.47 74 Seabrook, Fenwick island.................2.68 77 Field Point, Combahee River ...............2.78 79 Summerhouse Point, Bull River ..............3.19 84 Ladies Island, Junction of Morgan River and Lucy Point Creek....................3.21 84A Harbor River Entrance, St. Helena Sound .........3.06 90 Marine Training Station, Parris Island, Beaufort River. 3.51 91 Distant Island, Beaufort River..............3.42 92 Beaufort, Beaufort River.................3.63 **Above Charleston Low-Water Datum FIGURE 27.-Charleston, S.C., NGVD-MLW correlation table from NOS. APPENDIX 7 185 3/17/71 SOUTH CAROLINA - 40-2 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL OCEANIC & ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL OCEAN SURVEY TIDAL BENCH MARKS Charleston (Customhouse Wharf), Cooper River Entrance Lat. 32046'.9; Long. 79�55'.5 BENCH MARK 1 (U.S.E.) is a chiseled cross in the top and near north end of bottom step of east entrance of customhouse at intersection of Market and Conrad Streets. Elevation: 11.95 feet above Charleston low-water datum. BENCH MARK 5 = 9 (U.S.G.S.) (1918) is a standard disk, stamped "9.311 1918," set in top and near north end of bottom step at east entrance of customhouse. It is 1/2 foot south of Bench Mark 1 (U.S.E.). Elevation: 11.97 feet above Charleston low-water datum. BENCH MARK 7 (1921) is a standard disk, stamped "7 1921 ELEV. 13.612 FT," set in top of east end of ledge of second basement window west of southeast corner of east wing of customhouse, and about 5 feet above ground. Elevation: 16.28 feet above Charleston low-water datum. Elevations of other tide planes referred to *Charleston low-water datum are based on 19 years of records, 1941-1959 and are as follows: Feet Highest tide observed (Aug. 11, 1940) 10.7 Mean high water 5.51 Mean tide level 2.91 Mean low water 0.31 Charleston low-water datum 0.00 Lowest tide observed (Nov. 30, 1963) -3.3 *CHARLESTON LOW-WATER DATUM. This datum has been in use by the National Ocean Survey since 1905. It was officially adopted by the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army and the U.S.Coast and Geodetic Survey in May 1929, and is defined as being 11.95 feet below Bench Mark 1 (U.S.E.) at the Customhouse Wharf at Charleston. FIGURE 28.-Charleston, S.C., tidal bench mark descriptions. Descriptions are available for NOS tide gages shown on State indexes (app. fig. 26). 186 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK CHARLESTON, S.C., 1976 TIMES AND HEIGHTS OF HIGH AND LOW WATERS OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER TIME NT. TIME NT. TIME MT. TIME HT. TIME HT. TIME NT. DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. N.M. FT. 1 0155 5.1 16 0041 4.6 1 0331 5.2 16 0224 5.1 1 0350 5.1 16 0305 5.4 F 0801 0.6 SA 0702 1.0 M 0939 0.8 TU 0842 0.6 W 1000 0.7 TN 0926 0.1 1438 5.9 1313 5.4 1601 5.4 1443 5.4 1611 4.8 i5iB 4.9 2049 0.7 1946 1.2 2206 0.5 2111 0.2 2215 0.2 2142 -0.4 2 0300 5.1 17 0148 4.8 2 0426 5.4 17 0329 5.5 2 0438 5.2 17 0409 5.7 SA 0905 0.6 SU 0807 0.9 TU 1032 0.7 W 0947 0.3 TH 1051 0.6 F 1030 -0.1 1538 5.8 1417 5.5 1650 5.4 1544 5.4 1659 4.7 1622 5.0 2147 0.7 2049 1.0 2253 0.3 2210 -0.1 2301 0.1 2241 -0.7 3 0400 5.3 18 0253 5.0 3 0513 5.6 18 0430 6.0 3 0525 5.4 19 0610 6.1 SU 1006 0.6 M 0912 0.7 W 1122 0.6 TH 1048 0.0 F 1137 0.5 SA 1130 -0.4 1633 5.8 1518 5.6 1736 5.4 1645 5.6 1744 4.7 1725 5.1 2238 0.5 2147 0.6 2336 0.2 2305 -0.4 2345 0.0 2339 -0.9 4 0452 5.5 19 0355 5.5 4 0557 5.8 19 0528 6.4 4 0607 5.5 19 0610 6.3 M 1059 0.5 TU 1014 0.4 TH 1206 0.5 F 1146 -0.3 SA 1221 0.3 SU 1226 -0.6 1722 5.8 1617 5.8 1818 5.3 1744 5.7 1826 4.7 18 23 5 .2 2325 0.3 2240 0.2 5 0541 5.7 20 0454 5.9 5 0018 0.1 20 0000 -0.7 5 0026 -0.1 20 0034 -1.1 TU 1147 0.4 W 1112 0.1 F 0636 5.9 SA 0624 6.7 SU 0647 5.6 M 0705 6.5 1808 5.8 1712 6.0 1248 0.4 1242 -0.5 1303 0.2 1319 -0.8 2333 -0.2 1855 5.3 1839 5.7 1906 4.7 1919 5.3 6 0009 0.2 21 0549 6.4 6 0057 0.1 21 0052 -0.9 6 0107 -0.2 21 0126 -1 .2 W 0626 5.8 TH 1206 -0.2 SA 0715 5.9 SU 0719 6.9 M 0727 5.7 TO 0769 6.6 1231 0.3 1807 6.1 1327 0.4 1335 -0.7 1344 0.2 1410 -0.9 1850 5.8 1934 5.2 1935 5.7 1944 4.7 2013 5.3 7 0050 0.1 22 0024 -0.5 7 0135 0.1 22 0143 -1 .0 7 0146 -0.2 22 0217 -1.1 TH 0705 5.9 F 0643 6.7 SU 0752 5.9 M 0813 6.9 TU 0803 5.7 W 0950 6.4 1313 0.3 1300 -0.5 1406 0.4 1427 -0.7 1423 0.2 1459 -0.8 1927 5.7 1900 6.2 2009 5.1 2028 5.7 2021 4.6 2106 5.3 9 0127 0.1 23 0114 -0.7 8 0212 0.1 23 0234 -0.9 8 0226 -0.2 23 0307 -0.9 F 0743 6.0 SA 0735 7.0 M 0827 5.9 TU 0906 6.8 W 0840 5.7 TN 0940 6.2 1362 0.4 1 51 -0 6 1444 0.5 11 -0.6 1501 0.2 1546 -0 .7 2003 5 .5 1961 6 .2 2043 4,.9 21 23 5 .6 20566 4.6 21 57 5 .2 9 0204 0.2 2 4 02 03 - 0.8 9 0 249 0 .2 2 4 0 32 5 -0 .7 9 0303 - 0 .1 2 4 03 57 - 0. 6 S A 091 9 6.0 S50 09 29 7 .1 TO 09 01 5 .8 W 09 59 6 .6 TNH 091 6 5 .6 F I102 7 5. 9 1429 0.6 1443 -0.5 1523 0,6 1610 -0.4 1540 0.2 1634 -0.5 2038 5.4 2045 6.0 2117 4.8 2218 5.4 2133 4.6 2247 5.0 1 0 0 240 0 .3 2 5 02 53 - 0 .7 1 0032 5 0 .3 2 5 0 418 -0 .4 1 0 03 44 0 .0 2 5 0447 -0 .3 S5U 085 3 5 .9 M 09 22 7 .0 W 09 36 5 .7 TNH 1052 6 .3 F 09653 5 .6 S A III16 5 .5 1 508 0 .6 1 5365 -0 .4 1 602 0.7 1 700 - 0.2 1 6198 0,.2 1 721 - 0.3 21 09 5 .2 21 38 5 .9 21 51 4 .7 231 3 6 .2 221 3 4.6 23 36 4 .9 1 1 031 6 0.4 2 6 0344 -O .S 1 10404 0.4 296 051 2 0.0 I11 042 6 0 .1 2 6 0536 0.0 M 092 7 5 .9 TO 101 7 6.8 TN 101 4 5 .6 F 11 47 5 .9 S A 1 03 5 5. 4 S0 1 204 5 .1 1545 0.8 1629 -0.1 1642 0.9 1753 0.1 1703 0.2 1908 -0.1 21 41 6 .0 22 34 5 .6 2 2 29 4.6 22698 4.7 1 2 03 54 0 .5 2 7 04 39 - 0. 