Panel reports of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

-oastal Zone K to& 41
12
Information
C
ter
en

WO:-

KOM=

CUM C

V jp
e, opmen
De

XT-7
-jpr-

, @17
WE
@W

'777%

A
ollurne 2

I Re
p PO
I'llhe Clom
W;A
o@ Marine ;ience,
Engineeri
ng and Resources

. . ....... .

te I I i 1 -1 :3 /
4 k eti ee I
e,-.3
t'@ AM-'111'e eke e a AkLt@cz-
In,dustry
and
UIRSTAL ZONE
7:; Technology.,, INFORMATION CENTER

%SN

40 Keys
to
Oceanic
Development

Volume 2

Panel Reports
of the Commission
on Marine Science,
Engineering and Resources

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Sold in sets of 3 volumes only

Contents

Volume 1 Scienceand Environment

Foreword
Members of the Commission
Panels of the Commission
Staff
Introduction
Part I Report of the Panel on Basic Science
Part 11 Report of the Panel on Environmental
Monitoring
Part III Report of the Panel on Management
and Development of the Coastal
Zone
Part IV Report of the Panel on Education,
Manpower, and Training

Volume 2 Industry and Technology: Keys to.
Oceanic Development

Part V Report of the Panel on Industry and
Private Investment
Part VI Report of the Panel on Marine Engineer,
ing and Technology

Volume 3 Marine Resources and Legal-Political
Arrangements for Their Development

Part VII Report of the Panel on Marine Re-
sources
Part VIII Report of the International Panel
Index

Part V

Report of the Panel
on Industry
and Private Investment

Contents

'Preface V-1 B; Programs in Multipurpose'
Technology . . . . . . . V-10
Major Recommendations, V-1 Nature and Extent of Goverment
Sponsorship . . . . . . . V-1 I
D. Technology Transfer V-1 I
1. Need for Advisory Committee V-2'
11, Need for Consolidation of Il.- Supporting Services . . . . . . . V-13
Federal Functions V-2 III.. Jurisdiction and Leasing Policies . . . V-14
III: Multipurposi Technology V-3 A. Definition of State Boundaries
IV. Availability of Capital V-3 and Baselines V-14
V. Seasteading-4 Means To Attract B. Definition of National Jurisdiction V-15
' " ' - me 'lit, C. Exploration and Lease Terms . V-15
Urial Invest -3
Entreprene
D. Seasteading . . . . . . . . . V-16
IV.'
Joint Ventures. V-1 7
Chapter I Introduction V_4 Insurance . . . . . . . . . . V-1 7
A. Offshore Installations . . . . . V-17
1. Panel Objectives V-4 B. Personal Injury to Workers
11. Potential fbr Industrial Oro*6 V-4
Offshore13 . . . . . V-171
Ill. National Interest in the Ocean. V-5
VI. Collaboration in Development
IV. Govdrrinient and Industry Roleg V-5
Planning . . . . . . . . . . V-18
onsolidation of Federal Functions. V-1 8
A. C
Chapter 21 Present Status V-7 B. Goverment-Industry Planning
Mechanism'. V49
I. Profile of Present industrial Activities V-7
IL Value of OceatActivity ' V-8 'Chapter 4 '6cean Industries . . . . . . V-21
111. Industry Attitudes T6v@ard
''Ocean Investment's V-9 Introducti -21
IV.-' Cap Iital Sources and R -equirements V-9 , on V
H. Petroleum V-22,
Natural Gas . . ... . . . . V-27
Chapter 3 @,-Policies To Acrelerite IV. Ocean Min' V-29
ing
I ndustrial Dev4iopmeni of K' Fishing . . . . .. . .. . . V-34
Marine -Resources V-10 VI. Aquaculture . . . ... . . . . V-42
VIL Sea Transportation V-44
-1.," Government Sponsored Rese ;arch' VVIII. Instruments V-46
and Development. V-10
A.. Survey Programs V-1 0 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . V-50

Preface

Early in its history, the Commission organized which this report was being prepared. In addition,
seven panels. Each dealt with a major area of the panel participated in formal hearings with
interest pertinent to the responsibilities assigned to representatives from Federal and State government
the Commission by the*'Marine Resources and agencies, industry, universities, and non-profit
Engineering Development Act of 1966, P.L. institutions. Finally, the help of Charles C. Convers
89-454. Thus, a means was provided to focus on and J. Stan Stephan was enlisted for particular
the basic problems and to recommend solutions in portions of the text.
critical areas. This report is the work of the Panel The report has been carefully reviewed by
on Industry and Private Investment. consultants and various experts throughout gov-
The panel gathered information from many ernment and industry, to whom the panel is
people,' including approximately 150 personal indebted.
interviews with key figures. Aseries of conferences Kenneth Drummond, of Texas instruments,
was sponsored by the Ocean Science and Tech- served as Panel Executive Secretary. Of major
nology Advisory Conunittee (OSTAC) of the assistance to the panel in writing the report were
National Security Industrial Association (NSIA) to the following staff members: Timothy J. Coleman,
assist the panel. The panel utilized detailed state- Union Carbide Corp.; James W. Drewry, University
ments and reports provided by: OSTAC; the -of Virginia; Amor L. Lane, American Machine &
National Chamber of Commerce; the Oceano- Foundry Co.; and R. Lawrence Snideman 11, The
graphic Comniittee of the National Association of Oceanic Foundation. The panel greatly appreciates
Manufacturers; the National Academy of Engi- the contributions of these individuals and the time
neering, Committee on Ocean Engineering; the made available by their organizations.
National Oceanography Association; and various
organizations under contract to the Commission Respectfully subn-dtted,
and the National Council on Marine Resource`s@and Richard A. Geyer, Chairman
Engineering Development. Much information was, Charles F. Baird
derived from symposia sponsored by various tech-' Taylor A. Pryor
nical societies and universities during the period in George H. Sullivan

