Trends and future challenges for U.S. national ocean and coastal policy proceedings

[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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0 Purpose
The purpose of the conference was to examine trends and future challenges (national
and global) that are likely to affect U.S. national ocean and coastal policy in the next 25
years. Such trends include demographic pressures on the coast; trends related to
resource scarcity; technological and industry-driven innovations; changes in social
values and attitudes; changes in environmental and domestic governance frameworks;
and changes in ocean industries. The meeting agenda is included in the Appendix.
0 Organizers
The workshop was organized by the National Ocean Service, NOAA; the Center for
the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean Governance Study
Group. Funding support has come from the National Ocean Service, NOAA. The
additional support of the Center for Marine Conservation, BOAT/US, and the Gradu-
ate College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, is acknowledged with sincere
thanks.
0 Editors' Note

The views expressed in the contributions making up this volume are those of the
authors and not necessarily those of the organizers ( National Ocean Service, NOAA;
the Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean
Governance Study Group).

Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the National Ocean Service
Special Projects Office in Silver Spring, Maryland. Charles Bookman and Tom Culliton
reviewed the papers and made many important editorial suggestions. Davida Remer
designed and produced the document. Pam Rubin served as technical editor and
designed the cover. Their assistance was invaluable.
0. National Dialogues on Coastal Stewardship
The National Dialogues bring together the many partners who make up the coastal
community to focus on the most important coastal and oceanic issues facing the United
States. The Dialogues combine systematic approaches and interactive problem-solving,
building partnerships and a sense of community among all stakeholders. Under the
National Dialogues initiative, a number of national organizations have developed a
comprehensive vision for the future of coastal stewardship; a national dialogue about
the vision is being conducted over the Internet from July to October, 1999 (wwwstate-
of-coast.noaa.gov/natdialog/). Major activities in 1998 included the Stratton Commis-
sion Roundtable; the organization of the Coastal Trends Conference, which resulted in
this proceedings; and the development of a newsletter, Ocean and Coastal Policy Network
News. These publications can be downloaded in PDF format from NOAA's National
Dialogues Web site: http://state-of-coast.noaa.gov/natdialog/index.htmI

For a copy of the report, contact Pam Rubin, Special Projects Office,
NOAA, National Ocean Service, 1305 East-West Hwy., 9th Fl., Silver Spring, MD 20910-
3281; ph. 301-713-3000, ext. 121, e-mail [email protected]

Trends and Future Challenges
fo r
U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Proceedings

Edited by Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Nancy Foster"
*Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware
"National Ocean Service, NOAA

The Ocean Governance Study Group

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Organized by the National Ocean Service, NOAA; the Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy,
University of Delaware; and the Ocean Governance Study Group.

Funding support has comefrom the National Ocean Service, NOAA. The additional
support of the Centerfor Marine Conservation, BOATIUS, and the Graduate College
of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, is acknowledged with sincere thanks.

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Table of Contents

.................. 4: ....................
Ifitroduction and Execu ive Sumiffiary ........... .................. 1
.... .. .. ...
Looking Ahead: Future Challenges for U.S. Ocean and Coastal Policy ........................................................... 1
Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Nancy Foster"
*Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, "National Ocean Service, NOAA

. . . ...... .
N
ext 25 Years: Global lssues.@ ......... . ................................................... ........................

Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context .................................................................................................. 17
Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute

Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture ......................................................................................................... 21
Richard Grainger, FAO Fisheries Department

The Coastal Population Explosion ........................................................................................................................... 27
Don Hinrichsen, United Nations consultant and author

Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998. (Executive Summary) ..................................................................... 31
Charles A. Bookman, Thomas G. Culliton, and Maureen A. Warren, National Ocean Service, NOAA

@2.'@ Trends in Managing the,Environment .. .................................I........................................... 35
3NK

New Approaches to Environmental Management: Lessons from the Chesapeake Bay ............................... 37
Donald F Boesch, University of Maryland

Perspectives on Marine Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 41
Tim Eichenberg, Centerfor Marine Conservation and Clean Water Network

Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges ................................................................................... 45
Thomas F. Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas .............................................................................................................. 51
Tundi Agardy, Conservation International

anges anc 'Responses ............ ................. . ............................... 57
'&jndustry-Dnv6n..Ch I PoliF
y,

Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure Implications .................................................................... 59
Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.

Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and Future Challenges ............................................ 65
Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.

Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry .................................................................................. 69
Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations

Coastal Tourism and Recreation: The Driver of Coastal Development . .................... . .............................................................................. 73
Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht,
Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware

Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's Coastal Regions ....................................................................... 77
Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition

A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States . ...................................................................................................................................................... 81
Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners Association of the United Sates (BOATIUS)

Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and Future Policy and Management Challenges ...... 85
M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium

Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Legal and Regulatory Concerns ........ 95
Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick,**
*University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware

The Potential for the Marine Biotechnology Industry ....................................................................................... 101
Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida

Emerging Challenges for U.S. Marine Biotechnology' ........................ .................................................................................................................. ........ 105
Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Dosoo Jang,**
*Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, **NOAA

4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal States ............................................................... 109

Building Capacity for Ocean Management: Recent Developments in U.S. West Coast States ................. 111
Marc 1. Hershman, University of Washington

Coastal States' Challenges ....................................................................................................................................... 117
Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization

Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy for Florida ........................................................................... 121
James F Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida Governor's Ocean Committee

Appendices

1. Biographies of Authors and Moderators ................................................................................................... 125

II. Workshop Agenda ........................................................................................................................................ 132

III. Workshop Participants .................................................................................................................................. 135

1. Paper submitted after the workshop.

Introduction and Executive Summary

LOOKING AHEAD: FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR U.S. OCEAN
AND COASTAL POLICY

Biliana Cicin-Sain, * Robert W. Knecht, * and Nancy Foster"
*Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, "National Ocean Service

The Changing Context of National Ocean and California and Texas-will lead the nation in popula-
Coastal Policy tion, while Florida's expected population of 16
million will rank fourth in the nation, up from tenth
We see a changing context for U.S. ocean and coastal in 1960 (Culliton et al, 1990). Population density in
policy in the late 1990s. Some of these changes are coastal areas-in 1988 it was 341 persons per square
physical-the warming climate and the associated mile, more than 4 times the U.S. average-is expected
effects at the shoreline including accelerated sea level to increase more than 10% between 1988 and 2010
rise and coastal erosion, the possibility of (Culliton et al,
increased storm frequency and perhaps 1990).
intensity; some are social and demo- Population growth will
graphic-the increasing flow of people continue to be a driving Population pres-
and activities to coastal areas and the sures will typically
consequent changes in coastal environ- force in the 2 1 st century. lead to increased
ments; some are related to technology- It is expected that popu- user conflicts and
the need for deeper navigational chan- lotions - both globally and competition for
nels and harbors to accommodate larger in the United States - will scarce ocean and
and faster vessels and the need to coastal resources,
respond to the challenges of new tech- continue to concentrate result in loss of
nologies such as marine biotechnology; in coastal areas, access to the ocean
and some represent changes in public commons, and raise
policy-a recognition that many environ- a variety of public
mental and resource problems are effectively ad- health issues. Concomitantly, coastal ocean degrada-
dressed only by partnerships, between levels of tion is likely to continue in the form of declining
government and between the public and private water quality and coastal fisheries and destruction of
sectors. important habitats. Controlling nonpoint (or land-
based) sources of marine pollution-such as rain-
Population growth will continue to be a driving force caused run-off from urban surfaces containing grease
in the 21st century. It is expected that populations- and oil, plastics, salt, and other substances, storm
both globally and in the United States-will continue water run-off, and run-off from agricultural activities
to concentrate in containing fertilizers, pesticides, and other
coastal areas. chemicals used in farming practices-will
World megacities pose one of the most significant chal-
(defined as cities In the marine realm, we lenges to decision-makers since land-
larger than 8 are likely to see increased based sources such as these account for
million) which growth In coastal and more than 75% of the pollutants entering
numbered 20 in morine tourism as travel the oceans (YOTO 1998, C-19). Changes
1990 will increase in the global climate, as they materialize,
to 30 in 2010. and tourism. the world"s_ are expected to result in rising sea levels,
Twenty of these 30 largest industry, continues, increased damage by storms and floods,
megacities will be to rise. and changes in rainfall and freshwater
coastal megacities flow to estuaries.
(Nicholls 1995). In
the United States, coastal populations are expected to In the marine realm, we are likely to see increased
rise from 141 million in 1996 to 166 million in 2015 growth in coastal and marine tourism as travel and
(Bookman, Culliton and Warren, 1999, in this vol- tourism, the world's largest industry, continues to
ume). By 2010, for example, two coastal states- rise. In 1995, the industry employed 211.7 million

Trends andFuture Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

people, produced 10.9% of world gross domestic From an economic and political perspective, the
product, invested $693.9 billion in new facilities/ globalization of the economy will continue and
equipment, and contributed more than $637 billion to world economic and political interdependence will
global tax revenues (WTTC, no date). Hopefully, be even more apparent than it is today. New factors
pressures for maintaining the health and attractive- which have become manifest in the last several years
ness of coastal areas such as the emergence of regional
economic blocs and growing intema-
for tourism will TMM
provide the needed @,,--Reodihihg. U.S. Jedder..@,., tional terrorism are likely to continue. In
political will to push the period to 2025, we will see more,
for such programs as
rather than fewer, demands for United
us,
dh&rS th
clean water protection States international leadership. In this
one @bf th' regard, the United States was once the
and beach restoration
and mainten
ance. acknowledged leader in ocean affairs
r7ld for. challenges In
Global trade, most of internationally. Now the United States
it by ship, wil notlonolpce' an pOWCY finds itself outside the ambit of some of
I con
cc
tinue to grow in in thdh t d6ill de, the most important international agree-
importance and the ments ever concluded on oceans, particu-
marine transportation larly the Law of the Sea Convention and
industry will demand refurbished and modernized the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity and will
port facilities, including deeper channels, to accom- increasingly find it difficult to influence the course of
modate the deeper-draft, larger, and faster ships now actions decided by international bodies set up under
coming on line. Given the decline of fisheries these Conventions. Regaining U.S. leadership in
worldwide (60 percent of commercial stocks are international ocean matters thus looms as one of the
either overfished or fully harvested (FA0 1996)), the major challenges in national ocean policy in the next
focus in this area will likely be on conservation and decade (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1999).
on rebuilding stocks rather than on fisheries develop-
ment. Meeting these challenges is not going to be easy and
will require the kind of advance planning and
Aquaculture currently accounts for about 25% of concerted, integrated, and sustained action that we
world food fish supplies, with China, India, Taiwan, have not recently demonstrated. Solving the fisher-
and Thailand among the leaders in this field (YOTO ies problem, for example, will require more than
1998, C-28). Aquaculture is likely to grow as a simply closing fisheries and allowing sufficient time
substitute to wild fisheries but ways will need to be for the stocks to recover. To achieve improved
found to avoid the environmental problems that have abundance on a sustainable basis, we will also have
plagued aquaculture operations in some Asian and to address such problems as continuing loss of
Latin American countries. Marine areas, too, will essential fish habitat, problems of bycatch, and
increasingly be used for the "bioprospecting" of problems associated with land-based sources of
novel marine organisms and marine organisms with marine pollution. Restoring and managing the
unique properties (such as the heat-tolerant hyper- nation's recreational beaches will require much closer
thermophiles found in deep-ocean hydrothermal cooperation and collaboration among organizations
vents). Policy frameworks that establish standards such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the
for allowing access to and exploitation of such Federal Emergency Management Agency and its
resources will need to be developed, given the lack of National Flood Insurance Program, the coastal
any policy guidance at present. In offshore oil management programs in place in each of the coastal
development, new challenges will be faced in at least states, and local governments and their coastal
two areas: the dismantling of offshore oil platforms, communities which are clearly on the front line with
in an environmentally sound manner, in oil fields regard to this problem. Modernizing the nation's
that have been depleted (approximately 4,000 port system to meet the needs of the 21st century, for
platforms will need decommissioning around the another example, will require a significant effort at
world, and 1,000 in the Gulf of Mexico in the coming all levels from the local port community itself, to the
decade), and, as industry develops oil resources in host coastal state, and to the national level where a
deeper and deeper areas of the Gulf of Mexico (Coy more coherent national port policy is needed. All in
et al. 1997), new policy issues related to marine all, a more integrated system of ocean governance
safety, environmental impact, and relations with will be needed, one that looks at the ocean and its
neighboring Mexico are likely to arise. resources as a whole and not only at its discrete
parts.

Introduction and Executive Summary

Discussions at the 1999 Workshop on Trends and coupled with widening disparities in wealth may
Future Challenges lead to the demise of Market World. Fortress World
envisions islands of luxury and privilege surrounded
This volume contains the papers presented at the by oceans of poverty, despair, and environmental
Trends and Future Challenges for U. S. National degradation.
Ocean and Coastal Policy workshop held in Wash-
ington, D. C. on January 22,1999. The workshop, The final scenario is Transformed World, which
part of the series of Dialogues on National Ocean and recognizes that fundamental social and political
Coastal Policy, sought to raise awareness of trends reform is necessary to solve some of the problems
and emerging challenges in national ocean and that exist in Market World and Fortress World. In
coastal policy and to set the stage for continuing order to achieve Transformed World, changes in
national dialogues on these important issues. The attitude and a new sociopolitical consensus are
workshop was organized by the National Ocean needed. While Hammond concludes that this
Service, NOAA; the Center for the Study of Marine scenario may require a bit of a leap of faith, he argues
Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean that many transforming trends are already under-
Governance Study Group. Funding support came way. Such transforming trends include changes in
from the National Ocean Service, NOAA, the Center political consensus and social attitudes, the rise of
for Marine Conservation, BOAT/US, and the Gradu- civil society, and the greening of corporations.
ate College of Marine Studies of the University of
Delaware. The support of these organizations is In Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture,
gratefully acknowledged. Richard Grainger of the FAO Fisheries Department
describes past trends in capture fishery and aquacul-
The main points presented in each of the papers ture production and compares the current production
contained in this volume are outlined below. with fisheries potential. Grainger focuses particu-
larly on the contribution of fisheries to food supply
In Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context, and the economy; capture fisheries development and
Allen Hammond of the World Resources Institute the need for management; improving fisheries
asks two questions: (1) What forces are shaping the management; aquaculture development; and infor-
world, and where would we like to go; and (2) Can mation needs.
we envision some development trajectories that will
get us to the type of world that we would like to With regard to the contribution of fisheries to food
leave for the future? In seeking to answer these supply and the economy, both global fish production
questions, Hammond focuses on environmental and consumption have increased markedly since the
trends but also presents an overview of a number of 1950s. Growing numbers of people have found
other interacting factors, including population employment in world fisheries and aquaculture, and
trends, economic trends, sociopolitical trends and trade in fishery commodities has also significantly
security trends. The discussion of key trends is increased since 1970.
organized. via an exploration of three scenarios-
Market World, Fortress World, and Transformed World. The section on capture fisheries development and the
need for management discusses fishing fleets, fishery
Market World is a scenario where markets and the landings, and tracking fishery development. A
private sector play a major role in the future. It also preliminary FAO assessment on industrial fishing
envisions the continuing technological revolution, vessels of over 100 GT indicates a significant decrease
the spread of democracy around the world, wide- in fleet size, with very little change in tonnage per
spread improvements in literacy, and even environ- vessel between 1991 and 1997. Capture fishery
mental improvements in many industrialized coun- production has leveled off in the last decade, and the
tries. The problem with a Market World future is that increase in food fish production in recent years has
markets do not automatically solve environmental been due entirely to aquaculture. With regard to
problems, and they often exacerbate, rather than fishery development, a transition from largely
ameliorate problems of equity and other social undeveloped fisheries to mainly senescent and
problems. mature fisheries is clear.

Fortress World is a vision of what might result if In the realm of fisheries management, Grainger
unattended environmental and social problems concludes that management has generally failed to
undermine Market World. Trends such as increasing protect resources from overexploitation. However,
population growth, urbanization, and consumption recent developments such as the UN Straddling Fish

Trends and Future Challengesfor US. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Stocks Agreement and the FAO Code of Conduct for 176 million-30 million more people than the coastal
Responsible Fishing should allow an unprecedented population in 1990. In the United States, 55 to 60
opportunity for improving fisheries management. If percent of Americans now live in the 772 counties
this opportunity is lost and management does not adjacent to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf
improve, there could be a shortfall of 10 to 40 million of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. In 1990, the most
tons between demand and supply for human con- crowded coastline in the United States, stretching
sumption by 2010, despite increased aquaculture from Boston to Washington, D.C., had over 2,500.
production. people per square kilometer. Another 101 coastal
counties had population densities exceeding 1,250
Aquaculture has been the world's fastest growing per square kilometer.
food production system for over a decade. Grainger
concludes that the rapid growth in aquaculture Hinrichsen concludes that now is the time to develop
seems set to continue in the near future. With regard and introduce management plans that protect vital
to information needs, Grainger notes that fishery coastal ecosystems, while permitting economic
managers and policy makers will need to draw more growth and ensuing a better quality of life for all
on fisheries research programs that encompass coastal dwellers. Continued denial of the problems
economics, sociology, and anthropology as well as will only make solutions harder to achieve in the
biology. There will be a major need for development coming decades.
and use of sustainability indicators to synthesize the
very broad range of information. In Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998,
Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton and Maureen
In The Coastal Population Explosion, United Warren of the National Ocean Service, NOAA
Nations consultant and author Don Hinrichsen examine emerging trends and underlying issues that
emphasizes the increasingly skewed nature of are shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and
population distribution. Recent studies have shown coastal management and policy. Present and pro-
that the overwhelming majority of people are con- jected trends are discussed in terms of populations
centrated along or near coasts on just 10 percent of and settlement; social values; economic activity;
the earth's land surface. In 1998, more than half of resources; environmental quality; hazards; and
the world's population (3.2 billion people) lived and governance and management.
worked in a coastal strip 200 kilometers (120 miles)
wide. Two-thirds of the global population live The authors' examination of coastal population and
within 400 kilometers of a coast. settlement trends finds that the coastal population of
the United States is projected to increase from 141
Hinrichsen reviews population density through million to 166 million between 1996 and 2015. In
comparative regional analyses. The bulk of Asia's order to counter the deleterious impacts of increasing
population, with the exception of India, is coastal or population pressure, states and localities have begun
near-coastal. Of the region's collective population of to channel public investment for infrastructure into
3.5 billion, 60 percent (2.1 billion) live within 300 areas that are best equipped to accommodate growth.
kilometers of a coast. Latin American and Caribbean An analysis of social trends finds that over the last
coastal states have a collective population of approxi- thirty years, public attitudes toward the environment
mately 610 million. Three-quarters of this population have changed markedly. In addition to the evolution
lives within 200 kilometers of a coast. The majority of public attitudes that favor ocean protection,
of the Caribbean Basin's 200 million permanent nongovernmental organizations have emerged to
residents live on or near the seashore. Of all the work towards conservation and management of the
continents except the Antarctic, only Africa has more environment. The authors found the marine-related
people living in the interior than along or near economic activities in the coastal zone and coastal
coastlines and major river valleys. Even in Africa, ocean account for up to two percent of the U.S. GNP.
demographic patterns are shifting. Over the past two Recreation and tourism, waterborne commerce,
decades, Africa's coastal cities have been growing by energy and mineral production, and fisheries account
4 percent a year or more. In the Mediterranean for most economic activities along the coast. In their
Basin, the resident population might become as large discussion of environmental quality, the authors note
as 555 million people by 2025. According to Blue that coastal oceans and estuaries are extremely
Plan projections, the urban population of coastal valuable and productive natural systems. However,
Mediterranean administrative regions could reach these systems are threatened by a number of environ-
mental stresses including nutrient over-enrichment,
bacterial contamination, chemical pollution, oxygen

Introduction and Executive Surnmary

depletion, oil spills and unplanned habitat alter- world. This is another strength of the program
ations. Concerning coastal hazards, the authors because environmental monitoring is essential for the
found that while a greater potential for loss exists practice of adaptive environmental management.
now than in the past, relatively fewer actual losses
occur. This paradox has been attributed to improve- With regard to the second question, Boesch notes that
ments in forecasting and storm predictions and the first generation of Chesapeake restoration goals
stricter building codes. was based on nutrient inputs. The next generation of
restoration goals will be based on living resources.
The authors conclude by noting that three important Rates of land development are too fast to meet and
trends are occurring to address the fragmented hold Bay restoration goals, and they are also unsus-
nature of ocean governance and management. These tainable in terms of infrastructure demands and
trends are: (1) the move towards greater enclosure of quality of life considerations. As a result, the Chesa-
the oceans, as codified in the 1982 LOS Convention; peake Bay watershed has become a focal point of the
(2) the establishment of special management areas Smart Growth movement. Finally, Boesch notes that
and expansion of national capacities to plan for and the Program needs to begin to take heed of the
manage the coastal zone; and (3) the increased possible changes and implications associated with
adoption and utilization of integrated management climate change.
approaches.
In Perspectives on Marine Water Quality, Tim
In New Approaches to Environmental Management: Eichenberg of the Center for Marine Conservation
Lessons From the Chesapeake Bay, Donald Boesch and the Clean Water Network reviews the historical
of the University of Maryland begins by noting that state of water quality in the United States, conditions
the Chesapeake Bay Program represents perhaps the that led to the adoption of the Clean Water Act in
most ambitious and costly effort to restore a major 1972, progress that has been made since the enact-
coastal ecosystem. The Chesapeake Bay Program ment of the CWA, and areas that remain unad-
aims not only to restore the Bay, but also to manage dressed.
activities in the coastal zone and a catchment area of Eichenberg begins by noting that until 1972, the
64,000 square miles. Boesch seeks to answer two United States had no national program for regulating
fundamental questions about the 20-year old Pro- the discharge of sewage and industrial pollutants.
gram: (1) What can we learn from this experience; By 1972, more than 60 percent of assessed rivers,
and (2) Where does this experiment in ecosystem lakes, and estuaries were not fishable or swimmable,
management need to go in the 21st century? Boesch and over 50 percent of the wetlands in the continen-
examines the Program's commitments and goals, as tal United States had been destroyed. Thus, condi-
well as its science, model monitoring, sustainable tions were ripe for the adoption of national clean
resource use; growth management; and climate water legislation. In 1972, the Clean Water Act was
change activities in order to answer these questions. overwhelmingly passed over President Nixon's veto.
The Act had three primary goals: (1) to eliminate the
In answering the first question, Boesch finds that the discharge of pollutants by 1985; (2) wherever attain-
Chesapeake Bay Program owes its longevity and able, to provide for the protection and propagation of
successes to the high and sustained level of social fish, shellfish and wildlife, and recreation in and on
commitment it has enjoyed. The Program has been the water by 1983; and (3) to prohibit the discharge of
goal-oriented, even though setting appropriate goals toxic pollutants in toxic amounts.
has often been clouded by uncertainty@ The goal-
oriented nature of the Program has lent it strength by Eichenberg maintains that while significant progress
focusing bureaucratic attention and providing a has been made in addressing water quality problems
framework and currency for debates. The Program since 1972, a great deal of work remains to be done in
prides itself in being science-based, and Boesch order to meet the goals of the CWA. The Clean Water
explores its emphasis on the development and Act has not been reauthorized since 1987, and
application of sophisticated computer models of the Eichenberg contends that new approaches are
Bay and its watershed. These models have tremen- needed to address remaining clean water challenges.
dous power in tracking progress, identifying signifi- Many such challenges have been identified. For
cant problems, and determining the effects of man- example, the EPA estimates that 60 percent of water
agement alternatives. Finally, the Chesapeake Bay quality impairment now comes from nonpoint
Program operates the largest and most extensive sources of pollution. Less than three percent of the
monitoring programs of any coastal ecosystem in the State Revolving Fund (SRF) has been devoted to

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

nonpoint source pollution. Section 319 of the CWA professional organizations. The goal of the ARC
provides no mandatory controls on the major sources partnership is to ensure the conservation of the
of nonpoint source pollution. N0AA`s Coastal nation's freshwater, estuarine, and marine living
Nonpoint Pollution Control Program is currently resources by creating a common information base
moribund. There are no enforceable national stan- and options for preserving the ecological and eco-
dards for monitoring and posting swimming nomic integrity of these resources.
beaches. There are no enforceable national standards
for fish consumption advisories. These problems Hourigan concludes that it is important to make full
represent only some of the challenges that need to be use of new approaches to management on scales that
addressed in the future. Eichenberg suggests a are meaningful to ocean living resources. Such
number of potential approaches for managing approaches can then be placed in watershed and
continuing water quality problems. integrated marine and coastal area management
regimes that involve all stakeholders. Hourigan
In Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and maintains that, together, these offer the promise of
Challenges, Thomas Hourigan of the National better conserving marine biodiversity.
Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA discusses trends in
the health of marine biodiversity, specifically men- In Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas, Tundi
tioning fisheries, protected marine species, and key Agardy of Conservation International notes that
ecosystems. Hourigan also identifies five critical marine protected areas are increasingly being used to
elements of action for addressing the threats to living protect biologically rich habitats, resolve user con-
marine resources. The new Aquatic Restoration and flicts, and help restore overexploited stocks and
Conservation Partnership for Marine, Estuarine and degraded areas. Agardy maintains that the increase
Freshwater Living Resources is also described. in the designation and management of marine
protected areas is occurring on two tracks: (1) the
Hourigan begins by noting that the primary threats establishment of reserves to safeguard representative
to marine biodiversity are fisheries operations, habitats or particularly rich and diverse areas, and (2)
chemical pollution and eutrophication, physical the use of protected areas to complement both
alteration of coastal and marine habitats, invasions of fisheries and coastal management.
exotic species, and ultraviolet-B radiation damage to
phytoplankton and zooplankton resulting from Agardy notes that protected area placement, design,
stratospheric ozone depletion. With regard to trends and operation all relate to the scope and nature of the
in the health of marine biodiversity, trends for goals being targeted-i.e. the specific objectives the
oceanic resources have revealed that anthropocentric protected area is meant to achieve. She contends that
activities are meeting and often exceeding the what is most necessary, and what is most often
productive and recuperative limits of the ocean. overlooked when the process of establishing a
marine protected area is initiated, is information on
Hourigan describes how the U.S. government, in what the protected area is being established to
partnership with public and private stakeholders achieve. Goal-setting or objective elaboration is
domestically and internationally, is working to critical in order to determine expectations, effectively
address the threats to living marine resources and to design the reserve, and have in place targets and
ensure the promise of these resources for future benchmarks against which progress towards the
generations. The core of this new strategic vision is objectives can be measured. Thus, Agardy concludes
comprised of five critical elements: (1) investing in that the identification of these objectives is ultimately
science in the interest of stewardship; (2) applying societal, not scientific, and that the human element in
the precautionary approach; (3) applying new marine protected areas cannot be overlooked. The
technologies to ensure the environmental success of any protected area is closely related to how
sustainability of marine aquaculture; (4) building well user groups and stakeholders are identified and
partnerships; and (5) exploiting the full potential of brought into the planning and management pro-
an ecosystem-based approach to resource manage- cesses for the protected area.
ment.
Agardy also presents a summary of published
Hourigan also discusses the Aquatic Restoration and literature and anecdotal evidence that demonstrates
Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua- that marine protected areas have produced certain
rine and Freshwater Living Resources. Members of quantifiable benefits: (1) increases in abundance of
the partnership include NOAA, the U.S. Geological reef fish and invertebrates; (2) increases in individual
Survey and other federal agencies, states, NGOs, and

Introduction and Executive Summary

size/age; (3) increases in reproductive output; (4) facilitate the provision of solutions to the many
increases in species diversity; (5) increases in problems and challenges that currently exist for
spillover; (6) increases in replenishment; (7) increases shipowners and port operators. Vulovic maintains
in preservation of genetic and demographic diver- that while the goal of seamless intermodalism is a
sity; and (8) increases in habitat quality and diversity. difficult one to reach, it will eventually be achieved.

Agardy concludes that despite incomplete knowl- In Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportuni-
edge and imprecise science, steps must be taken to ties and Future Challenges, Paul Kelly of Rowan
establish protected areas now, and to use the addi- Companies, Inc. begins by noting that the extraction
tional information gained as time goes on to alter of petroleum resources from beneath the seabed is a
these reserves, remove superfluous ones, and add key maritime activity in the Gulf of Mexico, offshore
new reserves. She maintains that by clearly defining southern California, and in some regions of Alaska.
objectives and using science to design the best Kelly points out that petroleum production from
possible plans for meeting those objectives, the offshore federal lands presently comprises 20 percent
management of marine activities can be improved. of domestic oil production and 27 percent of domes-
tic natural gas production. Currently, the offshore oil
In Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure and gas industry and its attendant support services
Implications, Rod Vulovic of Sea-Land Service, Inc. sector provide 85,000 jobs. Kelly notes that it is
addresses a number of topics including the changing probable that the number of jobs provided by the
face of world trade and its effects upon ship size, industry will more than double over the next 20
environmental impacts of mega-carriers, years, and that oil production in the Gulf of Mexico is
intermodalism, safe navigation, the ideal container expected to double by 2002. He also indicates that
port, and ballast-water exchange. Vulovic begins by revenues from OCS oil and gas development gener-
noting that fully 90 percent of international trade is ate between $3 and $4 billion a year in federal
carried by sea. He notes that while container ships receipts and contribute to the Land and Water
are the linchpin of cargo transportation, the total Conservation Fund and the National Historic Preser-
system includes sophisticated shoreside terminals, vation Fund.
intermodal extensions to inland points by rail and
highway, and automated information systems that Kelly discusses the successful development of
track a shipment throughout its journey. technology in offshore petroleum production and
relates how new exploration, drilling, and produc-
With regard to future trends in ship size, Vulovic tion-related technologies have resulted in unprec-
contends that the practicable upper limit of container edented production in 3,000 to 5,000 feet of water in
ship size has not been reached by the 7,000-TEU plus the Gulf of Mexico. Not only have technological
vessels now in existence. He proposes that an advances led to increased offshore production, but
eventual ceiling might be found around levels of such advances have also improved the OCS safety
10,000 to 12,000 TEU, and that market forces will and environmental record. For example, less than
continue to influence the evolution of the system as 0.001 percent of the oil produced from the OCS has
long as it moves in a way that continues to provide been spilled from production facilities during the last
improvements in cost, reliability, speed, and cus- two decades.
tomer satisfaction.
Kelly also addresses the efforts of the Minerals
Concerning environmental impacts of mega-carriers, Management Service to resolve conflicts and build
Vulovic states that these ships display an increasingly consensus among stakeholders with regard to OCS
important characteristic that may directly affect air oil and gas development. Kelly notes that such an
quality. In an operational environment in which the approach is being used in the current five year OCS
contribution to atmospheric pollution by marine leasing program, and that coastal state administra-
sources is being increasingly scrutinized, the opera- tions appear to be more satisfied with the increase in
tion of a mega-carrier will result in a measurably communication and consideration between the
lower release of pollutant gases than from an equiva- federal government and the states regarding CICS oil
lent transportation capacity in smaller ships. and gas policy. For these reasons, among other
things, Kelly maintains that President Clinton's
Vulovic concludes that an ongoing dialogue between extension of the OCS moratorium beyond the year
port users, operating authorities, support and 2000 was premature.
regulatory organizations, and government will

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Kelly also touches upon the benefits of offshore oil conservation ratios; and (7) making fishing men and
technology for ocean research and other activities women with first-hand knowledge of the marine
and the future challenges for deep water oil explora- environment an integral component of fishery
tion and production. He closes his paper by empha- research, management, and decision making.
sizing that, as petroleum exploration advances into
ever-deeper waters, it is critical that the United States In Coastal Tourism and Recreation: The Driver of
ratify the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention in order to Coastal Development, Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert
assure 200 nautical miles of U. S. OCS jurisdiction. W. Knecht, University of Delaware, note that while
there is general recognition that coastal tourism and
In Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing recreation are important in the coastal zone, that their
Industry, Pietro Parravano of the Pacific Coast impact is systematically undervalued both economi-
Federation of Fishermen's Associations maintains cally and as the most important driver of coastal de-
that the Fishery Conservation and Management Act velopment in many U.S. coastal areas. Travel and tour-
of 1976 was the most significant piece of fisheries ism are estimated to have provided $746 billion to the
legislation passed in this century. The FCMA estab- U.S. domestic product, about 10% of U.S. output, mak-
lished: (1) U.S. control of fisheries in waters offshore ing travel and tourism the second largest contributor
out to 200 miles in a Fishery Conservation Zone to GDP, just behind combined wholesale and retail
(FCZ); (2) U.S. policy to "Americanize" U.S. fisheries trade (Houston 1995). Although there are no precise
by phasing out foreign fishing offshore and develop- estimates of the magnitude of coastal travel and tour-
ing a domestic fleet fully capable of harvesting the ism in the U.S., studies have shown that beaches are
fishery resources in the FCZ; and (3) federal manage- America's leading tourist destination, ahead of national
ment of U.S. fisheries in the FCZ through eight parks and historic sites. Approximately 180 million
regional fishery management councils and the people visit the coast for recreational purposes, with
Department of Commerce. 85% of tourist-related revenues generated by coastal
states (Houston 1996, 3).
Parravano contends that the "Americanization"
policy, with its emphasis on fleet construction rather Given these figures, it is significant to note that there is
than research, has led to a vast overcapitalization of no federal agency with a mandate to manage coastal
the U.S. fleet with far more harvesting capacity than travel and tourism, and that there is no overall national
there are resources to support that capacity. The policy in place to plan for, and achieve, sustainable tour-
author also maintains that the policy has led to ism in the U.S. A major reason for the lack of a formal
overfishing of many species and the collapse of the program at the national level is that travel and tourism
New England groundfish fisheries. Additionally, is viewed as a sector that requires relatively little for-
Parravano argues that the "Americanization" policy mal management and is primarily a private sector en-
had caused the Department of Commerce to ignore deavor. The benefits of tourism on coastal areas are
the plight of smaller and more traditional fisheries, great, yet its adverse effects are often not immediately
and to fail to act in a timely manner to prevent the visible, which leads to a sort of "management apathy."
near extinction of some Pacific salmon species. Also, most aspects of coastal travel and tourism that
need managing are already dealt with at one govern-
After reviewing the effects of several pieces of mental level or another, but in separate programs and
fisheries-related legislation over the past 25 years, run by different agencies, rather than as a coordinated,
Parravano proposes seven focal points for fishery interconnected whole.
planning for the next 25 years: (1) full implementa-
tion of the Sustainable Fisheries Act; (2) greater Cicin-Sain and Knecht discuss the major federal pro-
fostering and support of small-boat and fishing grams most relevant to coastal travel and tourism-
family (owner-operator) operations; (3) encouraging including coastal management and planning, manage-
fishery management decisions to be made at re- ment of clean water and healthy ecosystems, manage-
gional, state, and local levels, provided that they are ment of the impacts of coastal hazards, waterways
consistent with overall federal objectives; (4) in- safety- and set forth a number of policy challenges
creased funding for research purposes, gear develop- that need to be addressed to promote sustainable and
ment, and provision of autonomy for regional fishery environmentally friendly tourism development in
councils; (5) greater emphasis on value-added American coastal areas.
fisheries and low-impact/high-value fisheries; (6)
fostering of aquaculture operations only where they In Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's
are nonpolluting, nondamaging and have high Coastal Regions, Howard Marlowe of the American

Introduction and Executive Summary

Coastal Coalition raises a number of issues related to In A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United
increasing growth in and development of coastal States, Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich of the
areas. Environmental challenges posed by coastal Boat Owners Association of the United States
development include increasing pressure upon (BOATIU.S.) discuss the relative importance of
drinking water supplies and sewage systems, greater recreational boating. They note that 75 million
disruption of natural sand systems and subsequent Americans were directly involved in on-the-water
erosion, more pollution, and increasing tensions and activities last year. Recreational vessels comprise
conflicts among various resource users. Marlowe America's largest fleet with 16.8 million boats in use
notes that each of these issues is important, but the nationwide.
political process at every level frequently adopts a
piecemeal approach to these problems, focusing on Lydecker and Podlich also address the "yachting
one issue at a time rather than working in an inte- misnomer," which has led some to believe that
grated manner. recreational boating is largely the domain of wealthy
"fat cats." The authors note that recreational boating
To illustrate his points, Marlowe discusses two is a social activity and family sport, and that boaters
issues: (1) whether the Federal government should contribute to the Aquatic Resources Trust Fund
support beach nourishment; and (2) whether the through motorboat fuel taxes and fishing gear excise
Federal government should subsidize coastal flood taxes. Lydecker and Podlich point out that the Fund
insurance policies. Marlowe uses these issues to puts approximately $350 million a year into boating
demonstrate the somewhat myopic nature of public safety education, law enforcement, environmental
policy making. He points out, for example, that protection, public access, and fishery restoration.
while the Army Corps of Engineers conducts a
benefit-cost analysis of every potential shore protec- Lydecker and Podlich identify three major issues that
tion project, the analysis places its greatest emphasis currently are and will continue to be of great impor-
on the value of private property immediately adja- tance to recreational boaters in the future: (1) access,
cent to the shoreline. Marlowe contends that such an (2) natural resources, and (3) opportunity. With
approach to analysis misses the benefits that accrue regard to access, the authors note that in order to
to homes and businesses in the area located else- allow the general public the ability to get to the
where than adjacent to the shoreline as well as other water, ramps, access points, marinas and transient
environmental benefits. dockage, moorings, anchorage, and dry and winter
storage must be available. Lydecker and Podlich also
Marlowe emphasizes the economic benefits of a maintain that in order to make exploration of water-
number of beaches throughout the United States, ways a legacy of recreational boaters, they must work
including those in California, Florida, Delaware, and towards making citizens coastal stewards interested
Texas. Marlowe concludes his partial review of the in preserving the areas they explore. Regarding
economic impact of coastal regions in the United natural resources, the authors note that the enjoy-
States with data from the EPA. He notes that ment of recreational boating is heavily dependent
America's coastal waters support 28.3 million jobs upon clean water. The authors contend that new
and generate $54 billion in goods and services methods of reducing both point and nonpoint source
annually. The coastal recreation and tourism indus- pollution are necessary. Lydecker and Podlich also
try is the second largest employer in the nation, discuss the necessity of commercial and recreational
serving the 180 million Americans who visit domes- interests working together to achieve flexible, timely
tic coasts each year. management of fish and wildlife. Considering the
issue of opportunity, the authors point to costs, fees,
Marlowe concludes by maintaining that the develop- government regulations, and maintenance as the
ment of a comprehensive set of data on all of the most often cited reasons preventing the average
benefits derived from America's coastal regions is citizen from engaging in recreational boating. They
critical. He notes that major steps need to be taken to mention a number of possible solutions to these
improve coastal management practices and policies. impediments, including improved infrastructure and
Such steps include restoring and maintaining erod- timeshare boat owning arrangements. Lydecker and
ing beaches, improving water quality, protecting and Podlich conclude by reiterating that much of the
enhancing coastal wildlife, promoting policies that nation is heading for the coast, and recreational
mitigate coastal hazards, and generally improving boaters should be considered a major component in
the quality of the coastal environment. the quest to create coastal stewards.

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

In Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current Law and Susan Bunsick of the University of Dela-
and Future Policy and Management Challenges, M. ware begin by noting that the future development of
Richard DeVoe of the South Carolina Sea Grant marine aquaculture in the U.S. EEZ is constrained by
Consortium provides an overview of domestic legal and regulatory concerns that need to be ad-
marine aquaculture, addressing such issues as the dressed in order for the industry to become both
current status of the industry, the nature of the financially viable and internationally competitive.
industry, coastal and ocean use conflicts, aquaculture The authors describe the current federal regulatory
and the environment, legal and regulatory structures, framework, identify important elements that need to
marine aquaculture and federal policy, and the future be included in an improved government framework,
of marine aquaculture in the United States. DeVoe review the major obstacles to offshore aquaculture,
begins by noting that while domestic aquaculture and present an overview of recent U.S. government
production has not grown rapidly enough to balance planning initiatives.
the consumer demand for seafood, the development
of the industry is considered to be critical to the Among the legal obstacles to consider in any revision
future of the United States because it has the poten- of the current regulatory framework, the authors
tial to produce: (1) high quality seafood to replace identify five issues: (1) limited availability of prop-
declining wild harvests; (2) products for export to aid erty rights or other interests that can secure a
in the reduction of the nation's foreign trade deficit; producer's investment; (2) poorly defined standards
(3) stock enhancement of important commercial and that fail to reduce conflicts among competing users of
recreational fisheries species; (4) economic develop- public resources; (3) poorly defined agency jurisdic-
ment opportunities; and (5) new employment tions leading to delays in defining applicable stan-
opportunities. dards or regulations; (4) redundant regulations due
to overlapping agency responsibilities; and (5)
Regarding problems confronting marine aquaculture, inappropriate restrictions designed to protect wild
DeVoe notes that a number of issues have con- stocks.
strained the development of marine aquaculture in
the United States These issues include the complex After reviewing the current status of U.S. govern-
and diverse nature of the industry, conflicts with ment planning efforts, the authors note that a win-
other, more traditional uses of the nation's coastal dow of opportunity for addressing the issues associ-
and ocean waters, environmental concerns, and the ated with the development of marine aquaculture
existing legal and regulatory climate, all of which was missed in the most recent reauthorization of the
DeVoe discusses in some detail. National Aquaculture Act, which left the current
federal approach unaltered. However, funding for
In conclusion, DeVoe maintains that the United marine aquaculture has been included in the Clinton
States must return to the fundamental issues in order Administration's National Oceans Initiative, which
to address the lack of development in the marine was announced in June 1998. The authors conclude
aquaculture industry. He specifically suggests: (1) that adoption of the draft National Aquaculture
reevaluation and reaffirmation of the nation's aquac- Development Plan could facilitate the changes in the
ulture policy; (2) increased support of sustainable legal and regulatory framework that are necessary to
marine aquaculture; and (3) strengthened policy promote the development of marine aquaculture in
development through improved coordination. the EEZ.
DeVoe summarizes that the key to the future of
marine aquaculture in the United States is the In The Potentialfor the Marine Biotechnology
creation of technological and political systems that Industry, Shirley Pomponi of the Harbor Branch
provide for sustainable marine aquaculture. He Oceanographic Institution begins by noting that the
contends that sustainable aquaculture necessitates marine environment is a rich source of both biologi-
that all aspects of the industry, including production cal and chemical diversity, and the oceans represent a
and technology, economics and marketing, business virtually untapped resource for discovery of novel
and financing, natural resource needs and protec- and useful compounds. Pomponi focuses on the
tions, and administrative and legal institutions are current status and future potential 'of marine biotech-
addressed comprehensively and simultaneously. nology related to the discovery, development, and
sustainable'use of marine-derived compounds with
In Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive biomedical applications. She also identifies four of
Economic Zone: Legal and Regulatory Concerns, the challenges facing the marine biotechnology
Alison Rieser of the University of Maine School of industry in the next millennium: (1) identifying new

Introduction and Executive Summary

sources of marine bioproducts; (2) developing novel resources found in deep-sea areas; this will require
screening technologies; (3) providing a sustainable harmonization between the Law of the Sea Conven-
source of supply; and (4) optimizing production and tion and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The
recovery of bioproducts. second major policy challenge is the issue of safety in
biotechnology, or "biosafety," as this issue has
With regard to the first challenge, the identification of become known. While there are not yet any binding
new sources of marine bioproducts, Pomponi notes agreements to address the transboundary movement
that federal agency support for deep ocean explora- of living modified organisms, there has been a major
tion for biotechnology is limited, and that manned effort underway to develop an international agree-
and unmanned submersibles are underfunded and ment on safety in biotechnology, under the aegis of
restricted. Pomponi contends that there is a need for the Convention on Biological Diversity. Such a
the development of versatile bioreactors that can be legally-binding agreement will greatly affect an
deployed and operated in extreme environments. individual nation's behavior and its domestic policies
She also notes that another approach to the identifi- on biotechnology in the next century. Finally, the
cation of new products is the incorporation of issue of intellectual property rights represents a
miniaturized biosensors into both collecting tools major policy challenge for the U.S. marine biotech-
and bioreactors for rapid, in situ analysis of both nology industry at the international level--countries
wild and cultivated marine organisms for target in the "North" (developed nations, the U.S. included)
molecules. Concerning the second challenge, want stricter intellectual property controls on new
Pomponi states that none of the assays used in major biotech discoveries (to guarantee the biotech industry
pharmaceutical drug discovery programs considers the recovery of their investments and costs); while, in
the role of marine-derived compounds in nature, and contrast, the "South" (the developing nations) are
that the development of in situ biosensors would concerned about inequitable sharing of benefits
facilitate the ability to explore the expression of arising from the utilization of their genetic resources.
secondary metabolites, lead to a greater understand-
ing of the role of secondary metabolites in nature, In Building Capacityfor Ocean Management: Recent
and provide insight into the potential biomedical Developments in U.S. West Coast States, Marc
utility of such compounds. Hershman of the School of Marine Affairs at the
University of Washington begins by noting that in a
With regard to the third challenge, the author notes previous paper, he had concluded that there was a
that some options for sustainable use of marine trend toward increased state-level participation in
resources are chemical synthesis, controlled harvest- ocean management within the United States, and that
ing, aquaculture of the source organism, in vitro this trend was likely to continue because the states'
production through cell culture of the microorganism role in these issues had become institutionalized. In
or its source, and transgenic production. Consider- this paper, Hershman reports on recent develop-
ing the fourth challenge, Pomponi points out that the ments in the West Coast states of California, Oregon,
area in which marine bioprocess engineering has the and Hawaii to determine how their role in ocean
greatest potential is in the design and optimization of affairs has progressed since 1996.
bioreactors for marine metabolite production. To
summarize, Pomponi states that the marine biotech- After reviewing developments in California, Oregon,
nology industry faces a unique challenge: inventing a and Hawaii, Hershman concludes that all three states
new generation of tools and processes to discover have continued to advance an ocean program. He
new bioproducts and designing methods for their notes that political and leadership changes can
sustainable development. influence progress in a new subject area like ocean
management. Organizational change and revision of
In Emerging Challengesfor U.S. Marine Biotechnology, policy documents have hindered progress in the past,
Robert Knecht, Biliana Cicin-Sain, and Dosoo Jang and Hershman states that with the exception of
discuss the policy challenges that the U.S. marine Oregon, this pattern may continue to dominate.
biotechnology industry will face in the near future- Hershman finds that there appear to have been
challenges related to the evolving international substantive shifts in at least three areas. The first
framework affecting marine issue is fisheries policy. While fisheries-related issues
biotechnology operations. The first policy challenge were previously unaddressed in the three states'
is defining an appropriate regime for governing ocean management programs because of existing
access to marine resources/ organisms under the fisheries management agencies, in the past two years
jurisdiction of coastal nations as well as to genetic all three states have adopted new laws or policies

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

dealing with fisheries management. The second responsibilities, particularly in the nation's largest
policy shift has been in the area of increased local states where base grants have been capped for the
government involvement in ocean affairs. The third past seven years despite substantial increases in state
policy shift is in the area of maritime policy, particu- and local needs.
larly in establishing state maritime policy and
designating responsible agencies. In Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy
for Florida, James Murley and Laura Cantral of the
Hershman concludes that the experiences of Califor- Florida Governor's Ocean Committee discuss
nia, Oregon, and Hawaii suggest that the scope of Florida's efforts to develop an ocean management
ocean issues of concern to coastal states is broaden- approach that is coordinated and comprehensive,
ing. He notes that these states' capacity for ocean and that can account for a wide variety of uses and
management has improved since new laws and activities. The authors include a brief history of the
governmental responsibilities have been identified current ocean planning initiative, describe the
and added to the states' suite of management tools. preliminary projects that laid the groundwork for the
However, Hershman cautions that there is still creation of the Florida Governor's Ocean Committee,
considerable flux in defining responsibility for ocean and summarize the Committee's work to date.
issues in the states.
Murley and Cantral. note that the impetus for devel-
In Coastal States' Challenges, Sarah Cooksey of the oping an ocean management strategy for Florida
Delaware Department of Natural Resources and began with the Florida Coastal Management Pro-
Environmental Conservation and the Coastal States gram (FCMP), located in the state's Department of
Organization describes the importance of the Coastal Community Affairs. The FCMP serves as the coordi-
Zone Management Act (CZMA). Cooksey notes that nating agency for nine state agencies that regulate
the CZMA is the only federal statute that puts forth a coastal activities, and over time it became clear that
comprehensive, voluntary, federal-state partnership an integrated framework was needed to manage
based on the goal of maximizing sustainable eco- offshore ocean resources and to eliminate inconsis-
nomic and environmental objectives. Cooksey tencies between different agency responsibilities.
maintains that it is time for a major commitment
through the CZMA to provide for new and improved In order to provide shape and direction to the ocean
planning and management tools for local communi- management effort, the FCMP funded a series of
ties so that they might better understand and address preliminary projects that, among other things, were
complex economic and ecological dynamics of designed to generate support for ocean planning and
coastal systems and communities. ultimately to justify the creation of a high-level group
that would be charged with developing coordinated
After providing background on the CZMA, Cooksey ocean governance strategies for the state. The
presents a summary of the Coastal States projects included a comprehensive analysis of the
Organization's proposals for reauthorization of the status of marine law and policy in Florida; a State-
CZMA in 1999: (1) provide increased support for the wide Ocean Resource Inventory (SORI); and the
development of new tools which wilt build capacity Florida Ocean Policy Roundtable. Once these
at the state and local level through technical assis- projects were complete, the next step toward the
tance and targeted support to states and communi- development of a comprehensive ocean management
ties to implement place-based management in critical strategy was the formation of a formal policy com-
coastal areas; (2) provide for increased support for mittee, known as the Florida Governor's Ocean
state coastal programs to address the cumulative and Committee (FGOC).
secondary impacts of development and land-based
sources of polluted runoff; (3) provide funding under Murley and Cantral note that the FGOC developed a
the Coastal Zone Management Fund for regionally number of ocean management strategies, contained
significant projects, international projects, emergency in the Committee's draft final report. The strategies
response to coastal hazards, and innovative demon- are organized into five broad categories: (1) improv-
stration projects addressed at local communities; (4) ing information on and understanding of ocean
clarify the role of and provide increased support for resources; (2) creating an improved ocean manage-
the National Estuarine Research Reserves and seek to ment framework that is more coordinated and
build closer links to coastal programs; and (5) comprehensive; (3) achieving and sustaining diverse
enhance federal support for base programs under the marine ecosystems that are capable of supporting
CZMA consistent with increased challenges and multiple uses; (4) raising awareness, promoting

Introduction and Executive Summary

education, and fostering stewardship of the ocean; General Assembly, The Earth Summit plus Five, New
and (5) facilitating greater financial support for ocean York City).
research, education, and management.
Year of the Ocean (YOTO) Discussion Papers. March
Taken together, the suite of papers presented in this 1998. Prepared by the U. S. Federal Agencies with
volume provide, we think, a wide-ranging picture of ocean-related programs. Washington, D. C.
current trends, issues, and emerging challenges in a
variety of areas of national ocean and coastal policy.
We expect that future National Dialogues will further
define and expand on these themes.