2 1 20446 0 .6 2 7 0009 5 .0 1 2 0514 0 .2 2 7 0027 4 .7 TO 1 002 5 .7 W I1114 6 .5 F I10 565 S.6 SA 0606 0 .3 S50 11 21 5 .3 N 0628 0.4 1622 1.0 1724 0.2 1726 0.9 1241 5.5 1748 0.2 1254 4.7 2 21 5 4 .8 2332 6 .3 2 319 4 .6 19847 0 .2 23 53 4,6 19859 0 .1 1 3 04 31 0 .7 298 0653 5 0 .2 1 3 0535 0 .7 298 01 06 4.9 1 3 0609 0 .3 298 01 20 4.6 N 1040 5 .6 TNH 121 2 6 .2 SAI 1143 5 .4 S50 0705 0 .6 N 1 212 5. 2 TO 07 25 0 .6 1706 1.1 1822 0.4 1814 0.9 1334 5.2 1841 0.1 1342 4.5 2255 4.7 1942 0.4 1949 0.2 1 4 051 4 0 .9 2 9 0 03 3 5 .2 1 4001 4 4 .7 2 9 0202 4 .9 1 4 00656 4 .9 2 9 021 3 4 .6 TNH 11 26 5 .5 F 06 35 0 .5 S 0 06 33 0 .7 14 0806 0 .7 TOU 071 2 0 .3 W 08 21 0 .7 1753 1.2 1313 5.9 1239 5.4 1428 6.0 1310 5.0 1435 4.3 234 3 4 .6 1 920 0 .6 1 91 0 0.,7 2034 0 .4 19 37 0.0 2041 0 .2 1 5 0604 0 .9 3 0 01 36 5 .1 1 501 19 4 .9 3 0 02 57 4 .9 165 01 59 5. 1 3 0 0307 4.7 F 1216 5.4 SA 0736 0.7 M 0737 0.7 TO 0905 0.9 W 0818 0.3 TN 0919 0.7 1848 1.3 1412 5.7 1341 5.3 1521 4.8 1414 5.0 1527 .4.2 2020 0.6 2011 0.5 2125 0.3 2040 -0.2 2134 0.2 3 1 02 36 5 .1 3 1 03 59 4 .8 SU 0840 0.9 F 1013 0.6 1507 6.5 1619 4.2 2113 0.6 2224 0.0 TIME MERIDIAN 750 W. 0000 IS MIDNIGHT. 1200 IS NOON. HEIGHTS ARE RECKONED FROM THE DATUM OF SOUNDINGS ON CHARTS OF THE LOCALITY WHICH IS MEAN LOW WATER. FIGURE 29.-Charleston, S.C., times and heights of high and low waters. This table is taken from the Tide Tables published annually by NOS. APPENDIX 7 185 3/17/71 SOUTH CAROLINA - 40-2 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL OCEANIC & ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL OCEAN SURVEY TIDAL BENCH MARKS Charleston (Customhouse Wharf), Cooper River Entrance Lat. 32046'.9; Long. 79055'.5 BENCH MARK 1 (U.S.E.) is a chiseled cross in the top and near north end of bottom step of east entrance of customhouse at intersection of Market and Conrad Streets. Elevation: 11.95 feet above Charleston low-water datum. BENCH MARK 5 = 9 (U.S.G.S.) (1918) is a standard disk, stamped "9.311 1918," set in top and near north end of bottom step at east entrance of customhouse. It is 1/2 foot south of Bench Mark 1 (U.S.E.). Elevation: 11.97 feet above Charleston low-water datum. BENCH MARK 7 (1921) is a standard disk, stamped "7 1921 ELEV. 13.612 FT," set in top of east end of ledge of second basement window west of southeast corner of east wing of customhouse, and about 5 feet above ground. Elevation: 16.28 feet above Charleston low-water datum. Elevations of other tide planes referred to *Charleston low-water datum are based on 19 years of records, 1941-1959 and are as follows: Feet Highest tide observed (Aug. 11, 1940) 10.7 Mean high water 5.51 Mean tide level 2.91 Mean low water 0.31 Charleston low-water datum 0.00 Lowest tide observed (Nov. 30, 1963) -3.3 *CHARLESTON LOW-WATER DATUM. This datum has been in use by the National Ocean Survey since 1905. It was officially adopted by the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army and the U.S.Coast and Geodetic Survey in May 1929, and is defined as being 11.95 feet below Bench Mark 1 (U.S.E.) at the Customhouse Wharf at Charleston. FIGURE 28.-Charleston, S.C., tidal bench mark descriptions. Descriptions are available for NOS tide gages shown on State indexes (app. fig. 26). COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK CHARLESTON, S.C., 1976 TIMES AND HEIGHTS OF HIGH AND LOW WATERS OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER TIME HT. TIME HT. TIME HT. TIME HT. TIME HT. TIME HT. DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY HM. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. H.M. FT. 1 0155 5,1 16 0041 4.6 1 0331 5.2 16 0224 5.1 1 0350 5,1 16 0305 5,4 F 0801 0.6 SA 0702 1.0 M 0939 0.8 TU 0842 0.6 W 1000 0.7 TH 0926 O.1 1438 5.9 1313 5.4 1601 5.4 1443 5.4 1611 4,8 1518 4.9 2049 0.7 1946 1.2 2206 0,5 2111 0.2 2215 0.2 2142 -0.4 2 0300 5.1 17 0148 4,8 2 0426 5,4 17 0329 5.5 2 0438 5.2 17 0409 5.7 SA 0905 0.6 SU 0807 0.9 TU 1032 0.7 W 0947 0.3 TN 1051 0.6 F 1030 -0.1 1538 5.8 1417 5.5 1650 5.4 1544 5.4 1659 4.7 1622 5,0 2147 0.7 2049 1.0 2253 0.3 2210 -0.1 2301 0.1 2241 -0.7 3 0400 5.3 18 0253 5,0 3 0513 5.6 18 0430 6.0 3 0525 5.4 18 0510 6.1 SU 1006 0.6 M 0912 0.7 W 1122 0.6 TH 1048 0.0 F 1137 0.5 SA 1130 -0.4 1633 5.8 1518 5.6 1736 5.4 1645 5.6 1744 4.7 1725 5.1 2238 0.5 2147 0.6 2336 0.2 2306 -0.4 2345 0.0 2339 -0,9 4 0452 5.5 19 0355 5.5 4 0557 5.8 19 0528 6.4 4 0607 5.5 19 0610 6.3 M 1059 0.5 TU 1014 0.4 TH 1206 0.5 F 1146 -0.3 SA 1221 0.3 SU 1226 -0.6 1722 5.8 1617 5,8 1818 5.3 1744 5.7 1826 4.7 1823 5.2 2325 0.3 2240 0.2 5 0541 5.7 20 0454 5.9 5 0018 0.1 20 0000 -0.7 6 0026 -0.1 20 0034 -1.1 TU 1147 0.4 W 1112 0,1 F 0636 5.9 SA 0624 6.7 SU 0647 5.6 M 0705 6.5 1808 5.8 1712 6.0 1248 0.4 1242 -0.5 1303 0.2 1319 -0.8 2333 -0.2 1855 6.3 1839 5.? 1906 4.7 1919 5.3 6 0009 0.2 21 0549 6.4 6 0057 0.1 21 0052 -0.9 6 0107 -0.2 21 0126 -1.2 W 0626 5.8 TH 1206 -0.2 SA 0715 5.9 SU 0719 6.9 M 0727 5.7 TU 0759 6.5 1231 0.3 1807 6.1 1327 0.4 1335 -0.7 1344 0.2 1410 -0.9 1850 5.8 1934 5.2 1935 5.7 1944 4.7 2013 5.3 7 0050 0.1 22 0024 -0.5 7 0135 O.1 22 0143 -1 .O 7 0146 -0.2 22 0217 -1,1 TH 0705 5.9 F 0643 6.7 SU 0752 5,9 [l 0813 6.9 TU 0803 5.7 W 0850 6.4 1313 0.3 1300 -0.5 1406 0.4 1427 -0.7 1423 0,2 1459 -0.8 1927 5.7 1900 6.2 2009 5.1 2028 5.7 2021 4.6 2106 5~3 0127 O.1 23 0114 -0.7 8 0212 0.1 23 0234 -0.9 8 0226 -0.2 23 0307 -0.9 F 0743 6.0 SA 0735 7.0 M 0827 5.9 TU 0906 6.8 W 0840 5.7 TH 0940 6.2 i352 0.4 1351 -0.6 1444 0,5 1518 -0.6 1501 0.2 1546 -0.7 2003 5.5 1951 6.2 2043 4.9 2123 5.5 2056 4.6 2157 5.2 0204 0.2 24 0203 -0.8 9 0249 0.2 24 0325 -0,7 9 0303 -0.1 24 0357 -0.6 SA 0819 6.0 SU 0829 7.1 TU 0901 5.8 W 0959 6.6 TH 0916 5.6 F 1027 5.9 1429 