Individuals making primary contributions are listed
in Appendix A.

V-1

Major Recommendations

This chapter includes summaries of highlight Recommendation:
recommendations which are applicable to the An advisory committee composed of representa-
broad sector of ocean industries. tives appointed by the President from private
industry, States and regions, and the academic
1. NEED FOR ADVISORY COMMITTEE community should be statutorily created. This
committee would participate in the establishment
The Government and industry long have of National marine goals and objectives and
worked together at all levels in marine-oriented provide continuing guidance to the Federal Gov-
activities. To aid in the design and implementation ernment.
of a meaningful National program future Govern-
ment planning should continue to encourage and
anticipate information and advice from industry- 11. NEED FOR CONSOLIDATION OF FED-
The Government also should solicit information ERAL FUNCTIONS
and guidance from the States and the academic Many Federal agencies have responsibilities in
community. This need will increase as ocean re- the ocean, but to date no strong focus and in some
source development accelerates with an accom- instances no clear delineation of responsibility
panying increase in multiple use conflicts. exist.
The present need for closer cooperation has Federal programs and functions should be
intensified for several reasons: consolidated to:

-Development of ocean resources is acceler Iating. -Enable improved planning and direction of
-This rapid development, accompanied by in- marine programs.
creased awareness of the ocean's vast potential and -Provide more efficient and meaningful services
concern with pollution and conservation, requires through better utilization of Government man-
the most efficient mobilization of the Nation's power, funds, and facilities.
capability. Much of this capability already exists
both without and within the Government, includ- -Permit more efficient conduct of non-military
ing extensive facilities, trained manpower, and research and development required for expanded
experience in the development and use of marine marine activities.
resources.
-Provide a means for handling special problems
-The accelerated development of marine resources related to small, ocean-oriented businesses of
has revealed that it is imperative to achieve critical importance.
understanding between multiple users in order to
define the present and anticipated scope of con- -Provide a focus for information and technology
flicts and to recommend suitable mechanisms f .or exchange.
resolving them. -Aid in training and education of required man-
The Commission was charged by Congress to power.
recommend an adequate National marine science
program and a Governmental organizational plan
to carry it out. In determining the nature of this Recommendation:
organization, the panel finds that provision should Many marine functions of existing agencies and
be made to allow meaningful participation of bureaus should, wherever possible, be consolidated
industry, the States, and the acadernic community to improve the effectiveness of the Goverrunent's
in planning, execution, and review of this program. participation in a National marine program.

V-2

Ill. MULTIPURPOSE TECHNOLOGY indirect incentives directed toward establishment
I Technology in itself is not a severe limitation to - of a favorable business climate should be em-
industry's physical ability to perform an operation ployed where pertinent.
in the ocean. Cost, however, may often be
prohibitive. Consequently, future technological Recommendation:
innovations that reduce costs will accelerate the Government policy should be to develop and
utilization of the oceans. Therefore, early develop- maintain a business climate encouraging ocean-
ment of lower cost technology is required. In related investments. Special indirect incentives,
addition, other innovations may create opportu- rather than direct financial aid, are advised when a
nities to develop entirely new industries. well defined National interest exists and the
Technology and services that benefit a broad private sector's response is inadequate.
sector of present and potential users and which are
beyond the capability of a given industry tradi- v. SEASTEADING-A MEANS 'TO ATTRACT
tionally have been sponsored by the Government. ENTREPRENEURIAL INVESTMENT
When such programs are necessary they should be
oriented to scientific and basic engineering prob- The ocean environment has received much
lems. To insure an industrial base capable of promotional attention and many ideas have been
supporting accelerating National ocean exploita- conceived for ocean development. At present,
tion, it is imperative that development projects, however, numerous jurisdictional bodies have no
where practical, be performed by industry under procedures at all to convey rights to submerged
appropriate contractual arrangements. land. Where procedures exist, they are often in the
form of complicated and expensive leases which
Recommendation: constitute a particular burden to individuals and
The Federal Government should initiate in the small companies. Thus, to stimulate the imagina-
near future a program to assure development of tive development of selected underwater areas, the
basic multipurpose technology that will enhance States should adopt a system of simple, attractive
the capability of a broad spectrum of users to leasing, which one might refer to as "seasteading."
perform useful work on and in the oceans. The term of the "seastead" should be sufficiently
long to justify large investments that may be
IV. AVAILABILITY OF CAPITAL necessary. Among the possible applications of
some ocean industries are so new in areas of ad- seasteading would be aquaculture and such recrea-
vanced technology that their potential is not fully tional uses as underwater parks and hotels, but not
development of petroleum and other minerals.
understood by investors. Nevertheless, many con-
cepts of profitably using the ocean are sound, and Recommendation:
the investment community has been intrigued
greatly by overall ocean endeavors. It is the feeling To encourage innovative uses of the ocean
in this community that raising funds for projects other than petroleum and hard mineral develop-
with reasonable profit potential will not be a ment, State governments should initiate ex-
problem, and therefore direct Government pecu- perimental programs for leasing submarine areas
niary aid will be rarely necessary. ("seasteading') within U.S. territorial waters, con-
In view of the National interest in the oceans, tingent on useful employment of the property.
and lack in most cases of a need for direct Such programs should be a part of a plan for the
Government financial aid, the panel feels that orderly, rational development of offshore regions.