Acknowledgments

Parts of this introduction are excerpted from Cicin-
Sain and Knecht 1999. The assistance of Rosemarie
Hinkel in summarizing the papers contained in this
volume is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Bookman, Charles, Thomas Culliton and Maureen
Warren. 1999. Trends in U. S. Coastal Regions, 1970-
1998 (Executive Summary), in this volume.

Cicin-Sain, Biliana and Robert W. Knecht. 1999. The
Future of U. S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor the Next
Century, Washington, D. C.: Island Press.

Coy, Peter, Gary McWilliams and John Rossant. 1997.
The new economics of oil, Business Week. November
3:140-144.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1995.
Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries. Adopted by
the 28 1h Session of FAO Conference on 31 October
1995.

Houston, James R. 1995. The Economic Value of Beaches.
CERCula?, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Vol.
CERC-954, December.

Houston, James R. 1996. International Tourism and US
Beaches. Shore and Beach.

Nicholls, Robert J. 1995. "Coastal Megacities and
Climate Change." Geojournal. 37(3): 369-379.

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), World
Tourism Organization, and Earth Council. No date.
Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry:
Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development.
World Travel and Tourism Council, London, United
Kingdom; World Tourism Organization, Madrid,
Spain; and Earth Council, San Jose, Costa Rica. 78
pp. (presented at the June 1997 United Nations

1. The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

The development of human society is coupled to the health of the planet. Speakers in thefirst session
of the conference addressed fundamental transformations and trends, which require societal re-
sponses. These include changes in the distribution of wealth and the organization Of society; the
implications of unchecked population growth for coastal regions; and global trends in fisheries and
aquaculture. For the United States, this session included a comprehensive examination of underly-
ing and emerging trends that are shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and coastal manage-
ment and policy.

Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context
Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute

Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture
Richard Grainger, Fisheries Department,
UN Food and Agriculture Organization

The Coastal Population Explosion
Don Hinrichsen, UN consultant and author

Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998
Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton, and Maureen Warren,
National Ocean Service, NOAA

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

OCEAN AND COASTAL FUTURES: THE GLOBAL CONTEXT

Allen Hammond
World Resources Institute

The interaction of human society and the planet is a Market World is the vision of the future that points to
coupled nonlinear complex system. If you take the extended U.S. boom and the free market policies
complex systems apart and just study the parts, you that have engendered it as a model for the world. It
miss some of the important phenomena; you have to also points to the continuing technological revolu-
look at the whole. So it is important to tion, to the spread of
try to take an overview of how many democracy around
factors interact-population trends, As a society, we're not the world, to wide-
economic trends, social and political spread and rapid
trends, environmental trends, security very good about look- improvements in
trends. I will emphasize environmental ing ahead Much of literacy, even to
trends in these remarks, but will touch our economic decision- environmental
on others too, to answer two questions: improvements in
What are the forces that are shaping making is governed by many industrialized
our world in coming decades, and the quarterly profit countries. It is a
where would we like to end up? Can statement, and our scenario that calls for
we envision some trajectories that will downsizing govern-
get us to the kind of world that we political horizons rarely ment by privatizing
would like to pass on to our grandchil- go much beyond the and deregulating and
dren? next election. asserts that free
markets and the
As a society, we're not very good about genius of the private
looking ahead. Much of our economic sector will solve our
decision-making is governed by the quarterly profit problems and bring widespread prosperity. This
statement, and our political horizons rarely go much world view is broadly held in corporate boardrooms
beyond the next election. Yet we're making choices, and among high-tech entrepreneurs, and it is sup-
consciously or unconsciously, that are going to have ported by many politicians. And markets do have
generational implications: our use of energy and its the upper hand at the moment-they often dictate to
implications for future climates, for example, or our governments, as Southeast Asia has recently found.
loss of species and the implications for a more Furthermore, economic reform and governmental
biologically impoverished planet. downsizing have enormous momentum in many
parts of the world. Market World is a powerful
Analysis of persistent trends can tell us a lot about vision, because we suspect that at least parts of it are
the future-about constraints or plausible ranges of right-markets and the private sector will play a
important variables. But trends are not destiny, and major role in the future. On the other hand, we also
many important factors that govern the future cannot know that markets don't automatically solve envi-
readily be quantified. So I also use scenarios to ronmental problems, and they don't solve equity or
explore different trajectories into the future, scenarios other social problems. In fact, they often make them
that reflect radically different assumptions or world worse.
views about the future. Scenarios are not predictions,
but they are powerful tools for thinking about the Could unattended environmental and social prob-
future precisely because we respond to them emo- lems undermine Market World? Populations are still
tionally as well as cognitively. And that helps growing rapidly, especially in the poorest parts of the
generate a process of making choices-it highlights world. Urbanization is occurring even more rapidly,
and changes the way you think about the present in with a million new urban residents a week world-
ways that might influence your actions. wide. In China, for example, experts expect 300
million people to move from rural to urban areas
I will discuss three scenarios-Market World, Fortress between 1995 and 2010-the equivalent of all of
World, and Transformed World. They also turn out to North America moving to the city in 15 years. Can
be a good way to organize a discussion of key trends. developing societies build the necessary housing and

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

other infrastructure rapidly enough? Will there be severe degradation. And as populations rise, a finite
enough jobs in urban areas? And what about the amount of such renewable resources as fertile soil or
environmental impact of hundreds of new water must serve more and more people. So the risk
megacities, many of them located in coastal areas and is for growing biological impoverishment, and for
most of them with inadequate pollution control? human impoverishment as well, not to mention the
potential for growing resource conflicts.
If we look at environmental trends more systemati-
cally, it is useful to focus first on those associated In addition, if Market World fails to spread the
with industrial activity. Consumption of natural wealth and improved welfare it generates to all of
resources to produce the goods and services that our Earth's people, might we also have quite a large
economies provide also produces pollution and number of people who know more and more about
waste. It turns out that it now requires annually how the rich live but who know that they don't have
about 80 metric tons of natural resources per person any chance to participate in such wealth or even to
to support the U.S. lifestyle and the U.S. GDP, and a meet their basic needs? And might such people, in
comparable amount in other industrial countries. As their frustration and even anger, become a vast
industrialization spreads around the world, how will recruiting ground for terrorism and fuel growing
natural resource illegal migration? If there aren't
consumption rise?
enough jobs in the swelling cities of the
The conventional developing world, might the result be
the trends sUggest,that soil
wisdom is that growing crime and instability and the
world energy loss is accelerdfing', thqf potential for violence? Might emergent
consumption is ,-f
orestsever'yw, here ore c':Yt diseases-some 30 in the past 20 years,
likely to grow by a ost arising from the degraded
! hi b legrodation,' m
factor of 2.5, and 7, 9,
I , , , ! ecosystems in developing countries
manufacturing that on- most bld- become an even greater global health
activity by a factor /6 dllyAch coral reefs are threat? In short, might there be new
of 3, over the next i I @", security threats to cope with as well?
1-nven nbwat high rlSk, and a
half century. But
4-1
with much of that djority of th6world@s ma- If you put all of these adverse trends
growth concen- ripe fisW rips are overfish led together, the result is a different vision
trated in develop- of the future, which I call Fortress
and in ddrid6i of SeVere
ing regions, the World. The fortress imagery comes
d6 do
potential for from thinking of islands of luxury and
increased pollution ......
privilege surrounded by oceans of
in those regions- poverty and despair and environmen-
especially air pollution and toxic pollu-tion-is much tal degradation. Whether on a small scale-like the
higher. And globally, if fossil fuels continue to be the high-rises on the beach at Rio surrounded by the
primary source of energy, the impact of this con- shanty towns on the hills, or the gated communities
sumption pattern will be rapidly rising atmospheric that you see spreading in this country-or on a larger
concentrations of greenhouse gases, suggesting that scale-the whole United States as an island of
we may well find out what global warming and a prosperity in an ocean of countries that are suffering,
changing climate are all about. like Central America-the image is a powerful one.

A second set of environmental trends are those Fortress World is a dark vision. It's certainly not a
associated with the degradation of Earth's biological world that anybody wants to live in. But neither is it
systems. And these may have an even greater and possible to dismiss it. Private security forces now
more direct impact on human welfare, because as outnumber the police by four to one globally, and by
much as a third of the earth's population still de- ten to one in places like South Africa and Russia.
pends directly on local environmental resources- Think of how many places now where businessmen
what can be grown or gathered or caught-for most have to have bodyguards and send their kids to
of their sustenance and livelihoods. Yet the trends school in armored limousines-in Moscow, Mexico
suggest that soil loss is accelerating, that forests City, Hong Kong. Even the middle class in Colombia
everywhere are at high risk of degradation, that worry about kidnaping.
many of the most biologically rich coral reefs are
even now at high risk, and a majority of the world's
marine fisheries are overfished and in danger of

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

Fortress World is a symbol of what's plausible but the private sector. A good example is the treaty to
which we hope will not come to pass. What other ban land mines that was passed last year, largely
options are there? driven by a group of more than 700 NGOs around
the world.
That leads me to what I call Transformed World. The Internet is empowering civil society in a unique
That's a vision that says we know we're going to way because it lets groups link together in coalitions.
need fundamental social and political reform to solve And civil society groups far outnumber both govern-
some of these problems. We need some new forms of ments and major corporations, and their numbers are
governance, because we can't run a global economy growing rapidly. In effect, civil society is forging a
without some form of regulation-the last year new form of governance, a new mode of social
showed that all too clearly. And quite apart from decision-making and consensus-building that may
such things as regulation, we need new ways of prove crucial in the decades ahead.
making decisions. We need to reform some of our
institutions. We need some changes in values and Finally, I want to point to the greening of corpora-
behaviors. Transformed World is a scenario in which tions as a still preliminary but potentially very
these things actually occur. important transforming trend. Look at what hap-
pened on the climate front just in the last few
To some degree, such a scenario requires a leap of months. Some 15 or 20 major global companies came
faith. But to a surprising degree, many of these out actively endorsing the need for a climate treaty:
transforming trends are already underway, at least in GM, BP, Monsanto, Dupont, and a host of others. In
a preliminary form. And that offers both cause for almost every case they had worked with a group of
optimism and an agenda for action. environmental NGOs, including my organization.
The result is that these companies decided: (a) they
Think about the remarkable change in attitudes could live with a climate treaty, (b) it was socially
towards smoking in the United States in the last ten responsible to start acting as though that was going
years. Such changes in attitudes and behaviors are a to happen, and (c) there was a tremendous business
source of great hope for the future. For instance, if opportunity if they got out in front.
the world decided that climate was important, we
could find ways to solve the climate problem. Partly We're beginning to see corporations going beyond
what is required is policy reform, but more funda- narrow compliance to take a leadership role, but that
mentally what is needed are changes of attitude, a may accelerate. The larger the corporation, the more
new social and political consensus about where we vulnerable it is to social expectations, and as compa-
want to go. Then the policies will follow. nies understand that, they're increasingly going to
realize that they can't afford not to be perceived as
Places like Poland and the Czech Republic have been part of the solution, not part of the problem. And
essentially reborn with much more optimism and global corporations do have very unique capabilities,
hope and progress, even though their physical if they could be harnessed to help solve environmen-
problems haven't at all gone away. And such tal and developmental problems.
changes illustrate that political consensus and social
attitudes can change very quickly and are absolutely So there are a number of reasons to have some faith
important in determining what's going to happen. in a Transformed World vision. And thinking about
Market World, Fortress World, and Transformed
Technology is also creating new options, new tools World poses the question of what choices we need to
that can help, if we have the wit to use them cre- make. What would shift us from one trajectory, one
atively. scenario, to another?

Still another hopeful trend is the rise of civil society: If we think about how these trends and these sce-
church groups, environmental groups, citizens narios might play out focused on our coastal and
organizations, nonprofit aid agencies, university ocean areas, I think you'll see that while there are
students and faculty, and many others. Such non- some issues unique to the coastal zone, it is not
governmental organizations (NGOs) already play an possible to isolate oceans and coasts from the trajec-
important role locally and nationally, and they are tory of the larger society. So if we want to under-
beginning to emerge as a force at an international stand the forces shaping these regions, we have to
level-delivering services, setting political and social look very broadly, as I have tried to do here.
agendas, brokering new forms of collaboration with

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

GLOBAL TRENDS IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

Richard Grainger
FAO Fisheries Department

Introduction 1960 to 4.0 grams today, now representing 16% of all
animal protein consumed by the world's 6 billion
This paper aims to describe past trends in capture inhabitants. Of the 30 countries most dependent on
fishery and aquaculture production, particularly fish as a protein source, all but 4 are in the develop-
concerning the ing world. In addition to human food,
development of fisheries have provided a major source of
marine capture high quality feeds for livestock and,
fisheries, and to The number of fishers increasingly, for aquaculture.
compare the current and fish formers more
production with World fisheries and aquaculture have
fisheries potential. than doubled in the lost been a source of employment for a
Food fish supply 25 years. increasing from rapidly growing number of people. The
prospects will 13 million in 1970 to 30 number of fishers and fish farmers more
depend to a large than doubled in the last 25 years, increas-
extent on the million In 1995.. mg from 13 million in 1970 to 30 million
effectiveness of in 1995, over 90% of them in Asia (Figure
fisheries manage-
ment and the responsible development of aquacul-
ture, both of which will be tested in facing the
sustainability challenge. An essential requirement for World fishers and fish farmers by continent
ensuring sustainable fisheries and aquaculture 25 -
through good policies and management will be the
20 - FE3 1970]
provision of objective information on the state of
0
fisheries and aquaculture.
0c 15 la222J

Contribution of Fisheries to Food Supply and the Econom 10 -
y

Global fish production has grown impressively, 5
almost doubling average per capita food fish supply 0 F71IJ-1 I
from 8 kilograms in 1950 to almost 16 kilograms in Asia Africa. N. S. Europe Other
1997 @Figure 1). The average consumption of fish America Amedca
protein has risen from 2.7 grams per capita per day in Figure 2. Number of people employed in the fisheries
primary sector as fishers or fish farmers in 1970, 1980
World Fish Utilization and Food Supply and 1990 by continent.
@ Feed

@ Food S
90 16 &
2). The number of people dependent on fisheries for
:& 80 Popdabon
70 @Per capita rupply a livelihood has been estimated at 200 million
60 worldwide.
to I
50 A
40 1 First sale value of capture fishery production was
30 6 1&
4 worth an estimated $83 billion in 1995. Aquaculture
2D
10 2 production was worth a further $42 billion. Exports
0 0 of fishery products worldwide were worth $52
J billion in 1995. Since 1970, trade in fishery commodi-
Figure 1. Trends in global utilization of fish for ties .has increased by a factor of 16, compared to 6 for
human food and animal feeds and average per capita agricultural commodities and 13 for all merchandise.
food fish supply.

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Tonnage of Decked Fishing Vessels A recent, and still preliminary, FA0 assessment of
by Continent industrial fishing vessels of over 100 GT (which
30- account for a large proportion of total landings), has
E Oceania been undertaken based on data in the Lloyd's
0 25 - C] Africa Register database. Lloyd's data show a significant
0 20- decrease in fleet size from about 26,000 fishing
C 0 America, South
0 vessels in 1991 to less than 23,000 in 1997, and with
C 15 [3 America, North
very little change in the tonnage per vessel. As with
M 10 [3 Europe the FAO statistics, this contrasts with the growth in
5 0 Former USSR the fleet observed up to 1990.
0 [3 Asia Fishery La
0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 ndings
Figure 3. Trend in the total tonnage of the world's Capture fishery production for both food and non-
decked fishing vessels broken down by continent food utilization has leveled off in the last decade. The
according to FAO statistics. increase in food fish production in recent years has
been entirely due to aquaculture (Figure 4). Per
The Development of Capture Fisheries and the Need capita food fish supply from capture fisheries has
for Management actually declined during the last decade.

Fishing Fleets
World landings of the top dernersal marine fish species and tota
According to FAO statistics, growth in the number of
I I I---- T
decked fishing vessels has been much slower since
20 . i
ka pollmk
,A S
1990, following two decades of rapid growth, par-
@Atlanfic eDd
15
oHadd.k
ticularly in Asia (Figure 3). Average tonnage of
os:nceets
decked vessels has also increased slightly over this 10 -------- ES Khe
clAtiantic mdfishes
period. 5 m410 Other SpeCABS

0
Most of the increase in Asian fishing vessels since
1980 is attributable to the Chinese fleet, which
increased rapidly up to 1990. Since 1990, the increase Figure 5. World landings of demersal fish species.
has been slower in terms of number but not much
slower in terms of tonnage, probably because vessel Total harvests of over 400 demersal fish species
size has been increasing in line with the policy of leveled off in the early 1970s (Figure 5). In contrast,
developing offshore fisheries. China's fishing fleet pelagic fish catches, despite large fluctuations, have
totaling about 5.5 million GT is now by far the largest shown an underlying trend of increasing catches.
in the world, followed by the fleet of the Russian There are signs that the increasing trend may now be
Federation with a tonnage of about 3 million. coming to an end.
Production from capture fisheries and aquaculture Tracking Fishery Development
90- according to utilisation Fisheries development started in the Northeast
80-- Atlantic, spread throughout the Atlantic, then to the
cm 7()..
0 Pacific and finally to the Indian Ocean. The marine
60-- - Food fish from
50.. aquaculture fishery harvest potential of 100 million tonnes
w Food fish from
E 40.- estimated by Gulland' in 1970 is now being ap-
capture
=0 30
a Non-food use proached.
2 20 from capture
10
01 . . . . . . . . . . . . A study undertaken by FAOI used a simple fisheries
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 development model to track the state of fishery
Ott
7 ,@M @,u

development of the world's top 200 marine fish
Figure 4. Fish production from capture fisheries and resources based on trends in catches (Figure 6). A
aquaculture destined for food and capture fishery transition from mainly "undeveloped" fisheries to
production for non-food use (e.g. feeds). mainly "senescent" and "mature" is clear. About

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

60% of the resources are now categorized as "senes- Larger fish can often be fished more selectively,
cent" or "mature." These require urgent management reducing discards and wastage.
action to halt the increase in fishing effort or rehabili-
tate overfished resources. Discards from marine fisheries have been estimated
at 27 million tonnes per year. More recent estimates
FAO analyses indicate that the Atlantic and Pacific are about 22 million tonnes, still very significant.
Oceans are "fully fished," but that further fisheries More selective gears and fishing practices can reduce
expansion may be possible in the Indian Ocean. the capture of unwanted bycatch. Utilization of
There are very few underexploited resources left, and unwanted bycatch can be increased. This is already
some (e.g. krill and meso-pelagic fish) may not be happening in tropical shrimp trawl fisheries where
commercially viable.

100%

90%

80%

70%
Phaselill -
0 60%
Mature
Z 50%
0 1, _/ e

C 40%
Phase 11 -
IL 30% Developing

20%

10%

0% .... ........
q@, "pb. p rp p AD AA A`b R@ R,b 1.b -0 9;' 95
NC6 NCb NC6 NC6 Nq Nq NCS Nc@ NC6 Nc@ NO, Noi Nq NCN NCN Nq NC6 NCS

Figure 6. Percentage of major marine fish stocks in various phases of fishery development.

FAO analyseS3 provide estimates of marine fishery fish previously discarded are increasingly used for
potential. The most reliable of these is 93 million food and aquaculture feed.
tonnes, a gain of about 10 million tonnes from the
present comprising 4 million tonnes from improved Fisheries Management: Turning Failure into Success
management in each of the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans and 2 million tonnes from further develop- Fisheries management up to now has generally failed
ment in the Indian Ocean. Less reliable estimates to protect resources from being overexploited. There
imply higher gains derived almost entirely from new are many reasons for this, including the following:
fisheries.
0 Lack of political resolution to make difficult
The benefits of effective management could be high, of the adjustments
order of 10-20% of the present landed value of over US$80
billion. Apartfrom increased yield in quantity and 0 Persistence of direct and indirect subsidies
revenue, there are other benefits to be derivedftom 0 Lack of control on fleets by flag states
improvedfisheries management, such as thefollowing:
* Ineffectiveness of fishery commissions to which
� Less fluctuation in yields from year to year as member countries are reluctant to delegate
fish live longer, providing more stability to the necessary powers
industry.
0 Lack of consideration of rights and potential
� Fish grow larger and larger fish are often more contribution of traditional communities
valuable, increasing earnings per tonne.

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

� Success of industry lobbies in resisting change Aquaculture Development

� Lack of capacity for implementation of manage- Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic plants and
ment in developing countries. animals, has been the world's fastest growing food
production system for over a decade, with global per
However, some recent developments have provided capita "food fish" supply from aquaculture (i.e. the
conditions which should allow an production of
unprecedented opportunity for improv- . .......... farmed aquatic
ing fisheries management, the most finfish and shellfish
important of which are as follows: obt 60%,of the re-, i on a whole live
weight basis, and
ow ca ego,
sourcesaren t
Widespread recognition of the excluding farmed
n @W,
@sonesce
problems of fishery management, aquatic plants)
with readiness to change expressed fnatore. ese require,,, . increasing at an
at highest levels of governance "'4".m@,iUrgen,tMonogeme"nt L,'. average rate of
10.9% per year from
hdlfthe in-"' 1.5 kilograms in
New concerns for the environment,
people's participation, and empow- fishing bffort,,or, 1984 to 4.6 kilo-
reN
erment Jbifitate'ovotfished grams in 1996.1 By
contrast, per capita
,reso
� Consensus on the institutional origin
t food fish supply
a,@> from capture
of the failure, with all other factors,
including scientific uncertainty, fisheries has re-
being secondary mained relatively static, increasing from 10.8 kilo-
grams in 1984 to 11.0 kilograms in 1996 at an average
� Availability of international instruments and rate of 1.8% per year or equivalent to the growth of
initiatives (e.g. UNCLOS, UN Fish Stocks Agree- the human population (1.75%) over the same period.
ment, FAO Code of Conduct), often embracing On the basis of the above data, one quarter of fish
the precautionary approach. consumed by humans in 1996, from a total average
per capita food fish supply of 15.6 kilograms, is
If this opportunity is lost and management does not currently being supplied by aquaculture.
improve, there could be a shortfall of 10-40 million
tonnes between demand and supply for human Of particular importance was the fact that 28 million
consumption by 2010, despite increased aquaculture tonnes or 82% of total world aquaculture production
production. If domestic supplies of major importing in 1996 was produced within Low-Income Food
developed countries are not improved, already Deficit Countries.' Moreover, aquaculture production
expanding trade for human consumption will be within LIFDC's has been growing over 6 times faster
further promoted, possibly leading to increased (15% per year since 1984) than within developed
depletion of resources exploited by the major export- countries (2.4% per year since 1984).
ing developing countries.
China alone produced two-thirds of total world
There are other risks associated with not improving aquaculture production, corresponding to 23 million
management. Abrupt resource declines with rapid tonnes, in 1997. Aquaculture provided about 55% of
corrective measures causing major socio-economic total Chinese fisheries production of 35 million
damage (e.g. Canadian cod fishery) will continue to tonnes in 1997. Moreover, in terms of meat produc-
occur. If the situation deteriorates, there may be slow tion, total Chinese fisheries landings produced the
changes in species dominance and trophic relation- equivalent of 22 million tonnes of aquatic meat
ships and environmental degradation. There may be products for human consumption in 1997, as com-
a loss of traditional fishing rights to other sectors pared with 55 million tonnes for total terrestrial meat
such as conservation, tourism, oil industry, and products.
coastal activities.
The rapid growth in aquaculture seems set to con-
tinue in the near term. Indicators pointing to good
growth potential include increasing demand for fish,
emergence of aquaculture as a sector for investment,

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

and recognition of its potential for expansion, and 7 Shehadeh, Z.H. and M. Pedini 1997. Issues and
growing awareness of sustainability needs.' Sustain- Challenges. FA0 Fisheries Circular No. 886.
able development is the overriding strategic issue
and challenge and, although most aquaculture is
conducted with significant nutritional and social
benefits and little environmental cost, actual and
perceived negative impacts of some types of aquacul-
ture have already constrained development, mainly
in coastal zones .7

Information Needs

Fishery managers and policy makers will need to
draw more on fisheries research programs which
encompass economics, sociology, and anthropology,
as well as biology. There will be a major need for
development and use sustainability indicators to
synthesize the very broad range of information.
Above all, there will be a major need for comprehen-
sive, reliable, and objective information on fisheries
and aquaculture, including reviews, expert interpre-
tation and analysis, the provision of scenarios and
prognoses with associated benefits, losses and risks.
FAO for its part plans to contribute to this.

Notes

1 Gulland, J.A. (ed.) 1971. The fish resources of the
ocean. Fishing News (Books) Ltd. 255pp.

2 Grainger, R.J.R. and S.M. Garcia 1996. Chronicles of
marine fishery landings (1950-1994): Trend analysis
and fisheries potential. FA0 Fisheries Technical
Paper No. 359. Rome. FAO. 51pp.

3 Garcia, S.M. and R. Grainger 1997. Fisheries man-
agement and sustainability: A new perspective of an
old problem? In Developing and sustaining world
fishery resources: The state of science and manage-
ment. Proceedings of the 2nd World Fisheries Con-
gress. Editors D.A. Hancock, D.C. Smith, A. Grant
and J.P, Beumer. CSIRO, Australia. Pp 631-654.

4 Tacon, A. and R. Grainger. Contribution of aquacul-
ture to food security In prep.

5 LIFDCs have an average per capita income <US$
1505/annum in 1996 and are net importers of food in
terms of calories.

6 Pedini, M. and Z.H. Shehadeh 1997. Global Out-
look in Review of the State of World Aquaculture.
FAO Fisheries Circular No. 886.

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

THE COASTAL POPULATION EXPLOSION

Don Hinrichsen
United Nations consultant and author

Humankind is in the process of annihilating coastal coastal country within two decades. In 1950, Japan's
and ocean ecosystems. At the root of the problem are 83 million inhabitants were dispersed throughout the
burgeoning human numbers and their ever-growing country, with nearly half living in farming house-
needs. Population distribution is increasingly holds. By 1970, most Japanese were living in urban
skewed. Recent studies have shown that areas, the majority
the overwhelming bulk of humanity is of them in the
concentrated along or near coasts on just Pacific Coastal Belt,
10% of the earth's land surface. As of Recent studies have which extends from
1998, over half the population of the shown that the ok@er- Tokyo southwest
planet - about 3.2 billion people - whelming bu Ilk,o,t,hu- through the Seto
lives and works in a coastal strip just 200 Inland Sea to the
kilometers wide (120 miles), while a full manity Is concbnfrat6d @i northern part of the
two-thirds, 4 billion, are found within along or nearcoasts bh' island of K ushu. As
y
400 kilometers of a coast. just 10% Of the earth 's early as 1970, the
_4 national census
land surface.
Take the example of China, the world's revealed that over
most populous nation. Of China's 1.2 53% of the popula-
billion people, close to 60% live in 12 tion lived in densely
coastal provinces, along the Yangtze River valley, and inhabited districts that occupy 1.7% of the country's
in two coastal municipalities - Shanghai and land area. Population densities in this crowded
Tianjin. Along China's 18,000 kilometers of continen- region average over 11,500 per square kilometer.
tal coastline, population densities average between
110 and 1,600 per square kilometer. In some coastal In 1997, Japan's total population amounted to 126
cities such as Shanghai, China's largest with 17 million. Of this, nearly 80% or 100 million, are
million inhabitants, population densities average considered coastal. But no one in Japan lives more
over 2,000 per square kilometer. than 120 kilometers from the sea. Furthermore, 77%
of all Japanese live in urban areas along or near the
In general, with the exception of India the bulk of coast. The dramatic shift has left much of the interior
Asia's population is coastal or near coastal. Of the drained of workers. Nearly 47% of Japan's land area,
regior@s collective population of 3.5 billion, 60% - mostly in the interior, is now designated as "depopu-
2.1 billion - live within 400 kilometers of a coast. lated" and eligible for special funding.

Indonesia and Vietnam are two typical examples of The population of Latin America and the Caribbean
Asia's population shift from the hinterlands to is even more littoral. The region's coastal states have
coastal areas. Of Indonesia's population of 200 a collective population of around 610 million, a full
million, 130 million live on the main island of Java, three-quarters of whom live within 200 kilometers of
on just 7% of the country's land area, most of them in a coast.
rapidly growing towns and cities. Similarly,
Vietnam's population is almost all coastal. And The majority of the Caribbean Basin's 200 million
coastal populations are growing two-tenths of a permanent residents (including over 20 million
percentage point faster than the rest of the country. people living in 99 coastal counties along the U.S.
Population densities along the country's coastline Gulf Coast) live on or near the seashore. The resident
average between 500 and 2,000 people per square population is swelled every year by the influx of
kilometer. In parts of Hanoi, population densities some 100 million tourists, nearly all of whom end up
average 35,000 per square kilometer. on the region's beaches.

Japan's population is also overwhelmingly coastal.
Japan transformed itself from a largely rural and
noncoastal nation into an overwhelmingly urban and

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Consider the following trends: socioeconomic part of the Mediterranean Action Plan
that links the protection of the environment with
� On South America's crowded west coast, some various levels of development, the Mediterranean
40 million people crowd along thin coastal strips. Basin's resident population could go as high as 555
In Chile, three-quarters of the population live million by 2025. Also, according to Blue Plan projec-
and work along a 500-kilometer stretch of tions, the urban population of coastal Mediterranean
coastline between Valparaiso and Concepcion, on administrative regions could reach 176 million - 30
15% of the country's land area. million more people than the entire coastal popula-
tion in 1990. Furthermore, depending on how
� The east coast is even more crowded. Some 15 tourism is developed in the future, the Mediterra-
million people live in the Buenos Aires-La Plata- nean could be hosting up to 350 million seasonal
Montevideo region. tourists every year by 2025. At the same time, the
number of the automobiles in the region's is ex-
� The largest and most crowded coastal area by far pected to triple, causing serious air pollution prob-
is the highly urbanized region stretching from lems in many urban areas.
Sao Paulo to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This area
already bulges with 30 million people. If trends Michel Batisse, president and chief architect of the
continue, it is expected to hold 40 million or Blue Plan and former assistant director-general for
more inhabitants by 2010. science at UNESCO, is convinced that the future of
the region is in jeopardy. "While northern popula-
Of all the continents except the Antarctic, only Africa tions with declining fertility rates will become
has more people living in the interior than along or progressively older, the southern and eastern regions
near coastlines and major river valleys. But even will be dominated by young people," points out
here, demographic patterns are shifting. Over the Batisse. "The numbers arriving on the labor market
past two decades, Africa's coastal cities - centers of will largely exceed those leaving it, with a maximum
trade and commerce -have been growing by 4% a gap around 2020, creating considerable unem-
year or more, drawing people inexorably out of the ployment and probably spawning waves of migrants
countryside. Cities such as Lagos, Mombasa, Dar es heading to Europe in search of work."
Salaam, Accra, Abidjan and Dakar have seen their
populations explode from in-migration. Batisse argues that these trends are likely to generate
serious conflicts over dwindling resources in an
Europe and North America increasingly polluted environment. This will be
especially true for water availability, as well as
The forces at work in the developing world also mounting land use conflicts, traffic congestion,
account, in large measure, for the explosion of coastal destruction of wetlands, soil erosion, and continued
towns and cities in the industrialized countries of pollution of coastal waters.
Europe and North America. Historic patterns of
economic development that fueled the first industrial "In all the scenarios we developed for the southern
revolution and transformed coastal cities into inter- and eastern rim countries, their development prob-
national centers of trade and commerce have been lems are aggravated by rapid, pell-mell urbaniza-
augmented since the end of the Second World War by tion," notes Batisse, "The greatest concentration of
a massive population shift from the hinterlands to people will continue to be in the narrow, mountain-
coastal areas. Millions of middle class families now lined coastal strips characteristic of the region."
have significantly more disposable income and more
leisure time to enjoy the fruits of their labors. Sea- In the United States, 55-60% of Americans now live
coasts, with their boundless economic opportunities in 772 counties adjacent to the Atlantic and Pacific
and better quality of life, increasingly are viewed as Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. The
preferred places to live, work, play, and retire. Washington D.C.-based Population Reference Bureau
reports that between 1960 and 1990 coastal popula-
One of the most celebrated and threatened coastlines tion density in the United States increased from an
in the world is the Mediterranean. Here, north and average of 275 to nearly 400 people per square
south meet, with all the tensions such a confluence kilometer. In 1990, the most crowded coastline in the
cultivates. According to demographic projections United States, stretching from Boston south through
worked out by the Mediterranean Blue Plan, the New York and Philadelphia to Baltimore and Wash-
ington D.C., had over 2,500 people per square

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

kilometer. Another 101 coastal counties had popula-
tion densities exceeding 1,250 per square kilometer.

Florida, which is almost entirely coastal, is projected
to have more than 16 million residents by 2010, an
increase of over 200% from its 1960 level of 5 million.
South Florida, which had a 1990 population of 6.3
million, is expected to have 15 to 30 million people
by 2050. Similar dramatic increases are projected for
California and Texas.

The five states with the greatest rise in population are
all coastal: California, Texas, Florida, Georgia, and
Virginia. By the year 2025, nearly 75% of Americans
are expected to live in coastal counties. These coun-
ties already contain 14 of the country's 20 largest
conurbations.

Implicationsfor Planning

What these demographic trends portend for the
urban landscape and resource management are
disturbing, to say the least. Most of the developing
world lacks the capacity to manage current coastal
population growth in any equitable fashion. Nor do
most developing countries have the political motiva-
tion, expertise, or money to introduce comprehensive
coastal management plans. At the same time, the
developed world has not come to grips with the
implications of these demographic and resource
trends.

Now is the time to develop and introduce manage-
ment plans that protect vital coastal ecosystems,
while permitting economic growth and ensuring a
better quality of life for all coastal dwellers. Contin-
ued denial of the problems will only make solutions
harder to achieve.

References

Hinrichsen, Don. Coastal Waters of the World: Trends,
Threats, and Strategies. Washington D.C. Island Press,
1998.

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

TRENDS IN U.S. COASTAL REGIONS, 1970-19881

Charles A. Bookman, Thomas I.. Culliton, and Maureen A. Warren
National Ocean Service, NOAA

Coastal areas are invaluable for their economic exploited forever. Today, in contrast, marine and
vitality and biological diversity. At the same time, the coastal resources are known to be finite, and capable
coasts are under considerable pressure. This paper of being harmed or lost by human activities. As
examines underlying and emerging trends that are shown by national polling data, the transition of the
shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and environment from an issue of limited concern to one
coastal management of universal concern occurred years ago.
and policy. Present and Moreover, the public understands the
projected trends are ocean's importance to human health, and
discussed in population Population groWth demonstrates a sense of responsibility to
and settlement; social and its assocloted protect the ocean for present and future
values; economic Impacts may be the generations. Coincident with the evolu-
activity; resources; tion of public attitudes that favor ocean
environmental quality; most critical Issue protection, nongovernmental organiza-
hazards; and gover- confronting coastal tions have risen to work with both land-
nance and management. managers and deci- owners and government agencies to
conserve and manage the environment,
slon-makers. ,
Coastal population and they have considerable technical and
and settlement managerial capabilities and resources.

Population growth and its associated impacts may be Economic and resource trends
the most critical issue confronting coastal managers
and decision-makers. Coastal areas are crowded and Marine-related economic activities in the coastal zone
becoming more so. About half the nation's popula- and coastal ocean account for up to two percent of
tion presently resides in the narrow fringe of coastal the U.S. Gross National Product and are comparable
counties. From 1996-2015, the coastal population is in scope to other important sectors of the economy,
projected to increase from 141 million to 166 million. such 'as agriculture. Recreation and tourism, water-
Population growth and consequent increases in borne commerce, energy and mineral production,
settlement densities bring jobs, create economic and fisheries account for most economic activities
prosperity, add new industry, improve regional along the coast.
infrastructures, enhance educational opportunities,
and increase tax revenues-but they also burden
local environments. As coastal populations swell, the Table 1. The environment as a voting issue: Exit
natural features that may have attracted people to the polls, 1982-1992
coast are lost or diminished. Population pressures Year Exit Pollster Most Important Issues Percentage
lead to increased solid-waste production, higher 1982 CBS/NY Times Unemployment 38
volumes of urban runoff, losses of green space and Environment 3
wildlife habitat, declines in ambient water quality, 1984 LA Times Govenunent Spending 22
and increased demands on wastewater treatment, Environment 4
potable water, and energy supplies. To control these 1988 CBS/NY Times Helping Middle Class 25
kinds of impacts, states and localities have begun to Environment 10
channel public investment for infrastructure into 1990 Voter Research Education 26
areas that are best able to accommodate growth and Surveys Environment 21
without deleterious environmental impacts. 1992 Voter News Economy/jobs 12
Service Environment 5
Social trends Source: Adapted from Ladd and Bowman, 1996
Thirty years ago, most Americans believed that
resources were essentially infinite and could be

Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Recreation and tourism. Outdoor recreation and are a significant source of revenue for the federal
tourism are the most significant economic government. Heightening the importance of the
activities in the coastal zone, accounting for half oceans to the U.S. energy supply is the fact that
or more of total ocean-related economic activity. about 50 percent of oil consumed is imported by
Despite the diversity and scope of recreational ship, and the reliance on imported petroleum is
activities-from birdwatching, to boating-based slated to grow to 60 percent by 2010. An increas-
sports, to second-home developments-little ing fraction of domestic offshore oil and gas is
information is available on coastal and marine being discovered and produced from wells
recreation and tourism, its scope, importance, drilled in deep water, especially in the Gulf of
and impacts. Interestingly, the government plays Mexico. Rapid and dramatic technology ad-
an important role in providing the underlying vances, coupled recently with relief from paying
conditions for marine recreation and tourism. royalties on deepwater production, have com-
These include (1) ensuring a clean environment, bined to encourage the trend toward deep water
(2) assuring coastal access, and (3) promoting a production. Current models suggest that federal
safe operating environment. Given the economic offshore lands contain 50 percent of the nation's
importance of marine recreation and tourism, remaining undiscovered oil and gas resources;
and the importance of the government role in offshore oil production rates are projected to
providing the basic underlying conditions for increase by at least 10 percent between 1995 and
these activities, much more could be done to 2000.
understand, document, manage, and promote
marine recreation. Fishery resources and food supply. U.S. fishery
landings have increased over the past 50 years,
Waterbome commerce. U.S. waterbome foreign but have now reached the maximum capacity of
trade is projected to continue to grow at an our oceans and coastal waters to produce fish.
average annual rate of 3.7 percent. Domestic While landings in Alaska have increased dra-
waterbome trade is also growing, and becoming matically, they have declined in other regions for
more diverse-the shifting of freight cargoes many species. In addition, for some marine
from ships to barges, and the growth in passen- species, recreational landings represent a signifi-
ger traffic, especially ferries and day boats, are cant and growing proportion of the catch. The
prominent domestic trends. The focus of all this challenge in fisheries management is to achieve
activity is the major ports (about 145 of them), sustainable fisheries over the long-term. To
each of which handles more than 9 million metric accomplish this, it is necessary to end overfishing
tons of cargo annually. These ports need to keep and allow depleted stocks to rebuild.
pace with the growth in trade, and other changes
in ships and shipping. U.S ports are affected by The acreage of designated shellfishing waters is
important changes in two areas: (1) the rapidly at an all-time high. At the same time, health
changing intermodal freight transportation restrictions on these waters are at their lowest
market, which moves increasing amounts of levels since 1980. Overall, the condition of
cargo on ever more demanding schedules, and shellfish harvest waters is improving.
(2) the increasing number and complexity of
environmental regulations that pertain to ports. The degradation and loss of coastal habitats, with
The U.S. Department of transportation and other other factors such as overfishing, are constrain-
agencies have initiated a coordinated national ing the contribution of fisheries to world dietary
effort to highlight trends, promote coordination needs at a time when population growth and
at the national level, and encourage local solu- rising affluence are increasing the demand for
tions. This will help ensure adequate port food. Aquaculture holds some promise as an
infrastructure, including appropriate channel alternative to wild harvest, but has environmen-
and berth depths, real-time navigation informa- tal problems of its own.
tion, modem port facilities, and efficient
intermodal connections. Environmental quality

Energy and minerals resources and production. Coastal oceans and estuaries are among the most
About 19 percent of the nation's produced oil productive and valuable natural systems. They are
comes from federal offshore lands. Moreover, also among the most threatened. Environmental
revenues and royalties earned on this production stressors include nutrient overenrichment, bacterial

The Next 25 Years: Global Issues

contamination, chemical pollution, oxygen depletion, consequence of the anticipated population
oil and grease spills and contamination, and planned growth in estuarine watersheds. Because of
and unplanned habitat alterations. The importance projected population increases, the need to limit
and severity of these stressors varies from region to nutrient inputs to estuaries must be emphasized
region and often is a consequence of human activity. further as we move into the next century.