0.5 1443 -0.5 1523 0,6 1610 -0.4 1540 0.2 1634 -0.5 2038 5.4 2045 6.0 2117 4.8 2218 5.4 2133 4.6 2247 5,0 10 0240 0.3 25 0253 -0.7 10 0325 0.3 25 0418 -0.4 10 0344 0.0 25 0447 -0.3 SU 0853 5.9 M 0922 7.0 W 0936 5.7 TH 1052 6.3 F 0953 5.6 SA 1116 5.5 1508 0.6 1535 -0.4 1602 0.7 1700 -0.2 1618 0.2 1721 -0,3 2109 5.2 2138 5.8 2151 4.7 2313 5.2 2213 4.6 2336 4.9 II 0316 0.4 26 0344 -0.5 ll 0404 0,4 26 0512 0.0 11 0426 0.1 26 0536 0,0 M 0927 5.8 TU 1017 6.8 TH 1014 5.6 F 1147 5.9 SA 1035 5,4 SU 1204 5.1 1545 0.8 1629 -0.1 1642 0,8 1753 0.1 1703 0.2 1808 -0.1 2141 5.0 2234 5.6 2229 4,6 2258 4,7 12 0354 0.5 27 0439 -0.2 12 0446 0.6 27 0009 5.0 12 0514 0.2 27 0027 4.7 TU 1002 5.7 W 1114 6,5 F 1055 5.5 SA 0606 0.3 SU 1121 5.3 M 0628 0.4 1622 1.O 1724 0,2 1726 D.B 1241 5.5 1748 0,2 1254 4.7 2215 4.8 2332 5.3 2319 4.6 1847 0.2 2353 4.8 1859 0.1 13 0431 0.7 28 0535 0.2 13 0535 0,7 28 0106 4.9 13 0609 0.3 28 0120 4.6 W 1040 5.6 TH 1212 6.2 SA 1143 5.4 SU 0705 0.6 M 1212 5.2 TO 0725 0.6 1706 1.1 1822 0,4 1814 0.8 1334 5.2 1841 O.1 1342 4.5 2255 4:7 1942 0.4 1949 0,2 14 0514 0.8 29 0033 5.2 14 0014 4,7 29 0202 4.9 14 0056 4.9 29 0213 4,6 TH 1125 5.5 F 0635 0.5 SU 0633 0.7 M 0806 0.7 TU 0712 0.3 W 0821 0.7 1753 1.2 1313 5.9 1239 5.4 1428 5.0 1310 5.0 1436 4.3 2343 4.6 1920 0.6 1910 0.7 2034 0.4 1937 0.0 2041 0.2 15 0604 0.9 30 0136 5.1 15 0119 4,9 30 0257 4.9 15 0159 5.1 30 0307 4.7 F 1216 5.4 SA 0736 0.7 M 0737 0.7 TU 0905 0.8 W 0818 0.3 TH 0918 0,7 1848 1.3 1412 5.7 1341 5.3 1521 4.8 1414 5.0 1527 4.2 2020 0,6 2011 0.5 2125 0.3 2040 -0.2 2134 0.2 31 0236 5.1 31 0358 4.8 SU 0840 0.8 F 1013 0.6 1507 5.5 1619 4,2 2113 0.6 2224 0,0 TIME MERIDIAN 75� W. 0000 IS MIDNIGHT. 1200 IS NOON. HEIGHTS ARE RECKONED FROM THE DATUM OF SOUNDINGS ON CHARTS OF THE LOCALITY WHICH IS MEAN LOW WATER. FIGURE 29.--Charleston, S.C., times and heights of high and low waters. This table is taken �rom the Tide Tables published annually by NOS. APPENDIX 7 187 'C N ~~~T'~NA! \MONI MF ~ ~ ~ qd- ~~~~~~ Pt~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~in ~~~ECE~~~~~SI~~~~t.J.~~~N / SL N SEWE IN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ eshV FIGRE 0.-ams Ilan, SC. 1:50,00scae godeicconroldiara. TeseNO/NG digras re raw o USSbsDasEhyso oiotlcnrllnsad ouet salse yNSadUG.Ti eea area s alo shwn i appndixfigurs 17 18,19, 1, ad 84 188 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK JUL 1S76 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE HORIZONTAL CONTROL DATA OUAD 320794 STATION 1022 NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION SC NATIONAL OCEAN SURVEY by the LATITUDE 32 3' TO 33 JIINIG Peoselik Su - Natinnal Ocean Survey LONGITUDE 79 30' T 80 0 N.ORTAAMeRlANIs27oTATUM DIAGRAM NI 17-12 JAMES ISLAND 5. 500000JO' e DUSCRIPTION OF TIANGRTLATION STATION 1N^M.EFT^T0 BROG STA-en SDeth CaroSling COuen Charleston ADJUSTED HORIZONTAL CONTROL DATA CHIEOFPAn G. D, . COwIse YvAen 193 LOsCLITV James Islond- Stono River Surfee-SteiOn mnrk, o tea, 1 b Diln^Nos AN D DolEflS TO I REFERECE -RK$ AN D PRO. INEN.T CeITs BOG Uiderround-rsaton mark, R olae,? 7 .M _ p^T.. cOn ..i Refreamnrk o. S , 11 I0 I 0.I SOUTH CAROLINA 1933 THIRD Referenc mark, NVo. 2 NGoe , 11 b Do Witnes meark, Rel,*I R. R. . # 3 2.758 160-07-4 W..ne.nmork, NRIe,* R. . # 1 .115 218-2-S02 Helghtl f lgnael obese avtion mar? -eaters Height f .lecenpe boves latIon na 7 markle G- 1922 Dtaliled desceripoena On a small island in the first prominent point of marsh on the iast ban of the Steno iover after pass ing LgeOreville and proceeding up the river. Ohe T Oo.....,,,..O 32 41'08.424 V 2 MET. river makes a sharp turn to the Sast around this point and the island in the first oeoOoOo, 79 59 38.562 SCALED one near the river after rounding the point. It is about ?0 meters back in the anreh from the L. '.7 L. The station is on the IT bS edge of the islands northernmost tip and 2 meters baok from the mnrsh edge and HS.I.L.. The island ans one cultivated |TATEcOO-O1ATES f and has no trees of any siee growing on it; clmops of low bushes grEw along its edges. SC s 3902 2,309505.06 311,572.59 1 + O 32 5' SrorO R'100 n -I I Ie4 SAXBY 181 22 53.9 180 50 02 3902 ? " '0 $ 1on' if 14- 2' BOG (Charleston County,S.C.,G.D.C.,1933I.R.R.N.,1956) -The station mark and reference marks 1 and 2 were recovered in good condition. The distances to the reference marks were verified. The published description is adequate with the following additions: The station mark is 29.2 ft. NW of the largest and center one of three oak trees, and 6.5 ft. SE of the marsh. It is a standard disk, stamped "BOG 1933" and set in the top of a 10-in. square concrete monument which is flush with the ground. Reference mark 1 is 64.7 ft. SW of the largest and center one of three oak trees, and 8.0 ft. SE of the marsh. It is a standard disk, stamped "BOG NO 1 1933" and set in the top of a 10- in. round concrete monument which is flush with the ground. Reference mark 2 is 81.3 ft. SE of the largest and center one BP 026 of three oak trees, and 11.8 ft. W of the E edge of the high ground. It is a standard disk, stamped "BOG NO 2 1933" and set in the top of an 8-in. round concrete monument which is flush with the ground. rr. 500~ enU.S. DGAURTYMeT OP COeMLERC -COAST ANs GeoDEIIC SU0V00 Iel-o8.51 RECOVERY NOTE. TRIANGULATION STATION R None o SS*nlSo: BO Eeeolollee On 0GT .D.C. ynoR: 1933 sn:- S3outh Carolina ocooeVo NTo.:' J.K.W. YAn: 1964 Co.n. Charleston UDtiled stoteent ar to th. fitne ol th. otiionld. driptiun; includ.n noark lound.ts.mpin.,. nehno nade, ood ohn per tinnt.: The station was recovered as described FIGURE 31.