V-3

Chapter I Introduction

1. PANEL OBJECTIVES in terms of regulatory policies, incentives, and
services to industry?
Two objectives of the Marine Resources and
Engineering Development Act are to accelerate -What impact would a strengthened Government
development of marine environment resources and program in marine science and engineering have
to* encourage private investment enterprise in ex- upon private and industrial activity in the oceans
ploration, technological development, marine com- and upon the economy as a whole?
merce, and economic utilization of such resources.
These statutory objectives have established the -7What will be the private sector's requirements
framework for the work of the Panel on Industry for capital in order to realize the potential for
and Private Investment. Thus the panel has pro- ocean development?
ceeded from the premise that an increase in -How can industry collaborate effectively with
commercial marine activity is in the National government and the acadernic community in the
interest and should be supported by both the planning and execution of a truly National marine
public and private sector. The panel's principal ?
mission has been to determine what specific program.
actions are both necessary and appropriate and These questions identify major problems to
what mutual roles are to be played by the public which the panel's efforts have been directed. From
and private sectors. several alternative means to stimulate investment
The panel particularly wishes to emphasize the in marine industry, the panel has selected the most
key importance of industry's participation in promising, attempting to weigh their benefits
advancing the Nation's use of the seas. it is against possible detrimental effects.
industry which under its own initiative has devel- This report should be read in conjunction with
oped much of the technology now used in ocean the Commission report and the other panel re-
operations. The know-how of industrial personnel ports. For instance, the Panel on Marine Resources
will be crucial to technological extension. Certain has reviewed in detail the potential of marine
sectors of private industry also command capital resources; the Marine Engineering and Technology
resources substantially exceeding those govern- Panel has proposed a fundamental technology
ment is likely to be able to assign to civil ocean development program intended to advance the
projects. Nation's capability to utilize such resources.
The larger companies, at least, are capable of
assigning resources to a steady and programmed
effort that can be sustained over the years with [I. POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
greater confidence than a project subject to the
uncertainties of annual Congressional appropria- The potential for greatly expanded industrial
tions. Industry can often sponsor programs in the activity in the oceans clearly is present. Within the
ocean without fear of political criticism. Moreover, next 20 years, the world population is expected to
private companies can operate in foreign areas and increase by some 50 per cent.' About three-to-
four times more gas and oil will be required
reach agreements with foreign governments (such 2
as those of the oil industry in the Near East or of annually. It has been estimated that offshore
sources will provide in a decade about one-third of
niining companies off South Africa, England, and 3
Malaysia) that would be more difficult to achieve the world's petroleum. It also has been estimated
at a government-to-government level.
The panel's work has been directed to the lUnited Nations, "World Population Prospects," Pop-
following major subjects: ulation Studies No. 41, 1966, Table A3.2.
2Weeks, L. G., "The Gas, Oil, and Sulfur Potentials of
-What are the implications of the statutory intent the Sea," Ocean Industry, June 1968, p. 43.
that marine resource development be accelerated 3Ibid., p. 48.