Point sources. Point sources of pollution include Habitats. Human activities have changed,
discharges of municipal and industrial wastewa- degraded or destroyed coastal habitats, threaten-
ter and dumping ing many important species. Until
of materials into recently, many coastal habitat resources
ocean waters. In In generall the notion were undervalued or not fully appreci-
general, the n : ated in terms of our dependence on
nation has made has madea massive them. Efforts have recently begun on
a massive and and partially successful every coast to identify the habitats
partially success- investment over the lost essential for every life stage of every
ful investment generation to coniTol managed fish species. Once these
over the last essential habitats have been identified,
generation to point sources, and the measures can then be taken to protect
control point environment has ben- them from direct damage, and from
sources, and the efited as a result., degradations such as nonpoint source
environment has pollution, eutrophication, and physical
benefited as a habitat loss resulting from coastal
result. Two of the development.
outstanding successes include (1) more wide-
spread wastewater treatment, and higher levels Coastal hazards
of treatment, across the nation, and (2) the
elimination of most ocean dumping and greater Coastal storms damage property, take lives, and
control over the one major dumping activity that disrupt ecosystems as a result of high winds, storm
remains-the disposition of materials dredged surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. The theory
from navigable waterways. The development, in that global warming will make storms stronger and
wastewater treatment are mirrored and con- more frequent is under intense study; the data are
firmed in environmental measurements that
show long-term reduction of heavy metal and
organic chemical pollution in the marine envi- Figure 2. Dry land loss by 2100 without shore
ronment near urban areas, as well as improve- protection
ments in other indicators of environmental
quality. Ocean dumping of dredged material 3,000
now is confined to clean materials placed in
designated dump sites that are carefully moni- 'Si
tored. E
2,000-

Nonpoint sources. The remaining one- to two- a,
thirds of pollutants contributing to the degrada-
tion of coastal and marine waters are from
nonpoint sources, which include runoff and 1,000-
0
seepage from agricultural and urban areas, and 'A
W
0
air deposition onto land and into water. Seasonal I
eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water 0 NE MA SA SW F LA Other WC
bodies is an important manifestation of nonpoint GOM
pollution. The problem varies by region. The Sea Level Rise Scenario
aggregate picture indicates an increase in the 0 Baseline 0 50cm N 100 cm 12 200 cm
severity and extent of eutrophication in the Note: NE-Northeast; MA-Middle Atlantic, SA-South Atlantic;
future, with greater than 60 percent of the SWF-Southwest Florida; LA-Louisiana; Other GOM-Other
monitored estuaries expected to show worsening Gu@of Mexico, WC-West Coast.
eutrophication symptoms. This is largely a Source: Titus et al., 1991

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

incomplete about whether global warming will lead and manage the coastal zone. Third, integrated
to more destructive coastal storms. It is known, management approaches are coming into use that
however, that sea level is rising in many regions, and bring together diverse stakeholders to address the
that global warming may speed this process. Global economic, environmental, and social demands placed
sea level is projected to rise on average about 5 mm/ on finite ocean and coastal resources.
yr. A rise in sea level and increased storm frequencies
could accelerate erosion and associated habitat loss,
increase salinity, alter tidal ranges, change sediment
and nutrient transport patterns, and increase coastal Notes
flooding.
1. This is an Executive Summary of the NOAA report
The societal cost of coastal hazards is determined not entitled, "Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998:
only by the annual variability in their occurrence, but Addendum to the Proceedings of the Workshop on Trends
also by the increasing population at risk, the growing and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and
numbers and value of structures and businesses, and Coastal Policy."
other manifestations of economic activity. Both
population and wealth have increased greatly, and
these changes have increased the exposure of the U.S.
population to damages from coastal hazards.

When the losses from coastal storms are normalized
to account for these changes, the extent of damages
actually has decreased (on average) over the years.
The explanation for this conundrum of greater
potential for loss, but relatively fewer actual losses,
lies in the success of major and long-term efforts to
prepare and plan for coastal hazards, and to mitigate
their effects. These efforts include (1) better predic-
tions, forecasts and warnings that enable timely and
targeted preparations and evacuations of high hazard
areas, and (2) building codes that incorporate hazard-
resistant construction standards, as well as guidelines
for appropriate siting of structures in areas where
they are less likely to suffer wind or water damage.

Governance and management

The great number of activities that occur in the
coastal zone and in, on, and under the coastal ocean
are governed by a complex and often fragmented
framework of laws, regulations, and practices. Three
fundamental trends are occurring to address this
situation. First, on an international scale since 1973,
the idea of the oceans as a "commons" has been
supplanted by principles, codified in the Law of the
Sea Convention, which
(1) recognize the rights of nation-states to establish
200-mile exclusive economic zones over ocean
resources and uses, and (2) authorize regional
management arrangements for ocean uses. This trend
has led to increases in resource utilization, such as
fisheries development and offshore energy produc-
tion. Second, federal environmental mandates have
established special ocean and coastal management
areas, and expanded the national capacity to plan for

2. Trends in Managing the Environment

Integrated management approaches are increasingly being employed to address environmental
problems. The second session of the meeting reviewed trends in non-point source pollution, habitat
and biodiversity, Lessonsfrom the Chesapeake Bay are examinedfor their management implications.
National progress in attaining the goals of the 1972 Clean Water Act are reviewed, and remaining
challenges are highlighted, especially those concerning non-point sources of pollution and integrated
management of watersheds and the coastal ocean. Trends and challenges in biodiversity are ad-
dressed, as are trends in the identification, designation and management of marine protected areas.

New Approaches to Environmental Management: Lessons from the Chesapeake Bay
Donald F Boesch, Centerfor Environmental Studies, University of Maryland

Perspectives on Marine Water Quality
Tim Eichenberg, Centerfor Marine Conservation

Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges
Thomas Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas
Tundi Agardy, Conservation International

Rends in Managing the Environment

NEW APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT-
LESSONS FROM THE CHESAPEAKE BAY

Donald F Boesch
University of Maryland

Ecosystem Management together has been a sustained federal appropriation
for administration, assessment, public outreach, and
Coastal management is evolving from a limited, implementation. But this federal investment is
compartmentalized endeavor that seeks to manage multiplied multi-fold by investments of states and
land uses and human activities in the narrow coastal local communities. The commitments are high level,
zone to an expansive, integrated activity that reaches sustained, significant, and popularly based.
far inland, addresses water and air quality, incorpo-
rates fisheries and other living resource management, Goals
and engages society's future life style choices. This
requires an ecosystem approach that broadly em- The Chesapeake Bay Program has set goals, even
braces the physical environment and the biota, when it was not crystal clear what those goals should
including the humans that dominate these ecosys- be. The major focusing goal has been to reduce
tems. Furthermore, an ecosystem approach must be controllable sources of nutrients by 40% by the year
place-based, thus restricting the efficacy of uniformly 2000, but there have been other numerical goals as
applied solutions. Everyone seems to embrace this well. These goals serve to focus bureaucratic atten-
concept, but how do we actually employ ecosystem tion and provide a framework and currency for
management, particularly on the large, regional debates. Goals have a dimension that assists public
scales necessary for major estuaries and bay. understanding and stimulates political commitments.
For example, the recalcitrant former Governor of
The Chesapeake Bay Program represents perhaps the Virginia finally surrendered to the pressure of the
most ambitious and costly effort to restore a major other members of the Executive Council for a ripar-
coastal ecosystem and manage activities not only in ian restoration goal of 2000 miles by 2010, but
the coastal zone but also in a vast catchment area- because of his political genius suggested that the goal
64,000 square miles in this case. It has been going on, of 2010 miles by 2010 sounds better!
in one way or another, for about 20 years and is the
conceptual parent of the National Estuary Program Science
in which some 28 estuaries are enrolled. What can
we learn from this experience? Where does this The Chesapeake Bay Program prides itself in being
experiment in ecosystem management need to go in science-based. The initial directions and goals were
the 21st Century? established following a 5 year study phase. There is
a remarkable level of "science literacy" among the
Commitments operatives, assisted by the remarkable and widely
distributed Bay Journal. There is a heavy reliance on
The Chesapeake Bay Program owes its longevity and computer modeling and environmental modeling.
successes to the high and sustained level of societal There is perhaps the largest aggregation of coastal
commitment it has enjoyed. It is directed by an science in the nation in the region. However, as we
Executive Council that includes the Governors of move past the year 2000 milestone, it is clear that
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, the Mayor of scientific activities need to be more strategic and
the District of Columbia, the Administrator of the forward-looking. Furthermore, because so many key
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the uncertainties now reside on the land, in the water-
Chair of the Chesapeake Bay Commission, an shed, there is a need to boost and link the science of
organization of the state legislatures of the region. landscape changes, hydrological dynamics, and
They are actually involved, they show up at the social choices into the Program.
annual meetings, and they know that their constitu-
ents support this effort. They bring the weight and
force of the agencies in their jurisdictions to partici-
pate. Furthermore, the glue which has held this

7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Models The first generation of Chesapeake Restoration goals
was based on something we could measure and
Great emphasis has been placed on the development count-nutrient inputs. The next generation of
and application of sophisticated computer models of restoration goals will be living resource-based. But
the Bay and its watershed. These what kind of meaning-
models are linked so that one can
@M ful goals can we set and
examine the effects of changes in future Z, measure? And how do
eSCYpedke B
land uses or agricultural practices or we develop strategies
even the effects of the Clean Air Act on for multi-species
cim nln conjunC7,
management in an
delivery of nutrients to the Bay and
n %Wth the State
ecosystem context?
their effects on dissolved oxygen, food
'jencies;-.7,6perates
chains, and seagrasses. Although these This is one of the major
th,5@` largest. and
models may sometimes seduce manag- MoSf @'A@J challenges for the
ers in believing that they represent the future of Chesapeake
si
real world rather than a virtual world, . . . . . .";A Bay restoration and
P_@
of any
they have tremendous power in track- management.
ing progress, identifying more signifi- I C ystpl;h,ln
cant problems, and determining the
Managing Growth
effects of management alternatives.
The commitments and
Monitoring goals for Chesapeake
Bay restoration include a "cap," by which once the
The Chesapeake Bay Program, in conjunction with nutrient input goals are met they will not be ex-
the State agencies, operates the largest and most ceeded in the future. This means that the effects of
extensive monitoring program of any coastal ecosys- all future population growth and land development
tem in the world. It has been going on for over 13 must be offset by gains in efficiency. With conversion
years now. The monitoring program is the of forested and agricultural land taking place at rates
plowhorse in contrast to the flashy show horse that is three times greater that the rate of population growth
the modeling program. To managers, models in some areas, for example in the greater Washington,
provide firm results and can make predictions, while D.C. area, this is a daunting proposition. The rates of
monitoring results are subject to natural and stochas- land development are clearly unsustainable, not only
tic variability and are inherently retrospective. The to meet and hold Bay restoration goals but also in
monitoring program costs lots of money, money that terms of infrastructure demands and quality of life
can be spent to implement programs, hire more office considerations. As a result, the Chesapeake Bay
staff, or hold meetings. They are hard to sustain. Yet, watershed, and the Washington-Baltimore region in
environmental monitoring is absolutely essential if particular, has become the hotbed of the Smart
we are to practice adaptive environmental manage- Growth movement. The recently announced Clinton-
ment, i.e. management that recognizes that it's hard Gore initiative in this area provides opportunities for
to predict anything about a complex ecosystem, other coastal regions to begin to address the prob-
particularly about the future, and approaches its task lems of their future landscapes.
with humility and an interest in observing and
leaming. Climate Change

Sustainable Resource Use We live in a changing world. Not only is the Chesa-
peake Bay of today not John Smith's Bay of the l7th
Why are we trying to reduce nutrient inputs and Century, the Bay of 100 years from now will be
improve water quality if not for the fish, shellfish, different from either of these. Not only will the
and birds we enjoy and use? Furthermore, does it outcome be related to how well we have met restora-
make much sense for us to restore this ecosystem and tion goals and held gains in the face of population
overfish or otherwise abuse these resources? More- growth and social change, but it is becoming increas-
over, it has become increasingly clear that steps taken ingly clear that our climate will change in non-trivial
001h

to manage one species, striped bass, for example, ways, both on global and regional scales. The
may have consequences to other resources, menha- Chesapeake Bay Program needs now to begin to take
den and blue crabs, for example. heed of these possible changes, both in terms of its
scientific investigations and management alterna-

T@ends in Managing the Environment

tives. Much has been written about accelerated sea
level rise in the warmer world we face. This will
have consequences for the Chesapeake Bay as well as
other coastal areas. An additional, and perhaps more
significant, challenge that we face in the Chesapeake
is the prospect for increased freshwater runoff that
climate models indicate are likely. These would not
only affect the salinity distribution in the estuary, but
would deliver more nutrients and result in greater
density stratification, thus worsening the effects of
eutrophication. The hill we are climbing to restore
this great ecosystem may become even steeper.

nends in Managing the Environment

PERSPECTIVES ON MARINE WATER QUALITY

Tim Eichenberg
Centerfor Marine Conservation and Clean Water Network

Editors'Note: This is an outline of Mr. Eichenberg's talk. Wherever attainable, provide for the protec-
tion and propagation of fish, shellfish and
Until 1972, the United States had no national pro- wildlife, and recreation in and on the water
gram for regulating the discharge of sewage and by 1983.
industrial pollutants
Prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutants in
� For 200 years, the only remedies for pollution toxic amounts.
were legal actions under common law nuisance
and riparian rights. Basic provisions of the CWA:

� The 1899 Refuse Act (�13 of the Rivers and 0 �301 makes illegal the discharge of pollutants
Harbors Act) provided criminal liability for the without a permit.
discharge of refuse, but it was minimally en-
forced and rarely used to control water pollution. 0 �402 requires National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permits for
� Federal clean water laws enacted in 1948, 1956, sewage and industrial point source dis-
1965, and 1966 provided funding to states for the charges; administered by the Environmental
construction of sewage treatment plants, and protection Agency (EPA) and assumable by
developed requirements for state water quality the states.
standards.
0 �304 requires technology-based, national
� However, ambient water quality standards, or effluent limits for toxic and conventional
WQS (i.e., instrearn uses and water quality pollutants.
criteria to protect those uses) were largely
ineffective due to inadequate implementation * BPT for existing sources of pollution.
and enforcement, inadequate means to identify
polluters, and no national permitting program or 9 BCT (economically achievable) for
effluent standards. conventional pollutants (pH, ss, BOD,
secondary treatment).
� By 1972, more than 60% of assessed rivers, lakes,
and estuaries were not fishable/ swimmable, and 0 BAT economically achievable for toxics.
over 50% of the wetlands in the continental
United States had been destroyed. 0 BADT for new sources.

In 1972, conditions were ripe for the adoption of �404 establishes a national permitting program
national clean water legislation. for the discharge of dredged or fill material into
navigable waters administered by the Corps and
* The Clean Water Act (CWA) was overwhelm- EPA, and assumable by the states.
ingly passed over President Nixon's veto (52-12/
Senate, 247-23/House). �303 requires states to establish water quality
standards to:
0 Objective of the CWA: "To restore and maintain
the chemical, physical and biological integrity of 0 Provide additional controls where technol-
the Nation's waters" [�101(a)] ogy-based controls are inadequate to protect
water quality.
0 Goals of the CWA [�101(a)(1-3)1:
0 Keep clean waters clean (antidegradation).
*Eliminate the discharge of pollutants by 1985.
0 Restore impaired waters [�303(d)].

T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

We have made significant progress in addressing 0 The General Accounting Office (GAO) reports
water quality problems since 1972. that 20-25% of major facilities are in significant
noncompliance with the CWA.
� Federal, state and local governments and indus-
try have spent more than $200 billion on reduc- 0 We still have major infrastructure
ing the discharge of sewage and industrial needs: $137 billion is needed for
pollutants. secondary and advanced treatment
combined and sanitary sewer
� The number of
overflows.
people served by
X
EPW&@
secondary and Y
The CWA has not been reauthorized since
advanced wastewa-
1987; new approaches are needed to
''I Ir
ter treatment has
address remaining clean water challenges
doubled (to about
W
,COM, 0S,'-#dM`-,_
180 million), and EPA estimates that 60% of water
t
@n
onpoin, spUrC,
pollutant loads 4/
quality impairment now comes from
'S
from POTWs have , ) nonpoint sources (NPS) of pollution.
decreased by 40%.
The leading source of NPS pollution
Over 100,000 tons of toxic metals and organic is agriculture which causes 60% of the river,
material are removed from discharges annually. 50% of the lake, and 54% of the estuary
impairment.
But we still have a long way to go to meet the goals
of the CWA About 130 times more animal waste than
human waste is produced, but there are
0 40% of rivers, lakes, and estuaries "assessed" still no federal regulations for the handling,
are not fishable /swimmable, and only 16% of storage, use or disposal of animal waste.
major watersheds have good water quality.
Most large CAFOs are unregulated
0 We know very little about the condition of our despite CWA �502(14) permitting
waters; few are adequately surveyed (less than requirements (about 2,000 of the 450,000
20% of rivers, 101/6 of ocean waters, 40% of lakes, feedlots are permitted).
and 72% of estuaries).
0 Less than 3% of the SRF has been devoted to
0 We still lose about 120,000 acres of wetlands per NPS pollution.
year which protect water quality, prevent flood-
ing, and provide habitat and recreational oppor- 0 �319 of the CWA provides no mandatory
tunities. controls on the major sources of NPS pollu-
tion.
0 More than 4,000 beaches were closed or posted
due to contamination in 1997. 0 NOAA`s Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control
Program is moribund:
0 More than 2,100 fish consumption advisories
were posted in 1996. 0 Established under �6217 of the 1990
amendments to CZAMA, it still has not
0 More than 30% of our shellfish beds are harvest- produced an approved state plan
restricted.
0 It has received only $lM in federal
* More than 50% of all estuaries have low or no funding since 1995 (although $8M was
oxygen levels at some point during the year; the appropriated in FY 1999, and $12 million
Gulf of Mexico has a 7,000 square mile dead zone is requested in FY2000 budget).
that appears each summer.
Tberefore, an enforceable national program to
0 Between 1972 and 1998, the number of HABs prevent polluted runoff should be established to
doubled (pfiesteria, red and brown tides).

Rends in Managing the Environment

reduce the major cause of water quality impair- Therefore, national standards should be
ment that: established for beach water quality, monitor-
ing beaches and for posting waters that pose
� Identifies and targets significant sources of a public health threat.
NPS.
0 There are no enforceable national standards for
� Applies enforceable measures with mile- fish consumption advisories.
stones and deadlines to meet WQS in 10
years . a Fish consumption advisories rose by 26% in 1996
to 2193, including advisories in 100% of the Great
0 Requires immediate mandatory controls for Lakes and their connecting waters and a large
significant new sources of NPS. portion of the nation's coastal waters.

� Provides adequate EPA backup authority 0 Most of the advisories were for mercury (76%);
and WQ monitoring. PCBs, chlordane, dioxins and DDT were also
frequently cited.
� Requires NPS controls/ monitoring on
federal lands. 0 differences among state programs are vast.

� Provides adequate federal funding (up to 0 Therefore, federal standards are needed to
$500 million/year) as provided in the provide consistency, additional training and
President's 1998 Clean Water Action Plan. enforceable mandates for testing and posting
fishing areas to ensure that the public health is
� Requires permits for large factory farms with protected adequately.
minimum standards for manure storage
structures, setbacks from water bodies, State water quality standards are not protecting
manure application requirements, advanced adequately existing and designated uses, nor do
treatment for large operations (7,000 = city of they address adequately excess nutrients,
45,000), and provides bonding and public sediment contamination, and the loss of habitat.
notice for permits. Therefore, EPA should strengthen its rules
governing water quality standards by:
� Regulates stormwater discharges from small
municipalities, industries, and construction Adopting water quality criteria for nutrients
sites. (nitrogen and phosphorous), sediments, physical
and biological resources, and requiring the
There are no enforceable national standards for adoption and implementation of such criteria by
monitoring and posting swimming beaches states.

� There have been more than 20,000 beach Strengthening the implementation of state
closures and advisories since 1988 from antidegradation policies to protect waters that
polluted runoff, stormwater, sewage spills, meet or exceed minimum fishable/ swimmable
and overflows standards.

� Only 8 states comprehensively monitor their Prohibiting the use of mixing zones, especially
beaches and notify the public (NJ, NH, NC, for toxic pollutants and pollutants that persist or
DE, IL, CT, IN, OH). bioaccumulate in the environment.

� Five states lack any regular monitoring of Bringing impaired waters into compliance with
beach water quality (AL, GA, LA, OR, WA). CWA standards within 8-10 years by ensuring
that states identify and list waters that do not
� Most states have not adopted EPA!s sug- meet WQS, and develop TMDLs and WLAs to
gested criteria, and still use fecal and total reduce pollutants from point and nonpoint
coliform indicators. sources.

Rends in Managing the Environment

CONSERVING OCEAN BIODIVERSITY- TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

Thomas F Hourigan
National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

Introduction world's commercial marine catch at $80 billion per
year. The comparable value of fishes landed in the
The ocean's biological diversity-its genetic re- United States is $3.5 billion, and commercial fisheries
sources, species, and ecosystems-provides immense contribute $21 billion to the U.S. economy. Besides
benefits to the United States and to all of human food, marine living resources provide myriad
society. Knowledge about these resources is still products including fertilizers, animal feed, medi-
rudimentary; however, trends in the best cines, and aquarium
studied species and ecosystems- fishes.
commercially exploited fishes, protected The oceans biological
marine mammals and turtles, and certain The value of marine
coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs- diversity-the living re- biodiversity extends
indicate that these resources and their sources that compose It far beyond fisheries
benefits are threatened by human and the ecological pro- and other products.
activities both in the United States and Marine ecosystems
cesses that sustain It-
globally. The U.S. government is already also provide natural
taking steps to address the threats, and forms a foundation for goods and services
actions are paying dividends in healthier the quality of human life such as carbon
resources. Recent initiatives, such as the as well as the raw Moteri_ storage, atmospheric
President's Executive Order on Coral gas regulation,
Reef Protection, signal a commitment to als to enrich it. nutrient cycling, and
continue to improve the state of the waste treatment.
marine environment. The key to further Coral reefs, man-
progress will depend on strengthening scientific groves, and kelp forests protect coastal areas from
research; applying a precautionary approach to storm damage. Marine algae contribute nearly 40
resource use; strengthening partnerships with all percent of global photosynthesis. The values of these
stakeholders; and managing marine resources on an marine ecosystem services greatly exceed direct use
ecosystem basis. This paper highlights the ecosystem values, yet they generally are not incorporated into
approach and the new Aquatic Restoration and economic or policy calculations. Globally, the value
Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua- of marine ecosystem services has been estimated at
rine and Freshwater Living Resources as parts of a $8.4 trillion per annum for open ocean ecosystems,
conceptual framework for organizing future actions and $12.6 trillion for coastal ecosystems (Costanza et
to protect marine biodiversity.1 al. 1997). These services depend on marine
biodiversity, even though the processes that underlie
The Living Ocean Treasure this dependence are still unclear.

The ocean's biological diversity-the living resources As human populations increase, demands have
that compose it and the ecological processes that accelerated for food, products, and services from the
sustain it-forms a foundation for the quality of ocean, as well as for living and recreational space on
human life as well as the raw materials to enrich it. its shores. The primary threats to marine
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the biodiversity are fisheries operations (both direct
variety and variability among living organisms, and overfishing and indirect fishing impacts --- e.g.,
among the ecological complexes of which they are a bycatch of non-target and protected species, habitat
part. Marine living resources provide essential destruction by trawls and other gear or techniques,
economic, environmental, aesthetic, and cultural and other ecosystem effects that may accompany
benefits to humanity. Sixteen percent of all animal fishing activities), chemical pollution and eutrophica-
protein consumed worldwide comes from the ocean. tion, physical alteration of coastal and marine
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza- habitats, invasions of exotic species, and ultraviolet-B
tion (FAO) estimates the total value to fishers of the radiation damage to phytoplankton and zooplankton
resulting from stratospheric ozone depletion (NRC

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

1995). Looming on the horizon is the threat of have shown that human activities are reaching and
human-caused climate change with potentially major often exceeding the productive limits and recupera-
negative effects on tourism, freshwater supplies, tive potential of the ocean.
fisheries, and biodiversity. These factors also have
been identified by the Parties to the Convention on A. Fisheries
Biological Diversity2 as key threats (UNEP/CBD
1995). Many commercial fish stocks reveal a pattern of
declining populations. Recent trends indicate that
Trends in the Health of Marine Biodiversity about one-third of the resources on which fishers
depend are overfished in the United States and
Knowledge about marine species and ecosystems worldwide (Fig. 1). Without major changes in fishery
lags far behind that of terrestrial systems. We cannot management, FA0 estimates that global landings
even characterize the health of many common will not be able to exceed current levels despite
marine species and ecosystems. What relatively little increased demand from growing populations, and
is known about the state and trends of living marine could be reduced by as much as 25 percent (FA0
resources is based on species exploited commercially 1996a). Despite the collapse of certain fisheries, U.S.
for fisheries; protected marine mammals, turtles, and management actions have contributed to several
fishes; and certain commercially significant and successes, including Alaska groundfish, king and
accessible coastal ecosystems such as wetlands and Spanish mackerel, striped bass, and surf and ocean
coral reefs. Until recently, the oceans were thought to quahogs.
be a limitless source of food and natural resources,
and a limitless sink for human pollution. Trends for Beyond the impacts of overfishing, fishery operations
these resources during the last few decades, however, also have tremendous impacts on marine ecosys-

a) Status of 200 Major World Commercial b) Status of 844 Federally Managed Fishery
Fishery Stocks Species in U.S. Waters

E Overfished
40% 35% 11% 1% Approaching
Overfished 24% Overfished
Fully Fished El Not
IAW (Z@ Overfished
25% El Developing 64% Insufficient
Fishery Data

c) Status of 163 Marine Mammal Stocks d) Status of Ten Sea Turtle Stocks in
in U.S. Waters U.S. Waters

5% 15% Declining 40% 20% Declining

Stable Stable
17@14% D Increasing % El Increasing
66% EJ Insufficient 20% Insufficient
Data Data
CN20

Figure 1. Status of selected marine living resources. a) World fisheries (FA0 1996a); b) U.S. Federally managed
fisheries (NMFS 1998); c) & d) Marine mammals and sea turtles sea turtles (NMFS 1996).

D-ends in Managing the Environment

tems. Globally, about 60 billion pounds of sea life are they are close to large concentrations of people;
destroyed as discarded bycatch each year (FAO however, data are available to evaluate the status and
1996b). Additionally, it has recently been estimated trends of U.S. coral reefs in only a few sites (NOAA
that bottom trawls and similar fishing gear scrape 1998b). The International Year of the Reef, 1997, and
14.8 million square President Clinton's 1998 Executive Order
kilometers of sea on Coral Reef Protection are providing
bottom annually, an Recent tren ,ds indicate impetus to new reef monitoring programs
area equivalent to that should greatly increase our under-
over half the world's that about, on'64hird of standing of the status and outlook for coral
continental shelves the resources on which reefs worldwide.
(Watling and Elliot, fishers depend are
1998). Although the overfished in the A Challengefor the Future: The Ecosystem
impact of this destruc- Approach to Conserving Marine
tion on biodiversity United States -dnd Biodiversity
and productivity is
worldwide.,
unknown, its magni- The U.S. government, in partnership with
tude must give us public and private stakeholders at home
pause. and internationally, is taking action to
address the threats to living marme resources and to
B. Protected Marine Species ensure the promise of these resources for future
generations. Hourigan et al. (1998) outlined five
Protected marine species in the United States include critical elements at the heart of this new strategic
marine mammals and species listed under the vision:
Endangered Species Act (ESA). In the past, the
exploitation or incidental capture of marine species, 1. Investing in science in the interest of stewardship.
along with a lack of adequate natural resource Basic assessment and monitoring of the status and
management policies, led to the decline and even trends of resources, as well as economic and social
extinction of many species. Protection under the information, are the fundamental tools of natural
ESA, Marine Mammal Protection Act, and the resource managers.
International Whaling Commission has led to
increasing populations of certain marine mammals 2. Applying the precautionary approach. Even the
(e.g., gray whales) and at least two sea turtle species best science cannot ensure adequate management,
in U.S. waters. Still, habitat destruction and human since marine systems are characterized by a great
activities continue to place other species in jeopardy. deal of natural variability. The precautionary ap-
For example, 23 salmonid populations have been proach states that in the face of uncertainty, managers
listed or proposed for listing as endangered or and decision makers must err on the side of conser-
threatened since 1991, while populations of the vation of living marine resources and protection of
northern right whale and Hawaiian monk seal the environment. The precautionary approach has
continue to decline. Meanwhile, less well-studied been conceptually best developed in the fishery
marine organisms are being lost before ever being sector (e.g., the FAO Code of Conduct for Respon-
identified, much less protected. sible Fisheries and the United Nations Straddling
Stocks Agreement) and is being integrated into U.S.
C. Key Ecosystems - the Coral Reef Example fishery policy and practice. The challenge will be to
implement the precautionary approach in fisheries
As the world's most biologically diverse marine and to broaden its application to other arenas of
ecosystems, coral reefs are home to one-third of all ocean resource management.
marine fish species and tens of thousands of other
species. Coral reef areas under U.S. jurisdiction 3. Applying new technologies to ensure the environ-
cover approximately 16,879 square kilometers mental sustainability of marine aquaculture. World
(NOAA 1998b). Despite their importance, shallow population is expected to increase by one billion
water coral health and cover have declined world- people during the next decade, yet future seafood
wide over the last two decades. It is estimated that 58 harvests from the wild are not expected to increase.
percent of the earth's coral reefs are at high or As humans once moved from hunting to agriculture
moderate risk from overexploitation, coastal devel- on land, they must soon move from reliance on wild
opment, and pollution (Bryant et al. 1998). In the fish stocks to marine aquaculture in the oceans. The
United States, coral reefs appear threatened wherever success of this move depends upon employing new

T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

technologies to address the environmental problems that address non-point source pollution are impor-
that have plagued aquaculture in the past. tant pieces of the puzzle. So also are the new
"Essential Fish Habitat" provisions of the 1996
4. Building Partnerships. Successful management of Sustainable Fisheries Act and increasing use of
ocean living resources is often less a question of habitat conservation agreements with states, tribes,
science and technology than one of human behavior and private land owners to address endangered
and balancing legitimate short- and long-term social species management. To date, however, these have
needs and aspirations. U.S. federal programs and not been placed in a context that recognizes the scale
policies are reaching out to involve stakeholders in and interconnectedness of ocean living systems.
decision-making and implementation.
Marine and coastal protected areas in the National
5. Exploiting the full potential of an ecosystem-based Marine Sanctuary Program, the National Estuarine
approach to resource management. Each individual Research Reserve System, the National Estuary
organism has a habitat, which it needs to live and Program, and other national and state parks can
reproduce, and depends on a commu- provide important
nity@ of other species for food and
J@
refuges for marine
survival. This interconnected commu- t biodiversit However,
ASA mos
b'd Y_
nity of living things, including hu- these areas currently
ive,rse 7,
provide only limited
mans-their dynamic interactions with P 4`1
each other and the physical environ protection. from fishing
ment, and their overlapping mosaic of
e fs home to impacts. Twenty-two
habitats-together constitute an f oll marin. e,@-, percent of U.S. federal
ecosystem. lands are "no-take"
. . . . .....
specles On wilderness areas. In
Increasingly, the United States is th6`U'�bh&bfbther contrast, the federal
adopting an ecosystem approach to government has
ecles..
management designed to sustain or jurisdiction over
restore natural systems and their marine areas eight
functions and values (Interagency times larger than the
Ecosystem Management Task Force 1995). The federal land areas, but only 0.002% of these are
ecosystem approach has also become a major touch- currently "no-take" marine wilderness areas
stone advocated by the Convention on Biological (Brailovskaya, 1998).
Diversity for the conservation and sustainable use of
marine biodiversity (UNEP/CBD 1995). An ecosys- Management of terrestrial systems has been revolu-
tem approach to management is applied within a tionized by the application of watershed manage-
geographic framework defined primarily by ecologi- ment and coastal zone management approaches. The
cal boundaries. The ecological boundaries of ocean challenge over the next century will be to expand
ecosystems and the services they provide reach these zoning approaches to the nearshore waters and
across traditional state and international boundaries, beyond. We must:
and they are linked to water and soil systems in
watersheds and to each other through ocean cur- 1. Identify areas of important biological diversity and
rents. Thus, effective management will require productivity, habitats for endangered species and
expanding both interstate and international coopera- commercial and recreational fisheries species, and
tion. coastal and marine areas that provide key ecosystem
functions;
Applying this ecosystem approach represents the
greatest challenge of the coming decades. Current 2. Map sources of pollution and other human impacts
management still generally deals with fish or endan- on these areas; and
gered species as isolated stocks, and with threats as
individual rather than cumulative insults to ocean 3. Conserve representative productive and pristine
systems. The ecosystem approach requires integrat- areas and restore priority habitats that are degraded.
ing the current patchwork of management tools that
address endangered species, fisheries, pollution, The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
watersheds, and coastal zones into a coherent whole. tion has recently formed a partnership with the U.S.
Federal and state integrated coastal zone manage- Geological Survey and other federal agencies, states,
ment programs and watershed management plans NGOs, and professional organizations to take the

T@ends in Managing the Environment

first analytical steps in this direction on a nationwide Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (United
basis. We have begun the Aquatic Restoration and Nations). 1996a. State of the World Fishery and Aquacul-
Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua- ture. FA0 Fisheries Circular. FAO.
rine and Freshwater Living Resources. The goal of
the ARC Partnership is to ensure the conservation of FAO 1996b. Report of the technical consultations on
our nation's freshwater, estuarine and marine living reduction of wastage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Report
resources by creating a common information base 547. Tokyo, Japan.
and options for preserving the ecological and eco-
nomic integrity of these resources into the 21st Hourigan, T.F., Milazzo, M., Kiraly, S.J. and Osborn,
Century. K.W. 1998. Ensuring the Sustainability of Ocean Living
Resources. Proceedings of the Ocean Community
ARC builds on the successful Terrestrial Gap Analy- Conference '98. pp. 651-655.
sis Program. Gap analysis is a science-based pro-
gram for identifying the degree to which native Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force.
animal species and natural communities are repre- 1995. The Ecosystem Approach: Healthy Ecosystems and
sented in our present--day mix of conservation Sustainable Economies, Volume L National Technical
areas. Those species and communities not ad- Information Service. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 55pp.
equately represented in the existing network of
conservation areas constitute conservation "gaps." National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1996. Our
The Gap Analysis Program provides broad geo- Living Oceans: Report on the Status of U.S. Living
graphic information on the status of species and their Marine Resources, 1995. U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
terrestrial habitats in order to provide managers, NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/SPO-19,160 pp.
planners, and policy makers with the information
they need to make better-informed decisions. NMFS. September 1997. Report to Congress on the
Status of Fisheries in the United States.
Making full use of new approaches-analytic tools
such as ARC and management tools such as fishery National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
"no-take" zones that protect fishes, their habitat, and (NOAA). 1998a. Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers.
biodiversity-will allow management on scales that NOAA.
are meaningful to ocean living resources. They can
then be placed in watershed and integrated marine NOAA. 1998b (on-line). The extent and condition of
and coastal area management regimes that involve U.S. coral reefs by S.L. Miller and M.P. Crosby.
all stakeholders. Together, these offer the promise of NOAA's State of the Coast Report. Silver Spring, MD:
better conserving marine biodiversity, our ocean's NOAA. http://state-of-coast.noaa.gov
living treasure.
National Research Council. 1995. Understanding
Literature Cited Marine Biodiversity: A Research Agendafor the Nation.
National Academy Press; Washington D.C. 114 pp.
Brailovskaya, T. 1998. Obstacles to protecting marine
biodiversity through marine wilderness preservation: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/
Examples from the New England region. Conservation CBD. 1995. The Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal
Biology 12:1236-1240. Biological Diversity: Decisions of the Second Meeting of
the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., and Spaulding, Biological Diversity. Jakarta, Indonesia, November 6-
M. 1998. Reefs at Risk: A map-based indicator of threats to 17, 1995..UNER
the world's coral reefs. World Resources Institute
Report. 56 pp. Watling, L. and E.A. Norse. 1998. Disturbance of the
seabed by mobile fishing gear: A comparison to forest
Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., clearcutting. Conservation Biology 12:1180-1197.
Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S.,
O'Niell, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R., Sutton, P., and van
den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the worldfs ecosystem
services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260.

nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Notes

1 The trends in marine living resources described in
this paper draw on the recent review developed for
the Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers (NOAA 1998a;
and Hourigan et al. 1998). The conclusions derived
from these trends, and suggested options for future
action, are the author's and do not necessarily reflect
the policies of the U.S. Government.

2 The United States has signed, but not yet ratified,
the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Rends in Managing the Environment

GLOBAL TRENDS IN MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Tundi A@Zardil
Conservation international

Introduction Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas

Marine protected areas are increasingly being used to The designation "marine protected area" encom-
protect biologically rich habitats, resolve user con- passes everything from small marine parks estab-
flicts, and help restore over-exploited stocks and lished to protect an endangered or threatened
degraded areas. The upsurge in the use of species, a
the tool is in part due to the fact that unique habitat,
fisheries managers are now looking to or a site of
reserves to complement conventional We ore thus witnessing an historical or
fisheries management techniques. In the increase in the designation cultural inter-
United States, the legislative requirement est, to vast
to identify and protect essential fish and management of mo- reserves that
habitat for managed fisheries species has r1ne protected areas that is target a range
contributed to the debate over and use of occurring on Nlo tracks: of conservation,
marine protected areas in all their various economic, and
forms. Similarly, fisheries managers and (1) th 'e establishment of social objectives
government agencies abroad are now reserves to safeguard rep- and encompass
realizing that marine protected areas ca
n resentofive habitats or different types
serve to enhance sustainable resource of protection.
utilization in addition to promoting particularly rich and di- The use of
conservation. We are thus witnessing an verse areas, and (2) the marine pro-
increase in the designation and manage- tected areas has
use of protected areas to
ment of marine protected areas that is enjoyed a
occurring on two tracks: 1) the establish- complement both fisheries sudden up-
ment of reserves to safeguard representa- and coastal management. surge in
tive habitats or particularly rich and popularity as
diverse areas, and 2) the use of protected marine reserves
areas to complement both fisheries and coastal are being invoked to complement and strengthen
management. Many will claim the new wave of traditional fisheries management. In the United
marine protected areas is characterized by a strong States this has been driven by the revision of the
reliance on marine sciences-scientific knowledge Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
that has at long last matured to the point that it has Management Act, now mandating fisheries managers
become useful to marine resource managers. It to identify and protect essential fish habitat. Parallel-
should be noted, however, that protected area ing this new push for the use of protected areas in
placement, design, and operation all relate to the fisheries management regimes has been an upsurge
scope and nature of the goals being targeted-Le. the in multiple objective protected areas. Indeed, many
specific objectives the protected area is meant to of the newest marine protected areas are more
achieve. The identification of these objectives is ambitious than conventional marine protected areas,
ultimately societal, not scientific. Subsequent to the resulting in multiple use reserves that try to accom-
elaboration of specific objectives, conservation modate many different users groups, each with their
biology and other sciences can be harnessed to help own needs and objectives. Administrators are
identify what needs to be protected and in what finding different uses can indeed be fostered without
manner, leading to optimally effective marine adverse impacts on ecosystem function, as long as
protected areas. A few good examples of such well- planning is based on ecological realities, relies on
planned protected areas have now emerged around specific objectives from the outset, and balances
the world, but unfortunately this number is small established objectives (Agardy, 1993). These pro-
compared to the vast number of ill-designed "paper tected areas can provide a footing for integrated
parks" around the world. coastal management and better ocean governance

7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

overall. Whatever the scope of the protected area, habitats in a coastal area requires comprehensive
the science of conservation biology has contributed management of all its parts (Caddy and Sharp, 1986).
important theories, perspectives, and tools, many of
which await critical testing (Allison et al., 1998). The open nature of coastal and ocean areas exists as a
spectrum ranging from relatively fixed and "land-
The terms marine protected area, marine reserve, like" systems to highly dynamic and complex
closed area, harvest refugium, marine park, and systems. Coral reef ecosystems, for instance, harbor
sanctuary may cause semantic difficulty since they organisms that are largely confined in their move-
are often used interchangeably and without defini- ments to the specific habitats of reef, surrounding
tion. The spectrum in size, design, and management soft or hard benthos, and coastal wetlands. The
objectives that comprise marine protected areas is structural framework for reef systems is fixed in
vast-ranging from the small and focused harvest place and can be mapped, much like a tropical forest
refugiurn (a place where harvest of one or more provides a relatively fixed framework for the interac-
species, usually of fish or shellfish, is restricted) to tions of the forest community. The functional links
the large and ambitious sanctuary. Closed area and between the water column in reef areas and the
harvest refugiurn are sometimes synonymous, but benthos are strong, so one can treat the ocean space
closed areas can also be closed to entry in general, or together with reef structures themselves. In contrast,
can be used to restrict non-living resource extraction temperate open ocean systems such as estuarine/
such as oil and gas. Reserve is the term that most gulf /banks complexes are highly dynamic and in no
closely approximates a synonym of marine protected way "fixed." Here, living marine resources move in
area in some countries though "reserve" can refer to space and time according to physically dominated,
a particular type of protected area such as a bio- largely non-deterministic patterns. The ecology of
sphere reserve, or, as in Britain, to an area closed to the benthos is not strongly linked to that of the water
all fishing (in other words, a harvest refugium) column, and physical reference points for the system
(Gubbay, 1995). Lastly, there is that problematic term cannot easily be mapped. This wide array of system
,'marine park," which outlived its usefulness when types thus presents a challenge to conservationists
protected areas shifted away from being places of and resource managers, requiring that protected area
recreation. The term "marine protected area, " and measures be appropriate to the system in question.
only that term, encompasses all of the other terms, The random application of terrestrial models to the
and is thus the term used herein. marine environment will not result in a viable means
of protecting resources and the underlying ecology
Arguments abound about the nature of marine that gives rise to them. New paradigms are
protected areas and how they relate to conventional needed-and the newest generation of marine
land parks; the fact remains that marine protected protected areas reflects this new way of thinking.
areas do significantly differ from protected areas on
land. The greatest single factor underlying this Modem marine protected areas serve a wide variety
difference is the nebulous nature of boundaries in the of functions. However, there is no single "model"
fluid environment of the sea (Steele, 1974). It is marine protected area. The size, shape, and means of
notoriously difficult to attach boundary conditions to implementation in any single marine protected area
marine ecological processes, just as it is difficult to will be a function of the primary objectives that
bound the impacts that affect those processes. While protected area sets out to achieve. If the goal of a
this is also true for inland freshwater systems, these protected area is, for instance, the protection of a
ecosystems usually have distinct horizontal layers single vulnerable habitat type from a specific type of
and outer bounds. In essence, it is impossible to use (e.g. protection of a fringing reef system from
"fence in" living marine resources or the critical prospective shipping accidents), the resulting pro-
ecological processes that support them, just as it is tected area can be simple in both design and manage-
impossible to "fence out" the degradation of ocean ment. If, however, the conservation goal targets a
environments caused by land-based sources of wide range of habitats/ resources, the protected area
pollution, changes in hydrology, or ecological will have to be necessarily more complex. Where a
disruptions occurring in areas adjacent or linked to a functional approach is adopted, in other words
protected area. This holds true not only for open where the object of conservation is not a single stock
ocean pelagic environments but for the coastal zones of resources or a single species but the ecosystem and
as well, where functional linkages between habitats its processes, marine protected areas will tend to be
are so geographically widespread. The vastness of large and encompass many types of linked habitats
linkages between species and between critical (Lauck et al., 1998). These large, multiple-use

Rends in Managing the Environment

protected areas can be thought of as demonstrating a wide variety of user groups in relative harmony,
the concept of ecosystem-based management, where and can be a tool for dispute resolution where
the limits of protection in a geographical sense are conflicting uses clash (Reynard, 1994; Valdez-Pizzini
based on the extent to which movements of organ- 1995).
isms and physically-linked processes (Hatcher et al.,
1989; Dayton et al., 1995). The underlying ecology The human element in marine protected areas cannot
thus defines the outer boundaries for the area of be understated. The success of any protected area is
protection, or management unit. In recognizing these closely related to how well user groups and stake-
linkages, marine protected area planners can work holders are identified and brought into the planning
towards conserving ecosystem integrity, not just and management processes for the protected area.
individual resources or ecosystem structures. Marine protected areas cannot afford to be elitist, nor
can they be exclusionary-again underscoring the
Globally, marine protected areas are being desig- difference between terrestrial and marine protected
nated according to at least two major approaches: 1) areas. Wilderness is not a concept easily applied to
preservation of ocean or coastal "wilderness" areas ocean areas-nor does it provide a particularly useful
(the term wilderness is in quotation marks because perspective for marine conservation. Humans and
no part of the world's oceans, inland seas, or coast- their needs are the driving force for marine protected
lines is pristine) and 2) resolution of conflicts among area work, and humans stand most to benefit from
users (current or in the future). Most existing na- their effective implementation. The designation of a
tional marine protected area networks follow the first marine protected area can provide local communi-
strategy. For instance, Parks Canada is currently ties, decision-makers, and other stakeholders with a
designing a network of Marine National Conserva- defined arena in which to promote effective manage-
tion Areas to represent each of the 29 distinct ment-a sense of place, as it were.
ecoregions (based on large-scale biophysical units) of
Canada's Atlantic, Great Lakes, Pacific, and Arctic Table 1. Relationship between marine protected area
coasts. The long-term goal of this program is to objectives, size, and design complexity.
establish a protected area in each region. Similarly,
the federal government of Australia is developing a Specific MPA Objective Relative Size Complexity
strategy for establishing a National Representative Protecting an Endangered Small to Medium Simple
System within Australian Coastal and Marine Species
Environments. In designing such a system, site Protecting a Migratory Large (or Network) Simple to Complex
pecies
selection will be guided by representativeness, Protecting Habitat from Medium Simple
opportunity, and redundancy (meaning that the - ingle Threat
government's policy is to designate more than one Protecting Habitat from Medium to Large Complex
protected area per representative habitat type). Multiple Threats
Other national efforts are currently underway. In Preventing Overfishing Small Simple
fact, the 1995 publication of the Great Barrier Reef Enhancing Stocks Small to Medium Simple
Marine Park Authority, the World Bank, and IUCN, Protecting an Area of Historic Small Simple
which is the most comprehensive overview of or Cultural Interest
existing marine protected areas and gaps in coverage, Providing a CZM Modelor Small to Medium Somewhat Complex
strongly urges all countries to establish such repre- Empowering Local Peope
Promoting Marine Small Simple
sentative networks (Kelleher et al., 1995). Ecotourism
Providing Site(s) for Small Simple
Conflict resolution is the other major driving force Scientific Research
behind the establishment of networks or systems of Conserving Biodiversity Large (or Network) Simple to Complex
reserves or protected areas. Virtually all the world's
coasts and nearshore areas are characterized by Scientific information on biomass, dispersal patterns,
conflict between and among user groups or jurisdic- recruitment dynamics, trophic interactions, and
tional agencies, or at a minimum a serious lack of critical habitat are all needed for designing the size,
communication between these factions. Shipping shape, and management of marine protected areas.
and mineral extraction, for instance, often conflict But what is needed first and foremost, and what is
with recreational use of coastal areas. Fishing, both most often overlooked when the process of establish-
commercial and subsistence, conflicts with skin and ing a marine protected area is initiated, is informa-
scuba diving and nature-based tourism. In such tion on what the protected area is being established
cases of conflict, zoning can be used to accommodate to achieve. This goal-setting or objective elaboration

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

is critical in order to determine expectations, effec- more generally (e.g. Agardy, 1997). An ideal situa-
tively design the reserve, and have in place targets tion seems to be the establishment of harvest refugia
and benchmarks against which progress towards the within the context of a larger multiple-use protected
objectives can be measured. Thus, the most crucial area such as a coastal biosphere reserve, marine
information for protected areas is inherently societal, sanctuary, or other large-scale marine protected area.
and not scientific. Table 1 suggests how reserve
design and management can be a function of the Fishers, nations, and indeed the entire biosphere can
specific objectives that the protected area is trying to benefit from the establishment of marine protected
target. areas at all scales and in all coastal environments. As
noted above, the rationale for marine protected area
We now know that marine protected areas can be establishment is no longer lacking -but the courage
designed to help make fisheries and coastal manage- to go forward is often hard to summon. Despite
ment more effective. In the last 5 years, new, rigor- incomplete knowledge and imprecise science, steps
ous, and defensible evidence has emerged to show must be taken to establish protected areas now-and
that marine protected areas do indeed improve fish use the additional information we gain as time goes
yields while conserving biological diversity more on to alter these reserves, remove superfluous ones,
generally. These benefits have included increased and add new reserves. By clearly defining objectives
fish stock size inside the reserve as well as spillover and using science to design the best possible plans
effects in which fish populations have also increased for meeting those objectives, we can improve our
outside the reserve (Roberts, 1995). One of the most management of marine activities before the health of
cited examples of this spillover effect has been the the seas is compromised and with it the ability of
work of Russ and Alcala (1996; 1997) in the Philip- marine systems to provide us with the resources and
pines, where a small protected area in Apo Island services upon which we increasingly depend.
was shown to increase fish yields well outside the
boundaries of the reserve less than a decade after its Literature Cited
establishment. Other marine protected areas that
appear successful in helping manage fisheries Agardy, T. 1993. The Science of Conservation in the
include Kenyan refuges (McClanahan and Kaunda- Coastal Zone: New Insights on How to Design, Implement
Arara, 1996; McClanahan and Shafir, 1990); New and Monitor Marine Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland.
Zealand fishery reserves (Ballantine, 1991,1995;
McCormick and Choat, 1987); several Mediterranean Agardy, T. 1994. Advances in marine conservation:
reserves (Dugan and Davis, 1993); invertebrate the role of marine protected areas. Trends in Ecology
reserves in Chile (Castilla and Duran, 1985); coral and Evolution 9(7):267-270.
reef reserves throughout the Caribbean (Rakitin and
Kramer, 1996; Reynard, 1994; Roberts and Polunin, Agardy, T. 1997. Marine Protected Areas and Ocean
1991); Red Sea reserves (Roberts and Polunin, 1992); Conservation. R.E. Landes Press, Austin, TX
and fisheries zones in Florida (Bohnsack, 1996a,
1996b), inter alia. Allison, G., J. Lubchenco, and M. Carr. 1998. Marine
reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine
A summary of published literature and anecdotal conservation. Ecological Appications 8(1) supplement:
information shows that marine protected areas have S79-S92.
yielded the following quantifiable benefits
(Ruckelhaus, in Florida Forum Report #1, 1997): 1) Ballantine, W. 1991. Marine reserves for New
increase in abundance of reef fish and invertebrates; Zealand. Leigh Laboratory Bulletin 25.
2)increase in individual size/age; 3) increase in
reproductive output; 4) increase in species diversity; Ballantine, W. 1995. The practicality and benefits of a
5) increase in spillover; 6) increase in replenishment; marine reserve network. In: Gimbel, K. (ed.), Limited
7) increase in preservation of genetic and demo- Access to Marine Fisheries: Keeping the Focus on Conser-
graphic diversity; and 8) increase in habitat quality vation. World Wildlife Federation, Washington, DC.
and diversity. All of these factors increase the pp. 205-223.
potential for fisheries production and yields (Roberts
and Polunin, 1993). There are even more examples of Bohnsack, J. 1996a. Marine reserves, zoning, and the
successful marine protected areas that have enhanced future of fishery management. Fisheries 21(9):14-16.
fish stocks through broader conservation measures
aimed at protecting habitat and biological diversity

Rends, in Managing the Environment

Bohnsack, J. 1996b. Maintenance and recovery of reef Reynard, Y. 1994. Resolving conflicts for integrated
fishery productivity. In: Polunin, N. and Roberts, C. coastal management: the case of Soufriere, St. Lucia.
(eds.), Reef Fisheries. Chapman & Hall, London. Ch. Caribbean Parks and Protected Areas Bulletin 5(2):5-7.
11.
Roberts, C. 1995. Rapid build-up of fish biomass in a
Caddy, J. and G. Sharp. 1986. An Ecological Framework Caribbean marine reserve. Conservation Biology 9(4):
for Marine Fishery Investigations. FAO Fisheries 815-826.
Technical Paper 382.
Roberts, C. 1997. Connectivity and the design of marine
Castilla, J. and L. Duran. 1985. Human exclusion reserve networks. Presented at the symposium "Ma-
from the rocky intertidal zone of Central Chile: the rine Conservation Biology: Application to Protected
effects of Concholepas concholepa (Gastropoda). Areas," Society of Conservation Biology Annual
Oikos 45:391-399. Meeting, June 1997, Victoria.