-Quadrangle 320794, S.C., NOS/NGS triangulation station descriptions. APPENDIX 7 189 OCTOBER 1964 11 VERTICAL CONTROL DiFA 4UAD 320794 PAGE NO. PUBLISHED AND PRINTED BY: by the S.C. U.S. DEPARTMENT OP COMMERCE Coast and Geodetic Survey LATITUDE 32'30' to 33'00' COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY SEAV-LEL DATUM OF 1929 LONGITUDE 79 -30' to 8O 00' WASHINGTON D.C. DIAGRAM NI 17-12 JAMES ISLAND soe-oo 79530O' 'on 5A 0.0. u�reRIer OF COeRC� 5005. 33-nO 320790 ness: RECOVERY NOTE, BENCH MARK R Designation D (S.C.E.D.) State South Carolina County Charleston Nearest town ount Pleasant County Charleston Chief of Party R. Gerrish Distance and direction from nearet town 20.3 miles northeastReov.ery Date 12-62 F103 too / /Character of mark A 2 inch pipe filled with lead Stamping Established by South Carolina Highway Dept. Present condition Not Recovered Detailed report A thorough search was made for this mark but it was not recovered this date. 20.3 miles north along U.S. Highway 701 from Mount Pleasant, Charleston County, 120 feet south of highway station 110y, 290 reet north of the intersection of Seewee Road, i/ 38 feet east of the centerline of the highway, and level with the highway. A 2-inch galvanized-iron pipe filled with lead, and set in a concrete base, marked by a post painted "SCHD STA 1168 + 75 PROJ 120-B-REOP." �e sa sr Us. oEPAReTnenT OF COLwaCEc RECOVERY NOTE. BENCH MARK R .2.3o, 32'30' esooo' 79o30' Designation 21 (U.S.G.S.) State South Carolina County Charleston Nearest town Mount Pleasant County Charleston Chief of Party R. Gerrish Dintane and direction from nearest town 19.9 miles northeastRecovery Date 12-62 Character of mark A U.S.G.S. standard cap Stamping LINE 101 Established by U.S.G.S. Present condition Not Recovered Detailed report A thorough searoh was made for this mark but it was not recovered this date. The measurements would place the mark in the high- way ditch. O6d SA U.s. DEF'AR5TEHt OF ConERCE RECOYERY NOI TEI BENCH MARK R U19.9 miles north along U.S. Highway 701 RECOVERY NOTE, BENCH MARK R from Mount Pleasant, Charleston County, 0.2 mile east of the high- Designation K 16 Stats South Carolina County Charleston way, 160 feet east of milepost "Mt. P. 21-MoC. 15," 130 feet north- Neaest townMount Pleasant CountyCharleston Chief of Party R. Gerrish west of the Awendaw Public School, at the northwest corner of the Distance and diretion from nearest town 22.4 miles northeastRecovery Date 12-62 schoolyard, 30 feet east of the centerline of Seewee Road, 10 Character of mark A C&GS bench mark disk Stamping feet north of the centerline of an east-and-west road, and level Established by C&IS with the grade. A United States Geological Survey standard cap, Present condition Not Recovered stamped "21.306' and riveted on the top of a 3-1/2-inch iron pipe Detailed report A thorough search was made for this mark but it was not projecting 4 inches above ground. recovered this date. 22.4 miles north along U.S. Highway 701 from Mount DESCRIPTION OF BERCH MARK Pleasant, Charleston County, 0.5 mile south of Awendaw CreelE255 reet north of highway station 1270, between the highway and a county road, opposite a shallow borrow pit, 29 feet west of the Doe.t. ChUrlestgno U 125 Sth Coi Charleston centerline of the county road, 22 feet east of the east edge of lanone- en.. Awcdato ..o oI...esat - 3.6 miles southwest rn Dt. 12-62 the highway, and level with the highway. A standard disk, stamped cho-e--s of ..n A CWS EX disk on a steal rod swlng U 125 1962 n19.062 K 16 1933" and set in the top of a concrete post project- Es.tbltsoed he Q nd Ing 9 inches above ground. sto.i.ed dsn.rl.tl.o 3.6 miles soathwest along U.S. 1aighways 17 and 701 from the Post Office at Awendaw, at the junction of a black top road No. S 10-432 leading southeast, 55 feet southeast of the center line of the highway, 145 feet south of the center line of the Junction of the black top road, 76 feet southwest of the southwest corner of 7enders grocery store, 2.5 feet northwest of a fence, 1.5 feet northeast of a creosote witness post, 3 feet below the level of the highway, and is a disk on a copper coated steel rod, flush, and protected by a 6 inch tile which pro- jects 2 inches. The rod was driven to a depth of 56 feet. FIGURE 32.-Quadrangle 320794, S.C., NOS/NGS geodetic bench mark descriptions. 190 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK OCTOBER 1964 VERTICAL CONTROL DATA S. 320794 PUBLISHED AND PRINTED BY: bythe LATITUDE 32'30' to 33'00' U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Coast and Geodetic Survey LONGITUDE 79'30' to 80W00' COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY SEA-LEVEL DATUM OF 1929 DIAGRAM NI 17-12 JAMES ISLAND WASHINGTON D.C. LINE 102 LINE 103 LINE 103 (Continued) (PFirst-orer) (Cotied) Bench Mark Adjusted Elevation The original field work (L-679) Bench Mark Adjusted Elevation (Meters) (Feet) was done in March 1933 by a party (Meters) (Feet) supervised by W. M. Gibson. The line M 69 Not recovered was releveled (L-14254) and extended * X 16 6.722 22.054 E 126 4.964 16.286 in the winter of 1952 by a party z 125 8.520 27.953 * L 69 5.550 18.209 supervised by Clarence Symns, Jr. K 69 6.192 20.315 Releveling (L-18261) was done in the MICHEL 6.549 21.486 vcinity of N. Charleston in 1961 by SPUR LINE NORTHWEST a party supervised by S. J. Diez. MICHEL RM NO 1 6.554 21.503 The line was again releveled * F 71 8.804 28.884 Tidal FT JOHNSON 5 4.001 13.127 (L-19048) from November 1962 to W 123 8.832 28.976 Tidal FT JOHNSON 4 2.999 9.839 March 1963 by a party supervised by Z 123 9.777 32.077 Tidal FT JOHNSON 1 2.811 9.222 