that world-wide fish catches can be quadrupled 4 of proven reserves to meet future needs and a
and many feel there is a great potential in diversity of sources to establish a potential for
aquaculture for raising marine species of high competition.
economic value. Ocean mining activities could ue to the forecasted demand for natural re-
expand rapidly as technology for economic re- -D
covery and processing develops, and an interesting, sources, it is becoming increasingly important for
although still very ill-defined, potential exists for industry to make the best possible projections and
deriving new drugs from marine life. concomitant decisions concerning the most
More immediate opportunities are present economical sources of supply.
among the non-consumptive uses of the sea and -Domestic production of minerals offshore yields
coastal zone-in recreation, transportation, waste some foreign exchange savings when contrasted to
disposal, and scientific inquiry. The demand for an import alternative. The resultant relatively
the major aquatic activities of outdoor recreation modest saving at this point may be offset by
in this country will have tripled by the year repercussions in markets for U.S. exports, but
2000.5 The annual tonnage of international trade until the Nation's overall payments problem has
6
is expected to double in 20 years. eased, the balance-of-payments aspects cannot be
Profit-motivated private enterprise traditionally ignored.
has provided one of the most potent avenues for
growth. Providing a political and economic climate -Encouragement of appropriate ocean industries
that will allow U.S. ocean industry to meet these by the Government will contribute to the Na-
needs is a challenge to the Nation. tional economy in the form of capital investment,
increased employment, and productivity.
Ill. NATIONAL INTEREST'IN THE OCEAN
-many benefits accrue to National security from
Several reasons for Government encouragement industrial competence in the oceans. These include
of industrial activities in the ocean are fisted industrial marine technology, equipment, man-
below:7 power skilled in ocean operations, an ability to
obtain critical natural resources needed during a
-Expanding population and a rising standard of prolonged National emergency, and the capability
living will consume natural resources at an acceler- to build and maintain an adequate merchant fleet.
ating rate. Government and industry must have
comprehensive knowledge of both renewable and IV. GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY ROLES
non-renewable resource inventories, both in the The profit motive is and should continue to be
ocean and on land, to manage these resources a dominant factor guiding this Nation's marine
effectively and help, determine international trade industries. With profit a primary objective, indus-
policy. try will have to develop the basic data, skills, and
-Maintenance of reasonably stable prices and industrial organization necessary to utilize the sea.
marketing arrangements requires an adequate level The purpose of the programs recommended by
this panel is to advance the capabilities of private
business to develop ocean resources to a degree
4Bullis, H. R., Jr. and Dr. J. R. Thompson, "Harvest- allowing comparison with onshore techniques,
ing the Ocean in the Decade Ahead," Ocean Indus@, products, and services. With this capability, more
June 1968, p. 60.
5 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. rational investment choices can be made between
6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer- land and ocean resources. To that end government
ing Development, "Marine Science Affairs-A Year of and industry must work closely together.
Plans and Progress," 6overnment Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D.C., February 1968, p. 73.
7Other factors justifying the National interest in the A. Government Role
2cean are reviewed in some detail in two other reports:
Effective Use of the Sea," report of the Panel on The rate of marine industrial development will
Oceanography, President's Science Advisory Committee, be the result of many factors that influence
June 1966, pp. 1-3; Report of the Commission on Marine
Science, Engineering and Resources. profitability: demand, availability of technology,

V-5

capital, manpower, domestic and international marine resources as well as ensuring proper conser-
competition, and availability of alternative sources vation practices.
of food and minerals ashore. Government policy is -Aid in the advance of science and basic technol-
an additional and important factor in marine ogy necessary to operate within the marine envi-
development but cannot be truly effective unless
supported by other determinants. Government ronment.
policy cannot create, for instance, a thriving ocean -Negotiate acceptable international arrangements
mining or fisheries industry in the absence of an to conduct marine industrial activity.
economically sound market situation.
Public policy sets the tone for industrial prog- -Assure that National security is given proper
ress. The Government, through its establishment consideration in ocean development policies.
and interpretation of the political environment,
determines the ultimate climate for industrial
growth within its jurisdiction. This climate can be B. Industry Role
promotional or restrictive depending on the priori-
ties established. Many phases of Government Based on the profit motive, industry is the
action can be used to promote ocean progress. At instrument that gives economic value to ocean
a minimum, Government has a responsibility to:8 resources. Discovery of new resource potentials
will be of no benefit without the capability to
-Enunciate National policies and objectives con- exploit them economically. Development of an
cerning U.S. marine interests. efficient marine industry, on the other hand, not
-Assist in planning for optimum use of limited only can make the riches of the seas accessible to
public resources and adjudication of conflicting this Nation and to the world, but also can assist
uses of the sea. U.S. economic development and help strengthen
this Nation's position in international trade.
-Adopt regulatory policies which will not dis- The traditional and proper role of industry is
courage private investment. to:
-Provide special incentives to certain marine -Generate the ideas, methods, and risk capital
industries in their embryonic phase when in the required for continued industrial progress.
National interest. -Discover, delineate, develop, and market marine
-Undertake and improve the description and resources within the constraints of proper conser-
prediction of the marine environment and assess vation practices and equitable solutions promul-
possibilities of modifying it for the ultimate gated to solve multi-user problems.
mutual benefit of all users of the sea and coastal -Provide capital equipment and services funda-
zones. mental to ocean operations.
-Initiate, support and encourage education and -Contribute to the support of scientific research
training programs to provide competent manpower and technological development.
on all necessary levels for marine-related activities.
-Provide for protecting life and property at sea. -Participate in development of manpower for
ocean operations through in-house training pro-
-Sponsor programs to obtain basic information grams and aid to education and research within the
for industry's delineation and development of universities.

8 The Government role defined here is substantially in
agreement with the role stated by the President's Science
Advisory Committee, Panel on Oceanography, in "Effec-
tive Use of the Sea," p. VHl, June 1966.