Dayton, P., S. Thrush, T. Agardy and R. Hofman. Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1991. Are marine re-
1995. Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquatic serves effective in management of reef fisheries?
Conservation of Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 5:1- Review of Fisheries Biology, Fisheries 1:65-91.
28.
Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1992. Effects of marine
Dugan, J. and G. Davis. 1993. Applications of marine reserve protection on Northern Red Seafish populations.
refugia to coastal fisheries management. Canadian Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 50:2029-2042. Symposium, Vol. 2:969-977.

Florida Forum Report #1. 1997. Marine reserves and Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1993. Marine reserves:
special management areas. Florida Institute of Oceanog- simple solutions to managing complex fisheries?
raphy, Jacksonville, FL. Ambio 222(6):363-368.

Gubbay, S. (ed.). 1995. Marine Protected Areas: Prin- Russ, G. and A. Alcala. 1996. Marine reserves: Rates
ciples and Techniquesfor Management. Chapman and and patterns of recovery and decline of large preda-
Hall, London, UK. tory fish. Ecolical Applications 6(3): 947-961.

Hatcher, B., R. Johannes, and A. Robinson. 1989. Russ, G. and A. Alcala. 1997. Do marine reserves export
Review of the research relevant to the conservation of adultfish biomass? Evidencefrom Apo Island, Central
shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanography Philippines. MEP,
and Marine Biology 27:337-414.
Steele, J. 1974. The Structure of Marine Ecosystems.
Kelleher, G., C. Bleakley and S. Wells. 1995. A Global Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA.
Representative System of Marine Protected Areas.
Publication of The World Bank. Valdes-Pizzini, M. 1995. La Parguera marine fishery
reserve: involving the fishing community in planning
Lauck, T., C. Clark, M. Mangel and G. Munro. 1998. a marine protected area. Caribbean Parks and Protected
Implementing the precautionary principle in fisheries Areas Bulletin 5 (2):2-3.
management through marine reserves. Ecological
Applications 8(1) supplement: S72-S78.

McClanahan, T. and B. Kaunda-Arara. 1996. Fishery
recovery in a coral-reef marine park and its effect on
the adjacent fishery. Conservation Biology 10:1187-1199.

McClanahan, T. and S. Shafir. 1990. Causes and
consequences of sea urchin abundance and diversity
in Kenyan coral reef lagoons. Oecologia 83:362-370.

Ratkitin, A. and D. Kramer. 1996. Effect of a marine
reserve on the distribution of coral reef fishes in
Barbados. Marine Ecology Progress Series 131:97-113.

3. Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

Panel Threefocused on recent trends in coastal and ocean industries and the responses to these
trends. One key trend has been an increase in the size of ships involved in the rapidly growing
maritime industry. Another trend has been the exploration and development of oil and natural gas
from deeper waters in coastal and ocean areas. Overfishing is yet another important development in
coastal areas during the past 25 years. As coastal industries grow and expand, an assessment of the
economic importance of coastal areas is also required, including the importance of beach and boating
activities. Recent trends in marine aquaculture show that it has the potential to become a major
growth industry in the United States. However, the industry is still very young, and is constrained
by legal and regulatory concerns. The marine environment is also a rich source of unique chemical
compounds with the potentialfor industrial development as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional
supplements, molecular probes, enzymes,fine chemicals, and agrichemicals.

Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure Implications
Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.

Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and Future Challenges
Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.

Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry
Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations

Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's Coastal Regions
Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition

A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States
Rick Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners Association of the United States (BOATIUS)

Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and Future Policy and Management
Challenges
M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium

Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
Legal and Regulatory Concerns
Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
*University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware

The Potential for the Marine Biotechnology Industry
Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

CHANGING SHIP TECHNOLOGY AND PORT
INFRASTRUCTURE IMPLICATIONS

Rod Vulovic
Sea-Land Service, Inc.

The Changing Face of World Trade The importance of this to the people of the world is
that fully 90 percent of international trade is carried
An anonymous seer once stated that world trade is by sea. To and from the United States alone, the
the engine that drives civilization. How right he yearly waterborne foreign trade amounts to over 1
was! The closing 100 years of the second millennium billion tons, having a value of more than $ 625
have seen world trade grow astonishingly. billion. Tankers, bulk
With this growth, not only have trade carriers, container
patterns and the types of cargoes changed ships, and other
radically, but the ships that carry the goods ... fully 90 percent of vessels all share the
have changed almost beyond recognition. enormous tonnage,
international trade is
Today's cargo-handling methods bear not using the same
the slightest resemblance to what had been carried by sea. waterways, the same
there before. The key to the change? navigational aids, the
Containerization, intermodalism and same ports.
globalization-interlocked concepts that are much
more than fashionable epithets. Of the port users, the container vessel is the most
time-sensitive. High value cargoes demand expe-
Before the advent of the container, world trade was a dited handling, which requires coordinated actions
piecemeal undertaking, with the land and sea by ship operators, port authorities, landside trans-
segments accomplished in isolation, with little port organizations, and regulatory and support
coordination between the various independent agencies. Nearly 15 million TEU of container cargo is
operations. The shipowner accepted the cargo when handled through American ports per year, over half
it arrived at the pier. Shipper and recipient alike did of which moves through the five largest ports. The
not expect, nor could they even envision' so-called mandate of the American people to keep this cargo
"just-in-time" service. That luxury was simply not flowing is clear.
available, and the en-route delays, which were a part
of the transport system, were an unavoidable part of Trade and its Effect upon Ship Size
doing business internationally.
In addition to the radical change in the way cargo is
All of this has changed. Sea-Land's initial voyages handled, there is another evolutionary force that has
over 40 years ago proved the feasibility of container significantly affected international trade over the past
transport, revolutionizing the movement of goods by five decades since the end of World War 11. World
allowing the land and sea portions to function as a trade has escalated as the population of the world
system. Within these four decades, this technological has risen.
and commercial breakthrough has resulted in the
near demise throughout the world of the break-bulk The net effect of the market forces has been to
ship, in which cargo was stowed virtually by hand, a challenge technology in the development of increas-
practice which had existed almost without change for ingly economic methods of moving cargo. In respect
hundreds of years. to this, engineers have responded by devising
entirely new vessel types and expanding the frontiers
Today's container ship is the linch-pin of cargo of deadweight tonnage and speed. The result has
transportation, but it is only a part of the total system been an ocean transportation system, that is able to
which includes sophisticated shoreside terminals, carry the vastly increased amount of cargo swiftly
intermodal extensions to inland points by rail and and safely.
highway, and automated information systems that
track a shipment throughout its journey. The pioneering container ships could carry only 59
containers having a length of 35 feet and stacked
two-high on deck. Once this seemingly radical idea

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

of carrying boxes by ship had been proven suffi- ity. For such a ship to become a viable reality may
ciently in the coastwise trade, the first true container require a complete rethinking of the way containers
ships, having cellular holds into which containers are handled to- and from the ship as well as to and
were loaded by cranes came into being. from-and within
Their capacity was around 200 TEU -the
the shoreside
terminals.
designation "TEU" (for twenty-foot '700TEU&6'
dZ
equivalent units) being the standard
measure of capacity adopted by the Although the
ship may be
industry. r, wh
technologically
@@l feet (347,
Through the 1960s and 1970s vessel feasible, there
n,
capacity grew, individually and collec- gth-alh)ost must be a level of
tively, as European and Far Eastern ship trade sufficient to
,M#e; or,' e
,F@
operators, following the lead of their ""Pol pull "nearl. support such a
Y
American counterparts, realized that the vessel. Of equal
0 fib '6nd
container revolution had indeed taken fo or greater impor-
&
place. During the latter part of this '*,Vhd@sd b6om of 46 re
Vt tance, there must
period, container ships of around 2000 to Meters). be shoreside
2500 TEU were becoming more prevalent
facilities to match
on the major trade routes. Size gradually "a, its capacity. The
crept upwards over the next 10or 15 years major problem is
as did the quantity of trade in container cargo. In the the need to minimize port time (There is a truism that
late 1980s the 4000 TEU barrier in ship size had been a transportation asset, whether ship, aircraft, rail car,
crossed. The next phase, the age of the mega- or truck must be in motion to assure its economic
container ship, came rapidly once that point had survival) In addition, and of great importance, the
been reached. harbor waters, berths, and approach channels must
be of sufficient depth and the berths themselves must
The Mega-Container Ship is Unveiled be large enough and properly equipped to handle the
larger (longer, wider, and deeper) vessel.
The definition of the mega-container ship has
changed in lock step with the construction of larger In the case of this mega-container ship, the terminal
and larger vessels. in the mid-1980s, when United must have sufficient area to accommodate the larger
States Lines built its "Jumbo Econ" container ships number of boxes that will accumulate before the ship
(now owned by Sea-Land as its Atlantic Class), their arrives and as she is being discharged and loaded;
4354-TEU capacity was classified in the 'mega" crane capacity (in terms of both the number of cranes
region. Today, "mega-container ship" describes only and their cycle time) must be sufficient to minimize
those vessels having a capacity in excess of 6000 TEV port stays; and, needless to say, the requirements for
and the definition changes as each new generation of sufficient water depth and appropriate vessel berths
vessels is delivered. must be considered.

Around 7700 TEU are carried on today's mega- We believe that we have not seen the practicable
carrier, which is about 1138 feet (347 meters) in upper limit of container ship size in the 7000-TEU
length-almost a quarter mile, or, in the popular plus vessels now in existence. An eventual ceiling
idiom, nearly "four football fields"- and has a beam might be found around the 10,000 to 12,000 TEU
of 140 feet (42.8 meters). The container stack is 17 level. Market forces will continue to influence the
wide. evolution of the system as long as it moves in a way
that continues to provide improvements in cost,
Future Trends in Ship Size reliability@ and speed and customer satisfaction.

For several years, designs have been available for The Question of Water Depth
vessels with capacities of up to about 8700 TEU. The
Ids
I

design and construction of such vessels is well within One aspect of the mega-container ship, that must be
the state of the art. In fact, a consensus among faced by ship operators and port authorities alike is
shipbuilders and ship operators is that a container the water depth required to permit these vessels to
ship able to load 15,000 TEU may well be a possibil- operate efficiently. In the Far East and Europe, the

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

problem of water depth is not a serious one at most What Is Intermodalism?
major ports, and where controlling depths are
marginally satisfactory, steps are taken to ensure that The term intermodalism is heard with increasing
a safe environment is available for the ships serving frequency in the 1990s, but the concept has been a
the ports concerned. Under-keel clearance of not less driving force in container transportation since the
than one meter (slightly more than Y-Y) is available, beginning. Intermodalism may be defined as the
at any state of the tide. ability of a transportation system to move freight
from source to destination over a number of modes
A 50-foot deep channel would accommodate nearly without intercession by shipper or consignee. In
all container ships now in existence. As ship capacity other words, a container may originate in an inland
increases to 8000 and 10,000 TEU, the required water point in the United States, travel over road and rail to
depth will not increase proportionally. This is due to a port, then by ship to a port, perhaps on another
other changes in the configuration of the vessels. For continent, and thence by rail and road to the final
example, they will be wider-up to 22 containers from destination, all without touching the cargo within the
the current maximum of 17 and they will be longer. container.

The question of how to achieve sufficient water The concept is simple, its execution, difficult. The
depth is a vexing one for many U. S. ports, particu- container must move swiftly and connect at each
larly on the East Coast. There must be found a way modal change point speedily, but of even greater
around the fiscal, environmental, and other road- importance is for the transportation company to
blocks that are thrown in the way of port progress. assure that the sometimes complex and burdensome
To do otherwise is to steer the nation irrevocably paperwork which follows the box is processed with
towards second-class statehood. dispatch. This is of importance with any domestic
shipment involving road and rail modes only, but the
Environmental Impact of the Mega-Carrier value of true intermodalism is tested in international
shipments, where customs documentation adds
Much has been said of the economic superiority of another layer to the complexity of the process.
the mega-container carrier in terms of cost of trans-
portation per TEU-mile. The mega-carrier also For intermodalism to have existed in the former
displays an increasingly important characteristic regulatory climate in the United States was nearly
which may directly affect air quality. In an opera- impossible. Dating back to the mindset of the
tional environment in which the contribution to "robber baron" days of the late 19th Century, it was
atmospheric pollution by marine sources is coming not possible under law for a transportation company
under closer scrutiny (even though the total release to operate in more that one mode. For this reason,
of exhaust gases from all marine sources accounts for when the Founder of Sea-Land Service, Malcolm
a small percentage of the worldwide total release), McLean, started his marine container business, he
the operation of a mega-carrier will result in, a was forced to divest himself of his extensive trucking
measurably lower release of pollutant gases than interests, which, of course, could have formed an
from an equivalent transportation capacity in smaller important part of an early intermodal system.
ships.
This and similar cases are typical examples of
Given the much improved fuel efficiency of modern existing regulatory processes being unable to recog-
ships, the relatively small contribution to air pollu- nize and adjust to innovative change and, more
tion from marine sources, and the continuing re- importantly, not being able to ameliorate the legisla-
search to improve engine performance, we believe tive morass that is encountered when innovative
that the shipowner is doing his part to keep the change is encountered.
spectre of fouled air under reasonable control.
Seamless Transport Ashore and Afloat: The
In the other significant marine environmental Intermodal Pipeline
concern-the discharge of oil into navigable waters-a
continuing effort by all players is resulting in mea- An intermodal cargo transportation system between
surable improvement. continents may be likened to a pipeline. To run at
peak efficiency with maximum throughput, the
pipeline must offer minimum resistance to flow. This
is accomplished by utilizing proven design and

7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

construction practices. It must also be free of operat- The Ideal Container Port
ing constrictions such as partially closed valves.
Commercial waterside land is increasingly under
In the intermodal case, the features designed into the pressure as the beautifters of the world lay claim to
system include ships of a size, seakeeping ability, and more and more of this valuable commodity through
speed properly considered for reliable operation, gentrification, preservation, zoning changes, designa-
logically located ports; efficient rail and highway tion as wildlife areas, and other artifices. Elsewhere
transport; and efficient and unobtrusive regulatory in the world, land reclamation has been used with
formalities. In the ideal operation of such a system, great success to provide port acreage. In this country,
the cargo will flow into the source location and be such an approach would likely be greeted with
carried to the final destination through several dismay, anger, and no small measure of "not in my
changes of mode (e.g., truck to rail to ship to rail to backyard" attitude.
truck) as if, in a manner of speaking, all valves were
fully open. Where, then, can and should a port be located?
Ideally, the time-sensitive nature of container-based
But in actual operation, the intermodal pipeline is liner services, where departures are regulated by the
susceptible to the partial closing of too many valves, clock, calls for the landside terminal to be as close to
at least one of which may be present-and poised all the open sea as possible, but with easy connections to
too ready to close-at each change of mode. What the rail and highway portions of the system. The
valves are likely to close? container port need not be in the middle of a metro-
politan area as was the case in the 19th Century, but
� The first valve is accessibility of the port from the it should not be too far distant from significant local
open sea. Can the port terminals be reached markets.
without the need for a long inland passage by the
ship? Finally, the container port should have its own
support infrastructure, should be distant from
� Next, is the port appropriately located for residential areas (but not so far away as to create
transfer of cargo to the rail or highway mode? manning difficulties), and should not result in
Do these connections have easy access to remote unduly great competition with other vessel types for
destinations? Is there a significant local market? access channels, anchorage, and support facilities.
Is there a ready source of personnel to man the
terminals? The Protection of Local Waters Through Ballast
Water Exchange
� Of significant concern is the question of terminal
expandability. Can this be accomplished, consid- An increasingly important problem in ship operation
ering the probable expansion of world trade in is the possibility of introducing foreign animal
the future? species into an area in ballast water, that has been
carried from another part of the world and dis-
� Has the port sufficient water depth, in channels charged. This was first noted on the Great Lakes
and alongside the berths, to permit the safe and with the zebra mussel, but other species have ap-
efficient movement of the largest ships which are peared in various locations around the world.
likely to enter the port? What are the prospects
for future increases in water depth? Of much A number of solutions have been proposed, all of
greater importance, can the ship operator be which have positive and negative features. One of
assured that the water depths can and will be the most promising is ballast water exchange, in
maintained over the long term? which water taken aboard in one port is discharged
into the open sea and replaced with deep-ocean
� Is there sufficient length of berthing area fitted water as the ship proceeds to her destination. The
with container cranes to accommodate the key to the success of this practice is to ensure that the
perceived normal maximum throughput without safety of the vessel in terms of stability is not com-
causing an inordinately long queue of vessels promised at any time during the transfer.
waiting to berth?
Other ideas include chemical treatment aboard the
Is all necessary documentation and information vessel and the discharge of ballast into holding tanks
existing, accurate, and available when needed? ashore, both of which appear to have significantly

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

greater operational challenges. The former would Regular maintenance dredging must be carried out
require additional equipment and an additional task as necessary. We hear too frequently of areas, that
aboard the ship and the latter a complex shoreside have become shoaled in the wake of competition for
installation. the appropriation of funds. This problem must be
removed from the political arena.
The problem of rogue species is solveable, but the
implementation of a workable way to avoid the The charting of waters throughout the port and its
problem will take dedication on the part of all parties approaches must be undertaken with unfailing
concerned. accuracy. Again, we hear the shipmaster's horror
stories about uncharted obstacles, obsolete charts,
Competition within the Port and similar impediments to safe navigation. The
advent of electronic chart displays makes the prob-
Competition within a port between various types of lem of keeping up-to-date charts a simpler one,
vessels must be given consideration, particularly provided that the argumentative discussion of
when the mega-ship is a regular visitor. We have electronic chart standards is solved.
dwelled above on the mega-container ship, but there
are other vessels, in the "mega" category, and some The litany of concerns about in-port menaces to
of these do compete within American ports. navigation includes a variety of hazards, typical of
which are the following:
The original mega-ships-tankers and bulk carriers
above 250,000 dead weight tons (ships which have a * Competition with other vessel traffic on a
length of more than a 1,000 feet and a beam of 140 crowded waterway.
feet or more-are not a factor in the United States, but
a proliferation of mega-cruise ships is being seen in 0 Narrow and/or tortuous waterways.
American waters, primarily in the Southeastern ports
which serve the Caribbean region. Some of these 0 Channels with insufficient water depth.
vessels approach the largest of the tankers and bulk
carriers in physical size. 0 Extreme tidal variations or local current prob-
lems.
Not to be forgotten are the smaller ships which
traverse the waters of many ports, including recre- 0 En route physical hazards on the surface, such as
ational and fishing vessels, towboats, and flotillas of the presence of bridges.
barges, ferries and other vessels which must also use
these waterway. The question of competition is not 0 En route submerged man-made hazards, such as
so much one of priority as of having a common right the presence of pipelines or underwater cables.
of way, much as exists on the landside highway
system. 0 Limited overhead clearance (air draft).

A Plea for Safe Navigation 0 Local regulations prohibiting night arrivals and
departures.
From the shipowner's viewpoint, the safe operation
of a container port is built around three issues: an 0 Frequent weather-related delays caused by fog or
efficient vessel traffic control system, regular mainte- ice.
nance dredging of berths and channels as the need
arises, and unfailing accuracy in the charting of all Some of these hazards are to be found in every port.
waters from the open sea to the berth. Some ports have more than their fair share. The
Houston Ship Channel and the lower Mississippi
Vessel traffic control schemes are expensive and River, for example, offer challenges to any ship
require continuing dedication on the part of the visiting the ports at those waterways' ends.
system operators. Not only should the marine
community take a cue from the air traffic control Although not directly a part of the port challenges,
system, but the marine system itself should be a free- another concern relating to navigation is the question
standing operation in which the persons who man a of protection of marine marnmals. The maritime
local system should be marine professionals inti- community is keenly aware of the importance of this
mately familiar with the area's needs and not subject issue and will, I am sure, continue to monitor these
to periodic replacement. environmental concerns.

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

The Port: Commonweal or Private Preserve?

A port serves much more than the ships that call
there or population that inhabits the local area. Even
those persons who will never smell saltwater-from
the hard rock miner in Vanadium, New Mexico, to
the general store owner in Ida Grove, Iowa, to the
black dirt farmer in Issaquena County, Mississippi-
are direct beneficiaries of the international trade
which passes through any port. In actual fact are
they and nearly 275 million others not the real
owners of the American port system?

The provision and maintenance of facilities for the
common carriage of freight has long been a responsi-
bility of government. Although it is realized that the
user has his own responsibility in respect to this-his
own terminal and facilities, whether owned or
leased, for example-the fact remains that, because the
port itself is there for the commonweal, an equitable
method of public funding on behalf of the real
owners must be considered.

Those persons in New Mexico and Iowa and Missis-
sippi are the owners of the national parks, the
monuments and activities in our nation's capital, and
untold other aspects of life, and they benefit in an
intangible way from all of these. They, too, benefit
from the ports in a much more discernable manner.

Concluding Remarks: The Challenge

The challenges facing the shipowner and the port
operator are certainly real. For the nation to ignore
the needs of the ports in this increasingly competi-
tive, globally oriented world of commerce equates, as
I mentioned earlier, to the acceptance of second-class
statehood.

We sincerely believe that with a continuing dialogue
among the port users, the operating authorities, the
support and regulatory organizations (be they local,
state or federal-such as customs authorities, pilots,
police and public safety groups), and government,
solutions will be found to the problems and the
challenges that confront us. The road ahead may
present a difficult journey, but the goal of building a
cargo pipline, with fully open valves, will be reached.

My closing thoughts turn to a parable totally unre-
lated to maritime commerce: the metric system. The
United States is one of three nations, which, after
nearly a century of domestic debate, does not use
metric measurements. The others are Liberia and
Myanmar. Question: Is this where we belong?

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

DEEPWATER OFFSHORE OIL DEVELOPMENT: OPPORTUNITIES
AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

Paul L. Kelly
Rowan Companies, Inc.

introduction feet of water, which would have been unimaginable a
generation ago. Exploration wells have been drilled
As we move into the next millennium, a larger in almost 8,000 feet of water and 10,000 feet seems
percentage of oil and natural gas will come from the within reach. There are at least 8 known fields at
oceans. The United States has a significant opportu- depths exceeding 1,500 feet of water with I billion
nity to influence the future course of events from barrels or more of oil in place. These are located
both a private sector and government perspective offshore 5 countries- the United States, Brazil,
and guarantee that Nigeria, Cabinda, and Angola. In all,
there will be secure there have been 52 deepwater discoveries
access to this Petroleum production in the U.S. Gulf, 20 offshore Brazil, and 17
important source of offshore West Africa, for a combined total
energy in the years from offshore federal of almost 23 billion barrels of oil equiva-
ahead. lands currently ac- lent. Much of this technology can be used
counts for 20 percent in other ocean exploration endeavors and
Extraction of of our oil production in scientific research, as well as in non-
petroleum resources ocean fields such as communications and
from beneath the and 27 percent of medicine.
seabed is a major domestic natural gas
maritime activity in production. Subsalt Plays
the Gulf of Mexico,
offshore southern ------ The same 3D seismic technology that has
California, and in enabled oil and gas explorers to look into
some regions of Alaska. Petroleum production from ever-deeper water at deeper geological targets has
offshore federal lands currently accounts for 20 also enabled improvement in subsalt imaging in the
percent of our oil production and 27 percent of Gulf of Mexico. Approximately 60 percent of the
domestic natural gas production. The offshore oil ocean floor in the Gulf contains salt structures
and gas industry, including the support services beneath it which, until the advent of this new tech-
sector, provides Americans with approximately nology, kept us from seeing potential hydrocarbon-
85,000 well-paying jobs, a number which bearing structures
is likely to more than double in the next below them. The
two decades. Oil production in the Gulf subsalt play in the
of Mexico, where there is a high level of Oil production ln@ the, i Gulf holds excellent
industry interest and activity in waters Gulf of 'Mexico, where potential for signifi-
as deep as 8,000 to 10,000 feet, is ex- cant new finds and
there Is a high le' I of
pected to double by the year 2002. perhaps a number of
Revenues from OCS oil and gas develop- industry interest, and giant fields. Only 44
ment generate an average of $3-4 billion activity In waters as' wildcat wells have
a year in federal receipts and help fund deep as 8, 000 to 10, WO been drilled in the
the Land and Water Conservation Fund subsalt compared to
fedt- 1@ e@xpect6d,6 1, ,-
and the National Historic Preservation more than 600
Fund. double by the wildcats in the Gulf's
Year
I- 2002.@' deepwater.
Deepwater Successes Anadarko
Petroleum's discov-
Offshore petroleum production is a major technologi- eries last year at Tanzanite and Hickory represent
cal triumph. New exploration, drilling, and produc- important new oil and gas discoveries in the shal-
tion-related technologies have brought about world- lower waters of the Gulf, and similar potential
record complex industrial projects in 3,000 to 5,000 discoveries lie in deeper water.

7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Safety and the Environment some flexibility to deal with changing international
conditions or evolving domestic conditions and
Advances in technology and pacesetting safety attitudes.
management systems have also contributed to an
improved Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) safety and Global Leadership
environmental record. Over the past 20 years, less
than 0.001 percent of the oil produced from the OCS As exploration of the ocean for hydrocarbons
has been spilled from production facilities. There has globalizes, the U.S. private sector and goverm-nent
not been a spill larger than 1,000 barrels from oil and have an unparalleled opportunity to lead the world
gas platforms on the Outer Continental Shelf since in terms of management, technology, and our ability
1980; in fact, natural seeps introduce approximately to demonstrate how to extract these resources in an
100 times more oil into U.S. marine waters than do environmentally sound manner for the benefit of all
spills from offshore development and production mankind.
activities. Today industry, the Department of the
Interior's Minerals Management Service, and the U.S. Benefits of Offshore Oil Technologyfor Other Ocean
Coast Guard are working in partnership to raise the Research and Activities
bar for environmental and safety performance even
higher. In 1998, we experienced a mini-boom in state-of-the-
art mobile offshore drilling rig construction. Rigs
Moving beyond Conflict to Consensus; Extension of delivered last year cost around $1.2 billion; rigs on
Moratoria Premature order or planned will cost their owners at least an
additional $12 billion, an average cost of $205
Under the past two administrations, the Minerals million per unit. New construction will peak in 1999
Management Service (MMS) in the Department of at 34 deliveries, then taper off to almost nothing as
the Interior has committed itself to resolve conflicts rig demand reacts to continuing low oil prices.
raised in connection with OCS oil and gas develop- Research done for such facilities on subjects such as
ment and build a consensus among stakeholders as composite materials, synthetic mooring lines, and
to where, when, and how activities should proceed. other topics targeted at reducing the weight of
A parallel theme has been science-based decision- materials in deep water should benefit many sectors
making. This approach is being used in the current in the marine environment. An industry /government
1997-2002 five-year OCS leasing program, and our coalition known as "Deep Star" has spent more than
coastal state administrations seem to be much more $6 million in research on deepwater technology
satisfied with the degree of communication and challenges in the last few years.
consideration that now exists between the federal
government and the states regarding OCS oil and gas Parallel developments have occurred in the offshore
policy. For this reason, I believe it was premature for service vessel fleet, where new deep-draft, very large,
President Clinton last June, at the National Ocean high-horsepower anchor handling/tug /supply
Conference held in Monterey California, to extend vessels have evolved to move these large new
OCS moratoria beyond 2000. We should have let sophisticated drilling rigs, handle their anchors,
these consensus-building policies work and evalu- chain and mooring lines, and meet all kinds of
ated their success before extending moratoria further. service demands of the new generation of deepwater
. rigs and production platforms.
Another consideration is the incredible advances in
drilling technology made over the past decade, As stated recently in a report of the National Re-
which make the extraction of oil and natural gas search CounciV "ocean observations have always
from the ocean much safer from an environmental been the driver of new knowledge and predictive
standpoint and much less intrusive physically. A capabilities in the ocean and its basins. Ocean drilling
number of the areas in moratoria contain important has produced sediment cores that provide our best
reserves of natural gas, which cannot be spilled and long-term records of natural climate fluctuations.
is more and more the fuel of choice. Moreover, Submersible observations (both piloted and robotic)
despite current appearances, the world will have a opened our eyes to hydrothermal vents and the
difficult enough time as it is supplying the energy unique life forms that surround them." Many of the
needs of the 7 billion citizens who will inhabit our technological improvements enabling us to make
planet by 2010-at least a billion more than there are these observations are driven by the needs of oil and
today, another China. We need to leave ourselves gas explorers in the ocean. Certainly this is the case

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

with drilling, submersible vessels, and robotics. from two or more producing zones at a single
Much of our knowledge of seabed geology and facilities measurement point. This provides technical
geomorphology is directly owing to the offshore oil and regulatory challenges for the industry and the
and gas industry. Just last month, a Louisiana-based MMS as they meet their respective responsibilities to
company announced the development of a new produce and measure production.
process that gives a clearer picture of the ocean floor
for better planning of drilling and construction. A Deeper and colder waters create real and expensive
new scanning sonar system collects seafloor features problems with hydrates, paraffin, and solids build-
data in conjunction with proprietary image enhance- up, so much research is being done to enhance flow
ment and analyzes software. The combination gives assurance with solutions such as new types of
greater definition and resolution of seafloor features insulation materials and coiled tubing. At the same
and hazards. Today in Houston we have a large- time, the depths of some of the wells themselves
screen, interactive visualization center which allows have brought us to new pressure and temperature
engineers and earth scientists to course through 3D (excess of 200'C) frontiers that have to be dealt with.
volumes of subsurface data worldwide. Also, compa-
nies are discussing the possibility of making avail- Multilateral completions are driving the need for
able to the scientific community video film taken by more sophisticated downhole production systems.
various petroleum companies around wellheads in
ultra-deep water for purposes of examining the For the geophysical industry, ever deeper water,
marine ecosystem at these depths and identifying deeper geophysical targets, the need to get the
organisms not previously seen. As all these examples appropriate velocity field below salt and other
indicate, there is much potential for acquiring complex frontier stratigraphy present far greater
knowledge about the ocean environment through challenges to accurate acquisition of 3D seismic data
more joint efforts among industry, government, than do normal depths and geology. The technologi-
universities, and the scientific community at large. cal cutting edge that is reducing these obstacles to
Today, scientists are using offshore rigs and plat- accurate surveys is proving to be the towing of
forms to study everything from marine organisms, longer cables on multi-streamer programs.
physical oceanography, and meteorological data to
bird migration. The day is approaching when aban- Deeper geological targets may require streamer
doned offshore oil and gas platforms will be used for lengths between 4,000 and 6,000 meters or more,
aquaculture projects. A converted offshore drilling rather than the standard lengths up to 3,600 meters.
rig is preparing to leave Russia for Long Beach, When four to eight streamers of the longer lengths
California, where it will be stationed to begin its new are towed over large areas it can be a challenge to
life as a privately owned commercial offshore rocket deploy them and maintain their positions.
launch platform. Seventeen satellite launches are
already contracted. Opportunities for the use of this These examples should give you some idea of the
technology are diverse and just abound! challenges deepwater operators are dealing with
every day.
Challenges Ahead
Law of the Sea Treaty
Before the potential of the deep water can be fully
unlocked, there are a variety of economic, technologi- In closing, I want to make one more point that, as
cal, environmental, and regulatory challenges to be petroleum exploration moves into deeper and deeper
overcome. waters, it is important that the United States become
a party to the Law of the Sea Treaty this would assure
Costs reduction is a very important factor, particu- the United States of a minimum of 200 nautical miles
larly in the low oil price environment we are experi- of OCS jurisdiction and establish rules and proce-
encing currently. One of the biggest challenges is the dures for delineating the outer limits of the geologi-
addition of a drilling function to a floafing produc- cal continental shelf, which in some areas extends
tion, storage, and offloading system (FPSO) so as to considerably farther. That component of the Treaty
have minimum reliance on shore-based facilities. which protects the right of both commercial and
MMS is currently studying FPSOs for application in military ships and aircraft to move freely through
the deepwater Gulf of Mexico along with industry. and over straits used for international navigation, to
Another means of reducing costs is to operate engage in "innocent passage" through States' territo-
through a "hub system" which handles production rial seas, and to enjoy high seas freedom of passage

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

through exclusive economic zones, also is important
to U.S. energy security as our sources of petroleum
globalize and diversify in the years ahead and we
become even more dependent on secure ocean
transportation.

There presently exist about 200 undemarcated claims
in the world with 30 to 40 actively in dispute. There
are 24 island disputes. The end of the Cold War and
global expansion of free market economies have
created new incentives to resolve these disputes,
particularly with regard to offshore oil and gas
exploration. During the first 6 months of 1997, alone
172 licenses, leases or other contracts for exploration
rights were granted in a variety of nations outside
the United States. These countries are eager to
determine whether or not hydrocarbons are present
in their continental shelves, and disputes over
maritime boundaries are obstacles to states and
business organizations. We have two such cases here
in North America, where bilateral efforts are under-
way to resolve the maritime boundaries between the
United States. and Mexico in the Gulf of Mexico and
between the United States. and Canada in the
Beaufort Sea. Both of these initiatives have been
driven by promising new petroleum discoveries in
the regions. As I understand it, the Canadians do not
seem to be in a hurry to resolve that boundary line.
On the other hand, negotiations with Mexico are
expected to resume in the spring of this year, after the
Mexicans complete some geological analyses and
technical research now underway.

The Law of the Sea Convention provides stability
and recognized international authority, standards,
and procedures for use in areas of potential bound-
ary dispute as well as an additional forum for
dealing.with such disputes and other issues.

Notes

1 Opportunities in Ocean Sciences: Challenges on the
Horizon, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on
Geosciences, Environment and Resources, National
Research Council.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

CHALLENGES FACING THE U.S. COMMERCIAL FISHING INDUSTRY

Pietro Parravano
Paci c Coast Federation on Fishermen's Associations

The Fishery Conservation & Management Act of which to make management decisions. Too little
1976 (HR 200). now referred to as the Magnuson- emphasis was given research to determine what
Stevens Act, was the most significant piece of level of exploitation (elect size and capability) the
fisheries legislation passed in this century. It various fish stocks within the EEZ could sustain.
established,- a) U.S. control of fisheries in waters Indeed, there was even reliance on some of the
offshore the nation out to 200 miles in a Fishery self-serving research done by the foreign fleets
Conservation Zone (FCZ) (later incorporated by that had operated in the EEZ.
President Reagan into the U.S. Exclusive Eco-
nomic Zone (EEZ)) - b) U.S. policy to "American- The "Americanization" policy was one of "bigger
ize" the U.S. fishery with a phase-out of foreign is better" that promoted the construction (or
fishing offshore the U.S. and the development of reconstruction) of large trawlers, factory trawler/
a domestic fleet fully capable of harvesting the processors, and large longlining vessels (mostly
fishery resources of the EEZ; and c) federal all of 25 meters in length or greater) through
management of U.S. fisheries in the EEZ through programs of tax deferrals (Capital Construction
eight regional fishery management councils and Fund) and loan guarantees- Commerce also
the Department of Commerce- promoted management measures allocating huge
chunks of the catch to the large trawl and factory
The Fishery Conservation & Management Act trawl operators (in some instances Commerce
did contain language to "prevent overfishing," to overruled its regional council recommendations
manage fisheries for "optimum yield" -imply- in order to allocate more quota to the large
ing sustainable fisheries, and "managing fisher- operators).
ies throughout their range" -implying, at least
in the case of anadromous fish that some consid- The "Americanization" policy as carried out by
eration would be given of the habitat factors Commerce gave short shrift to the smaller fishing
affecting those stocks. This language was not vessel operators the more traditional fisheries,
explicit enough, and various regional councils and the "family fishing" vessel owner-operators.
and Commerce subsequently allowed overfish- Little, if any, financial assistance was provided
ing, did not manage for sustainability, and these fleets (as opposed to the large trawl and
turned a deaf ear on pleas to speak out against longline operators) even to improve safety or
the dam operations, water diversions and long product quality. At the management level, the
that were decimating west coast salmon stocks. small boat fleets lost part (sometimes all) of its
fishery to a reallocation to the trawlers for
The Maguson-Stevens Act has succeeded in "bycatch." In other instances the smaller, more
gaining U.S. control of the fisheries of the EEZ; traditional flees were denied limited entry
phasing out foreign fishing and "Americanizing" permits or had there catch levels significantly
(with the exception of some foreign ownership of reduced in order to accommodate the large fleets.
U.S. -registered factory trawlers) the fishing fleet
operating in the EEZ; and developing the system The "Americanization" policy, with its emphasis
of federal management of fisheries based on on fleet construction rather than research, has led
recommendations made to Commerce by the to a vast overcapitalization of the U.S. fleet with
eight management councils. far more catching capacity than resource to
support that harvest capability. It has led to
The "Americanization" policy carried out overfishing of many species and the near total
following the 1976 passage of HR 200 put its collapse of the groundfish fishery in New
emphasis on building a fleet capable of harvest- England. The policy also caused Commerce, for
ing the fish that were being taken by the foreign at least 15 years following the passage of HR 200,
fleets as well as develop harvesting, processing to ignore the plight of the smaller and more
and marketing for "underutilized fish species, traditional fisheries and most, specifically, fail to
rather than developing a sound data base on act in a timely manner to prevent the near

Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

extinction of some Pacific salmon species (and demand for fish coupled with newer and larger
their fisheries) from federally or state permitted fishing vessels, many government subsidized
dam operations, water diversions and logging, and corporately owned.

The regional council process has been fraught with Many of the successful efforts over the past two
conflict. The intent of providing regional input into decades in the U.S. aimed at sustainable fisheries
federal fisheries management has been subverted in have come at the state level or from fishery and
a number of ways. conservation non-governmental organi-
State fishery zations (NGOs). In California, for
managers, jealous 5 vv@,'
y@ example, the effort to save that state's
of their turf, often salmon resource has come from fishing
act to prevent s, not the regional councils or
group
councils from oroundthe.*'prld. ind " j-
Commerce. This is not surprising,
''Ing, responsible fishing groups, such as
taking actions to ,rinuch -of Itis, cdhn
help a fishery ilgovernmen'@@ubsi( z6d-, PCFFA, want sustainable fisheries that
where such an 'fis tions' prevent waste and provide the consumer
hlng,,@Oerd "'ffibSt
action might the very best product at an affordable
d price.
conflict with a n td I elrowron
state 16&6, -@-troWl)operdffi@n
administration's In response to the failures of the
2@-
policy. The public FCMA and the "Americanization"
members are often policy, Congress, at the urging of
financially conflicted and too often are association conservation and some fishing groups, amended
heads, lawyers or executive directors, instead of the Magnuson FCNU during the 1996 reauthori-
commercial or sport fishing men and women with zation, with the Sustainable Fisheries Act,
"on-the-grounds" experience as envisioned in HR explicitly prohibiting overfishing and calling for
200. The councils do not have independent legal a reduction of bycatch in fisheries and an active
counsel; they depend on NCAA General Counsel for consultative role on the part of Commerce aimed
their legal advise. They are also subservient to at preventing the destruction of essential fish
Commerce with it comes to their funding, habitat (EFH). That act also calls for the protec-
tion of fishing communities.
The problems facing U.S. fisheries are not unique to
this nation. Overfishing is a problem around the To date, the regional councils and Commerce
world and much of it is coming from government- have not met their statutory timelines to develop
subsidized fishing operations, most notably large plans to prevent overfishing or documents
trawl and factory trawl operations. Most of the large identifying essential fish habitat as called for in
trawl and factory trawl operations are owned or the Sustainable Fisheries Act. And, at least in the
controlled by corporations where the driving force is case of New England, the council and Commerce
short term profits - satisfying shareholder demands are certainly not following the spirit of the 1996
for maximum quarterly dividends - rather than act in protecting fishing communities and fishing
long term sustainability. families. On the west coast, management mea-
sures are resulting in the waste of vast amounts
� Loss of habitat and pollution are also a major of groundfish and the loss of the small boat fleet;
factor in the depiction of many of the world's and, in New England it appears the small boat
fisheries. Coastal aquaculture operations, operator is being sacrificed.
intended to increase fish production, are, ironi-
cally, one of the major sources of habitat loss and Fishery planning for the next 25 years, based on
pollution (as well as a source of introduced exotic the experience of the past quarter century needs
species, disease and parasites) in much of the to focus on:
world. Farmed shrimp and salmon operations
are particularly troublesome. 1. Full implementation of the Sustainable Fisher-
ies Act. Overfishing has to be stopped, needless
� Throughout the world, most small boat and waste must be prevented by reducing fisheries
traditional fishing family operations have been bycatch and essential fish habitat must be
conducted on a sustainable basis. But increased protected. Fishing communities and fishing
families have to be protected.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

2. Small-boat and fishing family (owner-opera-
tor) operations should be fostered and sup-
ported, These types of operations tend to have a
much stronger commitment to resource
sustainability and culturally derived desires to
pass along "their" fishery to future generations.
An emphasis on small-boat and family fishing
operations is also consistent with the language
calling for protection of fishing communities in
the Sustainable Fisheries Act.

3. With firm federal objectives for fishery conser-
vation and management in hand (i.e., prevent
overfishing reduce bycatch, protect habitat,
protect fishing communities), fishery manage-
ment decisions should be left at the regional state
and local levels, provided they are consistent
with the overall federal objectives.

4. More funds will be needed for research
purposes, to develop better and more selective
types of fishing gear, and to provide the regional
fishery councils greater autonomy. With greater
autonomy, the selection of public members to the
regional councils should be limited to persons
from the commercial, sport and conservation
sectors with "on-the-ground" knowledge of
fishing operations.

5. Greater emphasis must be made on "value-
added" fisheries and fisheries that have low-
impact and high value, consistent with providing
consumers high quality, healthful and affordable
sources of fish.

6. Aquaculture operations to supplement existing
fisheries should be fostered only where they are
non-polluting, do not damage habitat, or result
in the introduction of exotic species, disease or
parasites into the wild. Only aquaculture
operations with good conversion ratios (e.g,
amount of feed to amount of edible meat) should
be supported.

7. Fishing men and women who have a first band
knowledge of the marine environment, have to
be an integral part of fishery research, manage-
ment, and decision making concerning the uses
of the marine environment (e.g., the designation
of marine protected areas).