R. R. Gerrish. * Y 16 7.690 25.230 Tidal FT JOHNSON 2 2.024 6.640 * PTS 15 (USGS) 7.674 25.177 The 1952 elevations are based Tidal FT JOHNSON 3 2.013 6.604 on a supplementary adjustment of * F 67 7.044 23.110 * Tidal 6 2.592 8.504 1952. The 1962-63 elevations are o A 67 8.526 27.972 JOHNSON (USE) RM based on a supplementary adjustment * R 26 7.155 23.474 2 = Tidal 9 2.955 9.695 of 1964. * JOHNSON (USE) RM END OF SPUR LINE 1 = Tidal 8 2.628 8.622 Bench Mark Adjusted Elevation (Meters) (Feet) JOHNSON (USE) = Meters) 69 7.256 23.806 Tidal 7 2.749 9.019 * T 69 3.155 12.320 D 70 6.160 20.210 * NO 9 RESET 1958 6.994 22.946 12.6 (USGS) 3.605 12.484 * FORT SUMTER * W 16 4.737 15.541 BATTERY RM NO 3 7.249 23.783 * U 69 .4.697 15.410 SPUR LINE TO CHARLESTON 15 (USGS) Destroyed NAVAL SHIPYARD * FORT SUMTER BATTERY RM NO 4 6.957 22.825 E 71 3.232 10.604 FORT SUMTER BATTERY 4 (USN) 1.778 5.833 REFERENCE 2 Not leveled over D 71 RESET 1963 8.739 * NO 11 RESET 6.366 20.886 SPUR LINE TO TIDAL BENCH MARK C 71 2.698 8.852 B 71 2.674 8.773 * Tidal 3 2.469 8.100 * Z 70 4.589 15.056 15.709 (USE) Not recovered * Y 70 4.621 15.161 A 71 2.758 9.049 * Tidal 2 4.009 13.153 * Tidal 3 (1934) 2.434 7.986 * Tidal 1 4.241 13.914 END OF SPUR LINE MOULTRIE RM NO 3 2.905 9.531 END OF SPUR LINE MOULTRIE 2.983 9.787 C 70 6.540 21.457 * U 70 6.684 21.929 B 70 2.641 8.665 * V 70 2.491 8.173 V 69 4.961 16.276 A 70 10.159 33.330 * 10.237 (USE) 2.333 7.654 69 9.110 29.888 C 126 3.546 11.634 Y 69 2.032 6.667 SPUR LINE TO TIDAL BENCH MARK W 70 Not recovered X 69 4.120 13.517 * X 70 8.353 27.405 * Tidal 4 1951 3.522 11.555 Tidal 8 1951 2.856 9.370 � PLEASANT RM NO 2 1.985 6.184 * Tidal 3 1933 3.747 12.293 Tidal 6 (1951) 2.831 9.288 � PLEASANT 1.915 6.283 * Tidal 1 1933 3.409 11.184 Tidal 7 1951 3.095 10.154 * PLEASANT RM NO 1 1.955 6.414 * RP 4 A (CHLAR 2.759 9.052 Tidal 4 (1942 2.856 9.370 EFS 10 2.620 8.596 Tidal 5 (1942) 2.851 9.354 Mount Pleasant (SCHD) Destroyed * Tidal 5 (1951) 3.846 12.618 END OF SPUR LINE * Changed elevation 0 1961 elevation FIGURE 33.-Quadrangle 820794, S.C., NOS/NGS geodetic bench mark elevations. APPENDIX 7 191 "n OJordanas 1.... em~.n r P~n~t rsallee 32 ( Cross o,0 PI OI,4 - Avn ~~RESRVO, Jamestown Noth r~T$ON Gough so~t 1 S4'.wbe crI I 'tt ~~~~~~~~AN Wndo. K LV7N i.fc( L y~~W~d~ Chf -~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~aer sT~j ie~~~~ ntieville ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lr iev' ll ~~~~~~~~~~ PINCKNEY - ~ ~~~A MON C rrs FIGURE 34.-South Carolina, approximately 1 :650,000-scale vertical control diagram, This NOS/NGS index is drawn on a USGS State base map. NGS first- and second-order level lines are shown. This general area is shown in appendix figures 1'7, 18, 19, 21, and 30. 192 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK - .~~~~~ - 0YtOWI~~~~~~~~~~~ 1240>~~~L 6 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~21-l vrk3 4*Twh 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T -~ D'i 8 2 10iir ",L, WEST\ly -T a1t 7: -Z/SSI7OAMT -~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~I -. torISfh 12 E~TMIAMI~ 4jo'etr Ai60/rtlrpArpr f~~~~r,~~ ~ Xhkl KEyA26SCHos FAM~~r4>A ~L~tN~~MK&~ s 0 Of~R (1ST (28 S 0 Fowey Rocks N~0 AL9'RT ARE~~~ANAI RIOIAR6 (640 *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I5 tx 'ISAY GNERA 10 229 155 R a-1 FIGUR 35.Miam, Fl., 1500,00-sale sctioal aronatica chat. NS aernautcal hart raneCinscalBfro 1:250,00 to1:1,00,000 Theyshow avigaionalfacilties ad aid as wll asgenerlizedplanietricinforation APPENDIX 7 193 - i777 Wio 3 7\Y17 Z7 / _)so ~qt 1 s 10 s Of 60 o0 A~~~~W4~t9 /� .. r> t * . :-: = FIGURE 36.-T33S, R18E, Mich., 1:31,680-scale plat. This BLM plat of Township 33 South, Range 18 East is a typical land plat of the Public Land Survey. Sections are nunbered (usually 1 through 36) and their dimensions are given in chains (1 chain = 66 ft= 1/80 mi). 194 APPENDIX A7 4, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~INSET ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~GND j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T~~~~ADWESI M �IbAPT- -1 ,1 -- E -T- 1-.1 FITU R 37 -C p L oku Naioa Seashr, NCln wesi a tsae16000euermteoiia scl,143,0.ThsN Sma hw tersrvto oudr ndln wnrhp APPENDIX 7 195 /SCRAMENTO LANDING I DC.K COV E X / , TOMAOES R O I-NSON o> / i~ ~ L tPSITANNTEYES E Y C ....... TATIONA /. --. _.ccSAMsE \P POIN REYESPNatPOINT REYES SATE MarinS CIMASountpy r CNATIONAL ,// // DRAAr$ A SEASHORE\ e LG COMPSE 3 2 0 BRID OBSERVATORY SCALE IN MILES INCHI MILE A Boundary Map POINT REYES National Seashore Marin County, California 612 s O 00 B .AUG 1I IPD WR FIGURE 38.-Point Reyes National Seashore, Calif., boundary map at scale 1:210,000, reduced from original scale, 1:63,360. This NPS map shows the reservation boundary. 196 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK i' PeA r PeA : ~ ~ ~ ~ .. W. ; yr; k-r i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ : Ca FIGURE 39.--Clarendon County, S.C., 1:2,0,000-scale soil suvey map. This is one of severa! SO8 .soil maps from a bound volume of maps and text describing soils found in Clarendon County. Soil surveys are available for counties throughout the coastal zone. ~~~~� DOA~~~~~~~~~~C 31;:�)k~~~~~~~ i.~~~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~~~e~~~~~s a;~~~~~~~b _�i�~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~z % s�~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i:~~~~~~~~~~:~~4 �i~~~~~~~~~~i� ~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~4 Su~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ,. h y' rA~~r LaB~~~~~~~~~~~~~- FIUE3.Carno onySC,12,00saesilsre mp.Ti soe fsvrlSC olmp fo on volmeofmas nd ex dscibn- solsfondinClrenonCont. oilsuves reavilalefo cunie througout th coastl zone APPENDIX 7 197 ~~~~~r ~ ~ 1" asn IAR~,KE' 231 4jYj IjwJ~r Lo~C. WIk,&' AL,b3I Ca ,. /L ~/~/ MUN ~,jA P.1~~~~~~~~~~, CN T7-N-RM' . I 3k i~~l..:, ~~~~~ II 4L~~ ,k, . 