V-6

Chapter 2 Present Status and Outlook for Marine Industries

1. PROFILE OF PRESENT INDUSTRIAL AC- Table 1
TIVITIES PRESENT STATUS OF DOMESTIC
The ocean industries are a heterogeneous group OCEAN INDUSTRIES
with a multitude of interests. In size, the activities Type Examples
vary from a major petroleum company operating
many large offshore oil and gas fields to an Existing Industries
independent fisherman earning less than $2,000 Mature, healthy, Continental shelf oil
per year. and growing and gas
Chapter 4 reviews in greater detail the status Chemical extraction
and peculiar problems of several industries engaged from sea water
in ocean resource recovery or use of the sea. Mining of sand, gravel,
The -following table depicts the status of domes- sulfur
tic ocean' industries in two broad categories- Shrimp and tuna fishing
existing and future. It lists only those that use the Surface marine recrea-
ocean directly, as contrasted with such support tion
industries as diving or instrument manufacture. Early stage of Desalination
Table I also takes into account that some seg- growth Bulk and container
ments of an industry fall into different categories. transportation systems
Thus, mining offshore sand, gravel, and oyster shells and associated termi-
represents a mature segment of an ocean industry. nals
On the other hand, offshore, placer mining is a Aquaculture, fresh
near-term, promising industry and sub-bottom water and estuarine
mining (mining of deposits within the bedrock) is Underwater recreation
not envisioned until much later. Mature, but static Most segments of f ish-
There are tremendous differences in present or declining ing
and anticipated rates of growth of ocean indus- Merchant shipbuilding
tries. Although all categories of ocean enterprise Merchant shipping
share common problems, distinct differences exist (U.S.-f lag vessels)
in their operating requirements, investment, degree
of competition, and relationship with Govern- Future Industries
ment. Moreover, the needs of some industries such Near-term promis- Mining of placer rnin-
as fishing, vary in nature and degree from segment ing (where near- erals
to segment. term is up to 15 Oil and gas beyond the
Government action to foster development of years) continental shelf
specific industries must be flexible enough to take Long-range Sub-bottom mining
this heterogeneity into account. Thus, certain (excluding sulfur)
existing Federal policies and programs may need Aquacult .ure, open
no more than minor adjustments for industries ocean
that are mature and have a healthy growth rate; Deep water mining
for example, little or no direct aid is needed to Power generation from
boost oil and gas production on the Continental waves, currents, tides,
Shelf. On the other hand, where a technology with and thermal differ-
great potential has just begun to advance, such as ences
desalination, the Government's assistance in re-
search and development and participation in pro- positive action of a fiscal, legal/regulatory, or
totype construction might be decisive in maintain- technological character might be needed, as in the
ing the industry's initial momentum. Occasionally, steadily deteriorating groundfish fishery in view of

V-7

the National interest in rehabilitating domestic ventures offering the likelihood of the greatest
fisheries. Finally, there are U.S. Continental Shelf returns on investment, whether they be on shore
industries, such as hard mineral mining, that are or at sea, at home or abroad. However, industry's
still in their infancy but whose economic potential evaluation of the prospects of profit in the oceans
and importance to the Nation justifies removal of is influenced substantially by regulatory restraints,
legal and regulatory obstacles :and creation of legal uncertainties, and the possibility that the
special indirect incentives to attract initial exploia- Government will sponsor a major ocean program.
tion. On the other hand, the element of excitement in
participating in a new industry may stimulate
11. VALUE OF OCEAN ACTIVITY investment interest beyond the prospect of im-
mediate return.
Many public and private studies have been Both the intensity of interest and related
made to assess the overall scale of ocean business, hazards of investment in this field are evidenced
using a variety of techniques to describe the size -of by the number of acquisitions and mergers occur-
the investment and the market. A survey of these 'ring now in ocean-oriented industries. Small com-
studies revealed that no estimate is satisfactory for panies in the field with limited capital'and a
all purposes. Many are defective because of redun- restricted product line or service frequently find it
dancies, oversights, and inaccuracies of component advantageous to merge with larger firms. In some
figures; inconsistencies in methods of compilation; instances they are forced to terminate operations,
and disagreement of essential definitions. Further, a pattern typical of young industries.
results have sometimes been oriented to such The offshore petroleum service industry is an
conflicting objectives as showing the magnitude of excellent example of the diversification trend. In
market 'opportunity, supporting advertising ex- particular, the offshore drilling companies, origi-
penditure, or showing the need for greater private nally characterized by wide-ranging cycles of
investment or further Government expenditures. business activity, are now large, established firms.
While estimates have been, as high as $50 They have stabilized successfully their level of
billion, the panel believes that the true value of business by diversifying into such areas as ocean
ocean activity in terms of contribution to Gross engineering, exploration, diving, mining, construc-
National Product is between $15 and $25 billion. tion, pipelaying, and even fish processing. As a
This includes recovery and processing of all natural result, the Nation's largest drilling companies have
resources, the sea transportation industry, the more than quadrupled their gross revenues during
marine recreation- industry, Govern 'ment expendi- the last five years.
tures, and net export of marine goods and services. Ocean industry, in general ., is not looking for
The panel commends the National Council on subsidization, which in this report is'defined as
Marine Resources and Engineering Development direct financial aid. Instead, industry is seeking
for the progress in quantitatively describing many various. indirect means to minimize risk. Such
areas of ocean activity. An urgent need exists, means usually are peculiar to certain phases of
however, for more comprehensive statistics that each industry, and include definition of jurisdic-
will further identify the areas of redundancy, tional boundaries, environmental prediction, fiscal
improve comparability, and take into account the incentives such as accelerated depreciation, ocean
statistics reflecting such factors as investment, surveys, and such Government contracting policies
sales, and contribution to GNP. The Government, as cost plus fixed fee.
working with industry, should develop a method For example, the mining industry has identified
to compile the data necessary to the periodic the need for reconnaissance surveys to guide
publication of the required statistics. further delineation of deposits; a petroleum oper-
ator would like longer-range scheduling of offshore
III. INDUSTRY ATTITUDES TOWARD OCEAN lease sales; and a fisherman would sometimes
INVESTMENTS desire the opportunity to use foreign-built vessels.
The fewer the uncertainties and the less restrictive
Because the United States has a freeenterprise the regulation, the sooner capital and technology
system, capital and effort are directed toward will be available for new ocean opportunities.