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

COASTAL TOURISM AND RECREATION: THE DRIVER OF
COASTAL DEVELOPMENT

By Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht
Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware

While there is general recognition that coastal ism in the United States. Although it is recognized as a
tourism and recreation are important in the coastal highly valuable revenue earner, promotion and mar-
zone, we believe that their impact is systematically keting of travel and tourism in the United States lags
undervalued both economically and as the most well behind other countries; the United States ranks
important driver of coastal development in many 31st in international tourist market advertising, with
U.S. coastal areas. In California alone, it Spain, for example,
is estimated that coastal tourism is the spending ten times
largest "ocean industry," contributing more in advertising
$9.9 billion to the California economy ... studies have shown than the United States
compared to $6 billion for ports, $860 that beaches are (Houston 1996,3).
million for offshore oil and gas, and $550 ArnerIca's leading
million for fisheries and mariculture A major reason for the
combined (Wilson and Wheeler 1997). tourlst desfination, lack of a formal pro-
Travel and tourism are estimated to have ahead of national gram at the national
provided $746 billion to the U.S. domes- parks and historic sites. level is that travel and
tic product, about 10% of U.S. output, tourism is viewed as a
making travel and tourism the second sector that requires
largest contributor to GDP, just behind relatively little formal
combined wholesale and retail trade (Houston 1995). management and is primarily a private sector endeavor.
Although there are no precise estimates of the The benefits of tourism to coastal areas are great, yet
magnitude of coastal travel and tourism in the its adverse effects are often not immediately visible,
United States, studies have shown that beaches are which leads to a sort of "management apathy." Also,
America's leading tourist destination, ahead of most aspects of coastal travel and tourism that need
national parks and historic sites. Approximately 180 managing are already dealt with at one governmental
million people visit the coast for recreational pur- level or another, but in separate programs and run by
poses, with 85% of tourist-related revenues generated different agencies, rather than as a coordinated, inter-
by coastal states (Houston 1996, 3). connected whole.

The following examples highlight the very high value The YOTO paper on coastal tourism and recreation
of coastal travel and tourism in the United States (YOTO (YOTO 1998) (prepared largely by the authors) notes
1998, F5). A 1996 EPA study on the benefits of water that sustainable development of coastal tourism de-
quality improvement, in terms of the numbers of people pends on a number of factors, including:
involved and the economic value of the activities in
which they partake, found that saltwater fishing gen- e Good coastal management practices, especially re-
erates expenditures of over $5 billion annually, and over lated to location of infrastructure and provision of
200,000 jobs. Over 77 million Americans participate public access;
annually in recreational boating, with the total num-
ber of recreational boats by the year 2000 estimated to * Clean air and water, and healthy ecosystems;
be 20 million. Over 80 million Americans participate
in outdoor (non-pool) swimming, and in seven states, e Maintenance of a safe and secure recreational en-
beachgoers spent $74 billion. Finally, birdwatching vironment, specifically relating to management of
generates around $18 billion annually, a great deal of hazards, and provision of adequate levels of safety
which occurs in coastal regions. for boaters, swimmers and other recreational us-
ers;
Given these figures, it is significant to note that there is
no federal agency with a mandate to manage coastal * Beach restoration, including beach nourishment
travel and tourism, and that there is no overall national and other efforts that maintain and enhance the
policy in place to plan for, and achieve, sustainable tour- recreational and amenity values of beaches; and

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Sound policies for coastal wildlife and habitat pro- Management of clean water and healthy ecosystems is
tection. a second, and especially important, category in this
context. There are a number of federal agencies
Healthy and sustainable coastal tourism requires at- and programs involved with water quality, includ-
tractive, safe, and functional recreational beaches, clean ing the Clean Water Act (e.g. the National Estuary
coastal waters, and healthy coastal ecosystems produc- Program) administered by the EPA; protection of
ing abundant fish and the marine environment from oil spills,
wildlife. In most parts covered by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990
of the burgeoning U * S Health 'on .S S, 1, and administered by the U.S. Coast
coastal zone, these fac Guard; and NOANs work with states un-
able"' (@00@t 11,
tors do not exist by der the CZMA to deal with nonpoint
teq@uj
r
chance. Most recre- source water pollution.
ational beaches have S Cal f e,
to be maintained with re&teo (@hesv Management of the impacts of coastal haz
occasional replenish-
ards, includingflood and erosion protec
ment of sand lost to Clean c6" tors,
tion and the use of siting methods such
s as setback lines, is dealt with under
storms and erosion. and"heolthk",
Clean and healthy both the FEMA National Flood Insur
ecosyvstems@ pr-, ucln
coastal waters are the a '!,,fish ance Program and the Coastal Zone
obUnd ''nt,,;, ond-@
result of effective pro- Management Program. Also impor
grams of pollution Wildlife.
tant here is safety and accident preven
@'S
control--of municipal tion for visitors involved in coastal rec
sewage treatments, of reation-the U.S. Coast Guard is the
septic tanks, of agricultural run-off, and a large num- principal federal agency responsible for user safety
ber of other point and nonpoint sources. Coastal fish and accident prevention. Beach restoration and
and wildlife depend on the existence of healthy eco- nourishment programs are managed at the federal
systems; wetlands have to be protected and, where al- level through the Army Corps of Engineers. In-
ready degraded, restored. Failure in any of these areas creasingly, however, it is local communities, some-
can seriously affect tourism. A failed sewage treatment times with state assistance, that are being forced to
plant can close a beach to swimming-in 1996, there undertake such restoration programs.
were nearly 3000 such closings or advisories (Heinz
1998) at U.S. beaches. The state of New Jersey report- Given the very large contribution to the economy as-
edly lost $800 million in tourism revenues following sociated with coastal tourism and recreation, it would
reports that medical wastes had washed up on some seem that special policy and pragmatic coordination
of its beaches (Bookman, pers. com. 1997). efforts are needed among the federal, state, and local
agencies responsible for the activities mentioned above.
While there are already programs in place dealing with We note four policy challenges in this regard.
each of these areas, there is no agency or mechanism in
existence to coordinate them toward the overall goal Policy Challenges
of sustainable tourism development. Federal programs
most relevant to coastal travel and tourism include the 1) Federal policies and programs essentialfor sustain-
following: able tourism development are interrelated and should
be treated as such. Consideration should be given to
Coastal management andplanning is administered by the creation of a standing interagency group devoted
NOAA!s Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource to coastal tourism among the various federal agencies
Management (OCRM) and includes programs in with programs in this area. State and local government
34 states and territories. Three management prac- representatives should also be included.
tices under the Coastal Zone Management program
are particularly important in the context of sustain- 2) Little guidance is currently available to states and
able tourism development: provision for the man- communities for sustainable tourism development in
agement of coastal development; provisions to coastal areas. The federal government could play a
improve public access to the shoreline; and provi- role in providing guidelines to communities and states
sions to protect and, where necessary@ to restore (standards, codes of conduct, manuals, etc.) to assist in
coastal environments. their efforts to manage coastal tourism and recreation
sustainably.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

3) At present, there is little systematic collection of Heinz Center. 1998. Our Ocean Future: Themes and
data and information on the magnitude, nature, and Issues Concerning the Nation's Stake in the Oceans
economic and social impacts of tourism in the coastal Developedfor Discussion During 1998, The Year of the
zone. This needs to be changed to provide greater in- Ocean. Washington, D.C.: The H. John Heinz III
formation on issues, trends, and the value of tourism Center for Science, Economics and the Environment.
at all levels in the United States. The availability of
this kind of information will help attract the appropri- Houston, James R. 1995. The Economic Value of
ate level of attention to this issue. Beaches. CERCular, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Vol. CERC-95-4, December.
4) Recreational beaches are in great demand in the
U.S. both by its own citizens andforeign tourists. Houston, James R. 1996. International Tourism and
Yet there is no comprehensive national program of U.S. Beaches. Shore and Beach.
beach standards yet in effect. EPA is launching a
beach action plan dealing primarily with water U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Brief-
quality (EPA 1998) and the House of Representatives ing Papers on CWA.
passed, in 1999, the Beaches Environmental Assess-
ment, Cleanup and Health bill which sets minimum Wilson, Pete and Wheeler, Douglas P. April 1997.
standards for beach water quality, requires the EPA to California's Ocean Resources: An Agendafor the Future.
establish performance criteria for beach monitoring The Resources Agency of California.
and closure notification, and to establish a national
beach water pollution database. While these are Year of the Ocean (YOTO) Discussion Papers. March
significant steps, we think that a national program on 1998. Prepared by the U.S. Federal Agencies with
beach standards should be broader in scope. The ocean-related programs. Washington, D.C.
European Blue Flag program, now in place at about
1,000 beaches in different nations of the European
community, provides a good model. The flag can
only be flown at beaches that meet pre-set standards
in water quality, safety (lifeguards, first aid, storm
planning), beach management (erosion control,
replenishment, clean-up), and environmental infor-
mation and education (information on fish and
wildlife, beach dynamics, tides, currents, etc.). While
the program has been encouraged by the European
Union and individual governments, the actual
operation (judging beaches against the standards) is
performed by nongovernmental committees set up in
each nation. The U.S. could benefit from a program
similar to this one.

Acknowledgments

This paper is a summary of the paper on tourism and
recreation prepared for the Year of the Ocean (YOTO
1998) by the authors in collaboration with other
contributors. It is excerpted from Cicin-Sain and
Knecht (1999).

References

Bookman, Charles A. 1997. Personal communica-
tion.

Cicin-Sain, Biliana and Robert W. Knecht. The Future
of U.S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor the New Century
(Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1999).

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF AMERICA'S
COASTAL REGIONS

Howard Marlowe
American Coastal Coalition

Although coastal areas comprise one-fifth of the land increasing the cost of living for these homeowners,
area of the contiguous 48 states, they account for what is gained and what is lost? The public would
more than half of the nation's population and likely believe that a significant increase in insurance
housing supply. In 1990, over 133 million Americans premiums will encourage these homeowners to
lived in the 673 counties along the Atlantic and retreat from the coast. But suppose that we instead
Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great invest in repairing and nourishing the protection
Lakes. Since 1960, these areas increased by 41 these homeowners get from sandy beaches. By
percent. That rate was above the national average-a incurring this cost (which is shared by Federal, State,
trend that is expected to continue. About 820,000 and local taxpayers), what is gained and lost?
new homes are constructed in coastal areas each year.
These areas also account for about half of all new Too often we are able to measure costs quite easily.
industrial, office, retail and recreational building.' The Federal Shore Protection program, for example,
costs about $100 million a year in Federal dollars .2
The public discussion of this growth is too often What are the benefits of that rather modest expense?
focused solely on the so-called problems caused by While the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers does a
this growth. Coastal growth poses challenges-and benefit-cost analysis in connection with every shore
sometimes damages-to the environment. The protection project, that analysis suffers from its own
increase of housing units taxes drinking water myopia. It places its greatest emphasis on the value
supplies and sewage systems. Human intervention, of the private property that is immediately adjacent
mostly through the construction of channels and to the coastline. It is not reasonable to assume that a
dams, disrupts the natural sand system, causing healthy beach with natural dunes and vegetation will
sandy beaches to erode. This development not only benefit only that first row of homes and businesses.
harms recreational opportunities and decreases local The homeowners spend money in the region; the
and regional tax revenues, it also undermines the hotels attract tourists, who also spend money; local
protection that coastal property owners need from residents who live inland come to the beach for
storm surges. That in turn raises the issue of flood recreation. They, too, spend money. There are a
insurance and disaster relief policies. There are variety of service businesses, from T-shirt vendors to
tensions between commercial and recreational banks, whose existence depends on these expendi-
fishermen, and an increasing shortage of fish for both tures. In addition, there is an environmental benefit
interests. The pollution of estuaries and beach derived from renourishing our beaches. Property
waters, as well as the relatively unexplained increase owners do not retreat from an eroding shorefront.
in harmful algal blooms and hypoxia, each take their They build seawalls and other hard structures to
toll on coastal interests. protect their property. These hard structures, which
often exacerbate beach erosion, provide an un-
Each of these issues, of course, is quite important, friendly home to the birds and turtles that nest in the
and the political process at all levels often deals with sand.
them on a one-by-one basis. Should the Federal
government support beach nourishment? Should it If we know the costs of the Federal Shore Protection
"subsidize" coastal flood insurance policies? By Program, what then, are its benefits? If we can also
taking just these two issues alone, we can see symp- state with a fair certainty what it costs to "subsidize"
toms of myopic public policy-making. Let us assume the flood insurance policies of coastal residents, what
for the sake of discussion that the Flood Insurance is our measurement of the benefits derived from that
Program provides lower-than-market-cost insurance "subsidy"? It is regrettable that we cannot answer
policies for at least certain coastal homeowners. Let the benefits side of the equation with the same
us also assume that current proposals to deny certitude as the cost side. As long as we cannot
Federal flood insurance to certain coastal quantify the benefits, those who make policies
homeowners with repetitive losses will affect more affecting coastal regions must make their decisions in
than a handful of coastal property owners. By a factual vacuum. In addition, the public is subjected

D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

to the repeated carping of those who mistakenly Foreign tourism to the United States in 1995 was
believe that some form of forced retreat from the expected to generate a trade surplus of $26 billion,
coast will return our coastal regions to their "natural" compared to a surplus of $17 billion in 1992 and a
condition. There is every reason for each of us to deficit of $7 billion in 1986. During the 1995 to 2000
support policies that result in sustainable coastal period, the number of tourism-related jobs is ex-
growth and which encourage -if not require- that pected to double . 6
responsible economic and environmental decisions
be made along each of our coasts and in each of our When it comes to beach spending, we have a large
coastal communities. However, even if the 54 percent amount of additional benefit-related information. On
of our population that fives along the coast retreated the one hand, for example, we know that 55 percent
inland, it would not bring the coast back to the of the visitors to Broward County, Florida (the Ft.
conditions that existed prior to European settlement Lauderdale area) would not come if there were no
200-plus years ago, or the Industrial Revolution over beaches. Another 27 percent would come less often.
a century ago. Out-of-state visitors generate $350 million in eco-
nomic benefits to that county annually. In addition,
We are, of course, not lacking in hard information Broward's beaches generate county property tax
about the benefits derived from our coastal regions. collections in excess of $28 million a year and create
The immense natural resources of these regions are nearly 18,000 jobs . 7
responsible for a significant amount of commercial
activity. In 1993, the U.S. commercial fishing indus- From discussing the State and county levels, let us
try produced and marketed products valued at $10.8 spend a moment looking at the impact of beach
billion. Saltwater recreational anglers generated $15 nourishment at the local level. In 1993, the Federal
billion from 64 million fishing trips. In 1990, 2.15 government spent $5.5 million, while the State and
billion tons of cargo valued at over $500 billion local governments spent another $4.3 million,
moved through the nation's 190 seaports. nourishing 5 miles of beach on Anna Maria Island
(which lies on the
We also know a good deal about the . .... . ....... West Coast of Florida
attraction that coastal regions have for
between Tampa and
tourists. In 1997, total tourism expendi- The immense naturol Sarasota). That
tures in U.S. coastal congressional beach restoration
of these
districts was over $185 billion, while added $67.5 million
rl9gld-nI@-i@@ res,66hslblO
tourism payroll was almost $50 million to local property
sign values, and boosted
and tourism obs in these districts were forld, `-`.iflca.nt.'
over 2.7 million. I Beaches and coastal rCid[,@-_J the island's economy
-amou nt of comme
regions are not only the Number One
by $25.9 million and
711 jobs. Property
destination for domestic tourists, they 9c
also are the top destination for foreign
values for areas of
tourists. Each year, the Federal govern- the county that are
ment receives about $4 billion in taxes from foreign away from the beach restoration area increased by
tourists, while state and local governments receive $32.1 million, mostly due to increased beach recre-
another $3.5 billion. Foreign tourists spent over $11 ational opportunities . 8
billion in Florida in 1992, $2 billion of that amount in
the Miami Beach area alone. This Florida spending Moving to the West Coast, California's beaches
generates over $750 million in Federal tax revenues, experienced more visitor attendance days in 1996
more than the total received by the State and local than all of the State's other tourist attractions -
governments combined. Focusing on Miami Beach including Disneyland- combined. Beach tourism
alone, annual Federal tax revenues from foreign spending contributes over $10 billion in direct
tourists ($2 billion) are about 17 times more than the benefits to the State and another $17 million in
Federal government spent on the entire Federal indirect benefits-almost 3 percent of the total eco-
Shore Protection program from 1950 to 1993 ($34 nomic activity in the State. Beach tourism creates a
million in 1993 dollars). If the Federal share of beach half million California jobs and $1 billion in state
nourishment averages about $10 million a year, the sales, income, and gasoline tax revenues.
Federal government collects about 75 times more in
taxes from foreign tourists in Florida than it spends Now, going from the Nation's largest State to one of
restoring that State's beaches. its smallest, Delaware receives 5.1 million "person

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

trips" each year in a State where just over 21,000 edge. 1998 was the Year of the Ocean. The year may
people actually live in beach communities and be finished, but our work has just begun. A critical
another 373,000 people live within day-use travel and somewhat overlooked component of the activi-
distance. Beach tourism generates $173.2 million in ties related to the Year of the Ocean is our coastline.
expenditures each year. Just as significant, beach What we do in that one-fifth of our land that com-
erosion results in an estimated loss of over 471,000 prises coastal America has a significant impact on
visitor days a year, a figure which is estimated to our oceans, and vice versa. The fact is that taken
increase to over 516,000 after five years. During that from a comprehensive point of view, we in the
5-year period, beach erosion will cost an estimated United States need to take major steps to improve
$30.2 million in our coastal management practices and
consumer expendi- policies. We must restore and maintain
tures, the loss of 625 It is critical that we our eroding beaches, improve the quality
beach area jobs, and of beach water and coastal community
the reduction of t:;fve/op a compre- drinking water, protect and enhance
wages and salaries hensive set of data on coastal wildlife, promote policies that
by $11.5 million. all of the benefts de- mitigate coastal hazards, and in general
Business profits rived from America"s improve the quality of our coastal living
will drop by $1.6 environment.
million and State coastal regions.
and local tax Since our inception in 1996, the American
revenues will Coastal Coalition has supported the full
decrease by $2.3 million. Finally, beach erosion will assessment of the economic and ecological benefits of
reduce beach area property values by nearly $43 beach nourishment. Today, I announce our support
million over the five-year period. for a major study by the National Academy of
Sciences of the economic and ecological benefits of
Our nation's estuaries are also major tourist and our nation's coastal regions.
recreational attractions. For example, nature tourism
in Corpus Christi, Texas is the fastest growing
component of a tourism sector that generates $23
billion annually. Recreational fishing provides Notes
aggregate net benefits to the area of $83 million,
including $37 million per year in state and local 1 Data cited are from NOAA. The H. John Heinz
taxes. The economic impact of water quality-depen- Center for Science, the Economy, and the Environ-
dent uses in Long Island Sound is estimated at more ment found in November 1997 that 112 million
than $5 billion annually. Commercial and recre- people live in counties entirely or substantially
ational fishing contributed more than $1.2 billion of within 50 miles of the coast.
the total, while beach going has a direct benefit of
more than $800 million annually. 2 Over the past 45 years, the average annual Federal
shore protection outlay is actually less than $50
Let us conclude this partial review of the economic million. It is only in the last three to four fiscal years
impact of our coastal regions with data from the U.S. that it has reached $80 million to $110 million.
Environmental Protection Agency. America's coastal
waters support 28.3 million jobs and generate $54 3 Data from Heinz Center report, op. cit. In addi-
billion in goods and services every year. The coastal tion, in 1996, saltwater recreational fishermen spent
recreation and tourism industry is the second largest $8.7 billion on a variety of items to participate in their
employer in the nation, serving the 180 million fishing. These dollars had a ripple effect of $25.1
Americans who visit our coasts every year. The billion, supported the equivalent of 288,000 full-time
commercial fish and shellfish industry contributes jobs, and generated $1.24 billion in State and Federal
$45 billion to the economy every year, and recre- taxes, according to a 1998 study by the American
ational fishing contributes $30 billion. 12 Sportfishing Association.

It is critical that we develop a comprehensive set of 4 Data from American Coastal Coalition analysis of
data on all of the benefits derived from America's a June 1998 study by the Travel Industry Association
coastal regions. As stated above, policy makers of America.
cannot make sound decisions without this knowl-

7@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

5 Data derived from an article by Dr. James R.
Houston, published in the American Shore and Beach
Preservation journal.

6 See "Coastal Tourism and Recreation" by Biliana
Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht, published in Year of
the Ocean Discussion Papers, March 1998.

7 Data from 1997 study by Broward County Depart-
ment of Natural Resource Protection.

8 Data based on a February 1997 study by Regional
Research Associates, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.

9 Data from a May 1997 study by the University of
San Francisco's Public Research Institute.

10 March 1998 study by Jack Faucett Associates
(Bethesda, MD) in cooperation with independent
consultants Linda Kent (Bethesda, MD) and Christo-
pher Jones (Charlottesville, VA) for the Delaware
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control.

11 Cicin-Sain and Knecht, "Coastal Tourism and
Recreation" in Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers.

12 July 9,1998 testimony of Robert H. Wayland, 11,
Director of EPA!s Office of Water, before the Senate
Environment and Public Works Committee.

industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

A PROFILE OF RECREATIONAL BOATING IN THE UNITED STATES

Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich
Boat Owners Association of the United States (BOATIU.S.)

"There is nothing, absolutely nothing, half so much worth century. When asked how much one of his legendary
doing as simply messing about in boats." steam yachts cost, Morgan is said to have replied, "If
you have to ask how
With apologies to Water Rat in Kenneth much it costs, you
Grahame's Wind in the Willows, there is recreational boating can't afford it."
nothing half so much worth the coastal
planner's attention than the future of comprises America's Certainly when the
recreational boating in this country. largest fleet, dwarfing 20th Century
dawned, spending
To get a sense of boating's future as we the total vessels In time in a boat for
sail into the next millennium, it is impor- merchant shipping, any other purpose
tant to understand the roots of a recre- commercial fishing, than wresting a
ational activity that directly involved, as passenger traffic, the living from the
on-the-water participants, 75 million Navy, and the U.S. water was unheard
Americans last year.' Recreational of. Boating for the
fishing alone contributed more than $108 Coast Guard, middle class only
billion to the economy in 1996, and arrived, like so
supports 1.2 million jobs, creating wages many other leisure
of about $28 billion. It is a huge industry, with U.S. pursuits, after World War Il. Participation roughly
anglers outnumbering golfers nearly 2 to 1.1 doubled in each decade until the number of boats in
use hit 13 million in 1985.
Another way to look at the significance of this
pleasurable activity is that recreational boating But Morgan's legacy stuck and boaters were seen as
comprises America's largest fleet, dwarfing the total "fat cats" in the 1980s, wealthy yachtsmen to be
vessels in merchant shipping, commercial fishing, 1998 Boaters and Boats in the United States:
passenger traffic, the Navy, and the U.S. Coast Population Estimates
Guard.
Boaters and Boats Number
There are over 16,800,000 boats in use nationwide. People participating in recreational boating 74,847,000
With 75 million people cruising, sailing, fishing, Water skiers 10,314,000
water skiing, racing, camping, wildlife-watching or All Boats in use 16,824,000
just exploring, it's easy to see that boating is very
much a social activity, and a real family sport. I In Outboard boats owned 8,300,000
fact, in a recent nationwide survey of marina custom- Inboard boats owned 1,609,000
ers, nearly 50% were reported to be families with Stemdrive boats owned 1,673,000
children. The second largest group was retired Personal watercraft 1,100,000
couples or singles at 20%.'
Sailboats owned 1,669,000
The Yachting Misnomer Miscellaneous craft owned (canoes, rowboats, 949,000
dinghies, and other craft registered by the states)
Despite the fact that 50% of all registered boats are Other (estimated canoes, rowboats, etc. not 1,524,000
less than 16 feet long, and 93% of all registered boats registered by the states)
are less than 26 feet long,' boating has always Marinas, Boatyards, Yacht Clubs, 10,320
suffered from the "yachting" stigma. In the public's Dockominiums, Parks and other
eye, boating has been the exclusive domain of the Source: "Boating 1998" prepared by the National Marine
rich. The person who probably had more to do with Manufacturers Association, Chicago, IL
etching that erroneous view in the public psyche The "in-use"figures are based on actual state and Coast Guard
than anyone was J.P. Morgan, the great and certainly registrations and estimates of non-registered boats.
very wealthy yachtsman of the early part of this

D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

saddled with taxes disguised as "user fees" to help Access
balance the federal budget. After a protracted
struggle, cooler heads in Congress prevailed when Boaters rely on being able to get to the water, and use
they realized that boaters already had been paying the water for a variety of activities ranging from
their way for years fishing and sailing to cruising and
through motorboat overnight boat camping. In order for
fuel taxes and fishing boaters to peacefully co-exist with other
@Bodtbrs t, eing user groups on our coastal waters,
gear excise taxes.
able togehtq1h,,',,,W`@- waterways must be seen as a common
w0ler
Today these taxes go resource that is available to all. They
'Y" 'b@ 'ino able to
r Ott (dcc6@4,@ e 1@ - I
into the Aquatic must be protected as a public open
enjby- the water and,
Resources Trust Fund space, able to accommodate a variety of
(Wallop-Breaux), :.reJdted,w/1d11fe (natural users.
Wlm,
which pumps about resoptO iPnd,,hqving_.,_,
$350 million annually the, time, and desire to Access to these waters must be main-
into boating safety tained through both public and private
education, law pursue boafihg for. rec- lands. Those lucky enough to own
enforcement, envi- reation (opportuh1ty)., waterfront property should be able to
ronmental protection, launch their boat from their own yard,
public access, and and those not so fortunate should have
fishery restoration. As ready access to public launch sites and
a result, there is hardly a stretch of water anywhere that marinas open to the public. To insure that average
hasn't benefited in material waysfrom America's boaters. citizens can get to the water, ramps, access points,
boat parking facilities in the form of marina and
Boating Benefits transient dockage, moorings, and anchorages, as well
as on-land dry storage and winter storage, must be
Alongside these economic benefits, recreational available to the general public.
boating offers our nation's citizens lifelong opportu- Once on the water, boaters rely on clearly marked,
nities for healthy, outdoor, family activity. It pro- maintained, and dredged channels, along with
vides an important cultural link to our nation's accurate, updated, and available charts. In recent
maritime heritage, and a critical gateway for youth years, federal budget cuts have reduced the channel
through such nationwide programs as Sea Exploring maintenance and charting abilities of the govern-
(Sea Scouts), Red Cross and YMCA water sports, and ment, and recreational areas are often the first to
4-H camps as well as countless local sailing schools, suffer. Innovative ways of maintaining charts for the
canoe clubs, and community boatbuilding programs. recreational boater may be necessary, including the
use of trained volunteer labor for sounding harbors.
It seems fair to speculate, then, that recreational Volunteer data collection may be the key to safety,
boating may be the largest clearly defined constituent when you realize that millions of recreational boats
group for NOAA and its National Ocean Service, can lose their way, run aground, or hit bridges and
National Marine Fisheries Service, even its marine buoys without updated charts.
weather services, as well as for the U.S. Coast Guard,
whether these agencies realize it or not. Boaters use a variety of destination choices, ranging
from developed city docks (Baltimore Inner Harbor)
Issuesfor the Future and historic maritime areas (Mystic Seaport), to
islands (Catalina Island) and remote areas with
As we think about the coast and coastal issues diverse wildlife (Apostle Islands National Lake
heading toward the year 2025, there are several core Shore). Freedom to explore the waterways is our
issues important to this large user group. Boaters birthright. To make it our legacy, we must make
count on being able to get to the water (access), being coastal stewards out of all citizens, educating all how
able to enjoy the water and related wildlife (natural to preserve those areas we explore.
resources), and having the time and desire to pursue
boating for recreation (opportunity). These three Natural Resources
elements constitute the base of possibilities for
recreational boating into the next millennium. Like other recreational users of the coast, boaters rely
on clean, unpolluted water. "Going boating" con-

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

jures up images of relaxing in an aesthetically embraced in this management as key ingredients for
pleasing, natural area, with crisp, clear water, fresh the long-term viability of our oceans. Both commer-
air, and interacting with fish, birds, and other wild- cial and recreational interests must be brought in to
life. No one wants to spend precious leisure time on the solutions to current overharvesting of fisheries,
a river with oil slicks, floating garbage, and dead and bycatch must be better addressed. The introduc-
fish. As a result, individual boaters and the marine tion, spread, and control of alien species should also
industry as a whole have been increasingly involved receive special attention, since they continue to
in initiatives to clean up our waterways, restore threaten entire native populations and ecosystems,
aquatic habitat, and protect natural resources. They and pose grave consequences for recreational boating
all rely on clean coastal waters that sustain an and fishing.
abundance of fish and wildlife, whether they are
pulling fish out of the water for dinner, or swimming Opportunity
in the water, or just getting splashed with a rogue
wave. The water is clean, there are fish to catch, birds to
watch, and the access ramp is right down the street.
In order to improve coastal water quality@ new What's stopping the average citizen from taking to
methods of reducing both point and nonpoint source the water - from "simply messing about in boats?"
pollution will be required. This will be increasingly
difficult as coastal populations soar by 2025 and put Access to a boat is probably the first thing. While
more stress on the coastal areas. With more potential there is approximately one boat in this country for
polluters in the same coastal area, we'll have to do every 17 people 6many people may not have the
even more to keep pace with existing water quality resources to own their own boat. Those people that
issues, much less improve them. do buy a boat are often precariously on the edge of
selling it, depending on variables in their own lives,
Flexible, timely management of fish and wildlife is costs, available free time, and hassles associated with
required. Diversity and sustainability must be owning the boat. Individual boaters must find a

1997 Registered Boats
Distribution by state

M1
8% CA
7%
FL
P1 MN
6%
Other States
51% TX
5%
W1
NY 4%
IL SC OH 4%
3% 3% 3%

Source: Boating 1998 prepared by the National Marine Manufacturers Association, Chicago, IL.
12,309,724 boa
This chart reflects the ts registered in the states in 1997. The 10 states shown above host nearly hatrof
all registered boats in the country. Note that 3 of the 5 states (CA, TX, FL, GA, VA) with the greatest rise in predicted
population are already among the states with the largest number of registered boats.

T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

balance between limited free time and the time it We must remember these hard facts while consider-
takes to do maintenance work before leaving the ing the future of the limited natural resources on our
dock. In order for boaters to continue boating, coasts. We must remember that the average citizen's
boaters will have to feel that the "recreation" element ability to interact with the water may win or lose that
surmounts the perceived obstacles to this use of their person's active commitment to coastal water issues.
limited free time. These obstacles are often cited as Recreational boating plays a key role in this ongoing quest
costs, fees, government regulations, and mainte- to create stewards of the coast.
nance.

No matter who owns the boats, it can be assumed
that recreational boating will be only one activity Notes
among many at the water's edge. Resolving user
conflicts over the use of these waters will be a rising 1. Boating 1998, National Marine Manufacturers
challenge in the next century. Association, Chicago, IL.

Another challenge for the industry and for coastal 2. "Fishing's $40 Billion Allure," USA Today, Febru-
managers may be how to address carrying capacity ary 16, 1999.
issues through better use of existing boats. Since
most boats are used less than 10% of the time, getting 3. Boating 1998, National Marine Manufacturers
more use out of one boat may be an option that Association, Chicago, IL.
works better for the boater and for the coastal
environment. Encouraging timeshare boat owning 4. "1998 Annual Industry Review," Boating Industry
arrangements and community boating and boat Magazine, February 1999.
rental programs may help more people enjoy life on
the water, without a correlated increase in infrastruc- 5. 1997 State Registered Boat Data, U.S. Coast Guard,
ture needs. 1997.

Alongside the needs of the individual, there are 6. U.S. Census Bureau, on-line information estimat-
needs for some infrastructure to maintain safe ing the current U.S. population at 272,085,093
boating standards. Most of these recreational needs (wwwcensus.g2v).
piggyback well with existing commercial require-
ments. For example, maintaining adequate law
enforcement, search and rescue services, weather
forecasting and satellite navigation, and educational
programs will be required to serve a growing,
diverse boating population.

Challenges

The speakers at this workshop told us an indisput-
able fact:
The bulk of our nation's population is headingfor the
coast.

They are going there for a reason. They want to be
able to walk on the sand, to show their kids a sea
bird, to watch the dolphins off the beach. They want
to be able to swim, to fish, to boat, and to appreciate
the waters of that coast.

They don't want to walk a beach polluted by sewage
outfalls or industrial waste. They don't want to see a
fish floating upside down in the surf. They don't
want to be afraid to touch the water.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES: CURRENT AND FUTURE
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES

M. Richard DeVoe
South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium

Introduction nation because it promises to produce: (1) high
quality seafood to replace that supplied through the
Aquaculture in the United States has the potential to harvests of wild stock in decline or at maximum
become a major growth industry in the 21st Century. sustainable yields; (2) products for export to help
Global seafood demand is projected to reduce the nation's
increase by 70 percent by the year 2025 .. ......... . foreign trade deficit;
Uoint Subcommittee on Aquaculture, JSA (3) stock enhance-
1993). With harvests from capture TheVnited Stot6scur- ment of important
fisheries stable or in decline, aquaculture commercial and
rently Importi "more than
would have to increase production by recreational fisheries
700 percent to a total of 77 million metric 60 percent of its fish and species; (4) eco-
tonnes annually to meet the projected ShelffiSh.'
nomic development
demand (JSA 1993). The potential of
opportunities for
aquaculture worldwide to meet the rural and suburban
challenges of food security and to gener- communities; and (5) new employment opportunities
ate employment has been demonstrated by its rapid for skilled workers (National Research Council, NRC
growth at an annual rate of 10 percent since 1984 (as 1992).
compared with 3 percent for livestock meat and 1.6
percent for capture fisheries production) (FAO 1997). Marine Aquaculture in the United States

The United States currently imports more than 60 The U.S. marine aquaculture industry is extremely
percent of its fish and shellfish. In 1996, $6.8 billion young. While the culture of freshwater species such
of seafood products were imported, while $3.0 as catfish and trout has existed for many decades, the
billion were ex- cultivation of marine species has
ported. In 1997 emerged only over the last 30 years.
seafood imports Total production from all domestic
increased to $7.8 The U.S. marine oquacul- aquaculture operations grew from 572.5
billion, while exports i ture indus is 0xfriE@Mely million pounds in 1990 to 693.7 million
try, @,
decreased to $2.7 Ung. WhIle,the Culture pounds in 1996, a 21 percent increase,
yo
billion, representing
while marine aquaculture production
a $5.1 billion trade of freshwaterspecles
alone went from 49.3 to 66.8 million
deficit (NOAA such as caffish and trout pounds, a 35.5 percent increase over the
NMFS, 1998). same time. In 1996, about 86 percent of
has existod for many
Seafood products are U.S. marine aquaculture yield was
decades, the cuffivation
the nation's largest represented by oyster and salmon
agricultural import, of marine "Cie$ has'', production, with oyster production
second only to emerged on ,oo@4r the declining and salmon production greatly
petroleum USA increasing from 1990 to 1996. More than
lost 30 ye
1993). Each year, 50 species made up the remaining 12
Americans consume ------- percent. While the U.S. marine aquacul-
more than $800 ture industry is relatively small, it
million of foreign-grown aquaculture products. remains vital since most of the huge seafood deficit
Obviously, domestic aquaculture pro-duction has not in fishery products comes from the import of marine,
grown at a rate necessary to offset the consumer not freshwater, seafood (Sandifer 1994).
demand for seafood.
Aquaculture is now practiced in more than 80
Nevertheless, the development of the U.S. aquacul- precent of the states and territories of the United
ture industry is felt to be vital to the future of the States. Nevertheless, cultivation of all marine species,

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

except oysters, is in the early stages of commercial industry, conflicts with other, traditional, uses of the
development in the United States, and many opera- nation's coastal and ocean waters, environmental
tions have yet to achieve economic stability (NRC concerns, and the existing legal and regulatory
1992). It goes without saying that the U.S. marine climate all contribute to this situation.
aquaculture industry has not kept pace with the
growth of the world industry during the last 25 years Nature of the Marine Aquaculture Industry
(NRC 1992).
Marine aquaculture represents a relatively new use
The future for marine aquaculture in the United of the nation's coastal resources, and it must compete
States is much less certain than that of its freshwater for access to those resources (Nixon 1994). Newcom-
counterpart. One serious problem is that most ers to the industry, as well as local authorities, suffer
marine aquaculture is conducted in shallow coastal from a lack of experience, inappropriate advice on
and estuarine waters, which are affected by increas- site selection, inadequate evaluation of market
ing population pressures and industrial and residen- opportunities and product diversification, and a lack
tial development. By the year 2010, 70 percent of the of understanding of marine aquaculture develop-
total population of the United States will live within ment in relation to other forms of competition
120 kilometers of the coast (Culliton et al. 1990). In (Chamberlain and Rosenthal 1995). Much of this
addition, whereas the transition from fishing to confusion stems from its uniqueness and complexity.
aquaculture in freshwater systems is analogous to
that of hunting to farming, marine aquaculturists A number of finfish, shellfish, and crustacean species
face an additional hurdle - they have no property are cultivated in the United States, including catfish,
interest in the "lands" they need trout'salmon,
(Nixon 1994). Because the ocean has striped and hybrid
traditionally been viewed as a common
bass, tilapia, hard
property resource, there are also There-are d,number Of clams, oysters,
A
conflicts with other commercial and Wl@sues that have con- mussels, crawfish,
recreational users which may slow or and penaeid
the development
prevent the development of marine shrimps. The
aquaculture (Harvey 1994). manne aquaCUItUre'in industry is techno-
the United States. The logically diverse,
"'4
Growth of the domestic marine aquac- complexand diverse with ponds, race-
ulture industry is dependent upon the ways, silo, circular
ire of the industry,
ndk
attainment of 4 basic requirements pools, closed (water
(DeVoe and Mount 1989): high water- i:@ohfJ1'c'ts,wWth other, tr6di- reuse) systems,
cages and net-pens,
quality locations; access to the aquacul the notion's
ture site; assertion of exclusive fishing sea ranches, rafts,
-coas dl'dhd,ocean, wo-
and culturing rights; and financial and long lines used
investment. These authors also argue hvirbhmentalcon'-
@p A,@ according to the
A6
rn, g, species cultured
that government commitment, in the nd the exisfin
4
case of marine aquaculture, may be the USA 1983). Aquac-
re ulato CIP
ry
most critical. Government must ulture remains a
demonstrate its support by clearly _cbn Is
'4"'_11,C6ntdbute,t0 th relatively young
-d,
defining the term aquaculture, provid- t "SI]b d't1dh:"7 scientific discipline
ing supporting policy statements and that is developing
implementation strategies, offering rapidly, with
incentives (which do not necessarily have to be solely incorporation of a variety of modem technologies,
financial) to underscore its commitment, and defin- most not yet fully adapted for widespread use
ing and streamlining its regulatory and legal require- (Rosenthal 1985). Indeed, there has been a trend
ments. toward intensification in both traditional and con-
temporary culture systems.
Issues Conftonting Marine Aquaculture
Aquaculture practices range from extensive, with few
There are a number of issues that have constrained inputs and modest output, to intensive, with high
the development of marine aquaculture in the United inputs and output. On an annual yield per hectare of
States. The complex and diverse nature of the water basis, increased intensification requires greater

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

resource use, ranging from simple pond culture to opportunities for future commercial aquaculture
intensive tank and closed system aquaculture (Muir development are in recirculating (closed) systems on
1985). These varying technologies are what make land and in confinement systems in the open ocean.
aquaculture the diverse industry it is, but they have Research and development emphasis has been on
wide-ranging resource needs, produce differing closed system aquaculture rather than on offshore
environmental impacts, and require a suite of techno- facilities. Yet, after more than 20 years of R&D
logical and management responses. activity, the economic viability of closed system
aquaculture remains elusive. The United States is
Further complicating the future of marine aquacul- only now exploring the potential for establishing
ture is the complexity that stems from unique factors facilities in unprotected offshore areas.
that distinguish it from other forms of agricultural
activity, including: (1) the interaction of marine Aquaculture and the Environment
aquaculture with other marine and coastal activities
and interests-interactions that are often characterized Much has been published over the last 15 years on
by conflict; (2) the fact that although marine aquacul- the environmental impacts of marine aquaculture
ture is ocean-based, it depends on the use of land (e.g., Ackefors and Sodergren 1985, Weston 1986,
and freshwater resources as well; and (3) the numer- Rosenthal et al 1988, DeVoe 1992, Goldburg and
ous environmental and regulatory considerations Triplett 1997, Naylor et al.1998, also see Estuaries, Vol
involved in the development and use of coastal zone 18: 1A, 1995). However, ecological concerns had been
land and water resources, usually held in the public raised by a number of authors in the 1970s (Odum
trust (NRC 1992). 1974, Ackefors and Rosen 1979). One of the major
challenges to the marine aquaculture industry in the
Coastal and Ocean Use Conflicts United States will be how it responds to these
environmental sustainability issues (Chamberlain
While culturists, scientists, and resource managers and Rosenthal 1995).
face the task of resolving these issues through
research studies, monitoring programs, and technical Aquaculture practices can generate environmental
assistance support, the marine aquaculture industry impacts as a function of (1) the applied technique, (2)
continues to deal with its "growing pains." In a site location, (3) size of the production, and (4)
recent survey of state aquaculture coordinators, capacity of the receiving body of water (Ackefors and
industry representatives, and extension specialists, Sodergren 1985). These can include impacts on water
Sand-ifer(1994) found that only 9 out of the country's quality, the benthic layer, the native gene pool, and
24 coastal states and 5 territories reported moderate the ecosystem as a whole, and impacts from non-
growth, and 8 no growth. Asked to identify the native species, disease, and chemicals.
major factors responsible for this situation, the
respondents indicated that of 12 limiting factors, the The state of knowledge regarding the environmental
top three were use conflicts (92%), permitting (92%) impacts of aquaculture is rapidly improving.
and the regulatory environment (88%) Whereas two decades ago very little research data
(Sandifer1994). were available, there has been a surge in the number
and scope of research and monitoring programs
Use conflicts represent one of the primary issues U.S. seeking to document these effects. Much work
marine aquaculturists must face, and are likely to worldwide has focused on the effects of net-pen
become more pronounced and frequent in the future culture on the environment, with the International
(Chamberlain and Rosenthal 1995). DeVoe et al. Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) leading
(1992) found through a survey of the marine aquacul- the way. In the United States, early research efforts
ture industry and state regulatory agencies that the dealt with fish hatchery effluents and catfish ponds.
competing use of the coastal zone by recreational As the domestic industry diversified, so did environ-
users, commercial fishermen, and developers was mental research, with major federal studies examin-
frequently encountered. The escalating costs of ing the impacts of marine shrimp pond culture and
acquiring access to coastal lands and waters in the salmon net-pen culture, and the issues regarding
country exacerbate the problem. species introductions, the use of chemicals in aquac-
ulture, and effluent discharges.
In 1992, the National Research Council of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences predicted that, due to
increasing pressures along the coastal zone, the best

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Legal and Regulatory Structures The majority of laws and regulations that specifically
authorize, permit, or control aquaculture are usually
The current regulatory environment for marine found at the state level. The Aspen Corp. study
aquaculture in the United States is a major constraint examined 32 state regulatory programs and discov-
to its development (NRC 1978, NRC 1992, JSA 1993, ered that over 1,200 state laws have some significant
and others). No formal federal framework exists to bearing on aquaculture operations. Policies and
govern the leasing and development of private regulations were found to affect aquaculture in eight
commercial aquaculture activities in public waters major areas: aquaculture species use; water quality;
(NRC 1992). water use; land use; facility and hatchery manage-
ment; processing; financial assis-tance; and occupa-
In a 1981 study commissioned by the joint Subcom- tional safety and health.
mittee on Aquaculture, the Aspen Corporation
examined the federal and state regulatory framework Major aquaculture problems, that arise from state
for aquaculture (Aspen Corp. 1981). As many as 11 laws and regulations are caused by the lack of
federal agencies are directly involved in regulating uniformity of laws among the states, the sheer
aquaculture and another 10 are indirectly involved. number of permits, licenses, and certifications that
However, only a limited number of permitting and must be obtained, and the difficulty in obtaining
licensing requirements are directly imposed by them (NRC 1978,1992). Each state has its own
federal agencies. More characteristic are federal unique legal, political, and economic climate for
agency programs that indirectly regulate fish farmers aquaculture, and cultdrists must navigate the regula-
(e.g., restrictions on drug use, federal laws adminis- tory environment differently in each. Only a few
tered by states, etc.). states have developed the information management
capability to present the applicant with a comprehen-
Some 50 federal statutes (with accompanying regula- sive list of all the legal requirements that must be
tions) were found to have a direct impact on the met. State regulatory programs can be and usually
aquaculture industry, although the actual number of are more restrictive than federal guidelines and
statutes that affect an individual operation vary regulations dictate. The result is that state agencies
depending on its size, location, the species being vary greatly as to what standards they apply to
cultured, and other factors. In total, over 120 statu- aquaculture (McCoy 1989), and some still apply laws
tory programs of the federal government were found designed for other applications such as those for
to significantly affect aquaculture development. public fisheries management (NRC 1978,1992).
About one-half require direct compliance from the
fish farmer. Federal agencies which establish the ground rules
that most state agencies must follow have adopted
Seven federal agencies have regulatory programs vague, confusing, and poorly conceived regulations,
that directly affect the marine aquaculture industry: or none at all (McCoy 1989). This translates into
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Environ- inconsistencies in the development and application
mental Protection Agency, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife of laws and regulations at the state level (deFur and
Service, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Radar 1995). Few states have a comprehensive
U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. National regulatory plan which satisfactorily balances eco-
Marine Fisheries Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard. nomic development and environmental protection.
Federal oversight of the marine aquaculture industry As a result, regulations governing aquaculture are
is fragmented; there is no overall federal framework scattered throughout state statutes and do not
to address aquaculture development in the coastal necessarily fit aquaculture (Breaux 1992). Complicat-
zone or offshore waters. Further, while recent ing matters is the fact that existing permit programs
evaluations of marine aquaculture suggest that do not have provisions for determining the capacity
offshore locations may represent a viable alternative of the coastal and estuarine system for aquaculture,
(NRC 1992), no formal policies have been developed land-based or in situ (deFur and Radar 1995).
to manage aquaculture development in the U.S.
Exclusive Economic Zone. As a result, existing The complexity that results from the involvement of
federal policies vary from one agency to another (and many federal, state, and local agencies responsible
may even differ among divisions within the same for all aspects (including advocacy, promotion,
agency) and the permitting process can be time- conduct, and regulation) of marine aquaculture leads
consuming, complex, and costly. to an array of planning acts, policies, and regulations

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

(NRC 1992). Federal laws are applied differently in agencies, is generally thought of as a model coordi-
various geographic regions of the country (NRC nating mechanism. The JSA exists now as a statutory
1978), and the industry remains concerned about the committee that operates under the aegis of the
lack of coordination among agencies regulating National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of
aquaculture (JSA 1993). Unfortunately, the federal the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the
government has yet to make any significant headway Office of the Science Advisor to the President. The
in reducing regulatory constraints (McCoy 1989). JSA reports to the NSTC's Committee on Health,
Safety and Food Research and Development, which
Another limitation to the current regulatory regime is one of nine research and development committees
for marine aquaculture in the United States is the established by NSTC to prepare coordinated R&D
lack of long-range and whole systems planning strategies and budget recommendations for accom-
(deFur and Radar 1995). Aquaculture policy appears plishing national goals. Chairmanship of the JSA
to be made by granting permits on a case-by-case was originally planned to rotate among the Secretar-
basis (Rubino and Wilson 1993), and the require- ies of the three primary departments; however, the
ments are often determined using regulations and 1985 amendments specifically established the Secre-
technical standards not originally developed or tary of Agriculture as permanent chair of the JSA.
intended for aquaculture (Ewart et al, 1995). Each
permit is considered individually by the issuing The JSA completed the first and only version of a
agency, usually with no provision for examining national aquaculture development plan in 1983.
cumulative impacts (deFur and Radar 1995). Volume I of the plan presented information on the
status of aquaculture, current technologies, impedi-
Marine Aquaculture and Federal Policy ments to development, existing federal programs,
recommended programs and actions, and anticipated
On September 26,1980, the National Aquaculture Act impacts. Volume 11 reviewed those aquatic species
of 1980 was passed to "promote aquaculture in the that have or show potential for development as
United States" through a declaration of a national aquaculture products. Unfortunately, no assessment
policy, development and implementation of a na- regarding progress on the original plan's recommen-
tional aquaculture development plan, establishment dations was ever made. It was not until 1996 that
of a coordinating group of federal agency representa- revision of the 1983 plan was considered. A draft
tives, establishment of a National Aquaculture updated national aquaculture development plan is
Information Center, and encouragement of aquacul- now being finalized for submission to the NSTC for
ture activities and programs in both the public and review and comment.
private sectors. The 1980 Act was amended in 1985
and 1990, and reauthorized most recently in 1998. The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 and its amend-
ments provide a federal policy framework for and
The Act clearly states an aquaculture policy for the endorsement of aquaculture in the United States.
country: that it is "in the national interest, and it is The 1983 plan constituted the first coordinated effort
the national policy, to encourage the development of in the United States to assess the aquaculture indus-
aquaculture in the United States." The National try, identify its needs, and suggest steps to improve
Aquaculture Act of 1980 gives principal responsibil- the climate for aquaculture development. The JSA
ity for the development of aquaculture to the private also provides a mechanism whereby information
sector but jointly assigned three federal agencies exchange and program coordination can occur.
aquacultural-related responsibilities- the Depart- Nevertheless, although the 1980 Act was reautho-
ments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Interior. An rized in 1998 as part of the Farm Bill, recent failure of
Interagency Agreement was reached among these legislation explicitly extending and funding the 1980
agencies regarding "Designation of Areas of Respon- Act suggests that difficulties persist in seeking a
sibility in Aquaculture." consensus on a government policy for aquaculture.