6z433~o~~ L- FAT f4K~rs ( -~~~~~~~ 1 336 -.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~===iI:I Jt~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 'I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~- A LAKE MI~~~~~~~~qCHIGA POND~~~~~~~~~~~~~S Martin LiL2JL. * . oin iSt Mart Pin t S ~~~~~~~~~~Is'Ms fl, SA> ckaciland N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N Pint Btgace akmall C LIHTHUS~'. RundIsland 4ARELA) St Hlend IGNACE:~ FIGRE40.Hiwata atina Foes, Mch, 1:23,40-cal popetymap Tis UF ma shwtearawihnth Nationl Forst prclamaton bondary USFS and i gree; privte lad, whte. Thse mas aresold tSthe ublic bu4 mle cl oie rceto odr) r itiue re INDEX Page Page Page Accuracy ---------------- 60, 61, 96, 97 Coastal Zone, State mapping advisory Glow tube ----------- 4 Accuracy Standards, National committees 119 Graticule 2 35, 38, 46 Map ____ 3, 4, 9, 60, 61, 155 Coastal Zone Planning, Bureau of ____ 8 Great Lakes . . ............ . 6, 15 Advice, sources of __---------------- 10 Color gradients 54 Grid lines 55 Aeronautical charts -- - ---------- 60, 61 Color infrared film ------------- 2, 4, 44 Grids2, 35, 38, 46 Aerial photographs-2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 43 Color infrared photographs-5, 9, 10, 14, 96 State plane coordinate ---____ 37, 38 Aerial surveys --------------------- 7 Color separation ------------ 50, 51, 64 Ground cover-- 43 Aerotriangulation ------ 9, 42, 43, 44, 99 Conformal projections 35 Gruber, Otto von --46 Analog - ----------------------- 44 Conic projections - ---------------- 35 Guam --- ---------------------- - 38 Analytical ---------- 46 Connecticut ----------- 15 Semianalytical - - --------------- 44 Contact printing ------------- 50, 51, 53 Hchures - -4 Agreements, cooperative . ........... 15 Continental Shelf 2 Half-tide .. ..31 Airport obstruction charts -------- 60, 61 Contour interval ------- 8, 42, 43, 45, 56 Harbor charts 60 Alabama, cooperative agreement ----- 94 Contour lines - ------- 15, 46, 48, 50assler, Ferdinand--36 Alaska, Aleutian Islands 40 Control ------------------ 33, 42, 55 Hawai13, 14, 3 Coastal area defined . ........... 2 Horizontal 33 Hipparchus . . ..35. Control network 33 Surveys 33 Historical maps55 Grid system - - ----------------- 40 Vertical - - --------------------- 33 Horizontal control ................ 33 Pipeline -----------99 Cooperating agencies -------------- 117 Hydrologic unit maps-13 Aleutian Islands -- ----------------- 40 Cooperative agreements 15 Hypsographic map --54 Altitude, effect on remote sensors ---- 96 Cooperative programs 16 Hypsometric map _54 Amazon Basin -- - ------------------ 99 Coordinate system, plane rectangular -- 2 Analog aerotriangulation -- ---------- 44 Coordinatograph ---------------- 46, 66 Illinois 32-------------- Analytical aerotriangulation ----- 44, 46 Culture 56 Image generation __________________ 96 Appendixes ___________________---- 115 Cylindrical projections -------------- 35 I r pacenters -10 Area data, digitized .. . .... . 99 b-66 Inking�48 Assistance, sources of ___.__--------- 10 Data bank __________ 66 Inking -- - ---............... - Atlas sucs maps . . . .............. 2 Data extraction techniques 64 Interim revisions 14 Atlas maps�-------7 Data sources �19 International Great Lakes Datum ---- 81 Atlas, wetland ----------------- 7 Datums ---------------------- 19 In Automations - -- -------------66,- f, 98 Datums ---------------------- 2, 29, 32 International Hydrographic Bureau --- 56 Azimuth ________________-----__ 29, 35 Lake-level - --- - ----------------6 International Hydrographic Tidal ---------- 6, 7, 14, 15, 29, 31 Organization 60 Deepwater Ports Act, 1974 -_-------- 12 Isogonic charts 60 Baltimore Harbor - - ---------------- 14 Defense Mapping Agency Isopach charts . ................... 60 Base map __________ 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 54 Topographic Center ----- 12 Isopleth maps . ................. 54 Bathymetric maps �------ 5, 6, 16, 31, 54 Delavare 8 Bench marks _____________________State Planning Office ---------- 8 Kramer, Gerhard ------------------- 37 Tidal ------------ -- 3Diapositives - ---------- 46 Blanket - _Digital map data - ------------- 99 Lagrangian current 48 Bondaries, cadastral -------- 1,4 Digital maps --- ------- 55 Lake level ---15, 32- B uoundaries, cadastral- - - 4 6 Distribution maps 54 Lake-level datum-6 Contiguous zone ............... Legal.. . 2 Distribution offices __ Lake Michigan932 Territorial seaboundaries 6 ______________1, Diurnal tides-- 83 Lambert conformal conic projection -- 36 VegTetative a m1 Drainage_-_56 5 Lambert, Johann Heinrich 12, 436 Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning - __ 8 Earth Resources Observationd cover RecreBureautionPlan ________ 7t E g __Systems program_ ------12 Land Information and Analysis Office, Bureau of Landthe Cen t -astings 40 USGS�12, 13 CBureau of the Census��---13 Electromagnetic spectrum 40 Land Inventory and Monitoring Ellipsoid, reference -- ----- Division, SCS 89 Cadastral boundaries - 1, 4 Engineering mLand Management, Bureau of -------- 54 Cadastral map ...... ....54 Endlap ------------- 7 L1at Cadastral survey 1 Environmental Data Service ------ 10, 12 Landscape map ..........54 California ---------7, 15 Equal-area projectios Land use -------------------- 4, 5, 9, 13 CaojectoLand 66, 67, 88, 94, 95, 96, 99 Coastal Preservation and EROS Data Center -------------- 10, 12 Recreation Plan 7 Etching ma Definition________ 45 RaP--En--50 Data and analysis -------------- 62 Comprehensive Ocean Area Plan _- 7 Eulerian current Definition .maps-_7_ 5 Cathode-ray tube -_________________ 440 Central meridian .........36 Feature separation - -- ------- 50, 64, 66 Land use ..unit.96 C-factor Federal Aviation Administration_l3, 15, 4356 Charting activities 16 Federal mapping and charting Legal boundaries Charts ------------ --60 programs ---12 Legend-3 Aeronautical ____________ 60, 61 Field classification 48 Line data. .. . 