V-8

IV., CAPITAL SOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS help meet its special capital needs is provided in
the fishing section of the ocean industry chapter
Many ocean industries in areas of advanced, of this report (Chapter 4).
technology are so new that they are not fully During the past few years, several large aero-
understood. Investors are concerned with such space firms (such as Lockheed, North American-
factors as obsolescence in a technology develop- Rockwell, General Dynamics, and Grumman) and
ing at an accelerating rate. Nevertheless, many other large companies, (such as Westinghouse,
concepts of profitably using the ocean are sound, General Electric, Alcoa, Reynolds Metals, and
and the investment community has been intrigued Union Carbide) have invested millions in ocean
greatly by ocean endeavors. This enthusiasm has ventures. They have tended to emphasize the
been indicated by considerable publicity and heavy hardware and systems approach required for
advertising in the popular press and business special ocean work. Several of the Nation's largest
journals, the, creation of two ocean mutual funds shipyards now are controlled by aerospace or
in the last year, and numerous symposia and conglomerate firms intent upon instituting new
publications sponsored by brokerage houses. and more efficient shipyard parctices.
In general, capital has not been lacking to Risk capital in the hands of entrepreneurs
finance current industrial ocean projects, despite finances a variety of ocean ventures. It is very
high econon-dc risks. Further, it is anticipated that difficult to estimate the actual investment from
capital will remain availabl e for projects judged by this source. However, the reservoir of venture
the investment community as having profit poten- capital potentially available for raw investment
tial. opportunities, both land and ocean oriented, has
2
Capital for ocean projects is derived from many been estimated at $3 billion. The availability of
sources. The petroleum industry has in general so much risk capital is a very important character-
been able to generate and/or obtain funds readily istic of the Nation's ability to enter new fields and
to meet its very substantial capital requirements develop new technology. In summary, the panel
for bonus bids, new technology, exploration, and finds that capital usually has been and is expected
drilling. A substantial portion is raised from the to be available to finance industrial ocean projects
public based on an individual firm's credit, a factor with profit potential.
constituting one of the great strengths in offshore In view of the National interest in the ocean,
growth. To date, about $18 billion has been and lack in most cases of a need for direct
invested world-wide by the offshore petroleum Government financial aid, the panel feels that,
industry, about $13 billion by U.S. firms., it is indirect incentives through establishment of a
expected that by 1980 the world-wide cumulative favorable business climate are essential.
investment will reach $55 billion. A large portion
of this will have to be raised through borrowing or
public subscription.
Capital for expansion and modernization of the Recommendation:
U.S. fishing fleet has been far less plentiful due in Government policy should be to develop and
large part to high economic risks and legal re- maintain a business climate encouraging ocean-
straints. In addition, many fishing vessels are related investments. Special indirect incentives,
owned by small entrepreneurs having only limited rather than direct financial aid, are advised when a
access to capital markets. A detailed analysis of well defined hational interest exists and the private
this industry's situation and recommendations to sector's response is inadequate.

iRichard J. Howe, "Petroleum Operations in the 2Panel on Inventi on and Innovation, "Technological
Sea-1980 and Beyond," Ocean Indust7y; August 1968, p. Innovation: Its Environment and Management," U.S.
30. Department of Commerce, 1967, p. 42.