The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture USA) was The Future of Marine Aquaculture in the United
created to serve as a federal interagency coordinating States
group to increase the overall effectiveness and
productivity of federal aquaculture research, technol- The reasons that marine aquaculture has not pro-
ogy transfer, and assistance programs. While receiv- gressed as rapidly as freshwater aquaculture are as
ing no direct funding, the JSA, composed of the complex as the nature of the industry itself. These
heads or their designees of more than 12 federal issues manifest themselves not only at the federal

nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

level, but in each of the nation's coastal states as well. Public Works; and Labor and Human Resources. On
Progress is occurring throughout the country, albeit the House side, the Agriculture Committee, Com-
at a fairly slow pace. The potential of marine aquac- merce Committee, and Resources Committee have
ulture remains high as research information and jurisdiction over components of aquaculture. Of
technologies continue to be generated for cultivating course, each of these committees has different
a diversity of marine species, *ameliorating the real mandates and responsibilities which may overlap at
environmental effects of the industry, and developing times, and each has its own agenda and perspective
cost--effective and sustainable culture techniques on aquaculture issues and needs. These committees
and practices. Realization of that potential is being must also deal with a wide range of constituencies,
severely limited by many institutional and legal some of which may take positions counter to those of
constraints and sustainability issues. the marine aquaculture industry. Here again,
reaching agree- ment on issues related to aquaculture
These issues are not new to the industry or to gov- can be difficult.
ernment. Conclusions of two National Research
Council (National Academy of Sciences) panels that Whither U.S. Marine Aquaculture Policy?
met in 1978 and 1992 to review the growth and
potential of the U.S. aquaculture industry are enlight- There have been many studies and analyses con-
ening. In 1978, an NRC panel concluded that con- ducted over the last 20 years by federal agency,
straints on the development of the U.S. aquaculture congressional office, academic, and industry authors
industry "tend to be political and administrative, examining the issues facing the U.S. marine aquacul-
rather than scientific and technological" (NRC 1978). ture sector and offering a myriad of recommenda-
Fourteen years later, a second NRC panel stated that tions and strategies to address them (e.g., NRC 1978,
"solutions to the environmental problems constrain- DeVoe and Mount 1989, NRC 1992, Rubino and
ing marine aquaculture will involve approaches that Wilson 1993, Stickney 1994, DeVoe 1994, DeVoe 1997).
combine technological 'fixes' with improved regula- While these authors and others have provided
tory and management structures, as well as public reasonable and proactive suggestions for enhancing
education" (NRC 1992). It is unfortunate that many the marine aquaculture industry, the situation in
of the issues identified in 1978 and again in 1992 general has changed little over that time. Why?
remain unresolved to this day
The United States must return to the more funda-
Becker and Buck (1997) identify an important factor mental issues to address the lack of growth of the
that has not seriously been considered by aquacul- marine aquaculture industry. More to the point, the
ture pundits; that is, the federal government has country must:
actually put itself in a conflict-of-interest position vis-
A-vis its roles in aquaculture. On one hand, it acts as 1. Reevaluate and Reaffirm the Nation's Aquacul-
enforcer of regulatory requirements aimed at protect- ture Policy
ing consumers, natural resources, and the environ-
ment and, on the other, as administrator of programs While Japan continues to focus use of its coastal and
that support and promote the growth of the industry. marine resources on food production, the United
What results is a tug-of-war where progress is States continues to look to the coast and ocean for
difficult to achieve. Obvious in their analysis is the recreation, tourism, and other economic pursuits. We
view that complete consensus on the future role of as a country of plenty have not had to look to the
the federal government in support of aquaculture seas to provide sustenance for our citizens. Pressures
will be difficult to achieve. to effect a major cultural change in the way we now
use our coastal and marine resources have not risen
In addition to the many federal departments and to a critical level; why change when we can import
agencies that are involved in aquaculture policy, seafood from overseas? The impetus to unite the
regulation, management, and/or support, Becker industry, U.S. Congress, the federal agencies, the
and Buck (1997) point out that jurisdiction over states, and constituents together to create this cul-
aquaculture-related issues is divided among several tural shift has been lacking. As a result, marine
congressional committees as well. In the Senate, aquaculture's place among the many uses of the
aquaculture and related issues are divided among nation's coastal and ocean waters is not as yet
the Committees on Agriculture, Nutrition and established.
Forestry; Commerce, Science and Transportation;
Energy and Natural Resources; Environment and

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 contains a without a budget, participation by any of the agen-
clear and unambiguous statement in support of cies is not mandatory, and there is no formal voting
aquaculture development in the United States. The structure nor dispute resolution process in place.
United States, through Congress and the Administra- Areas where the role of the JSA could be strength-
tion, with the support of industry and the involve- ened include:
ment of all constituencies, must take a hard look at
the current situation and decide if it wishes to a. Status of the ISA
aggressively pursue the policy. Many scholars,
academics, industry leaders, and others have offered The role of the JSA in the administration should be
a wide range of possible solutions to address the expanded to include policy development and imple-
constraints limiting marine aquaculture develop- mentation.
ment, but without strong commitment and leader-
ship by the federal government to work toward this The permanence of the JSA should be established
goal, the current situation will be hard to improve. through the provision of a stable source of funding
and staff assistance to improve coordination and
2. Support Sustainable Marine Aquaculture consistency of policy development and implementa-
tion.
Marine aquaculture in coastal and offshore waters of
the United States must be developed with an eye The JSA should enhance the involvement of key
toward sustainability - with a goal of producing representatives from the marine aquaculture indus-
products while conserving natural resources. Its try, environmental community, and other constituen-
development must have a solid ecological perspec- cies in its deliberations and decision-making.
tive that is compatible with the social, economic, and
environmental goals of coastal communities, which b. Federal Permitting and Regulatory Structure
will require the active involvement of community
leaders and other relevant parties in the process. The * The JSA should be charged with designing a
development and use of risk assessment tools, best streamlined planning and permitting framework for
management practices, and educational and training marine aquaculture activities in the coastal zone,
programs must be incorporated into all federal emphasizing joint local, state, and federal coordina-
efforts to develop and support the industry. The tion in consultation with the marine aquaculture
development of environmental criteria for marine industry, the states, and pertinent constituencies.
aquaculture operations must be base on the genera-
tion of science-based information. These and other The JSA should be charged with the primary
factors must be incorporated into federal policies and responsibility for developing a coordinated manage-
plans if we are to see the marine aquaculture sector ment and regulatory framework for offshore aquac-
grow in the future. ulture activities, in consultation with all relevant
federal and state agencies and constituencies.
3. Strengthen Policy Development through Im-
proved Coordination c. Federal Research and Development Activities

Assuming the United States is truly committed to the * The JSA should conduct an assessment of all
development of the marine aquaculture industry, ongoing federal funding programs to assess the
mechanisms must be put into place to refine existing nature and scope of current activities and whether
and establish new implementation measures to guide they are meeting the needs of the industry and the
its growth. The fundamental framework to meet this public.
challenge already exists with the Joint Subcommittee
on Aquaculture. Currently, JSA plays an important The JSA should, based on the assessment, develop a
role in coordinating federal agency activities and coordinated, cross-cutting funding plan to ensure
ensuring communication among the agencies in the that future key needs and issues related to marine
areas of research, transfer, and assistance programs in aquaculture are being addressed in an efficient and
aquaculture, and providing recommendations for non-duplicative manner.
federal aquaculture policy. The potential for enhanc-
ing the role of the JSA in dealing with and resolving
the many issues facing marine aquaculture lies with
its membership. However, it presently operates

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Conclusion Chamberlain, G. and H. Rosenthal. 1995. Aquacul-
ture in the next century: Opportunities for growth-
The key to the future of marine aquaculture in the challenges of sustainability. World Aquaculture
United States is the creation of technological and 26(l):21-25.
political systems that provide for sustainable marine
aquaculture. Sustainable aquaculture will only be Culliton, T.J., M.A. Warren, T.R. Goodspeed, D.G.
achieved if all facets of the industry - production Remer, C.M. Blackwell, and J.J. McDonough 111.
and technology, economics and marketing, business 1990. Fifty years of population change along the nation's
and financing, natural resource needs and protec- coasts. National Ocean Service, NOAA, Rockville,
tions, and administrative and legal institutions - are MD. 41 pp.
dealt with simultaneously. This is a lofty goal, given
the diverse nature of the marine aquaculture indus- deFur, P.L. and D.N. Rader. 1995. Aquaculture in
try, but the modus operandi of the last three decades estuaries: feast or famine? Estuaries 18(1A): 2-9.
in dealing with the needs of the industry will not be
enough. Systems that will move the industry for- DeVoe, M.R. (editor). 1992. Proceedings of a Conference
ward will require an unequivocal commitment by the and Workshop on Introductions and Transfers of Marine
nation's political leadership to create them, by the Species: Achieving a Balance Between Economic Develop-
federal bureaucracy to implement them, by the ment and Resource Protection. S.C. Sea Grant Consor-
academic community to generate and extend infor- tium, Charleston. 201 pp.
mation to improve them, and by the industry to put
them into practice. Coordination, cooperation, DeVoe, M.R. 1994. Aquaculture and the marine
communication, and education will be the primary environmental: Policy and management issues and
tools required to move the United States toward a opportunities in the United States. Bulletin of Natural
viable and sustainable marine aquaculture industry. Resources of the Institute of Aquaculure, supplement
1:111-123.
Literature Cited
DeVoe, M.R. 1997. Marine aquaculture regulation in
Ackefors, H. and C. G. Rosen. 1979. Farming aquatic the United States: Environmental policy and manage-
animals: The emergence of a worldwide industry ment issues. In: Interactions Between Cultured Species
with profound ecological consequences. Ambio 8(4): and Naturally Occurring Species in the Environment,
132-143. Proceedings of the 24th U.S.-Japan Aquaculture
Panel Symposium, Oct. 8-10,1995. Texas A&M
Ackefors, H. and A. Sodergren. 1985. Swedish University Sea Grant College Program. 16 pp.
experiences of the impact of aquaculture on the
environment. International Councilfor the Exploration DeVoe, M.R. and A.S. Mount. 1989. An analysis of
of the Sea, C.M. 1985/E:40.7 10state aquaculture leasing systems: Issues and
strategies. Journal of Shellfish Research 8(l):233-239.
Aspen Corporation. 1981. Aquaculture in the United
States: Regulatory constraints. Final Report, Contract DeVoe, M.R., R.S. Pomeroy, and A.W. Wypyszinski.
No. 14-16-009-79-095 to U.S. Fish and Wildlife 1992. Aquaculture conflicts in the eastern United
Service. 51 pp. States. World Aquaculture 23(2):24-25.

Bardach, J. 1995. Aquaculture and sustainability, Ewart, J.W., J. Hankins, and D. Bullock. 1995. State
World Aquaculture 26(l):2. policies for aquaculture effluents and solid wastes in the
northeast region, NRAC Bull. No. 300-1995, Northeast-
Becker, G.S. and E.H. Buck. 1997. Aquaculture and the ern Regional Aquaculture Center, North Dartmouth,
federal role. Congressional Research Service, U.S. MA. 24 pp.
Library of Congress. 97-436 ENR. 29 pp.
Food and Agricultural Organization. 1997 (on-line).
Breaux, RW. 1992. Comparative study of state aquacul- Fisheries Statistics. http://wwwfao-org
ture regulation and recommendationsfor Louisiana. LCL
93, Louisiana Sea Grant Legal Program, Baton Rouge, Goldburg, R. and T. Triplett. 1997. Murky waters:
LA. 8 pp. Environmental effects of aquaculture in the United States.
Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, DC. 196
PP.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

Harvey, D.J. 1994. Outlookfor U.S. aquaculture. Agri- Rubino, M.C. and C.A. Wilson. 1993. Issues in Aqua-
cultural Outlook Conference, Outlook '94, Session 20. culture Regulation. Bluewaters, Inc., Bethesda, MD. 72
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 6 pp. PP.

Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA). 1993. Sandifer, P.A. 1994. U.S. coastal aquaculture: Flirting
Aquaculture in the United States: Status, opportunities with opportunity. Water Farming Journal 8(4):3-16.
and recommendations. Report to the Federal Coordi-
nating Council on Science, Engineering and Technol- Stickney, R. Offshore aquaculture: Technology and policy
ogy- 21 pp- issues. Draft report prepared for the Office of Technol-
ogy Assessment. 60 pp.
Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture. 1983. National
Aquaculture Development Plan, Volume 1. Washington, Weston, D.P. 1986. The environmental affects offloating
DC. 67 pp. mariculture in Puget Sound. Report 87-16 to Washing-
ton Dept. Fisheries and Ecology. 148 pp.
McCoy 11, H.D. 1989. Commercial aquaculture zones:
A legislative proposal. Aquaculture (6): 39-46.

Muir, J.R 1985. Aquaculture-Towards the Future.
Endeavour, New Series. 9(l):52-55.

National Research Council (U.S.). 1978. Aquaculture in
the United States: Constraints and Opportunities.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 1,123 pp.

National Research Council (U.S.). 1991 Marine
Aquaculture. Opportunities for Growth. National
Academy Press, Washington, DC. 290 pp.

Naylor, R.L., R.J. Goldburg, H. Mooney, M.
Beveridge, J. Clay, C. Folke, N.Kautsky, J. Lubchenko,
J. Primavera, and M. Williams. 1998. Nature's subsi-
dies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science 282:883-
884.

Nixon, D.W. 1994. Aquaculture: Impediments to
growth. Maritimes 37(2):2-4.

National Marine Fisheries Service. 1998 (on-line).
Fisheries Statisticsfor the United States. http://
www.nmfs.noaa.gov

Odum, W.E. 1974. Potential effects of aquaculture on
inshore coastal waters. Environmental Conservation
1(3):225-230.

Rosenthal, H. 1985. Constraints and perspectives in
aquaculture development. Geojournal 10(3):305-324.

Rosenthal, H., D. Weston, R. Gower, and E. Black.
1988. Environmental impact of mariculture. Report of
ad hoc study group. International Councilfor the
Exploration of the Sea, 1988/No. 154. 83 pp.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

OFFSHORE MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE U.S. EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC
ZONE (EEZ): LEGAL AND REGULATORY CONCERNS

Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
*University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware

Future development of marine aquaculture in the This paper describes the current federal regulatory
U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is constrained framework, identifies important elements that need
by legal and regulatory concerns which need to be to be included in an improved government frame-
addressed in work, reviews the major legal obstacles to
order for the offshore aquaculture, and presents an
industry to A major study coordl- overview of recent U.S. government
become finan- ated by the National planning initiatives.'
cially viable and n
internationally Research Council's Marine Current Federal Regulatory Framework
competitive. Board concluded there
These concerns ore significant opportuni- Federal authority over offshore marine
relate to prop- ties f aquaculture rests primarily with two
erty rights for r future groWth of agencies: the Army Corps of Engineers
aquaculture marine aquaculture in the (Corps) and the Environmental Protection
operators, United States. Agency (EPA). Under the Rivers and
conflicts with Harbors Act,' as amended by the Outer
competing uses Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCS),' the
of public waters, Corps is responsible for issuing permits
and regulatory gaps and overlap. Failure to resolve for structures located in navigable waters. In its
these issues creates uncertainties for the economic "public interest review 116 of requests for aquaculture
viability of offshore aquaculture projects, making it facilities, the Corps considers the benefits and
difficult for potential investors to obtain financing. detriments to the public interest, including environ-
While some states have addressed these concerns for mental, economic, aesthetic, navigation, property
projects within the portion of the EEZ under their rights, and international interests. Under the Clean
jurisdiction (for most states, out to 3 nautical miles), Water Act,' EPA asserts regulatory authority over
the federal government approach with respect to discharges from aquaculture facilities as "concen-
aquaculture facilities in the federal portion of the trated aquatic animal production facilities."' Other
EEZ (from the state boundary out to 200 nautical federal agencies, including NOAA!s National Marine
miles offshore) is piecemeal. Most Fisheries Service
importantly, there is no clear legal basis and the Fish and
for granting property rights that are Wildlife Service,
... the industry will continue have an opportu-
needed to protect the large investments
necessary to build and operate offshore to face serious obstacles nity to review
aquaculture facilities in the open ocean. until the legal and regula- and comment on
any permit
tory regime Is modified to
A major study coordinated by the Na- proposed for
tional Research Council's Marine Board clarify rights andjurisdiC- issuance by the
concluded there are significant opportu- fions, eliminate overlap, Corps or EPA. In
nities for future growth of marine aquac- and fill regulatory gaps. addition,
ulture in the United States.' More re- NOAA!s regional
cently, the Environmental Defense Fund Fisheries Man-
gave the industry a qualified blessing agement Coun-
when it concluded that "aquaculture need not be a cils have authority over the harvesting of species
polluting industry."' However, the industry will covered by fishery management plans-9 Federal
continue to face serious obstacles until the legal and leasing of portions of the seabed beyond state waters
regulatory regime is modified to clarify rights and for aquaculture is not presently possible under the
jurisdictions, eliminate overlap, and fill regulatory Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act."
gaps.

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Elements of An Improved Government Framework tion in decisions affecting public resources. Hearings
forAquaculture should be formal enough to exclude interventions
not relevant to the licensing decision, but not so
The Marine Law Institute" has developed a set of 10 formal that small-scale sea farm applicants are faced
recommendations to improve the regulatory frame- with prohibitive application costs.
work for aquaculture:
9. Insurance Pool - Public and private efforts should
1. Marine Zones - The responsible government work to create an insurance pool to compensate sea
agency should identify marine zones favorable to sea farmers for losses due to product destruction or
farming and consistent with desired environmental water impoundment orders to protect public health.
conditions and potential use conflicts.
10. Small-Scale and Experimental Farming - State and
2. Common Application Procedure - All state and local licensing authorities should adopt license-by-
federal permits and leases should share a common rule procedures for small-scale and experimental
application procedure, siting criteria, and site evalua- farming, with reduced application requirements and
tion and monitoring protocols. expedited procedures.

3. Property Interests - Aquaculture leases or licenses Legal Obstacles to Consider in Revising the Regula-
should convey an exclusive property interest in the tory Framework
cultured species as well as in the right to harvest it
from the leased area, as far as it is consistent with In 1978, the National Research Council" identified
public rights of navigation and fishing. This is the major legal obstacles to development of the
necessary to secure the sea farmer's investment aquaculture industry. These concerns remain rel-
against negligence, theft, and vandalism, and to evant to current discussions about the federal regula-
allow for civil causes of action against persons who tory framework.
interfere with or damage aquaculture facilities.
1. Limited availability of property rights or other
4. Agency Coordination - State and federal agencies interests that can secure a producer's investment
should adopt memoranda of understanding on
coordinating enforcement, research, and technical 2. Poorly defined standards that fail to reduce
assistance. conflicts among competing users of public resources

5. Cooperative Arrangements - Maximum acreage 3. Poorly defined agency jurisdictions leading to
limitations should not apply to contracts, joint delays in defining applicable standards or regula-
ventures, or partnerships between small-scale sea tions
farmers and larger aquaculture companies so that
cooperative arrangements can be implemented. 4. Redundant regulations due to overlapping agency
responsibilities
6. Economic Priorities - Government agencies should
provide priorities in licensing or leasing to fishermen 5. Inappropriate restrictions designed to protect wild
displaced by conservation restrictions on the capture stocks
fisheries as an appropriate non-discriminatory means
of promoting local economic benefits from sea Any changes in the federal regulatory framework
farming. need to keep these obstacles in mind in the develop-
ment of provisions relating to property rights,
7. Community Relations - Sea farm applicants should conflicts with other users, and regulatory require-
be encouraged to enter into private agreements with ments.
local fishermen's organizations, cooperatives, or
community groups for work in the sea farming Property Rights
operation, to prevent use conflicts and promote local
economic benefits and acceptance of sea farms. The key concern with respect to the legal framework
affecting marine aquaculture is: how secure is the
8. Public Hearings - Agency public hearing proce- interest that the sea farmer receives from the govern-
dures should balance the due process rights of sea ment? For the interest to function as a property
farm leaseholders with the public right of participa- interest, it needs to have some or all of the following

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

attributes: transferability, duration and renewability, sea farmer with the advantages of obtaining the
and revocability only for failure to perform specified approval of multiple agencies without imposing
conditions. heavy costs in time and money to obtain them.

In addition, special legal principles designed to The administrative process should include a speedy
protect public uses, known as public trust rights, mechanism for exempting aquaculture from regula-
come into play." These public property interests tions that are designed to conserve wild fish stocks,
must be balanced against the sea farmer's needs for a such as restrictions on harvesting or limited vessel-
secure interest in the cultured species and for protec- days at sea . These decisions should not have to be
tion against damage from other activities. made on a case-by-case basis or require a special
waiver or exemption, and conflicts of interest should
Future federal regulatory policy must also consider be avoided. Because fishermen are likely to oppose
the legal differences between the lease and license aquaculture ventures they perceive as producing
forms of tenure. Leases have certain advantages over competition for limited fishing grounds or seafood
licenses in terms of security of tenure. Neither, markets, the federal regional fishery management
however, can convey permanent, exclusive control of councils (which include strong fishing industry
an area of the ocean because of the public property representation) are not an appropriate authority for
rights and other principles mentioned above. . EEZ aquaculture decisions.

Finally, the federal government needs to provide for Current Status of U.S. Government Planning Efforts
criminal sanctions and a civil right of action against
individuals who violate the sea farmer's rights as The U.S. government has begun to focus on the issue
lessee of the seabed and water column. of offshore aquaculture in the Exclusive Economic
Zone, although much more remains to be done. The
Conflicts Among Competing Users major initiatives come from the interagency Joint
Subcommittee on Aquaculture USA) and the Na-
Even when the sea farmer's lease or license is backed tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
by criminal sanctions against persons damaging or (NOAA).
interfering with the farm, peaceful co-existence
among all users of the marine environment cannot be The JSXs draft National Aquaculture Development
ensured. The process for issuing leases or licenses Plan 14 calls for "an appropriate and harmonized
must therefore protect the sea farmer from conflicts Federal regulatory framework" for aquaculture. The
with other marine uses. Other public and private plan highlights "the complex, fragmented, and
uses of the marine environment that are potentially uncertain regulatory environment" and points out
affected by aquaculture activities (navigation, fishing, that "as a result, aquatic farmers may either be
etc.) need to be identified in the statutory authority required to comply with a daunting and expensive
for the leasing of public waters or submerged lands, array of regulations or, as exemplified by offshore
and a mechanism for considering information about marine aquaculture initiatives, be forced to operate in
other uses needs to be included in the decision a highly uncertain regulatory framework" (Section
process. Failure to consider other uses in the licens- 4.4.8). The plan's list of needed regulatory improve-
ing process can result in serious use conflicts, leading ments includes "permits and regulations for com-
to court challenges that interfere with operations and mercial aquaculture operations in public waters,
could ultimately produce judicial decisions adversely including Federal marine waters" (Section 5.8).
affecting future sea farming opportunities. Although the Plan was revised in 1996, the draft has
yet to be formally adopted by the JSA.
Agency Regulatory Requirements
Within NOAA, marine aquaculture issues are being
The issue of fragmentation and overlapping agency addressed in several ways. In February 1998, NOAA
mandates has two sides. An apparently redundant adopted an agency-wide aquaculture policy, ele-
regulatory requirement may actually serve a useful ments of which have been incorporated in its strate-
purpose. Jurisdictional overlap can improve the gic plan. The agency has also drfated an aquaculture
security of the interest the sea farmer obtains when it policy for the entire Department of Commerce, which
signals that an agency with a different constituency is expected to be adopted in February 1999. In
has accepted an aquaculture project both in principle addition, the National Marine Fisheries Service
and in reality. The objective should be to provide the (NMFS) has drafted legislation for aquaculture

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

leasing in the EEZ. The proposed legislation is (June 1998), which made no modifications to the
undergoing internal review within the Department of existing federal approach. However, funding for
Commerce, and its prospects are uncertain at this marine aquaculture is included in the Clinton
time. Administration's National Oceans Initiative, an-
nounced in June 1998. If enacted, the proposal will
NOAA!s strategic plan" includes agency promotion provide $ 3 million annually over a 3-year peirod
of robust and environmentally sound aquaculture beginning in fiscal year 2000. Adoption of JSA's draft
development. The plan recognizes the need for a National Aquaculture Development Plan could serve
timely regulatory process, and specifically mentions as a vehicle for promoting needed change in the legal
the need to emphasize "a regulatory framework and and regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture
permitting process for aquaculture in the EEZ." The and devising a federal policy for leasing federal
plan includes the following performance measures waters in the EEZ.
for the next 5 years:

1. Promote the commercial rearing of at least seven
new species. Notes

2. Reduce the time and cost of 1. Committee on Assessment of Technology and
permittingenvironmentally sound aquaculture Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United
ventures. States, National Research Council (U.S.), Marine
Aquaculture: Opportunities for Growth: Report of the
3. Provide financial assistance for environmentally Committee on Assessment of Technology and
sound aquaculture ventures. Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United
States, Marine Board, Commission on Engineering
4. Identify areas in coastal waters and the EEZ and Technical Systems, National Research Council
suitable for environmentally sound aquaculture (Washington: National Academy Press, 1992).
development.
2. Rebecca Goldburg and Tracy Triplett, Murky
5. Develop and implement environmentally sound Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the U.S.
aquaculture technologies and practices. (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, 1997).

NOAA!s implementation strategy specifically 3. Portions of this paper are based on earlier work by
mentions the need to develop a coordinated policy one of the authors. See Alison Rieser, "Defining the
on the use of the EEZ for private aquaculture, to Federal Role in Offshore Aquaculture: Should It
address user conflicts affecting aquaculture develop- Feature Delegation to the States?" in Ocean and
ment, and to determine requirements for the siting of Coastal Law journal 2 (1997): 209-234.
aquaculture operations in the EEZ.
4. 33 U.S.C. � 403 (1994).
Conclusion
5.43 U.S.C. � 1333(e) (1994).
Progress with respect to federal regulation of offshore
marine aquaculture in the U.S. EEZ is slow. The 6. 33 C.F.R. � 320.4(a)(1) (1995).
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) funded a
regional open ocean aquaculture initiative for New 7.33 U.S.C. �� 1251-1387 (1994).
England in Fiscal Year 1998, and regional fishery
management councils have begun to incorporate 8.40 C.F.R. � 122.24(a) (1995).
aquaculture provisions in their fishery management
plans. However, as noted above, this may not be the 9. The Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Manage-
most desirable approach to developing a regulatory ment Act, 16 U.S.C. �� 1801-1882 (1994), amended by
framework for offshore aquaculture in federal Sustainable Fisheries Act, Pub. L. No. 104-297, 110
waters. Stat. 3559 (1996) does not expressly authorize the
regional fishery management councils or the Na-
A window of opportunity for addressing the issues tional Marine Fisheries Service to license aquaculture
discussed in this paper was missed in the most recent projects in the EEZ. See William J. Brennan, "To Be
reauthorization of the National Aquaculture Act" Or Not To Be Involved: Aquaculture Management

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

Options for the New England Fishery Management
Council," 2 Ocean & Coastal L.J. 261 (1997). How-
ever, NOAA!s Office of General Counsel has con-
cluded that aquaculture constitutes "fishing" under
the Magnuson Act because it involves harvesting fish
from the EEZ by U.S. vessels. See Memorandum
from Jay S. Johnson, NOAA Deputy General Coun-
sel, and Margaret F. Hayes, NOAA Assistant General
Counsel for Fisheries, to James W. Brennan, NOAA
Acting General Counsel (Feb. 7,1993) (discussing
the applicability of federal laws to aquaculture in the
EEZ).

1.0. 43 U.S.C. �� 1331-1356 (1994).

11. Marine Law Institute, Legal Methodsfor Promoting
Local Salmon Farming Operations in Down East Maine,
Report to the National Coastal Resources Research
and Development Institute (1992).

12. National Research Council, Aquaculture in the
United States: Constraints and Opportunities (1978):90.

13. According to the public trust doctrine, the states
hold all navigable waters, and the lands under them,
in trust for the common use of the public. Phillips
Petroleum v. Mississippi, 484 U.S. 469 (1988). Tradi-
tionally, courts have protected the public right to
fishing and navigation in public trust waters and
lands, and have even expanded the scope of the
public trust to include other uses such as recreation
and ecological preservation.

14. National Science and Technology Council, Joint
Subcommittee on Aquaculture. National Aquaculture
Development Plan of 1996 (Draft, 5 March 1996). See
http: / /ag.ansc.purdue.edu/aquanic/publicat/
govagen/usda/dnadp.htm

15. See http://wwwnmfs.gov/bortniak/straplan/
obj-4.html

16. National Aquaculture Act of 1980, as amended.
16 U.S.C. 2801.

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

THE POTENTIAL FOR THE MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY

Shirley A. Pomponi
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida

Introduction Branch Oceanographic Institution to Novartis
Pharma AG, and is in advanced preclinical trials for
The marine environment is a rich source of both treatment of cancer.
biological and chemical diversity. This diversity has
been the source of unique chemical compounds with Federal agency support (e.g., NSF, NOAA, ONR,
the potential for industrial development as pharma- NIH) for deep ocean exploration for biotechnology is
ceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional supplements, mo- limited, at best. Manned and unmanned
lecular probes, enzymes, fine chemicals, and submersibles are woefully underfunded and re-
agrichemicals. Each of these classes of marine stricted to a few systems. The trend toward develop-
bioproducts has a potential multi-billion dollar ment of remote platforms for understanding the
market value (BioScience, 1996). Thousands of oceans and atmosphere has had little application
unique chemical compounds have been identified relative to marine biodiversity-and the potential of
from a relatively small number of the ocean's biologi- this diversity to yield useful products. Despite the
cal and chemical diversity (Ireland et al, 1993). The trend toward remotely operated systems, there is still
oceans represent a virtually untapped reso,irce for a need for manned submersible programs to study
discovery of even more novel compounds with and sample biodiversity in the deep oceans. Al-
useful activity. though some submersible systems are equipped with
specialized tools and chambers that allow samples to
There are several marine-derived products currently be maintained under ambient conditions, i.e., high
on the market (Table 1). Although this discussion will pressure and, low temperature, there is still a need
focus on the current status and future potential of for the development of versatile bioreactors that can
marine biotechnology related to the discovery, be deployed and operated in extreme environments
development, and sustainable use of marine-derived
compounds with biomedical applications, the needs, Table 1. Some Examples of Commercially Available
approaches, and opportunities apply equally to other Marine Bioproducts
marine bioproducts. The challenge facing the marine
biotechnology industry in the next millenium is to: Product Application Original Source
Ara-A antiviral drug marine sponge,
� identify new sources of marine bioproducts; C yptotethya crypta
Ara-C anticancer drug marine sponge,
� develop novel screening technologies; Cryptotetbya crypta
okadaic acid molecular probe: dinoflagellate
phosphatase inhibitor
� provide a sustainable source of supply; and manoalide molecular probe: marine sponge,
phospholipase A2 Luffariella variabilis
inhibitor
� optimize production and recovery of the Vent" DNA polymerase chain reaction deep-sea hydrotherinal
bioproducts. polymerase enzymes vent bacterium
Formulaida (Martek fatty acids used as marine microalga
Biosciences, additive in infant formula
Identification of New Sources of Marine Bioproducts Columbia, MD) nutritional supplement
Aequorin biolurninescent calcium bioluminescent
Marine bioproducts have, to date, been derived from indicator jellyfish, Aequora
relatively shallow-water organisms using routine victoria
Green Fluorescent reporter gene bioluminescent
methods, such as scuba diving. Evaluation of the Protein (GFP) jellyfish, Aequora
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutritional, and chemical victoria
potential of products derived from deep water phycoerythrin conjugated antibodies red algae
organisms has been limited, although at least one used in ELISAs and flow
cytometry
compound-discodermolide (Gunasekera et al, 1990; Resiliencen (Est e marine extract additive in Caribbean gorgonian,
ter Haar et al., 1996), derived from a deep water Lauder) skin creams Pseudopterogorgia
sponge-has been recently licensed by Harbor elisabethae

101

nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

(e.g., hypersaline, vent, anoxic, and deep-sea habi- nisms of action Conus toxins are well-known
tats). Such bioreactors could be used for collection, (Hopkins, et al, 1995; Shon et al, 1997), and are
at-sea maintenance, and evaluation of novel macro- currently being applied to the development of new
organisms and microorganisms so that their metabo- classes of drugs. Development of in situ biosensors
lites can be evaluated under physiological conditions would enhance our ability to probe the expression of
that are as similar as possible to ambient conditions. secondary metabolites in response to various stimuli,
lead to a better understanding of the role of the
Another approach to the identification of new secondary metabolites in nature, and perhaps
products is the incorporation of miniaturized provide clues to the potential biomedical utility of
biosensors; into both collecting tools and bioreactors these compunds
for rapid, in situ analysis of both wild and cultivated
marine organisms for target molecules. A number of Sustainable Use of Marine Resources
miniaturized biosensors and probes to study human
disease processes are in development. Adaptation of With the enormous potential for discovery, develop-
these for in situ evaluation of marine-derived prod- ment, and marketing of novel marine bioproducts
ucts would be an comes the obligation to develop meth-
...........
interesting bioengi- ods by which these products can be
4-
neering challenge. ; I I _,, lied in a way that will not disrupt
supp
With th&@@hotm6us
Potential applica- the ecosystem or deplete the resource.
Supply of most marine-derived com-
tions; are the -fial for discovery
develop
identification of
pounds is a major limiting factor for
new or previously further pharmaceutical development.
I ts 'J
tmtested species, as novel marine bipproduc'. Often, the metabolite occurs in trace
'the 66 to-, 1
well as analysis of comes fidation amounts in the organism, and a steady
;,@ source of supply from wild harvest
gene expression develop meth. ods bk Which
that may be specific cannot provide enough of the target
to a particular :,'these p'ro"'ducts..c'an..iDe@@,,,,,@l,, compound for preclinical studies. In
disease or thera- Supplied ki-a woy thdt will
general, the natural abundance of the
peutic area. not disrupt, the,,ecosystem,.@,, source organisms will not support
production based on wild harvest.
or deplete, the resource.
Development of
Novel Screening Some options for sustainable use of
Technologies marine resources are chemical synthe-
sis, controlled harvesting, aquaculture of the source
The biological evaluation of marine-derived extracts organism, in vitro production through cell culture of
and pure compounds for pharmaceutical develop- the macroorganism or microorganism source, and
ment has been based on assays developed for the transgenic production. Each of these options has its
high-throughput screening of large libraries of advantages and limitations. Not all methods will be
syntbetic compounds. They measure a number of applicable to the supply of every marine bioproduct,
end-points, such as activation or inhibition of en- and most of the biological supply methods are still in
zymes or receptors involved in human disease development. The approach to be used will be based
processes, inhibition of growth of human pathogenic on a number of factors:
microorganisms, and toxicity against human cancer
cells (Ireland et al, 1993; McConnell et al, 1994; Complexity of the molecule: Can it be synthe-
Munro et al, 1994). None of the assays used in major sized using an industrially feasible process?
pharmaceutical drug discovery programs takes into Synthetic processes have been published for
account the role of marine-derived compounds in many marine bioproducts in development as
nature, i.e., the in situ biochemical functions of both pharmaceuticals. Unfortunately, most of these
primary and secondary metabolites, and how those are multi-step processes that are not amenable to
functions may be applied to the discovery of new economic, industrial-scale synthesis.
drugs and probes to study human disease processes.
Marine organisms as model systems- offer the poten- Abundance of the organism in nature: What do
tial to understand and develop treatments for disease we know about the impact of collections on the
based on the normal physiological role of their habitat or species populations? Prior to large-
secondary metabolites. For example, the mecha- scale wild harvest of an organism for recovery of

102

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

a bioproduct, harvesting feasibility studies been isolated (Wright et al, 1990; Rinehart et al,
should be conducted. These should define 1990). These are both common, shallow-water
factors such as the standing stock of the organ- organisms for which reproduction and growth
ism, its growth rate and the factors that affect have been studied, but the factors controlling
growth, and the harvesting and post-harvesting production of the compounds are not yet com-
recovery of the target organism. These impact pletely known. The New Zealand deepwater
data could then be used not only to assess the sponge, Lissodendoryx sp., is the source of the
potential of supply from wild harvest, but also to antitumor compounds, halichondrins. The
develop models for aquaculture and/or in vitro sponge occurs at 85-105 meters, but has been
production. Unfortunately, this is rarely done. cultured successfully from cuttings on lantern
arrays in shallower water, maintaining produc-
Source of the compound: Is it microbially pro- tion of the bioactive halichondrins (Battershill et
duced? A significant number of marine al, 1998). Current efforts are directed toward
bioproducts with pharmaceutical potential have modification of metabolite production by alter-
been identified from heterotrophic marine ing the microenvironment (Battershill, personal
microorganisms isolated from coastal sediments communication). This indicates that aquaculture
(Fenical, 1993; Davidson, 1995; Kobayashi and of some deep water sponges is feasible; however,
Ishibashi, 1993). In addition, some marine species from deeper water may have more
bioproducts originally isolated from critical growth requirements, such as high
macroorganisms, such as sponges, have been pressure and low temperature.Although in-the-
subsequently discovered to be localized in sea aquaculture is a cost-effective method of
microbial associates (e.g., Bewley et al, 1996). If production, it may not afford the opportunity for
these symbiotic microorganisms can be isolated over-expression of production of the compounds
and cultured, optimization of production in or for complete control of environmental param-
marine microbial bioreactors may lead to an eters. Development of closed-system bioreactors
industrially feasible supply option. If the source for the culture of both shallow water and deep
of the compound is the macroorganism itself, water organisms is a particularly challenging
development of in vitro production methods opportunity for marine bioprocess engineers.
could provide bulk supply of the compound.
Research in progress in our laboratory focuses on Biosynthetic pathway: Is genetic engineering
establishing cell lines of bioactive marine inverte- realistic for the compound? If the biosynthesis of
brates that can be used as models to study in the target compound is understood, it may be
vitro production of bioactive metabolites and the possible to identify, isolate, clone, and express in
factors which control expression of production a heterologous host the genes responsible for
(Pomponi et al, 1997,1998). This could ultimately production of the metabolite. In many cases, of
lead to in vitro production of marine course, biosynthesis of the product is not known,
bioproducts. More importantly, an understand- or it is a multi-step process involving several
ing of the cellular and molecular processes that enzymatic reactions. For these cases, transgenic
control production of these metabolites could be production is not a trivial process. Alternatively,
used to enhance upstream processing/ culture chernoenzymatic synthesis, by which marine
optimization and to stimulate production of bioproducts are synthesized in cell-free, enzyme-
"unnatural" natural products-Le., chemicals based systems, offers a complementary technique
that the organism would not produce under to in vitro and transgenic production methods
normal conditions, but which may be more for marine bioproducts (Kerr et al, 1996 a, b).
potent than the "natural" product.
Optimization of Production
In situ growth conditions: Is aquaculture an
option for deep-water organisms? Both in-the- Perhaps the area in which marine biotechnology in
sea and land-based aquaculture methods have general, and marine bioprocess engineering in
been developed for production of bioproducts particular, has the greatest potential is in the design
from shallow-water organisms. CalBioMarine and optimization of bioreactors for marine metabo-
Technologies (Carlsbad, CA) has successfully lite production. A variety of bioreactor designs have
aquacultured the bryozoan, Bugula neritina, and been implemented, with varying degrees of success.
Ecteinascidia turbinata, the ascidian from which The opportunity to produce new, bioactive structural
the antitumor compound, ecteinascidin 743, has analogs of known compounds via manipulation of

103

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

culture conditions presents marine biotechnologists Kerr, R.G., Lawry, J., and Gush, K.A. (1996a) Tet.
with a unique challenge for new bioproduct discov- Letters 37, 8305-8308.
ery. Innovations in media development (chemical
engineering), bioreactor design (bioprocess engineer- Kerr, R.G., Rodriguez, L., and Kellman, J. (1996b) Tet.
ing), and transgenic production (molecular engineer- Letters 37, 8301-8304.
ing), coupled with efficient downstream processing
and product recovery, will be necessary to meet the Kobayashi, J. and Ishibashi, M. (1993) Chemistry
needs of both discovery and bulk production of Review 93, 1753-1769.
novel marine bioproducts.
McConnell, O.J., Longley, R.E., and Koehn, F.E. (1994)
In summary, the marine biotechnology industry faces In: Gullo, V.P., (Ed.), The Discovery of Natural Products
a unique challenge for the millenium: Inventing a with Therapeutic Potential. Butterworth-Heinemann,
new generation of tools and processes that will Boston, pp. 109-174.
enable a greater understanding of the ocean and its
resources and lead to the discovery of new Munro, M.H.G., Blunt, J.W., Lake, R.J U., Litaudon,
bioproducts for the future, and designing methods M., Battershill, C.N., and Page" M.J. (1994) in Van
for the sustainable development of these unique Soest, R.W.M., Van Kempen, T.M.G., and Braekman,
bioproducts. J-C. (Eds.), Sponges in Time and Space, Proceedings of
the 4th International Porifera Congress, A.A.
Literature Cited Balkerna, Rotterdam, pp. 473-484.

Battershill, C.N., Page, M.J., Duckworth, A.R., Miller, Pomponi, S.A., Willoughby, R., Kaighn, M.E., and
K.A., Bergquist P.R., Blunt, JW., Munro M.H.G., Wright, A.E. (1997) in Maramorosch, K. and
Northcote, P.T., Newman D.J., and Pomponi S.A. Mitsuhashi 'J. (Eds.)' Invertebrate Cell Culture: Novel
(1998). In Origin and Outlook: 5th International Sponge Directions and Biotechnology Applications. Science
Symposium 1998, Book of Abstracts, Queensland Publishers, Inc., pp. 231-237.
Museum, Brisbane, Australia, p. 16.
Pomponi, S.A., Willoughby, R., Wright, A.E.,
Bewley, C.A., Holland, N.D., and Faulkner, D.J. Pecorella, C., Sennett, S.H., Lopez, J., and Samples, G.
(1996) Experientia, 52, 716-722. (1998) in Le Gal, Y and H. 0. Halvorson, H.O. (Eds.),
New Developments in Marine Biotechnology. Plenum
BioScience (1996) Marine Biotechnology Special Issue, Press, New York, pp. 73-76.
46.
Rinehart, K.L., Holt, T.G., Fregeau, N.L., Stroh, J.G.,
Davidson, B. S. (1995) Current Opinions in Biotechnol- Keifer, P.A., Sun, F., Li, L.H., and Martin, D.G. (1990).
ogy 6:284-291. Journal of Organic Chemistry 55,4512-4515.

Fenical, W. (1993) Chemistry Review 93:1673-1683. Shon, K.J., Grilley, M., Jacobsen, R., Cartie, G.E.,
Hopkins, C., Gray, W.R., Watkins, M., Hillyard, D.R.,
Gunasekera, S.P., Gunasekera, M., Longley, R.E., and Rivier, J., Torres, J., Yoshikami, D., Olivera, B.M.
Schulte, G. (1990) Journal of Organic Chemistry 55, (1997) A noncompetitive peptide inhibitor of the
4912-4915. nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Conus
purpurascens venom. Biochemistry 31, 9581-9587.
Hopkins, C., Grilley, M., Miller, C., Shon, K.J., Cruz,
L.J., Gray, W.R., Dykert, J., Rivier, J., Yoshikami, D., ter Haar, E., Kowalski, R.J., Hamel, E., Lin, C.M.,
Olivera, B.M. (1995) Journal of Biological Chemistry 38, Longley, R.E., Gunasekera, S.P., Rosenkranz, H.S.,
22361-22367. and Day, B.W. (1996) Biochemistry 35,243-250.