199 Line mat a --------------------- 4. 55 Airport obstruction - -------- 60, 61 Field completion . . ...............48 Line map - ------------------_- Coastalg - -_26__________________ 60 Field editingroe map ____________------ 4 Harbor------- -- - Fm--- -Long -bar bridging-. ........44 Isogonic aeronautical 60, 62 Color infrared _______________-2, 44 Longitude -.________ 29, 56 Isopach n60 Panchromatic - -_______- 4, 9, 40, 44an ___5 94 Nautical - ---------- 14, 31, 61, 62 Processing ---------- 44 Maine ------------- 15 Obstruction ..........15 Final drafting and review .- - -------- 48 Management Act, 1972, Coastal Zone - 1 Sailing ----------60 Five-color press -.53 Mangrove -1 Sectional aeronautical .36, 60,61 Flood-control maps54 Mapping activities- 16 Selecting . ......... . Florida � ----- 8, 15, 40, 90, 94 xMapping and charting programs ----- 16 Small-craft _______________= 14, 60 Coastal Zone Management Atlas __ 8 Mapping techniques, photogrammetric_ 41 Terminal Control Area ______ 60, 61 Florida Keys, Coastal Zone Mapping the coastal wetlands ------- 4 Tidal current _______________ 60, 61 Management Study - -. . 8 Map projections and grid systems ---- 35 World aeronautical ______ 36, 60, 61 Focal length -- ---------------- 43, 96 Map reproduction . ................ 51 Choropleth map . . .................. 54 Forestry maps . ................... 55 Maps .. .......................... 54 Panchromatic film - ----------------- 4 Format - - ---------------------- 55, 61 Atlas - - ----------------------- 2 Clarke Spheroid of 1866 - ----------- 29 Form lines -------------------_--- 54 Base __________-__ 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 54 Coastal charts -----------------__ 2, 60 Bathymetric --______ 5, 6, 16, 31, 54 Coastal-flooding maps -------------- 7 Gaging stations - ------------------ 9 Cadastral -------------------- 54 Coastal Mapping Division, NOS ------ 14 Gauss-Kruger projection . .. ........ 38 Choropleth . .................. 54 Coastal maps --------------------- 2 Geographic maps - ------------------ 54 Coastal-flooding - --------------- 7 Coastal wetlands, mapping ---------- 4 Geography Program - - -------------- 13 Compilation ---------------- 43, 46 Coastal Zone, cooperating agencies --__ 117 Geologic maps ---------------------- 55 Digital - - ---------------------- 55 Delimiting . ................... 1 Geometric projections -- ----------- 36 Distribution -- ----------------- 54 Management Act ------------ 1, 123 Georgia ------------------------ 15, 94 Engineering .-- ---------------- 54 Program managers ------------- 120 Glossary .. ........................103 Flood control - ----------------- 54 199 COASTAL MAPPING HANDBOOK Page Page Page Forestry 55 Orthophoto ____ ___________ 4, 55, 96 Satellite geodesy . ................99 Maps, Geographic4 Orthophotomaps ------------ 3, 5, 46, 55 Scale ----------------- 2, 42, 56, 61, 96 Geologic - - --------------------- 55 Orthophotomosaic - - ---------------- 55 Scribecoat . . ................... 48 Historical . . .................. 55 Orthophotoquad - --------------- 14, 55 Sea Level Datum of 1929 ----------- 32 Hydrologic unit ---------------- 13 Orthophotoscope - - -- - -------------- 55 Seas. territorial - ----------------- 2 Hypsographic - - ---------------- 54 Outline map ---------------_____-- 54 Sectional aeronautical charts -- 36, 60, 61 Hypsometrie 54 Overlays ------------ 3, 4, 9, 13, 62, 64 Selected references ._-_-.. . .........100 Isopleth - ---------------------- 54 Overprints - ------------------ 3, 62, 64 Semianalytical aerotriangulation . . 44 Landscape --- ------------------ 54 Semidiurnal tides - ------------------ 33 Land use - - ----------------- 7, 55 Panchromatic film - ----------. 4, 40, 44 Separation guides, color __-__ 50, 51, 64 Line __---------------------- 4, 55 Paneling - - -- ---------------------- 42 Feature --- -- 50, 64, 66 Line route . . ................. 54 Pantographs -- --------------------- 56 Shaded-relief -------------------- 12, 13 Outline - - --------------------- 54 Parallels -------------------�_ 2, 35, 55 Shading 54 Pictorial - ---- - ---------------- 2 Standard --------------------- 35 Shoreline ----------------------- 61, 62 Planimetric -------------- 5, 33, 54 Peelcoat - ------------ - 50 Skylab -- 12 Quadrangle ---- --------------- 13 Pennsylvania -- -------------------- 94 Slope maps .---------------------- 55 Revision -- -------------------- 60 Photogrammetry ..-------------- 41, 42 Small-craft charts - ------ 14, 60 Road - - ------------------------ 2 Photographs, aerial__2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 43 Smooth sheet - ------------- . ..... 5 Sample .. ......................157 Color infrared --------- 5, 9, 14, 96 Soil Conservation Service ------------ 89 Selecting 5 Photoindex -- ---------------------- 48 Soil maps - - ------------------- 55 Slope - - ----------------------- 55 Photomap -- ----------------------- 55 Sounding lines -- ------------------- 56 Soil .. ........................ 