V-9

Chapter 3 Policies To Accelerate Industrial Development of Marine Resources

1. GOVERNMENT SPONSOR, ED RESEARCH This information will provide the foundation
AND DEVELOPMENT for more detailed exploratory work by industry.
Optimum utilization of ocean resources will Detailed exploration will be expensive, and a firm
require a very substantial increase in knowledge of engaging in the work will require extensive initial
ocean characteristics and development of new survey data to reduce costs and risks. Further,
technology. The propriety of Government assist- reconnaissance surveys are expected to uncover a
ance to scientific and technical advancement com- host of new industrial opportunities. I
mensurate with the National interest and industrial , Precedent for this work has been set by onshore
needs is well established and widely accepted. mapping. Survey programs must not become en 'ds
Furthermore, this means of accelerating industry's in themselves but should support many objectives,
marine effort is cost-effective, impartial, and can including those of industry.
be terminated as objectives are attained. B. Programs in Multipurpose Technology
A. Survey Programs Technological innovations that reduce an ocean
Far more information and greater research operation's cost will improve profit outlooks and
efforts'are necessary if potential ocean uses are to accelerate marine resource development. Conse-
stimulate the effort they merit. For example, quently, a basic technology program oriented
programs are needed to generate survey data on toward reducing costs relevant to a wide variety of
living resources, reconnaissance-scale geological user interests will compress .the timetable for
features, and environmental characteristics. At the utilization of the seas' resources.
same time research activities must be undertaken The Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol-
to advance the ability to interpret these data; ogy states that a 10-year program of intensive
without this ability the survey programs could not undersea development is in the National interest
be effective. and recommends that it begin immediately, em-
Experience has demonstrated that such research phasizing fundamental, multipurpose technology.
and survey activity can stimulate development of Government sponsorship of such a program is
technical capabilities, make existing operations appropriate if the effort concentrates on such
more efficient, and accelerate innovation. basic and widely applicable areas as development
The panel has found that industry today will of data on materials performance, concepts for
readily use additional bathymetric and geophysical simple tools, and hyperbaric physiology. In most
surveys and geological analysis of the Continental instances, large-scale projects that benefit only a
Shelf, slope, and rise. This is of particular impor- specific industry more properly should be carried
tance to the mining industry, but also would be out by that industry. The process of selecting
helpful to the petroleum industry, particularly in specific projects must take into account needs of
deeper waters and in remote areas where even the Government, scientific community, and indus-
general geological characteristics remain unknown. try, and must avoid .competition with private
These surveys should be reconnaissance in nature; industry.
detailed exploratory surveys should be conducted
by industry. Reconnnendation:
Recommendation: The Federal Government should initiate in the
Bathymetric base maps overlaid with geophysical near future a program to assure development of
and geological information should be prepared to a basic multipurpose technology that will enhance
scale of 1:250,000 for the continental shelves, the capability of a broad spectrum of users to
slopes, and rises of the United States within 15 to Perform useful work on.and in the oceans.
20 years. Selection of areas to be surveyed should
be based on priorities that take into account user I Additional discussion of survey needs is found in the
needs. Report of the Marine Resources Panel.

V-10

C. Nature and Extent of Government Sponsorship One function of Governmen-t in pro .moting new
Selected objectives wherever possible should be technology should be to enhance the ability of
undertaken by the private sector under contract. firms to react to new technology at an early stage.
This will permit private industry as well as the Aside from reducing public costs thereby, this
Government to be familiar with the objectives , ability increases the variety of efforts and ensures
characteristics, problems, and opportunities that that economic considerations are introduced early
become apparent during planning and implementa- in the appraisal and development of new tech-
tion. Under these circumstances, we can expect nology.
that industry will aggressively seek commercial Since circumstances will differ project by pro-
application of new technology. ject, the Government's arrangements for industry
Experience over the last 20 years clearly dem- participation should continue to be highly flexible,
onstrates the very great advantages that follow consistent with the premise that Government
from the participation of numerous organizations should seek maximum utilization of private capa-
in the pursuit of technological objectives. The use bilities. In some circumstances, joint participation
development project, including sharing of
of contractors in research and development pro- in a
jects demonstrates its advantages both for the costs, would be appropriate. When industry has
Government and private organizations. For ex- acquired the capabilities to pursue an objective, the
ample, the success of civil aviation followed in Government should withdraw.
very large measure from Government's reliance on Withdrawal of Government support and control
private firms to develop military aircraft. The at the earliest time that private firms can assume
private firms were able to draw upon this experi- responsibility will greatly increase the probability
ence to design civilian aircraft. A similar process is that innovations will be carried into the market
applying nuclear energy to civilian use, place. Industrial groups are usually eager to assume
Another example of sponsored research and complete sponsorship of technical projects as soon
development is the extensive investigation by the as the probability of success outweighs remaining
Office of Saline Water of methods to recover fresh risk and a reasonable return on investment can be
water from the sea. The program is conducted expected.
largely through contracts with industry, causing Recommendation:
wide diffusion of knowledge and experience and When Government research and development pro-
stimulating private efforts. am are required in the National interest, they
Business firms in oceanographic industries, as in gr s
others, differ enorinously in their relationship to should be planned and administered to permit
new technology. There are a few firms whose private industry to assume responsibility for ' fur-
business is primarily that to perform research and ther technology development at the earliest possi-
development and hence to generate new technol- ble stage.
ogy. A larger but still small group Of firms D. Technology Transfer
undertakes to develop new technology only in A recent Congressional report defined technol-
order to support their principal activities. These ogy tran Isfer as follows:3
two groups constitute the Nation's R&D industry.
Most firms are receptive to new technology emerg- Technology transfer is the process of matching
ing from outside of their own organizations solutions in the form of existing science and
though the receptivity differs widely. Many firms engineering knowledge to problems in commerce
lack the competence, capital, or interest to react or public programs_ . . The Federal Government
to new technology except in immediately usable "controls" (sponsors, directs, is responsible for) a
form and are dependent upon others for whatever large reservoir of technology rangingfirom research
cha 'nges occur. The conceptual problems and the results, to practical techniques and devices, to
2
absence of data make exact analysis impossible. patents.
2A more complete discussion of this subject is found 3A report of the Subcommittee on Science and
in "Basic Research, Applied Research, and Development Technology to the Select Committee on Small Business,
in Industry, 1965," The National Science Foundation, U.S. Senate, "Policy Planning for Technology Transfer,"
1967. April 6, 1967, p. 1.