Ireland, C.M., Copp, B.R., Foster, M.D., McDonald, Wright, A.E., Forleo, D.A., Gunawardana, G.P.,
L.A., Radisky, D.C., and Swersey, J.C. (1993) in Gunasekera, S.P., Koehn, F.E., and McConnell, O.J.
Attaway, D.H. and Zaborsky, O.R. (Eds.) Marine (1990) Antitumor tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids
Biotechnology, Vol. 1: Pharmaceutical and Bioactive from the colonial ascidian Ecteinascidia turbinata.
Natural Products. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 1-43. Journal of Organic Chemistry 55,4508-4512.

104

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

EMERGING CHALLENGES FOR U.S. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY

Robert W. Knecht*, Biliana-Cicin-Sain, and Dosoo fang"
*Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware
. "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Biotechnology has become a rapidly burgeoning affect the operations of the U.S. marine biotechnol-
industry worldwide.' It is expected to have profound ogy industry both in the U.S. and in the jurisdictions
impacts on health, agriculture, and aquaculture, by of other nations.
improving food products, enhancing environmental
bioremediation, curing fatal diseases, and bringing We see three important emerging issues or challenges
potential socio-econornic changes. Although still in which will affect the path of development of the
the incipient stage, the field of biotechnology stands marine biotechnology industry: 1) access to marine
at the threshold of resources/ organisms; 2) biosafety; and
the next 'biotech 3) intellectual property rights.
century. 12 Marine biotechnology has
recently been embraced Issues of Access to Marine Genetic
it is assumed that Resources/Organisms
most of the issues as a field of great poten-
applicable to the Hal by molecular biologists The Convention on Biological Diversity
biotechnology field and by the biotechnology (CBD)6 and the 1982 Law of the Sea
in general will also industry because the Convention (LOS Convention) are
be applicable to important treaties in the emerging
marine biotechnol- Oceans ... contain a tre- international marine biotechnology
ogy, because the mendous range of diverse field. The regime for governing access
latter can simply be biological resources and to marine resources/ organisms under
defined as biotech- the jurisdiction of coastal nations for
nology applied to unique resources and marine biotechnology purposes (both
marine living conditions... for samples and experimental research
organisms.' Ma- and for harvesting and production
rine biotechnology purposes) is in the process of redefini-
has recently been embraced as a field of great poten- tion. Traditionally, access to marine resources/
tial by molecular biologists and by the biotechnology organisms found within other nations' 200-mile
industry because the oceans, covering nearly 70% of Exclusive Economic Zones has been relatively easy
the earth surface and comprising 90-95% of the and was governed under the terms of the 1982 LOS
biosphere by volume of living organisms on earth 4 Convention which entered into force in 1994. Ar-
contain a tremendous range of diverse biological ticles 237 through 265 provide that nations conduct-
resources and unique resources and conditions-for ing scientific research get advance permission from
example, the largely unexplored deep-sea hydrother- the coastal nations in whose ocean zones such
mal vents, and extreme ocean environments such as research is to take place. Provisions for sharing of
cold polar waters and the deep ocean floor character- benefits derived from the research under the LOS
ized by intense pressure.' Convention only call for such measures as promotion
of the flow of scientific data and information, the
In spite of the increasing attention on the part of transfer of knowledge resulting from marine scien-
molecular scientists and industry on the potential tific research (especially to developing states), and
development of marine biotechnology, there are no the strengthening of autonomous marine science
coherent guidelines, framework conventions, guiding research capability of developing states (such as
norms or principles to specifically govern the con- including local scientists in research cruises).
duct of marine biotechnology development neither in
the United States nor in other countries. A number In contrast'the CBD paves new ground in interna-
of existing international agreements related to tional norms governing access to genetic resources,
maritime jurisdictions, protection of biodiversity, and defined as "genetic material of actual or potential
intellectual property, however, will significantly value." The Convention calls for the conservation of

105

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

biological diversity, the sustainable use of its compo- absence of ratification of these treaties, it will be
nents, and the fair and equitable sharing of the difficult for the nation to significantly affect the
benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic interpretation and implementation of these conven-
resources. The CBD recognizes the sovereign right of tions.
nations to control access to their genetic resources,
and requires the users of genetic resources to take Issues of Biosafety
measures to promote equitable sharing of the ben-
efits, including technologies, with the providers of The greatest controversies surrounding the issue of
those resources. safety in biotechnology (or "biosafety" as the issue
has become known) have focused on the develop-
There is thus a current need to harmonize the provi- ment of living modified organisms (LMOs) through
sions of the LOS Convention and the CBD regarding modem biotechnology techniques. Contained use
marine biotechnology prospecting and any follow-on and field release have been distinguished as the main
activities that may be involved. It would seem categories of intended use of LMOs. Biotechnology
desirable, from the standpoint of the development of has been developed and applied under contained
the field of marine conditions since the early 1970s, and
biotechnology, for
for direct applications and release in
R!,"7,,77
WE U ,-,,t,;A
coastal nations to the environment since the mid-1980s.
sr gor
th,
Under contained conditions, LMOs
agree on the proper-
-@dfi hfly-bp
brf
fied " t"', "", 4W are developed and employed for
I un, to `d6,@
ties of a uni
2t v
regime governing
Mati nd,157" research purposes and are regulated
b well-established risk-management
y
b ",k
access to marme n tQj6t",,A
techniques for work in a laboratory
Al
organisms, and
perhaps, formalize it 'b6t&chnp1dgy,..,
environment. The field testing of
as a protocol to the calls fdr S* LMOs, on the other hand, continues
CBD. As part of the K h to pose questions about the interac-
development of such M",
A, 1* ' " -11 :,! tion of LMOs with natural ecosys-
IV/ M dified, ,
h as with respect to: possible
tems, suc
a protocol, nations
will have to face the ultih TRO)m M,O,,.,, unintended changes in the competi-
r tiveness of natural species; virulence
difficult question of bld
or other characteristics of targeted
valuing the informa-
tion contained species; possibility of adverse impact
within particular marine organisms relative to the R on non-targeted species and ecosystems; stability of
& D investment of the prospecting firm (both before the inserted genes.
and after prospecting) as it attempts to decode the
organisms, determine any unique properties they Internationally, there are as yet no binding intema-
possess, and where it can, develop those unique tional agreements to address the transboundary
attributes into useful products or services. movement of LMOs. However, given the rapid
development in the use of biotechnology, the lack of
Another important issue relates to access to marine sufficient knowledge regarding the interaction
genetic resources/ organisms in the deep seabed. between LMOs and the environment, the problems
There is a controversy whether the exploitation of which may exist with LMO transboundary move-
hyperthermophiles in the deep seabed would fall ment, and growing concern of the developing
under the LOS regime regarding marine scientific countries (the major source of genetic raw materials)
research, the deep seabed mining regime, the high that they could be used as LMO testing grounds,
seas fisheries regime, or whether a new regime is there is currently a major effort underway to develop
needed. an international agreement on safety in biotechnol-
ogy. This is taking place under the aegis of the
Unfortunately, the U.S. is not currently in a position Convention on Biological Diversity, which calls for
to play an effective international role in harmonizing "the safe transfer, handling, and use of any living
the provisions of the LOS Convention and the modified organisms resulting from modern biotech-
9
@t6'6, h

Biodiversity Convention concerning marine biotech- nology." CBD's Article 8(g) requires contracting
nology since it is not yet a party to either convention. parties to "establish or maintain means to regulate,
While the U.S. can participate as an observer at the manage, or control the risks associated with the use
meetings of both conventions, in the continued and release of living modified organisms resulting

106

Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse the North, in particular U.S. and OECD member
environmental impacts that could affect the conser- nations, argue that IPRs must be treated as a separate
vation and sustainable use of biological diversity, issue.
taking also into account the risks to human health,"
and, in the past several years, negotiations have been In the past, six major international agreements
underway to produce a legally-binding protocol on provided the policy framework for international
biosafety under the CBD. patent law (from the Paris Convention in 1884, to the
establishment of the World Intellectual Property
After the Sixth Meeting of the Open-Ended Ad Hoc Organization in 1970). More recently, adequate
Working Group on Biosafety (BSWG-6) held from systems of intellectual property rights are being seen
February 14 to 22, 1999, in Cartagena, Colombia, the as an important component of free trade and, as
first Extraordinary Meeting of the Conference of such, are increasingly being dealt with in the World
Parties (Ex-COP) to the CBD was held February 22- Trade Organization and GAT17-related issues.
23, 1999, at the same venue and attempted to finalize
a protocol on biosafety for adoption by the ExCOP, Traditionally, these intellectual property policies
but failed to pass it. The main areas of controversy were generally thought to be relevant only to indus-
were trade issues, treatment of commodities and trial application, and not to the store of valuable
domestic vs. international regulatory regimes. The knowledge held by indigenous peoples around the
continued debate on a protocol on biosafety will be world. Several of the international agreements and
transmitted to the resumed ExCOP session, no later prescriptions emanating from the Earth Summit,
than the fifth meeting of the Conference of the especially the CBD and parts of Agenda 21, place
Parties .7 Although the biosafety protocol has not yet strong emphasis on the protection of indigenous
been adopted, this attempt has catalyzed the atten- knowledge, on the awarding of benefits for the use of
tion of the biotechnology industry and of countries such knowledge, and on the transfer of technologies
which have advanced biotechnology, in particular the to the developing world, including those protected
U.S., because such a legally-binding treaty will by patents and other intellectual property rights.
greatly affect an individual nation's behavior and its
domestic policies on biotechnology in the next Novel forms of agreements are being negotiated, in
century. different countries, among biotechnology companies,
governments, NGOs, and the public, to govern
Issues of Intellectual Property Rights bioprospecting, with the aim of achieving a proper
balance between protection of biodiversity resources,
The issue of intellectual property rights (IPRs) is a protection of industry's interests, and protection of
controversial subject in the context of the Cl3D, the public's rights to receive benefits from the
involving the developed nations (the North)-and exploitation of public marine resources/ organisms.
generally those nations with advanced biotechnol- Evaluating the pros and cons of different types of
ogy- vis-A-vis the develo ing nations (the South)- agreements for bioprospecting and adapting appro-
p
generally nations endowed with rich genetic re- priate forms to the special needs and requirements of
sources. The North wants stricter IPRs on new the U.S. marine biotechnology industry in its opera-
biotechnology discoveries, which may guarantee the tions in the U.S. and abroad is an important future
biotech industry the recovery of their investments challenge.
and costs, plus profits. In contrast, the South com-
plains of inequitable sharing of benefits and lack of Work in progress
guarantees for compensation for the utilization of
their genetic resources.' A detailed discussion of these issues may be found in
Policy Issues in the Development of Marine Biotechnol-
The issue of the protection of IPRs on biotechnology ogy: Access, Biosafety, and Intellectual Property, which is
is not an isolated phenomenon but is linked with currently in preparation by the authors. The book,
issues of equitable benefit-sharing, compensation for based on work funded by the Sea Grant program,
traditional indigenous knowledge, community rights examines the relevant international and national
on the ownership of genetic resources, and transfer of policy frameworks, analyzes the perspectives of
technology. Therefore, the South adheres adamantly various parties involved in these policy debates,
to the concept of a package deal, that IPRs must be including scientists working in the field, representa-
dealt with as a cluster of all related issues, whereas tives of marine biotechnology companies, national

107

T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

governments, international organizations, and 7. hangbo Bai, Stas Burgiel, Chad Carpenter, Joanna
international NGOs, especially from the developing Depledge, Leila Mead, and Lavanya Rajamani.
world. Topics covered include the development of "Report of the BSWG-6 and ExCOP Session to CBD,"
marine biotechnology around the world; current Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Vol. 09, No. 117.
status of the marine biotechnology field; and issues
of access to marine organisms, biosafety, and intellec- 8. Raustiala, K. and Victor, D.G. "Biodiversity since
tual property rights. A set of findings and recom- Rio: The future of the Convention on Biological
mendations to address policy issues in each of the Diversity." Environment, vol. 38, no. 4:17-45 (1996).
areas noted above that attempt to balance the com-
peting interests at stake are also presented.

Notes

1. FCCSET, (Federal Consulting Council for Science,
Engineering, and Technology), Committee on Life
Science and Health. Biotechnologyfor the 21st Century:
Realizing the Promise. Washington, DC.: Government
Printing Office, 1993; OTA (U.S. Congress Office of
Technology Assessment). New Developments in
Biotechnology. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC., 1988; Rudolph, F. B. and McIntire,
L. V (eds.). Biotechnology: Science, Engineering, and
Ethical Challengesfor the 21st Century. Joseph Henry
Press: Washington DC., 1996.

2. Jeremy Rifkin. The Biotech Century: Harnessing the
Gene and Making the World. New York: Tarcher/
Putnam, Inc. 1998, p. xii.

3. D. H. Attaway and 0. R. Zaborsky. (eds). Marine
Biotechnology: Volume I, Pharmaceuticals and Bioactive
Natural Products. New York: Plenum. 1993.

4. P. Weber. "Abandoned seas: Reversing the decline
of the oceans." World Watch. Paper 116, November,
1993, p.5 and D. A. Powers "New frontiers in marine
biotechnology: Opportunities for the 21st century."
In: Marine Biotechnology in the Asian Pacific Region
(eds). C. G. Lundin and R. A. Zilinskas. The World
Bank and SIDA. Stockholm. 1995, p. 17.

5. NSTC (National Science and Technology Council).
Biotechnologyfor the 21st Century: New Horizons. A
Report from the Biotechnology Research Subcommit-
tee under Committee on Fundamental Science,
National Science and Technology Council, July, 1995,
p. 49.

6. The Convention on Biological Diversity was
opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, on 5 June 1992 and entered into force
on 29 December 1993.

108

4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

Panel Four examined recent and projected trends at the state level. The scope of ocean issues of
concern to coastal states is broadening, Concern aboutfisheries management, maritime and boating
issues, and direct involvement of local governments are new additions to what had been an agenda
primarily concerned with environmental impacts. States have recognized the importance of guiding
community development, conserving open space, discouraging sprawl development in rural areas,
and protecting agricultural lands. However, it is also becoming clear that coastal communities need
more support for an improved capacity to efficiently plan for and manage growth and development.
In addition, states are also broadening theirfocus to include "deep blue water" issues in their overall
coastal management efforts.

Building Capacity for Ocean Management: Recent Developments in
U.S. West Coast States
Marc J. Hershman, School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington

Coastal States' Challenges
Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization

Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy for Florida
James F. Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida Governor's Ocean Committee

109

Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

BUILDING CAPACITY FOR OCEAN MANAGEMENT-
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. WEST COAST STATES

Marc J. Hershman
School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington

Introduction The report, which took 5 years to develop, was
presented and discussed at a statewide conference
In a recent paper (Hershman 1996) this author involving over 800 people.
summarized the ocean management initiatives of ten
United States coastal states. These states were In conjunction with the report's release and the
considered "activist" because, to varying degrees, conference, about 50 bills were introduced into the
they had taken steps to advance state policy, institu- legislature, and 15 became law in 1997 (dubbed the
tions, and management over the use of "Coastal Flotilla" of
the ocean areas adjoining the state. The
bills by the environ-
paper concluded that there was a trend _cs new ocean Issues mental organiza-
toward increased state-level participation arise they ore likely to, tions partly respon-
in ocean management within the United sible for advancing
States, and that this trend was likely to big resolved through them). These deal
continue because the state's role in these new policies and insti- with a range of
issues had become institutionalized. tutions that Increase issues addressing
States are active in the national Coastal state responsibilities fisheries, water
Zone Management (CZM) program, the quality, habitat
National Sanctuary program and in and powers. protection, and
regional bodies dealing with fisheries and shoreline erosion. In
pollution control. I concluded that as new 1998, the Marine
ocean issues arise they are likely to be resolved Life Protection Act was adopted. This legislation
through new policies and institutions that increase strives to reform fisheries management for selected
state responsibilities and powers. The purpose of this fisheries and to change the standards and procedures
paper is to report recent developments in the West for fisheries management. It sets up pilot fishery
Coast states of California, Oregon and Hawaii to management plans, restores professional manage-
determine how their role in ocean affairs has pro- ment to the fisheries agency, and calls for an ecosys-
gressed since 1996. tem approach to management.

California Parallel to the legislative activity, the Governor
issued Executive Order W-162-97 implementing
California reached a major milestone in March 1997, many of the goals from the Ocean Agenda. The
with the issuance of "California's Ocean Resources: Executive Order calls for an inventory of water
An Agenda for the Future" (the Ocean Agenda) quality monitoring programs, development of a
(Wilson and Wheeler 1997). This comprehensive maritime policy through a special Executive Order, a
policy was developed by state government officials comprehensive review of living resources manage-
with broad-based participation from many sectors. It ment programs, an analysis of Federal agency
assesses the current situation in California's ocean responsibilities, an ocean information system, and a
waters from legal, economic, institutional, and research agenda. The responsible agency for each
scientific perspectives. It identifies four over-arching goal is identified and due dates listed.
goals, details the economic importance of ocean
resources to the state, describes the ocean ecosystem, Many of these actions have been taken. A statewide
lists the responsible management agencies, and offers Maritime Policy (Ex. Order W-182 -98) designed to
recommended directions for the future in nine strengthen the state's role in port-related issues was
substantive issue areas. The recommendations signed on August 28, 1998. The analysis of federal
address such issues as the need for better resource responsibilities was completed in June of 1998
inventories, a better system of managed areas, (Wheeler and Rooney 1998). The ocean information
improved fisheries management, and many others. system is now available on the web (ceres.ca.gov/

ill

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

ocean). The state's Sea Grant Advisory Panel has the State Parks Department has taken measures to
identified the ocean research needs to support the protect rocky shores.
plan. The inventory of water quality monitoring
programs and the living resources review are still in The OCMP is facilitating a dispute between the
progress (Baird 1999). (With a new Governor taking fishing industry and those installing submarine
office in California, it can be assumed that some of communication cables. The intent is to propose
these initiatives will be re-examined). policy recommendations to the OPAC for inclusion in
the TSP. These recommendations would address the
Finally, the state announced $3.6 million in grants to ways damage to fishing gear can be reduced, how
local governments under the coastal resources grant fishing areas can remain open even in the vicinity of
program, which under a 1996 law redefined the cables, and procedures for establishing a fisheries
distribution of offshore OCS revenues and reduced compensation fund.
local cost-sharing requirements (California,
Governor's Office 1998). The 32 projects receiving Four local communities are beginning to use the TSP
funds are in the central coast region (in proximity to as a framework for resolving site-specific problems.
ocean areas where offshore oil and gas activity Problem-solving is facilitated and supported by the
occurs) and address diverse needs such as impact OCMP using a consensus-based process. Once policy
reduction, acquisition, restoration, fishing, and water recommendations are formulated, they are submitted
quality improvements. to the OPAC for inclusion in the TSP. The community
plan that is farthest along addresses Cape Arago,
Oregon near Coos Bay and North Bend. A 15-month policy
development process has been completed. The
Oregon's ocean affairs over the past 3 years have policies strive to balance growing recreational and
centered on implementation of the Territorial Sea tourist use of the rocky shore environment with the
Plan (TSP) of 1994 (Oregon Ocean Policy Advisory protection of marine creatures and their habitat. A
Council 1994). The TSP establishes a management primary recommendation is the establishment of an
framework, a process for making resource use Intertidal Marine Protected Area. Plans for Port
decisions, and a strategy for the rocky shore environ- Orford, Cannon Beach/Ecola State Park, and New-
ments along the Oregon outer coast. The organiza- port are being considered using the same approach
tion responsible for overseeing the plan is the Ocean as in the Cape Arago plan.
Policy Advisory Council (OPAQ, a broadly represen-
tative group. Implementation of the plan occurs The OCMP promotes research to support implemen-
primarily through various state agencies. A new role tation of the TSP. They oversee the multi-year and
for local governments is emerging. The Oregon interdisciplinary Pacific Northwest Coastal Ecosys-
Coastal Management Program (OCMP) provides the tem Regional Study, which studies the links between
technical, administrative, and legal support neces- ecological and socioeconomic systems. They are also
sary for effective implementation (Bailey 1999). promoting new research to address rock reef ecosys-
tems cooperatively with California and Washington.
The OPAC is currently undertaking a comprehensive
review of the TSP for the purpose of clarifying policy. Hawaii
An example of one change is the rephrasing of the
policy to protect renewable resources. The new Hawaii adopted the Hawaii Ocean Resources Man-
policy being considered calls for "higher priority to agement Plan (HO9MP) in 1991. The plan was the
be given to the protection and conservation of living guiding document for comprehensive ocean and
marine resources." This statement of policy is in- coastal resource management and contained 66
tended to replace an earlier one that emphasized the policies and 364 implementing actions for the 10
priority of renewable over non-renewable resource sectors and 16 designated agencies. During 1997, a
use. status report on the implementation of the plan was
produced by the Hawaii Office of Planning (1998)
State agencies have upgraded their regulation of and published early in the year. That report gave the
near-shore areas in conformity to the TSP. For plan a mixed review, noting that many sectors
example, the Department of Fish and Wildlife has ranked high in priority but received little attention
issued regulations affecting fishing near rocky (e.g., research and education, ocean recreation,
shores, the Department of State Lands has revised beaches, and coastal erosion) and that sectors like
their procedures for review of kelp harvesting, and fisheries and energy received low priorities and little

112

Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

implementation. They did note that the waste floating platforms for many types of industry, and for
management, marine minerals, and aquaculture launching communication satellites, is actively under
sectors were being implemented appropriately given evaluation and a site near Hawaii is being evaluated
the status assigned to them. by Boeing's Sea Launch venture (but licensing issues
remain). Mariculture issues received continuing
The report addressed institutional issues as well, attention in the legislature, but most of the measures
pointing out that in 5 of the 10 sectors identified no did not pass. One bill establishing an offshore
lead agency was assigned and as a result concerted mariculture demonstration site passed. Finally,
efforts were lacking. They underscored the impor- acoustic impact issues from the Navy proposal for
tance of the Marine and Coastal Zone Management monitoring submarines is of great concern to Hawai-
Advisory Group (MACZMAG) as the forum "ideally ian citizens.
suited" to address the findings of the 1997 review
and to coordinate more effective implementation of It should be pointed out that many of the *coastal and
the HORMP. ocean-related bills introduced into the Hawaiian
legislature in the last 2 years were sponsored by state
The MACZMAG is required by law to advise on the Representative David Tarnas, a specialist in coastal
status of the state's CZM program and on the imple- and ocean affairs. The fact that he was not re-elected
mentation of the HORMP. MACZMAG has 20 in 1998 may slow legislative action on behalf of
members, 6 non-governmental and 14 from local and coastal issues.
state agencies. The non-governmental members issue
a separate report yearly to the legislature. In their As Hawaii addresses implementation of the HORMP,
1998 report, they point out the importance of more some larger issues play a critical role. The first is the
public awareness and participation in the work of the challenge of a stagnant economy. This reduces the
MACZMAG, and the need for greater independence ability of the state to finance coastal and ocean
by the state CZM program. At least one member programs and pushes the state toward seeking novel
made an impassioned plea for greater participation avenues for economic development (such as leasing
by state agencies and county officials in the work of state lands for mariculture and investing in marine
MACZMAG. biotechnology). Next is the goal of Hawaii to expand
its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to include the
The Hawaiian legislature passed several laws in 1998 remote islands of the archipelago. Should this come
dealing with management of marine fisheries. A West to pass, it would greatly heighten the need for
Hawaii Fishery Management Area (FMA) was Hawaii to improve its ocean management capacity to
established, requiring the state DLNR to formulate a account for such issues as the Johnston Atoll Chemi-
plan designating a minimum of 30% of the FMA as cal Agent Disposal Site.
"no-take" zones and establishing a mooring buoy
system with no anchoring zones. The state's Depart- Discussion
ment of Aquatic Resources was given greater
rulemaking authority over certain fishing practices, All three states have continued to advance an ocean
and the law increased participation by fishers in the program. In California, new initiatives came prima-
process. The state DLNR was given greater authority rily from the executive branch, with considerable
to protect irresponsible fishing practices. additional leverage exerted by the powerful coastal
and marine environmental NGO's. In Oregon, the
The legislature also addressed boating recreation in a state government apparatus centered in the OCMP
variety of ways. Thrill craft regulation was extended pursued its implementation program systematically
and a special advisory committee established to with considerable accomplishment. The Hawaiian
advise on education and training requirements for efforts at the executive branch level are still some-
thrill craft operators. The Hawaii Maritime Authority what unfocused, and the legislative initiatives have
was set up to address statewide issues and to change been the primary vehicle for change.
the management of small boat harbors (HB2998).
Political and leadership changes can influence
Hawaii addressed some challenging opportunities in progress in a new subject area like ocean manage-
new ocean uses during this 2-year period. The state ment. A new governor from a different political party
will be a key link in a new submarine cable connect- is entering office in California, and a key legislator in
ing the United States, Australia and New Zealand, Hawaii was not re-elected. (Similarly, a new gover-
due to be completed in 1999. The use of offshore nor is taking office in Florida and the Governor's

113

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Ocean Committee established under Governor Chiles sea plan. California's coastal grants program pays for
in 1997 likely will not survive). In California and specific projects, but there is no linkage with the
Hawaii, new shifts have occurred in assignment of Ocean Agenda. An interesting development in
ocean responsibilities Washington State adds to this local
to executive agencies,
government emphasis. When the
similar to shifts made
proposal for a national marine sanctuary
in the past. Interest- -em... Otlrvshed6s
for the Northwest Straits reached
ingly, the Oregon h,11mar
a political roadblocks, the U.S. Congress
program seems to *46", S,:@on passed the Northwest Straits Marine
n
maintain steady
Conservation Initiative (Title IV, HR
t
progress regardless 3461, 105th Cong., 2nd Sess.). This law
6 qgoverr) 'oh, establishes a new Northwest Straits
of political changes
wn
since it is firmly
@'@'neW d, Advisory Commission to pay for and
S to
rooted in a respected coordinate the planning efforts of seven
4,
bd-,@, en,an
d b
program activity of local governments in marine resource
pnt@adly cbhcer
the executive branch.
protection and restoration.
�R
As noted in the
@bhylrpn
earlier article A third policy shift is in the area of
(Hershman 1996, maritime policy. California and Hawaii
p.33), organizational passed new laws establishing maritime
change and revision of policy documents have policy for the state and designating responsible
hindered progress. With the exception of Oregon this agencies. California's law was aimed at clarifying a
pattern may still dominate. state role in advancing the commercial ports of the
state, especially in areas like dredging policy,
There appears to be a substantive shift in at least intermodal coordination, and environmental policy.
three areas. One of these is fisheries policy. Over the Hawaii's new maritime authority will strive to bring
past decade, issues centering on adverse impacts together the commercial shipping and recreational
from offshore oil and gas, dumping or discharge of boating interests of the state under a single indepen-
pollutants, and other effects from industrial-type dent public entity to improve planning and coordi-
uses primarily drove ocean policy development. I nated use of maritime resources.
noted in the earlier article that fisheries-related issues
were left untouched because of existing fishery Conclusion
management agencies (Hershman 1996, p. 34).
However, in the past two years all three states have The experience of these three states suggests that the
adopted new laws or policies dealing with fisheries scope of ocean issues of concern to coastal states is
management. California's new law seeks to change broadening. Concern about fisheries management,
fisheries management by promoting pilot projects maritime and boating issues, and direct involvement
using new techniques. Oregon agencies have of local governments are new additions to what had
adopted new rules for rocky reef fisheries, and a been an agenda primarily concerned with environ-
major research initiative is underway to better mental impacts. For these three states, one could
understand ecosystem issues for rocky coasts. conclude that their capacity for ocean management
Hawaii has established a new fishery management has improved since new laws and governmental
regime for the West Hawaii region that includes responsibilities have been identified and added to the
mandatory no-take zones and use of buoys rather states' suite of management tools.
than anchoring. Given the national and international
Political attention to depletion of world fishery On the other hand, many of the cautionary com-
resources, it is not surprising that the states should ments mentioned in the 1996 paper still hold. With
start experimenting with new strategies. the exception of Oregon, there is considerable flux in
defining responsibility for ocean issues in the states.
A second policy shift since the last report is in the Further, the states are dependent on federal pro-
area of local government involvement in ocean grams such as the national CZM program, the
0
d

affairs. Oregon has initiated local coastal planning for National Marine Sanctuary program, and the Na-
rocky shore areas, with the Cape Arago plan as the tional Sea Grant Program for much of their progress.
first to be completed. This strategy involves local This suggests that new initiatives often will be
communities in the evolution of the state's territorial partnerships between federal and state programs.

114

Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

These partnerships may restrain state initiatives but Wilson, Pete and Douglas P. Wheeler, 1997.
in return provide greater resources and staying California's Ocean Resources: An Agenda for the
power once a federal-state accommodation is Future. Sacramento: State of California, The Re-
reached. In fact, the institutional structure provided sources Agency. (Available at "ceres.ca.gov/cra/
by federal programs may be the vehicle for overcom- ocean")
ing the vicissitudes of state and local political forces.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to Andrew Bennett and Jennifer
Wadell for research assistance in this paper.

Literature Cited

Bailey, Bob, 1999. Telephone interview with Andrew
Bennett on 1/5/99.

Baird, Brian, 1999. Telephone interview with the
author on 1/7/99.

California and the World Ocean, 1997. Proceedings of a
conference in San Diego, CA, March 24 - 27,1997. New
York: American Society of Civil Engineers.

California, Governor's Office, 1998. Press Release 98 -
399: Governor Wilson announces $3.6 million to local
governments. December 22, 1998.

Hawaii Ocean and Marine Resources Council, 1991.
Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan. Honolulu:
State of Hawaii, Dept. of Business, Economic Devel-
opment and Tourism.

Hershman, Marc, 1996. Ocean management policy
development in subnational units of government:
Examples from the United States. Ocean and Coastal
Management 31: 25 - 40.

Hawaii Office of Planning, 1998. Survey Overview and
Analysis of the Hawaii Ocean Resources Management
Plan. Report to the Nineteenth Legislature of the
State of Hawaii. Honolulu, January 1998.

Oregon Ocean Policy Advisory Council, 1994.
Territorial Sea Plan. Portland: State of Oregon, Land
Conservation and Development Commission.

Wheeler, Douglas P, and Peter M. Rooney, 1998. An
analysis offederal responsibilities related to ocean resource
management in California. Sacramento: State of Califor-
nia, Secretary for Resources and Secretary for Envi-
ronmental Protection.

115

D-ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

COASTAL STATES'CHALLENGES

Sarah Cooksey
State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization

Editor's note: Thefollowing remarks represent the 10 states have adopted comprehensive growth
author's dual capacity as the Administrator of the Divi- management acts that establish more rigorous
sion of Soil and Water of the Delaware Department Of requirements for local planning of community
Natural Resources and Environmental development and
Conservation and as the current Chair of the for related state and
Coastal States Organization (CSO). CSO was It is becomina increas-' regional actions.
formed in 1970 to represent the interests Of y States have also
coastal states, including territories and Ingi clear that coastal recognized the
commonwealths. communities need More importance of
conservation of
support for on Improved
The Coastal Zone Management Challenge open space, discour-
capacity to efficiently
aging sprawl
As we seek to enhance our nation's plan for and manage development in
prosperity, revitalize communities and growth and develop- rural areas, and
enhance economic development, we have protecting agricul-
ment,
a concurrent responsibility to address the tural lands. The
increased demands that growth and public also has
development places on our coastal re- indicated its strong
sources. support for these initiatives. In 1998, nearly 200
ballot initiatives were approved by voters in calling
Congress was prescient when in 1972 it passed the for the management of development and the conser-
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) providing vation of open space.
incentives for states, on a voluntary basis, in coopera-
tion with local governments It is time for a major commitment through the CZMA
to provide new and improved planning and manage-
... to encourage and assist the states to exercise ment tools for local communities to help them better
effectively their responsibilities in the coastal zone understand and address the extremely complex
through the development and implementation of economic and ecological dynamics of coastal systems
management programs to achieve the wise use of and communities.
the land and water resources of the coastal zone,
givingfull consideration to ecological, cultural, Background
historic, and esthetic values as well as the needs
for compatible economic development pro- The CZMA incorporated the essential principles of
grams ... (16 USC 1452(2)) the "smart growth" and "sustainable development"
movements over 20 years before the terminology
It is becoming increasingly clear the coastal commu- came into vogue. It is not surprising that these
nities need more support for an improved capacity to principles were recognized first as essential to proper
efficiently plan for and manage growth and develop- management of coastal resources and development
ment. An increased commitment is needed if we are where the concentration of people and their demand
going to achieve cost-effective investment in public for the use of natural resources was most acute.
infrastructure; identify and encourage a compatible
mix of residential, commercial, and open-space uses; Providing suitable incentives and encouraging
revitalize communities; and conserve and restore cooperation among the federal, state, and local
natural resources. governments is more important today than ever
before. Coastal areas become more crowded every
States have recognized the importance of guiding day. The rate of growth is fastest in coastal counties,
community development to make it more efficient, where population densities are already five times the
environmentally compatible, and integrated among national average. In addition to being home to over
the various government agencies. As of early 1998,

117

D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

50 percent of the U.S. population and most of its the state and local level through technical
major cities, economic activity in coastal areas is vital assistance and targeted support to states and
to the nation-supporting 28.3 million jobs, incalcu- communities, to implement place-based manage-
lable indirect economic benefits as well as direct ment in our nation's critical coastal areas.
support for port and maritime trade, fisheries and
mariculture industry, travel, recreation and tourism, (2) Provide for increased support for state coastal
oil and gas development; and, other ocean and programs to address the cumulative and second-
coastal dependent industries. ary impacts of development and land-based
sources of polluted runoff.
The growing
W11"", ;"A
of (3) Provide funding under the Coastal
-6rt ',""b of 1@
importance 4W Al
'The gtdwing,@@imO bn'&
0
wise coastal
Zone Management Fund for regionally
WIS
t in e coos di manager ificant projects, international
managemen sign
an, projec
economic and ts, emergency response to coastal
human terms was hazards, and innovative demonstration
-term@,,,,'@vas,drcimatico.y,@
dramatically projects addressed at local communities.
M'o
demonstrated in @,oe nAfdtedin:1998hV
1998 by the -1he.., otjtbtedi@S`bf ha"riMs"k
(4) Clarify the role of and provide
outbreaks of &1gd1'b'166ms, and the ex- increase support for the National Estua-
harmful algal dI'e rine Research Reserves and seek to build
pans h, ao@-
blooms and the closer links to coastal program
as
expansion of the
SiVe@,,, (5) Enhance federal support for base
"dead zone" of the we'll n
J" th
Gulf coast, as well - @V'@
090
0 ibsult6d,frotffi'@: programs under e CZMA consistent
with increased challenges and responsi-
as the extensive hyfficanes ondlhe 4ffectS' bilities, particularly in the nation's
damage that
argest
resulted from -event, I states where base grants have
offl Nhi& s
hurricanes and the
been capped for the past seven years
effects of El Nino despite substantial increases in state and
events. These local need.
events demonstrate the need for increased support
for state and local efforts to control land-based What Are the Current Trends in Coastal Management
sources of coastal pollution and to improve planning in the First State - Delaware?
for coastal hazards. The potential impacts of human
activities on coastal resources and conflicts among Many things are happening in the Coastal Manage-
the competing uses for coastal resources will increase ment arena:
substantially in the years ahead as population and
development increase. We have almost completed construction of a 5,550-
square-foot building for research and education for
The CZMA is the only federal statute which sets forth coastal management, the first phase construction at
a comprehensive voluntary federal-state partnership our Delaware National Estuarine Research Reserve.
based on the goal of maximizing sustainable eco- That building will be used for targeted, focused
nomic and environmental objectives. The CZMA education and research for current CMP needs.
also provides a framework to enhance integration
among federal, state, and local governments, encour- We have a new process to focus decision-making.
age interagency coordination, provide incentives and Partnering with NOAA, Delaware Coastal Programs
assistance to communities, streamline the regulatory has institutionalized a method that uses internal and
process, and encourage proactive planning and external experts and the public to problem solve in a
coastal management at the local level. much shorter time frame. Successful projects that
have used this process include the Pea Patch Island
Summary of CSO's proposals for Reauthorization of Special Area Management Plan, COMPAS Delaware:
the CZMA in 1999 Kent County Resource Protection Module, Dredging
in Delaware, and Delaware Coastal Zone Act Envi-
(1) Provide increased support for the develop- ronmental Indicators Project). The process recog-
ment of new tools, which will build capacity at nizes the importance of good planning, but is ori-

118

T@ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

ented toward implementation of methods to provide
for reasonable growth and development while
conserving and protecting our irreplaceable coastal
resources.

119

Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPREHENSIVE OCEAN POLICY FOR FLORIDA

James F Murley and Laura Cantral
Florida Governor's Ocean Committee

Background mental health. Governor Chiles also appointed the
Florida Governor's Ocean Committee (FGOC). This
The state of Florida is a thin strip of land measuring Committee is responsible for promoting public
nearly 35.7 million acres, and bounded on three sides awareness of the significance of the ocean to Florida,
by the ocean. Approximately 8,400 miles of tidal as well as guiding the state's efforts to develop and
coastline wrap around it, and off its southern tip lie implement a coordinated and comprehensive ocean
the only living coral reefs in North resources manage-
America - third largest in the world. ment strategy.
Florida's territorial waters stretch for 3
miles off the Atlantic coast and 3 marine Increasing demands This article discusses
for Floridas ocean Florida's efforts to
leagues in the Gulf of Mexico, with
approximately 6 million acres of sub- fesources, COUP/ed develop an ocean
merged lands underneath. Without with an ever-growing management ap-
doubt, Florida's ocean is its most proach that is coordi-
distinctive feature. abIlity to recover those nated and comprehen-
resources, are? threat- sive, and that can
Much of that distinction lies in the enIng the health and account for a wide
ocean's cultural, environmental, and variety of uses and
economic importance. Florida's very 'vitality of Florida's activities. It includes a
identity is intimately linked to the ocean, brief history of the
ocean; millions come to the state to current ocean plan-
experience the ocean's ability to relax, ning initiative,
rejuvenate, comfort, and inspire. In describes the prelimi-
addition to its intangible powers, the ocean is liter- nary projects that laid the groundwork for the
ally life-giving. It is the source of oxygen we breathe, creation of the Florida Governor's Ocean Committee,
water we drink, food we eat, and medicines that and summarizes the Committee's work to date.
maintain our health. As an economic engine, it is the
basis for some of Florida's most important industries, History
including fishing, shipping, and tourism. But while
its abilities are great and its resources vast, they are Impetus for developing an ocean management
not inexhaustible. Increasing demands for Florida's strategy for Florida began with the Florida Coastal
ocean resources, coupled with an ever-growing Management Program (FCMP), which is housed in
ability to recover those resources, are threatening the the state's Department of Community Affairs. The
health and vitality of Florida's ocean. Program's motivation sprang from a number of
factors. For example, even though in recent years the
When the United Nations proclaimed 1998 to be the state has made great progress in terms of responsible
International Year of the Ocean, it provided an management of Florida's coastlines and near-shore
excellent opportunity to highlight the importance of waters, management of offshore resources continues
the ocean to life on this planet. The proclamation to be conducted on an issue-by-issue basis, often
spurred many efforts and activities aimed at raising with conflicting and contradictory results. As the
awareness of the ocean's value, and encouraged coordinating agency for the nine state agencies that
individuals, organizations, and governments to look regulate coastal activities, it became apparent to the
for ways to make changes needed to sustain the FCMP that the state needs an integrated framework
world's precious ocean resources. to manage offshore ocean resources and to eliminate
inconsistencies between different agency responsi-
Following that lead, the late Governor Lawton Chiles bilities. Furthermore, through administration of the
proclaimed 1998 the Year of the Ocean for Florida, federal consistency review process, it became clear to
and encouraged the state to focus on the importance the FCMP that there are conflicts between private
of the ocean to its cultural, economic, and environ- and public activities-for example, between fishing

121

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

activities and military missile testing over the Gulf of ocean resources. With financial support from the
Mexico. FCMP, the report was developed by the Florida State
University College of Law, and provides background
In addition, the need for an ocean management and perspective on ocean issues. It also summarizes
structure could be seen through the analysis of the ocean management efforts of other states, reviews
important emerging trends in the state. federal and state law
Information from a number of sources, -A, and policy regarding
A
including the FCMP's own trend reports,
@@,"BY re%@ ... tn-theneed'@ Florida's ocean
Florida Assessment of Coastal Trends resources, and offers
eep blue
and The State of the Coast, has consis- suggestions for
tently maintained that pressures on .. ... . Floridd", improving the
coastal and ocean resources will continue
'in, of state's managerial
to grow as transportation needs, boating
regime.
'Other state""'
activity, tourism, and population growth
management
all increase at astronomical rates. The second prelimi
(4sing nary project is
s.. in f0c,
Finally, influences outside the state had a on entitled the State-
offshore
bearing on FCMP's decision to initiate wide Ocean Re-
,'Ii":@@,@:.reso@jrces and activities
ean planning efforts for Florida. By
oc I I If,- source Inventory
recognizing the need to address "deep JhcItiding them In (SORI). Comple-
blue water" issues, Florida joined the menting Looking
I . their overall coastal
efforts of several other state coastal Seaward's focus on
2
management eff6r1s.,
management programs, including
legal and policy
Oregon, California, Hawaii, Maine, issues surrounding
Massachusetts, and North Carolina, in ocean resources,
focusing attention on offshore resources and activi- SORI is designed for use by the marine resource
ties and including them in their overall coastal management community and attempts to provide
management efforts. Provisions in Section 309 of the accurate and up-to-date information about ocean
federal Coastal Zone Management Act, which resources. Funded by the FCMP and developed by
authorize the use of federal coastal zone funds to the Florida Department of Environmental
support ocean policy projects, helped enable the Protection's research arm, the Florida Marine Re-
FCMP to fund a series of preliminary projects to search Institute (FMRI), SORI is an ArcView-based
develop an understanding and appreciation of the Geographic Information System (GIS). Using data
need for comprehensive ocean resource manage- compiled by and permanently housed at FMRI, SORI
ment. With the Year of the Ocean proclamations, the enables a user with World Wide Web access to view
time was ripe for a policy dialogue on ocean issues. and download existing ocean resource information.
While it does not contain all the data ever collected
Preliminary Projects on ocean resources, it continues to grow and evolve,
and is a valuable tool to help policy-makers identify
To give shape and direction to the ocean manage- what is known and what is not known about
ment effort, the FCMP funded a series of preliminary Florida's ocean resources.
projects that were designed to provide not only
baseline data on the status of Florida ocean resources, While the first two projects addressed legal and
but also to generate support for ocean planning and policy issues surrounding ocean resources and the
ultimately to justify the creation of a high-level group resources themselves, the third in the series of
that would be charged with developing coordinated preliminary projects focused on ocean users and
ocean governance strategies for the state, including management issues related to the use and protection
the means to ensure their implementation. of Florida's ocean resources. Invited by the Executive
Office of the Governor and the Florida Coastal
The first in a series of three preliminary projects is a Management Program, the Florida Ocean Policy
comprehensive analysis of the status of marine law Roundtable was comprised of state agency represen-
and policy in Florida. Looking Seaward: Develop- tatives, maritime industry professionals, and techni-
ment of a State Ocean Policy for Florida updates an cal experts - all knowledgeable about the numerous
earlier study completed in 1989, and is a detailed issues facing Florida's offshore areas. The purpose of
overview and assessment of law and policy related to the Roundtable meetings was to encourage discus-
the management of Florida's "deep blue water" sion at the state level concerning ocean resource

122

T@ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States

management in Florida and to identify current and public awareness of the importance of the ocean to
potential problems and conflicts that result from the Florida.
existing management regime. The participants
identified numerous issues, including issues related The first challenge facing the FGOC was how to
to marine habitat, water quality, fisheries manage- organize its consideration of Florida's many ocean
ment, oil and gas development, boating and marine issues. Consequently, considerable effort was put into
recreation, as well as legal and policy issues and developing a structure for the Committee's discus-
conservation and protection considerations. Of the sions and a process for formulating a package of
many issues identified by the Roundtable as impor- recommendations to the Governor. Using the priority
tant and in need of consideration, fisheries manage- issues identified by the Ocean Policy Roundtable as a
ment and marine habitat, the development of ocean frame of reference, the discussion of the issues was
energy resources, and marine pollution were identi- organized into three broad issue areas: environmen-
fied as top priority issue areas. tal protection, living marine resources, and economic
development. In addition, issues related to intergov-
With the preliminary projects complete, the next step ernmental coordination and public outreach and
toward the development of a comprehensive ocean education were added to the Committee's work plan.
management strategy was the formation of a formal
policy committee, known as the Florida Governor's The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee met for
Ocean Committee (FGOC). To assist the FGOC, a the first time in February 1998. The Committee's
final discussion piece was prepared - a synthesis work is being conducted in two phases. Phase 1,
document entitled Florida's Ocean Horizon. In- recently completed, explored the issues related to
tended to be a coherent package that conveys the environmental protection, living marine resources,
challenges and opportunities facing Florida as it economic development, intergovernmental coordina-
develops a comprehensive ocean policy, the docu- tion, and public outreach and education through the
ment describes and offers highlights from Looking course of five full committee meetings and numerous
Seaward, SORI, and the Ocean Policy Roundtable. small working group meetings. The result is the
While not intended to dictate to the FGOC what development of two documents. The first, entitled
issues it should consider, it served as a point of Florida's Ocean Challenges, is a companion to the
departure for the Committee's discussions by focus- Committee's earlier discussion piece, Florida's Ocean
ing on the three priority issue areas as identified by Horizon, and serves as the Committee's interim
the Roundtable. progress report to the Governor. The report describes
what the Committee sees as Florida's "Ocean Assets"
The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee - those resources that make a valuable contribution
to the state's quality of life - such as living marine
The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee was resources, recreation and tourism, ports, national
created by executive order on January 9, 1998. The defense operations, and marine education and
Committee is composed of 24 members representing research capacity. The report also includes what the
government, conservation, education, science, Committee sees as "Ocean Management Challenges"
recreation, and business interests. The FGOC is - those issues, conflicts, or problems that threaten the
chaired by University of South Florida President health of Florida's ocean resources. Consideration of
Betty Castor. It is assisted by 6 ex officio members those ocean assets and challenges forms the basis for
representing federal agencies, and is staffed by the the development of "Ocean Management Strate-
Florida Coastal Management Program, Florida State gies"-recommendations about actions the state can
University, and 1000 Friends of Florida. Process take to better manage ocean resources in a way that
design and facilitation services for the Committee's balances protection with reasonable and responsible
meetings are provided by the Florida Conflict use.
Resolution Consortium.
The Ocean Management Strategies are contained in
The FGOC is charged with several important respon- the Committee's Draft Final Report. They are orga-
sibilities including identification of instances where nized into five broad categories that address:
current responses to ocean issues are inadequate or
conflicting; development of strategies that address Improving information on and understanding of
those inadequacies or conflicts; improvement of ocean resources
coordination of management efforts by local, state,
and federal governments; and, finally, promotion of

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D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

� Creating an improved ocean management and strategies should be. In addition, there is strong
framework that is more coordinated and compre- Committee support for establishing a nonprofit
hensive group to advocate for ocean issues and education.
Finally, there is a move to have the FGOC appointed
� Achieving and sustaining diverse marine ecosys- by the Legislature as the Florida Ocean Study Com-
tems that are capable of supporting multiple uses mission, with a one-year term to further refine and
develop recommendations. In any event, the work
� Raising awareness, promoting education, and that has been done so far lays a solid foundation for
fostering stewardship of the ocean future efforts. Through the leadership of the FGOC,
Florida stands poised to develop a truly comprehen-
� Facilitating greater financial support for ocean sive ocean management strategy. As a result, the state
research, education, and management will be able to better manage its ocean resources and
ensure that future generations will have a healthy,
Each strategy contains a number of recommended vital ocean to depend upon and to enjoy.
specific actions aimed at implementing the ocean
management strategies, including suggestions for
state agencies that should play a lead or implement-
ing role in executing strategies and specific actions.