55 Photomosaic -- --------------------- 44 Soundings -- - --------------------- 31 Special-purpose ----------------- 54 Pictorial maps --- - - ---------------- 2 Special-purpose maps --------------- 54 Storm evacuation --------------- 54 Pixel - - ---------------------- 99 Standard Land Use Coding Manual __- 93 Tax . . ......................... 9 Plane rectangular coordinate system__2, 46 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas 13 Thematice _ - -.-.- - --.- 5, 54 Planimetric features - - ---------- 15, 48 Standard parallels . ............... 35 Topographic __ 5, S, 12, 13, 15, 16, 54 Planimetric maps -------------- 5, 33, 54 State coastal mapping programs _____ 7 Topographic-bathymetric -------- 16 Plat ----------------------------- 54 State plane coordinate grid --- 37, 38, 56 Marginal information --------------- 55 Point data -- --------------------- 99 Stereomodel - ------------------- 46, 48 Marine Chart Division, NOS --------- 14 Polyconic projection --------------- 37 Stereoplotters 48 Mathematically transformed projections 36 Pressplate _----_____--____-- 51, 53, 64 Stereoscopic effect - ----------------- 46 Mean high water ---- 1, 2, 14, 31, 32, 61 Product sources 19 Stereoscopic pairs 10 Mean lower low water ---_---- 6, 14, 31 Programs, cooperative . 16 Stereotemplets 44 Mean low water ----- 6, 14, 31, 32, 61 Major Federal mapping and Storm evacuation map ______-----_-- 54 Mean sea level .--------------- 9, 31, 32 charting . .-- --------- 12 Stripping 50 Mercator projection -----_--------__ 37 Mapping and charting _--______- 16 Sun angle 43 Meridians _----____--________ 2, 35, 55 State coastal mapping ---------- 7 Sunspots 7 Central . . .................... 36 Projection lines . .. . ............... 55 Surveys, aerial - -- ----------------- 7 Metonic cycle - - -------------------- 33 Projections -- ---------------------- 36 Cadastral - -------------------- 1 Metrication .. ......................100 Conformal .. 35 Symbolization - 4 Microwave energy - ----------------- 40 Conic - - -- --------------------- 35 Mississippi River Commission -______- 12 Cylindrical - - ------------------ 35 Tax maps ------------------------- 9 Mixed tide ----------- _ 33 Equal-area _____________-_--___- 35 Technical assistance ---------------- 16 Multispectral scanner ______________ 41 Gauss-Kruger . . ............... 38 Tennessee Valley Authority -_-------- 12 Geometric - - -- - ---------------- 36 Terminal Control Area charts ---- 60, 61 National Cartographic Information Lambert conformal conic ---____- 36 Territorial seas 2, 6 Center, USGS ------ 10, 11 Mathematically transformed -___- 36 Texas 9 National Geodetic Network ---------100 Mercator -- ----- 3 Thematic maps 5 National Geodetic Survey Information Polyconic 7 Tidal bench marks ___--_____----___- 33 Center, NOS -------- 10, 11 Transverse Mercator - - ------ --- 38 Tidal current charts ------------ 60, 61 National Geodetic Vertical Datum - 31, 32 Public land system _--______________ 56 Tidal latums ------s6, 7, 14, 15, 29, 31 National Horizontal Control Network - 33 Puerto Rico ----____--_______ 14, 33, 38 Tides -__________---_____-- 1, 15, 33 National Map Accuracy Standards_3, 4, 9, 60, 61, 155 Quadrangle maps . ................ 13 Topographic-bathymetric maps -1 1 3, 16 Topographic maps-- 5, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, 54 National Tidal Datum Epocht w 3 Topographic sheets - - __ 5 National Vertical Control Network__32, 33 Radial line plotting -----..----- - - -- 44 Transverse Mercator projection --- - 38 Nautical Charts - ------- ---- 14, 31, 61 Ratio, base-height .........43 Neatline .. ........................ 55 Width-height - - ---------------- 43 Ultraviolet ----------- _--------- 40 New Jersey --____________________ 8, 15 Rectification -_-____---________--- 9, 55 Universal Transverse Mercator grid ___ 56 Wetlands Act, 1970 - ----------- 9 Reference ellipsoid -_-----_--------_- 29 Universal Transverse Mercator New York ______________________ 15, 40 Reference mark -- ------------------ 48 projection -----_---- 38, 40 Harbor ----------- 14 Reflectance ----------- 40 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers -------- 33 North American Datum of 1927 ____- - 29 Register - - ------------------ 51, 53 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ..- - - 36 Northings -- ----------------------- 40 Relief -- --------------------------- 56 USGS cooperative programs --------- 15 NOS cooperative programs __________ 15 Remote sensing ---__---____-- 14, 40, 96 Remote sensors ------------ ------ 40, 67 Vegetative boundaries ---. .--- - ------ 1 Ohbtruction charts _ ._______.______-- 15 Return beam vidicon s______________ 41 Vertical control ... ................ 33 Office of Management and Budget -_-- 13 Rhumb lines .. .................... 38 Virgin Islands __________________ 33, 38 Offset printing . . .................. 51 Right-reading - ----------------- 48, 51 Open-window negatives -____--_____-- 51 Riparian lands - ------------------- 9 Wetland atlas . .. .................. 7 Optical-mechanical scanning River flows .. .................... 15 Wisconsin - -- - --------------------- 32 radiometers ____________ 40 Road maps - - --------------------- 2 Woodland - --- - -------------------- 48 Oregon --__-----_-----____--_____-- 15 World aeronautical charts ___--___ 36, 61 Ordinary high water -----_-----__-- 32 Sailing chart -- - ------------------- 60 Wrong-reading __________________ 48, 51 *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978 O - 253-905