In addition, the Committee has proposed one
"Overarching Recommendation." It recommends
that the Florida Legislature create a Florida Ocean
Council to provide leadership on ocean issues,
coordinate ocean resource management, and identify
priorities for research, education, and information
needs. The Council would be a nonregulatory
oversight group, with the primary purpose of
providing clear policy direction on ocean issues and
reducing duplication among agencies with responsi-
bility for managing ocean resources and activities.

The Draft Final Report will be the focus of Phase 11 of
the Committee's work, which will consist of a
dedicated public outreach effort and the refinement
of the draft. The draft will be presented to Governor
Bush, state and federal agencies, and the public for
comment and refinement in the early months of 1999.
The Committee will then meet again in Spring 1999
to review the public comments and make necessary
adjustments to the Draft Final Report before finaliz-
ing the report and delivering it to the Governor on
June 30,1999.

Conclusion

As of this writing, the Committee is preparing for its
next meeting, during which it will reach consensus
upon and formally adopt its Draft Final Report. State
goverrunent is presently in a period of transition;
Florida's new governor was inaugurated on January
5,1999. With a new administration and many legisla-
tive changes, there is some uncertainty about the next
steps for implementing the FGOC's work. There is,
however, a surprising amount of consensus among
the Committee members on what the important goals

124

Appendix 1. Biographies of Authors and Moderators

Tundi, Spring Agardy ment at regional, national and international levels.
He is a science advisor to the Chesapeake Bay
Tundi Spring Agardy joined Conservation Interna- Program and to Maryland agencies and in such
tional in June 1997. As Senior Director of Coastal and diverse regions as Alaska, San Francisco Bay, South-
Marine Programs, she oversees Cl's global marine ern California, coastal Louisiana and south Florida.
conservation work and provides the organization Over a twelve-year period he was a member of the
counsel on marine policy and science. Through Marine Board and the Ocean Studies Board of the
research and applied work in tropical marine ecology National Research Council, chairing committees that
and biodiversity conservation, Tundi has instituted produced significant reports on marine environmen-
marine protected areas and other coastal manage- tal monitoring, ecosystem science and coastal science
ment measures around the world. She is author of and policy. He has served on numerous agency
Marine Protected Areas and Ocean Conservation, a advisory committees and currently serves as Vice-
comprehensive treatise published by Academic Press, Chair of the Governing Board of the Consortium for
UNESCO's Guidelines on Coastal Biosphere Reserve Ocean Research and Education (CORE).
Planning, numerous scientific publications on marine
biodiversity, species conservation, and marine Charles A. Bookman
protected areas, and several other popular and
technical books on the sea. Charles A. Bookman (Charlie) works with the Special
Projects Office of NOANs National Ocean Service,
Tundi is an avid diver and has done extensive marine where he is responsible for the National Dialogues on
research and surveys in many parts of the globe. In Coastal Stewardship.
her current capacity as Senior Director at Conserva-
tion International and her former position as Senior Last year, Charlie directed the Year of the Ocean
Scientist at WWF, and as an independent consultant Project at The Heinz Center, which brought together
to the World Bank, UNDP, and private consulting leaders from industry, government, academia and
firms, she has undertaken field research in Algeria, environmental organizations to address the nation's
the Black Sea region, Canada, Cape Verde, through- stake in the oceans. "Our Ocean Future," the report
out the Caribbean, Guinea Bissau, Indonesia, Mexico, of that effort, has been widely discussed.
Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and Zanzibar. Prior to
coming to Washington, Tundi spent three years as a Charlie directed the Marine Board of the National
research fellow/ scientist at the Woods Hole Oceano- Research Council from 1986-1997. The Marine Board
graphic Institution. She received her Ph.D. in organized teams and implemented more than 80
Biological Sciences and her Masters in Marine Affairs high-level assessments of important national issues
from the University of Rhode Island, and did her affecting oceans and coasts. The activities of the
undergriduate work at Wellesley and Dartmouth Marine Board were supported by 24 government
Colleges. agencies.

Don Boesch Charlie is a graduate of the URI Marine Affairs
program and also Columbia University. He con-
Don Boesch is a Professor in and President of the ducted oceanographic research at Lamont-Doherty
University of Maryland Center for Environmental Earth Observatory of Columbia University, and
Science. Previously, he was the first Executive helped develop the Maryland Coastal Zone Manage-
Director of the Louisiana Universities Marine Con- ment Program. He is a past director and member of
sortium, and was Professor of Marine Science at the executive committee of the Marine Technology
Louisiana State University. An internationally Society and also the Society of Naval Architects and
known marine ecologist, he has conducted research Marine Engineers.
in coastal and continental shelf environments along
the Atlantic Coast, and in the Gulf of Mexico, eastern Susan Bunsick
Australia and the East China Sea.
Susan Bunsick is pursuing a Master's degree in
Don Boesch is particularly active in extending marine policy at the University of Delaware, where
knowledge to environmental and resource manage- she is focusing on policy issues in the development

125

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

of offshore marine aquaculture in the United States. Sarah Cooksey
Earlier, she spent many years working in Washing-
ton, D.C., most recently as a consultant in interna- Sarah Cooksey is an Environmental Program Admin-
tional energy for the U.S. Energy Information Admin- istrator for the State of Delaware's Coastal Manage-
istration. Ms. Bunsick holds an M.A. in Public Affairs ment Programs. Since 1992, Ms. Cooksey has been
from the George Washington University and a B.A. in responsible for ensuring that federal and state actions
Public Service from the Pennsylvania State Univer- are consistent with state policies to provide reason-
sity. able growth and development while conserving and
protecting Delaware's irreplaceable coastal resources.
Laura Cantral She utilizes Delaware's National Estuarine Research
Reserve as a field site to implement research and
Laura Cantral is a consultant in Tallahassee, Florida. education to better coastal management. She was
She has worked in the coastal and ocean manage- recently elected by her peers to serve as Chair of the
ment field for more than ten years. Her primary Coastal States Organization. CSO represents Gover-
work experience has been related to ocean policy nors of coastal states, islands and territories on
issues, and she serves as a legal and policy advisor important coastal issues.
through research, writing, workshops, and confer-
ences. Her academic training is in law, and she has Prior to working for the State of Delaware, Sarah
taught legal research and writing. She also conducts worked at the United States Environmental Protec-
workshops on enhancing communication and tion Agency in Washington, D.C. At EPA she worked
leadership skills for scientists and resource manag- on industrial and municipal National Pollution
ers. Cantral works closely with NGOs and public Discharge Elimination System permits, specializing
sector entities, including academics, managers, in water quality based effluent controls. Sarah has a
policy-makers, and scientists, to address a variety of Masters Degree in Biology from Towson State
issues related to understanding, using, and manag- University. She is married, has two young sons and
ing coastal and marine resources. enjoys spending time with her family at the beach
and in the garden.
Biliana Cicin-Sain
Thomas 1. Culliton
Biliana Cicin-Sain is Professor of Marine Policy in the
Graduate College of Marine Studies at the University Thomas J. Culliton is a Physical Scientist in the
of Delaware where she also holds a joint appoint- Special Projects Office of NOAA's National Ocean
ment in the Department of Political Science and in Service. Mr. Culliton has led or participated prima-
the School of Urban Affairs and Public Policy. rily on marine assessment, marine monitoring and
Professor Cicin-Sain serves as Co-Director of the integrated coastal management projects during his
Center for the Study of Marine Policy and as Editor- 14-year tenure at NOAA. He has also worked
in-Chief of Ocean and Coastal Management, an extensively on planning activities associated with
international journal devoted to the analysis of all NOANs National Marine Sanctuary Program. He
aspects of ocean and coastal management. She chairs has authored several papers related to population
the Secretariat of the Ocean Governance Study Group and development in coastal areas. He holds both an
and has written many articles and books on coastal MA in geography and a BS in physical geography
and ocean governance; most recently, Integrated from the University of Maryland.
Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices
(1998), and The Future of U.S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor
the New Century (1999). Richard Delaney

Among her current advisory positions, she is a Richard Delaney is the Director of the Urban Harbors
consultant to the United Nations (UNESCO), the Institute. The Institute was founded in 1989 at the
World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, University of Massachusetts, Boston. It is a public
and NOAA, and serves on the Marine Board, Na- policy and scientific research institute dedicated to
tional Research Council, and the Department of public service, research and education. The Institute
Interior's Scientific Committee on the Outer Conti- conducts multidisciplinary research on urban harbor
nental Shelf. She has a PhD in political science from planning issues ranging from water quality and
UCLA and has done postdoctoral work at Harvard coastal resource protection to harbor management
University. and port planning. Previously, Mr. Delaney has

126

Workshop Participant Biographies

served as President of the Coastal States Organiza- Coastal Zone Management. Prior to that she served
tion and as Director of the Massachusetts coastal as the Deputy Assistant Administrator for the
zone management program. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Rick DeVoe U.S. Department of Commerce. She also served as
the Acting Assistant Administrator for Fisheries from
Rick DeVoe is Executive Director of the South January through October 1993.
Carolina Sea Grant Consortium, Research Associate
of the Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology Dr. Foster received her M.S. in Marine Biology from
and Coastal Research at the University of South Texas Christian University and her Ph.D. in Marine
Carolina, and Associate Faculty Member of the Biology from the George Washington University
Graduate Program in Marine Biology at the Univer- where her doctoral research focused on the ecology
sity of Charleston, S.C. He earned degrees from and systematics of polychaetous annelids. She began
Fairleigh Dickinson University (B.S. in Marine her career with the National Oceanic and Atmo-
Biology), CUNY/City College of New York (M.S. in spheric Administration in 1977, first with the Office
Biological Oceanography), and the University of of Research and Development, followed by 9 years as
Rhode Island (M.M.A. in Marine Affairs). the Deputy Director then Director of the National
Marine Sanctuary Program and the National Estua-
DeVoe was involved in establishing the agency's rine Research Reserve Program.
programmatic and procedural protocols for adminis-
tering and managing the Consortium's grant pro- Richard Grainger
grams. Now, as Consortium Executive Director, he
serves as the Principal Investigator for the state Sea Richard Grainger is Chief, Data and Information
Grant Program and other Consortium federal, state Service of the Food and Agriculture Organization of
and private grants, which totaled more than $4.1 the United Nations.
million in FY1998. DeVoe has also published articles
on policy and management aspects of marine aquac- Allen Hammond
ulture development in South Carolina and the United
States, and is currently involved in federal Sea Grant Allen Hammond is Senior Scientist and Director of
initiatives in marine aquaculture and coastal natural Strategic Analysis at World Resources Institute. His
hazards. responsibilities include institute-wide leadership for
new analytic approaches and for WRI's Communica-
Tim Eichenberg tions 2000 effort; he also directs the Strategic Indica-
tor Research Initiative and writes and does research
Tim Eichenberg is Program Counsel for the Center on long term sustainability issues. Prior to his current
for Marine Conservation in Washington D.C. and Co- position, he was director of the WRI Program in
Chair of the Clean Water Network, a coalition of Resources and Environmental Information where his
more than 1000 organizations working to reauthorize responsibilities included oversight of the World
the Clean Water Act. He has served as Legal Counsel Resources series and he leads WRI's policy research
for the California Coastal Commission, the Environ- on environmental and sustainable development
mental Defense Center, and the Marine Law Institute. indicators. His WRI publications include Resource
He has written extensively on ocean and coastal Flows: The Material Basis of Industrial Economies;
issues, and has lectured at he University of Maine Environmental Indicators; editor-in-chief of World
Law School, Golden Gate University Law School, Resources 90-91, 92-93, and 94-95; and editor-in-chief
and the Environmental Law Institute. He is a of the Information Please Environmental Almanac for
graduate of the Washington University School of 1992,1993, and 1994.
Law and Earlham College, and was a Post-Doctoral
Fellow in Marine Policy at the Woods Hole Oceano- Dr. Hammond is an accomplished scientist and
graphic Institution. He is a member of the Bar in science journalist whose experience includes serving
California and the District of Columbia. as founder and editor of Science 80-Science 86
magazine for the American Association for the
Nancy Foster Advancement of Science, founding editor of the
National Academy of Sciences' Issues in Science and
Nancy Foster, Ph.D., was recently appointed the Technology, and research news editor of Science. In
Assistant Administrator for Ocean Services and addition, he was a broadcaster for CBS radio and is

127

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

the author or editor of 9 books and numerous Dosoo lang
scientific publications. He has won a number of
national magazine awards and other journalistic Dosoo Jang is currently a John A. Knauss Marine
honors. Dr. Hammond has served as a consultant to Policy Sea Grant Fellow at the International Pro-
the White House science office, to several U.S. federal grams Office of the National Ocean Service, NOAA,
agencies, and to the United Nations. He has degrees where he is specializing in international exchanges
from Stanford (in engineering) and Harvard (in on coastal management between the United States
applied mathematics). and Asian nations. Mr. Jang is completing his
doctoral degree in marine policy at the University of
Marc Hershman Delaware on policy issues facing the U.S. marine
biotechnology industry. Earlier, he served as Chief
Marc Hershman is a professor and Director of the Research Assistant, Center for the Study of Marine
School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington. Policy, University of Delaware. In 1997, Mr. Jang
His expertise includes business, environmental received the Walter B. Jones Memorial and NOAA
issues, fisheries, international affairs, and oceanogra- Excellence Award for "Excellence in Coastal and
phy in a variety of subjects that include coasts, shores Marine Graduate Study," and in 1998, he was a
and beaches, ocean and coastal development policy, consultant for the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
offshore drilling, and ports. His interests include the Commission in Paris.
need to simplify regulation of wetlands; coastal
zones; development of wetland mitigation banking Paul L. Kelly
and law; and planning and managing coastal re-
sources. Paul L. Kelly is senior vice president of Rowan
Companies, Inc., with responsibility for special
Don Hinrichsen projects and government and industry affairs.
Rowan is a major provider of international and
Don Hinrichsen lives in London and is contributing domestic offshore contract drilling and helicopter
editor to Amicus journal and People and the Planet. services. Through its subsidiary, LeTbumeau, Inc.,
He is also United Nations consutant specializing in Rowan also operates a mini-steel mill, a manufactur-
environment and populations issues. ing facility that produces heavy equipment for the
mining and timber industries, and a marine division
Thomas Hourigan that has built over one-third of the worldwide fleet of
mobile offshore jack-up drilling rigs.
Thomas Hourigan is the Biodiversity Coordinator at
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- Mr. Kelly represents the oil service/supply industry
tion (NOAA), National Marine Fisheries Service on the U.S. Secretary of Interior's Outer Continental
(NMFS). He has responsibility for both U.S. domes- Shelf Policy Committee, serving as chairman of the
tic and international marine biodiversity policy and Committee from 1994 to 1996. He also serves as a
initiatives, including those under the Convention on member of the U.S. Coast Guard's National Offshore
Biological Diversity. He is spearheading the develop- Safety Advisory Committee (NOSAC), which pro-
ment of a NOAA Marine Biodiversity Initiative, vides advice to the U.S. Department of Transporta-
including the Aquatic Restoration and Conservation tion on offshore mineral and energy issues. He is a
(ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estuarine and Fresh- member of the American Petroleum Institute Execu-
water Living Resources as well as components tive Committee of Exploration Affairs, as well as an
recently announced by President Clinton as part of advisory member of the executive committee of the
the new Lands Legacy Initiative. Before coming to Gulf of Mexico Offshore Operators Committee.
NMFS, Dr. Hourigan was the Senior Policy Advisor
for Biodiversity and Climate Change at the U.S. Mr. Kelly has written widely on the subject of energy
Agency for International Development, where he led policy and is a member of the Editorial Board of
the development of the Agency's Biodiversity Policy World Oil. He has appeared on behalf of industry in
and Strategy. He received his doctorate from the numerous Congressional and federal agency hear-
University of Hawaii working on the ecology of ings dealing with offshore oil and gas issues. Most
corals and coral reef fishes, followed by postdoctoral recently, during 1997, Mr. Kelly served on an OCS
research in Antarctica and Japan. Policy Committee Working Group which produced a
report for the Secretary of Interior recommending
that an OCS impact assistance and ocean/coastal

128

Workshop Participant Biographies

resource protection program be added to a revived President. The ACC is a national advocacy organiza-
and enhanced Land and Water Conservation Fund. tion for local governments, business people, property
He represented the offshore petroleum industry on owners and others who live or do business in the
the U.S. Steering Group planning activities related to coastal regions of the United States.
the UN "1998 International Year of the Ocean." Mr.
Kelly holds B.A. (Political Science) and law degrees James F Murley
from Yale University.
James F. Murley has spent his entire professional
Robert W Knecht career working to strengthen local communities. He
first joined the Florida Department of Community
Robert W. Knecht is Professor of Marine Policy in the Affairs in 1983 as its director of Resource Planning
Graduate College of Marine Studies of the University and Management. In that position, Jim helped draft
of Delaware. He is also Co-Director of the Center for and gain passage of Florida's landmark Growth
the Study of Marine Policy and holds joint appoint- Management Act. In 1987, Jim left DCA to head 1000
ments in the School of Urban Affairs and Public Friends of Florida-a nonprofit, public interest group
Policy and in the Department of Political Science. that works to promote sensible planning, economic
From 1972 to 1980, as Assistant Administrator for development and environmental preservation. Jim
NOAA in Coastal Zone Management, he directed the was lured back to DCA in 1995 by Governor Lawton
initial implementation of the Federal Coastal Zone Chiles who called him a "seasoned leader on growth
Management Program. He has written many articles management issues with nearly two decades of
on national ocean policy. experience under his belt."

Ryck Lydecker While at DCA, Jim oversaw a department with an
important mission-to help Floridians create safe,
Ryck Lydecker is Associate Director for State Affairs vibrant and sustainable communities. The Depart-
for the Boat Owners Association of The United States ment of Community Affairs protects Floridians from
(BOAT/U.S.), with 500,000 members, the nation's natural and man-made disasters, encourages sound
largest organization of recreational boaters. He land-use planning and environmental protection and
is also Associate Editor of BOAT/U.S. Magazine, promotes a broad spectrum of economic develop-
covering boating, fisheries, public policy and marine ment initiatives which includes involvement with the
resource issues. WAGES Welfare Reform Board.

As a free lance writer he has written about boating, Jim is a 1974 graduate of George Washington Univer-
fisheries, marine policy and maritime issues for sity Law School where he specialized in environmen-
consumer magazines, trade publications and news- tal and land use law. Before coming to Florida, he
papers for over 20 years. In addition, Lydecker worked for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
covered boating policy and politics as Washington Administration in coastal zone management. In
Correspondent for Boating Industry Magazine for February, Jim will be taking over as interim director
nearly 10 years. Prior to that, he served as Communi- of the FAU-FIU` joint Center for Environmental and
cations Manager for the University of Minnesota Sea Urban Problems in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
Grant Program and was subsequently selected for a
three-year assignment to NOANs National Sea Grant Michael Orbach
College Program as Director of Communications.
Michael Orbach is professor of anthropology in the
Howard Marlowe Department of Sociology and Anthropology and
senior scientist with the Institute for Coastal and
Howard Marlowe is president of Marlowe & Com- Marine Resources at East Carolina University. His BA
pany, a Washington, D.C. public affairs consulting in Economics from the University of California at
firm. He has 25 years of experience as a lobbyist irvine, and his MA and PhD are in Cultural Anthro-
working with Congress and the executive branch. pology from the University of California at San
Founded in 1984, Marlowe & Company provides Diego.
Washington representation, coalition-building,
grassroots lobbying, and public relations services to From 1976 to 1979 Mike served as social anthropolo-
its clients. One of those clients is the American gist and social science advisor to the National
Coastal Coalition, of which Mr. Marlowe serves as Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Wash-

129

nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

ington, D.C. From 1979 to 1982 he was the Associate derived, biologically-active compounds with thera-
Director of the Center for Coastal and Marine Studies peutic potential. A major emphasis of her research is
at the University of California at Santa Cruz, during on the development of methods for sustainable use
which time he also served as a member of the of marine resources for drug discovery and develop-
scientific and statisitical committee of the Pacific ment, and in particular, on developing cell lines of
Fisheries management Council. He has been at ECU bioactive marine invertebrates and determining the
since 1983. role of associated microorganisms in the production
of bioactive secondary metabolites.
Mike has worked with coastal and marine policy
issues on all coasts of the U.S. and in Alaska, the Pietro Parravano
Pacific and Central America. He has published
widely on marine social science topics including Pietro Parravano has served as Pacific Coast Federa-
fisheries limited entry and effort management, tion of Fishermen's Associations (PCFFA) president
IndoChinese fisherman adaptation, marine mammal- for the past seven years. His work on behalf of
fishery interactions and state, regional and federal fishing fleets and his work to protect fish stocks and
fisheries and marine policy including "Hunters, habitat earned him the 1997 "Highliner of the Year"
Seamen and Entrepreneurs", an ethnography of the award given each year by National Fisherman
San Diego tuna fishermen published by the Univer- magazine. He is an ardent advocate in the U.S. and
sity of California Press. abroad on behalf of fishing family operations. He
served as president of his local that first gained
Margaret Podlich prominence when Half Moon Bay fishermen success-
fully halted a plan by the Port of Oakland, California
Margaret Podlich is the Director of the BOAT/US and the Army Corps of Engineers to dump dredge
Clean Water Trust, a national nonprofit organization spoils in a near shore site off San Mateo County,
promoting environmentally sensitive boating and California that was prime crab and fishing grounds.
angling through education. She is also an environ- As a result of these efforts, all dredge materials from
mental advisor to the Boat Owners Association of the San Francisco Bay disposed of in the ocean must be
United States, the largest membership association of dumped off the shelf at a site in 1200 fathoms,
recreational boaters nationwide. approximately 50 miles west of the Golden Gate.

During her career, Ms. Podlich has conducted Alison Rieser
numerous education projects with boaters, at the
Trust, and previously at the Center for Marine Alison Rieser is Professor of Law at the University of
Conservation, and the Chesapeake Bay foundation. Maine School of Law in Portland, Maine and Director
She is a lifelong boater who actively competes at the of the School's Marine Law Institute, where she
local, national, and international level in sailboat oversees legal and policy research on fisheries
races. management, coastal land and water use, marine
biodiversity protection, and international maritime
relations. She teaches courses in coastal zone
Shirley A. Pomponi law, marine resources law, environmental law, and
law of the sea. Professor Rieser is a consultant to
Shirley A. Pomponi received her Ph.D. in Biological state and federal agencies and faculty advisor to the
Oceanography in 1977 from the University of Miami, Ocean and Coastal Law journal. She is co-author of
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric the leading textbook in coastal and ocean law and
Science. Since that time, she has conducted research has published numerous articles on environmental
on the systematics, ecology, physiology, and cell law and ocean law. Her previous government
biology of marine sponges at the University of service includes work with the U.S. Environmental
Miami, the University of Maryland, and Harbor Protection Agency and the National Oceanic and
Branch Oceanographic Institution. She joined Harbor Atmospheric Administration. She spent
Branch in 1984, and was Group Leader of the Sample two years at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
Acquisition Program for the SeaPharm Project and tion as a Research Fellow in marine policy and ocean
then the Division of Biomedical Marine Research. In management before joining the Law School. Her
1994, she was appointed Director of the Division of bachelor's degree is from Cornell University and her
Biomedical Marine Research, a multidisciplinary law degrees from George Washington University and
research program for the discovery of novel, marine- Yale Law School.

130

Workshop Participant Biographies

Rod Vulovic

Rod Vulovic is a graduate of the University of
Belgrade with degrees in mechanical engineering as
well as in naval architecture and marine engineering.
Mr. Vulovic is Vice President of Sea-Land Service,
Inc., responsible for the ocean transportation ser-
vices. This encompasses all aspects of fleet opera-
tions, maintenance repair, crewing, asset acquisitions
and chartering for both U.S. flag and foreign flag
fleets.

Maureen A. Warren

Maureen A. Warren is a geographer and Branch
Chief in the Special Projects Office, National Ocean
Service, NOAA, working for over 20 years in the
field of coastal and marine resource assessment and
management. She has contributed to and coordinated
the development of four regional and one national
data atlas projects, several management plans for
coastal protected areas, and authored or co-authored
numerous publications and presentations. Ms.
Warren presently supervises a staff of geographers
and physical scientists in the Integrated Planning
Branch who are involved in the integration of
information and resources for planning and decision
making, consensus-based design and planning to
address coastal resource use issues of national
significance, data synthesis and analysis projects
related to coastal resource use and resource use
conflicts, and use of the Internet as a medium for
information dissemination. Ms. Warren holds under-
graduate and graduate degrees in geography from
the Hunter College, CUNY and the University of
Pittsburgh respectfully, and has completed graduate
coursework in the doctoral program in geography
from the University of Maryland.

131

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Appendix 11: Workshop Agenda

Trends and Future Challenges
for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Friday, January 22, 1999
Hotel Washington
15th St. and Pennsylvania Ave.
Washington, D.C.

830 A.M. Nezv Approaches to Environmental Management: Lessons
from the Chesapeake Bay
Welcome and Introduction Donald F. Boesch, Center for Environmental Studies,
Nancy Foster, NOS/NOAA University of Maryland
8.45 to 10:15 Perspectives on Marine Water Quality
Tim Eichenberg, Center for Marine Conservation
PANEL 1. The Context of the Next Twenty-five Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges
years: Continued Economic Globalization, Re- Thomas Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Ser-
source Decline, Population Pressures on the Coast, vice, NOAA
Changes in Social Values: National and Global
Perspectives. Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas
Biliana Cicin-Sain, University of Delaware, Chair Tundi Agardy, Conservation International
Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context Noon to 1:00 Lunch
Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute 1:00 to 3:15
Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture PANEL 3. Industry-Driven Changes and Policy
Richard Grainger, Fisheries Department, UN Food Responses
and Agriculture Organization
The Coastal Population Explosion Robert W. Knecht, University of Delaware, Chair
Don Hinrichsen, UN consultant and author Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure
Coastal Megacities and Sea Level Rise Implications
Rosemarie Hinkel, University of Delaware Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.
Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998 Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and
Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton, and Maureen Future Challenges
Warren, National Ocean Service, NOAA Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.
10:15 to 1030 Coffee Break Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's Coastal
Regions
1030 to Noon Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition
PANEL 2. The State of the Coastal and Marine A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States
Environments: Trends in Non-point Source Pollu- Rick Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners
tion, Habitat, and Biodiversity. Association of the United States (BOAT/US)

Michael K. Orbach, Duke University, Chair

132

Workshop Agenda

Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and
Future Policy and Management Challenges
M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant
Consortium

Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
Legal and Regulatory Concerns
Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
*University of Maine School of Law, "University of
Delaware

The Potentialfor the Marine Biotechnology Industry
Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic
Institution, Florida

Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry*
Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of
Fishermen's Associations

3:15 to 3:30 Coffee Break

3.30 to 4.30

PANEL 4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal
States

Michael K. Orbach, Duke University, Chair

Building Capacityfor Ocean Management: Recent
Developments in U.S. West Coast States
Marc J. Hershman, School of Marine Affairs, Univer-
sity of Washington

Coastal States' Challenges
Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal
States Organization

Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policyfor Florida
James F. Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida
Governor's Ocean Committee

430 to 5:00

Summary and Conclusions

Michael K. Orback, Duke University

5:00 to 6:00 Reception

133

Appendix III: Workshop Participants

Dr. Tundi Agardy Washington, DC 20009
Conservation International Telephone: 202-265-6738
2501 M Street, NW Fax: 202 986 6041
Washington, DC 20037 E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: 202 973 2203
Fax: 202 887 0193 Daniel J. Basta
E-mail: [email protected] Chief, Strategic Environmental Assessment Div.
NOAA/National Ocean Service
W. Andahazy 1305 East-West Highway
Washington, D.C. Representative Silver Spring, NO 20910-3281
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Telephone: 301-713-3000 x128
Woods Hole, MA Fax: 301-713-4384
Telephone: 202-863-0001 E-mail: [email protected]
Fax: 202-863-0096
E-mail: [email protected] Paul H. Bea, Jr.
Port Authority of NY & NJ
Allison Areias 1001 Connecticut Ave., NW #610
Council on Environmental Quality Washington, DC 20036
Old Executive Office Bldg., Room 360 Telephone: 202-887-5240
Washington, D.C. 20502 Fax: 202-887-0282
Telephone: 202-395-5750 E-mail: [email protected]

Stephanie Bailenson Barbara A. Best
U.S. Subcommittee on Oceans and Fisheries Marine Resource Specialist
428 Hart Senate Office Building USAID/Global Environment Center
Washington, DC 20510 1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Telephone: 202-224-7874 Washington, DC 20523-3800
Fax: 202-228-0326 Telephone: 202-712-0553
E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 202-216-3174
E-mail: [email protected]
Ronald C. Baird, Director
National Sea Grant College Program Julia Blackwell
1315 East West Hwy. NOAA/NOS
Silver Spring, MD 20910 1305 East West Highway
Telephone: 301-713-2448 Silver Spring, MD 20910
Fax: 301-713-1031 Telephone: 301-713-3000 x213
E-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Miriam Balgos Dr. Donald E Boesch
Center for the Study of Marine Policy Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies
Graduate College of Marine Studies University of Maryland
University of Delaware P. 0. Box 775
Newark, DE 19716-3501 Cambridge, MD 21613
Telephone: 302 8318086 Telephone: 410-228-9251 Ext. 601
Fax: 302 8313668 Fax: 410-228-3843
Email: mbalgosgudel.edu E-mail: [email protected]

Christopher Ball Mr. Charles A. Bookman
Director of Outreach Special Projects Office
Ozone Action National Ocean Service, NOAA
1636 Connecticut Ave., NW 1305 East-West Hwy.
SSMC4,911 floor

135

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Silver Spring, MD 20910 Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain, Co-Director
Telephone: 301-713-3000 Center for the Study of Marine Policy
Fax: 301-713-4384 Graduate College of Marine Studies
E-mail: [email protected] University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716
Baruch Boxer, Professor Telephone: 302-831-8086
Visiting Scholar Fax: 302-831-3668
Rutgers University E-mail: [email protected]
Resources For the Future
2801 New Mexico Avenue, NW #1117 Jessica Cogan
Washington, DC 20007 Environmental Protection Specialist
Telephone: 202-939-3423 EPA
Fax: 202-939-3460 401 M Street, SW (4504F)
E-mail: [email protected] Washington, DC 20460
Telephone: 202-260-7154
Glenn Boledovich Fax: 202-260-9960
National Ocean Service, NOAA E-mail: [email protected]
1305 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910 Sarah Cooksey
Telephone: 301-713-3074 DNREC, State of Delaware
Fax: 301-713-4269 Division of Soil and Water
P. 0. Box 1401
Brian Braginton-Smith Dover, DE 19903
The Conservation Consortium Foundation, Inc. Telephone: (302) 739-3451
1 Atlantic Avenue, Suite B Fax: (302) 739-6724
South Yarmouth, MA 02664 E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: 508-775-1367
Fax: 508-380-3800 Tom Culliton
E-mail: [email protected] NOAA/National Ocean Service
1305 East West Highway
Leah L. Bunce Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281
Contractor Telephone: (301)713-3000 x 142
1305 East West Highway Fax: 301-713-4384
SSMC4 #13403 E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: 301-713-3078 x 129
Fax: 301-713-4263 Penny Dalton
Senate Commerce Committee
Susan Bunsick 566 Dirksen Office bldg.
Graduate College of Marine Studies Washington, D.C. 20510
University of Delaware Telephone: 202-224-4912
Newark, DE 19716-3501 Fax: 202-228-0303
Telephone: 302 8318754
E-mail: [email protected] Chris Darnel
Ocean Policy Analyst
Dr. Young Tae Chang, Visiting Scholar Coastal States Organization
Korea-America joint Marine Policy Research Center 444 N. Capitol Street, NW, Suite 322
Department of Environmental and Washington, DC 20001
Natural Resource Economics Telephone: 202-508-3860
University of Rhode Island Fax: 202-508-3843
319 Lippitt Hall E-mail: [email protected]
Kingston, RI 02881
Telephone: 401-874-7427 Margaret A. Davidson
Fax: 410-782-4766 Director
E-mail: [email protected] 2234 South Hobson Avenue
Charleston, SC 29405-2413

136

Appendix III. Workshop Participants

Telephone: 843-740-1216 1305 East West Highway
Fax: 843-740-1297 Silver Spring, MD 20910
E-mail: [email protected] Telephone: 301-713-3074
Fax: 301-713-4269
Richard Delaney, Director E-mail: [email protected]
Urban Harbors Institute
100 Morrissey Boulevard Dr. Annamarija Frankic
Boston, MA 02125-3393 Coastal States Organization
Telephone: 617-287-5570 Hall of the States
Fax: 617-287-5575 444 North Capitol Street, NW
E-mail: [email protected] Suite 322
Washington, D.C. 20001
Richard DeVoe Telephone: 202-508-3860
South Carolina Sea Grant Fax: 202-508-3843
Ocean & Coastal Resource Management Office E-mail: [email protected]
287 Meeting Street
Charleston, SC 29401 Peter Fricke
Telephone: 843-727-2078 National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
Fax: 843-727-2080 1315 East-West Highway
E-mail: Silver Spring, MD 20910
Telephone: 301-713-0596
Milen Dyoulgerov E-mail: [email protected]
Sea Grant Fellow
11305 East West Highway, SSMC4 13408 Walter R. Gerich, Counselor
Silver Spring, MD Thyssen Group/TRT
1762 Baltimore-Annapolis Blvd.
Charles Ehler, Director Annapolis, MD 21401
International Program Office/National Ocean Service Tel: 410 974 0635
NOAA Fax: 410 757 3530
1305 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910 Tony Giordano
Telephone: 301-713-2989 Chief, International Activities and Marine Minerals
Fax: 301-713-4389 Div.
E-mail: [email protected] Dept. of the Interior/MMS
381 Elden Street, Mail Stop 4030
Tim Eichenberg Herndon, VA 20170-4817
Center for Marine Conservation Telephone: 703-787-1300
1725 DeSales St., NW Fax: 703-787-1284
Washington, DC 20036 E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: 202-429-5609
Fax: 202-872-0619 Linda K. Glover
E-mail: eichent%[email protected] Special Assistant/Policy Office
Oceanographer of the Navy
William Erb 3450 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Department of State Washington, DC 20392
Washington, D.C. 20520 Telephone: 202-762-1008
Telephone: 202-736-7912 Fax: 202-762-0480
Fax: 202-647-0774 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Joelle Gore
John Field NOAA/National Ocean Service
Fish and Wildlife Committee 1305 East West Hwy
11311 SSMC4
Dr. Nancy Foster, Assistant Administrator Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281
National Ocean Service, NOAA Telephone: 301-713-3117 x177

137

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Fax: 301-713-4367 Tom Hourigan
E-mail: [email protected] Marine Biodiversity Coordinator
Office of Protected Resources
Dr. Richard Grainger National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
Chief, Data and Information Service SSMC 3
FA0 1315 East-West Highway
Rome, Italy Silver Spring, MD 20910
Telephone: 39 06 57054828 Telephone: 301-713-2319
Fax: 39 06 570 52476 Fax: 301-713-0376
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Melissa Grimm Kathy Hurld
American Association of Port Authorities (AAPA) Oceans and Coastal Waters
1010 Duke Street EPA
Alexandria, VA 27314 Telephone: 202-260-9134
Telephone: 703-684-5700
Fax: 703-684-6321 Suzanne Jacobson
The Heinz Center for Science, Economics and the
Geoff Grubbs Environment
Environmental Protection Agency 1001 Pennsylvania Ave., Suite 735S
401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20004
4503 F Telephone: 202-737-6307
Washington, DC 20024
Telephone: 202-260-7040 DosooJang
Fax: 202-260-7024 International Program Office/National Ocean
Service/NOAA
Alan D. Guimond 1305 East West Highway
126 Robert's Lane #301 Silver Spring, MD 20910
Alexandria, VA 22314 Telephone: 301-713-3078n x173
Telephone: 703-683-3270 Fax: 301-713-4263
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Allen Hammond Marcella R. Jansen, Issues Team Leader
Senior Fellow & Director NOAA/Coastal Programs Division
Strategic Analysis SSMC4, 111h Floor (N/ORM3)
World Resources Institute 1305 East West Highway
1709 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 700 Silver Spring, MD 20910
Washington, DC 20006-5283 Telephone: 301-713-3098 x 143
Telephone: 202-662-2556 Fax: 301-713-4367
Fax: 202-662-2511 E-mail: [email protected]

Professor Marc Hershman Jennifer Jarratt
School of Marine Affairs Vice President
University of Washington Coates & Jarratt, Inc.
Box 355685 Washington, D.C.
Seattle, WA 98195-5685 E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: 206-685-2469
Fax: 206-543-1417 Gary Jensen
E-mail: [email protected] National Program Leader
USDA/CSREES
Don Hinrichsen Stop 2220
235 E 5V Street, Apt. 3C 1400 Independence Avenue, SW 20250-2220
New York, NY 10022 Washington, D.C.
Telephone: 212-223-5842 Telephone: 202-401-6802
Fax: 212-207-3888 Fax: 202-401-1602
E-mail: doceanusQaol.com E-mail: [email protected]

138

Appendix III. Workshop Participants

Peter Jensen Silver Spring, MD 20910
Deputy Director, Division of Fisheries Telephone: 301-427-2089 x 137
Maryland Dept. of Natural Resources Fax: 301-427-2222
Thwes State Office Building C-2 E-mail: [email protected]
Annapolis, MD 21401
Telephone: 410-260-8261 Anne Kitchell
Fax: 410-260-8278 Graduate College of Marine Studies
E-mail: [email protected] University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716-3501
Catherine Johnston Telephone: 302 8314665
Center for the Study of Marine Policy Fax: 302 8316838
Graduate College of Marine Studies E-mail: [email protected]
University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716-3501 Professor Robert W. Knecht
Telephone: 302 8318086 Center for the Study of Marine Policy
Fax: 302 8313668 Graduate College of Marine Studies
E-mail: [email protected] University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716
You-Sub Jung Telephone: 302-831-8086
First Secretary for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Fax: 302-831-3668
Korean Embassy E-mail: [email protected]
2450 Massachusetts Avenue
Washington, DC 20008 Dr. Virginia Lee
Telephone: 202-939-5676 University of Rhode Island
Fax: 202-387-0402 Narrragansett, RI
E-mail: Telephone:
E-mail: [email protected]
Jonathan Justi
NOAA/OAR Howard Marlowe
1315 East-West Highway President
Suite 11415 American Coastal Coalition
Silver Spring, MD 20910 1667 K Street, NW, Suite 480
Tel: 301713 3080, Washington, DC 20006
Fax: 301713 1459 Telephone: 202-775-1796
E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 202-775-0214
Note: presently at OAR, moving to NOS next week
Kelli McGee
Dr. Jeanne Kelly American Oceans Campaign
Coates & Jarratt, Inc. Telephone: 202-543-3561
Washington, D.C.
Jack B. Mingus
Paul L. Kelly Legislative Professional
Rowan Companies, Inc. Van Ness Feldman
5450 Transco Tower 1050 Thomas Jefferson St., NW, 71 floor
2800 Post Oak Boulevard Washington, DC 20007
Houston, TX 77056-6196 Telephone: 202-298-1899
Telephone: (713) 960 7580 Fax: 202-338-2416
Fax: (713) 960-7678 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Ben Mieremet
John L. Kermond 10920 Ralston Rd
Visiting Scientist Rockville, MD 20852
NOAA/Office of Global Programs
Suite 1225
1100 Wayne Avenue

139

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Robert J. Moran Nick Perugini
Director, Government Affairs Senator John Kerry's Office
National Ocean Industries Association
1120 G Street, NK Suite 900 Margaret Podlich
Washington, DC 20005 BOAT/U.S.
Telephone: 202-347-6900 880 S. Pickett Street
Fax: 202-347-8650 Alexandria, VA 22304
E-mail: [email protected] Telephone: 703-461-2878 x 3369
Fax: 703-461-2855
Jim Murley E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Community Affairs
State of Florida Dr. Shirley Pomponi, Division Director
Tallahasse, Florida Biomedical Research Division
Telephone: 850-488-8466 Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
Fax: 850-921-0781 5600 US Rt. 1, North
E-mail: [email protected] Fort Pierce, FL 34946
Telephone: 561-465-2400 x 449
Kwang Suk Oh Fax: 561-461-5415
University of Delaware E-mail: [email protected]
Graduate College of Marine Studies
Newark, DE 19716 Kennard Potts
Telephone: 302-731-8091 EPA Oceans Protection
Fax: 302-831-6838 Washington, DC
E-mail: [email protected] Telephone: 202-260-7893

Shauna Oh Nancy Ragland
Marine Specialist National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science
California Sea Grant College NOAA/National Ocean Service
University of California at San Diego 1305 East-West Hwy, Rm. 13446 N/COP
9500 Gilman Drive, Dept. 232 Silver Spring, MD 20910
La Jolla, CA 92093 Telephone: 301-713-3060
Telephone: 619 534 4440 E-mail: nancyragland&noaa.gov
Fax: 619 534 2231
E-mail: [email protected] John Rayfield
Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife and Oceans
Professor Michael K. Orbach Committee on Resources
Coastal Envirorunental Management Program US House of Representatives
School of the Environment 805 O'Neill House Office Bldg
Duke University Marine Laboratory Washington, D.C. 20515
111 Pivers Island Road Telephone: 202-226-0200
Beaufort, NC 28516 Fax: 202-225-1542
Telephone: 252-504-7655 or 7606 E-mail: [email protected]
Fax: 252 504 7648
E-mail: [email protected] Jim Reilly
S.C. Sea Grant Consortium
Pietro Parravano 287 Meeting Street
The Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associa- Charleston, SC 29401
tions (PCFFA) Telephone: 843-727-2078
Southwest Office Fax: 843-727-2080
P. 0. Box 29910 E-mail: [email protected]
San Francisco, CA 94129-0910
Telephone: Ed Rhodes
Fax: 650-726-1607 Aquaculture coordinator
NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service
1315 East West Hwy.
Silver Spring, MD 20910

140

Appendix III: Workshop Participants

Telephone: 301-713-2334 x 102 Fax: 703-660 6329
Fax: 301-713-0596 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Harry Strong, Director
Peyton Robertson Mitretek Systems
NOAA/National Ocean Service 7525 Colshire Drive
1305 East West Hwy McLean, VA 22102
11311 SSMC4 Telephone: 703-610-1722
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281 Fax: 703-610-1767
Telephone: 301-713-3098 x137 E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Boyce Thorne-Miller
Naomi A. Rose SeaWeb
Marine Mammal Scientist 1731 Connecticut Ave., NW
The Humane Society of the U.S. Washington, DC 20009
2100 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20037 Richard Volk
Telephone: 301-258-3048 Coastal Programs
Fax: 301-258-3080 USAID/G/ENV/ENR
E-mail: [email protected] RRB, Room 308
Washington, DC 20523-3800
Craig Russell Telephone: 202-712-5373
National Ocean Service, NOAA Fax: 202-216-3174
1305 East-West Highway E-mail: [email protected]
SSMC4, 91h floor
Silver Spring, MD 20910 Rod Vulovic
Telephone: 301-713-3000 Ocean Transportation Services
Fax., 301-713-4384 Sea-Land Service, Inc.
6000 Carnegie Boulevard
Jae H. Ryoo Charlotte, NC 28209-4637
University of Delaware Telephone: 704-571-2250
Graduate College of Marine Studies Fax: 704-571-4653
Newark, DE 19716
Telephone: 302-894-0126; Fax: 302-831-6838 Katherine Wannamaker
E-mail: [email protected] Knauss Fellow, Senate Commerce Committee
Telephone: 202-547-6516
Daniel Sayre, Editor-in-Chief
Island Press Maureen Warren
1718 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 300 Special Projects Office
Washington, DC 20009 National Ocean Service, NOAA
Telephone: 202-232-7933 1305 East-West Highway
Fax: 202-234-1328 SSMC4, 91h floor
E-mail: [email protected] Silver Spring, MD 20910
Telephone: 301-713-3000
Amy Schick, IMP Coordinator Fax: 301-713-4384
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission E-mail: maureen.warrengnoaa.gov
1444 Eye St., NW 611 floor
Washington, DC 20005 Eli Weissman
Telephone: 202-289-6400 Sea Grant Fellow
Fax: 202-289-6051 Congressman Frank Pallone's office
E-mail: [email protected] 410 Cannon House Office Building
Washington, DC 20515-3006
Rich Schwabacher Telephone: 202-225-4671
Cousteau Society Fax: 202-225-7665
Telephone: 703 660 8683 E-mail: [email protected]

141

Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

Christopher White
Government Affairs
National Ocean Industries Association
1120 G Street, NW, Suite 900
Washington, DC 20005
Telephone: 202 347 6900
Fax: 202 347 8650

John L. Wickham
NOAA/Coastal Ocean Program
1315 East-West Highway
Room 9700
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3282
Telephone: 301-713-4044
E-mail: [email protected]

Lori C. Williams
Vice President for Ocean Programs
Center for Marine Conservation
E-mail: [email protected]

142

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