333-091 0-69-2

Accurate information available on a timely transfer the new knowledge to potential users.
basis is essential to all users whether industry, Person-to-person contact is an extremely effective
Government, or university oriented. Despite method of transfer, although slow and expensive.
marked progress by all concerned in the past few Considerable know-how gained in technology
years, problems of adequate dissen-dnation have development lies in a grey area between scientific
grown faster than generally recognized. information and patentable inventions.5 If this
Another report summarizing a detailed study of exists in industry because of Government con-
technology transfer conducted for the National tracts, transference already has been accomplished
Commission on Technology, Automation and to at least one user, and the marketplace will
Economic Progress stated:4 provide further transfer more effectively than if
the information were held within the Government.
Devising means of channeling new technologies in As an example, the Atomic Energy Commission
promising directions-and bringing about the utili- provided financialassistance to develop new tech-
zation of new technology for significant purposes nology directly related to civilian use of nuclear
other than the immediate use for which it was energy. But knowledge of nuclear energy acquired
developed-has become an activity ranking among by private firms as contractual performers of
the most intellectually challenging of our time.... Government projects made possible the rapid
The transfer and utilization of new technology transfer of this technology to civilian applications.
offerimmense opportunity to the Nation. There is
widespread agreement among those who have Recommendation:
studied the issue that the knowledge resulting Person-to-person contacts should be encouraged
.from the public investment in R. & D. constitutes between groups working in related technological
a major, rapidly increasing, and in f ciently
su fl fields. Such contacts could be achieved through
exploited national resource. Its effective use can contract programs, special information exchange
increase the rate of economic growth, create new programs, and reciprocal arrangements between
employment opportunities, help offset imbalances industry, government, and the academic commu-
between regions and industries, aid the interna- nity whereby their scientists and engineers would
tional competitive position of US. indust7y, en- k exchanged.
hance our national prestige, improve the quality of
life, and assist significantly in filling unmet human
and community needs. It is recommended that Patents constitute another important form of
more effective use of this technology resource technology transfer. The panel notes that the
become a national goal established at the highest patent policies of all agencies of the Federal
levels. Government have been under review, that the
Presidential memorandum of Oct. 10, 1963, was
The panel endorses the findings and recommen- intended as a general Government policy state-
dation quoted above. ment, and a major review of such policy was to be
published in late 1968 .6 The panel further recog-
Recommendation: nizes the subject's complexity and notes that
many procedures of the various agencies constitute
Budgets of marine-related Federal agencies should serious inhibitions to the effective participation of
be augmented in :order to ensure proper documen- private enterprise in advancing new technology.
tation as well as satisfactory dissemination of data An intense controversy exists over the policy of
and technology. some agencies of the Government regarding rights
in patents evolving from work supported partially
While it is important that new technology be
documented and disseminated, publication of the 5Senate Select Cbminittee on Small Business, April 6,
information is not always sufficient to effectively 1967, op. cit., p. 1.
6Harbridge House, Inc., "Government Patent Policy
4 Study, Final Report," Volumes I-III, Federal Council for
Richard Lesher and George Howick, "Assessing Science and Technology, Committee on Government
Technology Transfer," National Aeronautics and Space Patent Policy, Government Printing Office, Washington,
Administration, 1966, p. 5. D.C., 1968.

V-12

or fully through Federal grants and contracts. The major reason for this is that it is frequently found
magnitude of the problem is such that it cannot be in reports associated with classified subjects. In
ignored. Federal R&D expenditures now exceed addition, it has been stated in Congressional
$16 billion a year. For the past decade, the. testimony that an important barrier in information
Government has provided by grant or contract release arises from a diverse interpretation of
7
more than one-half the R&D money spent in military security regulations. Classified reports
industry, thus tending to stimulate invention. frequently contain important contributions to
However, the basic principle of some agencies marine technology and should be reviewed periodi-
of the Government is that titles to patents on cally to identify those portions that can be
innovations arising from use of public monies released for public use. The panel recognizes that
should be assigned to the Government and the the Department of Defense is making a concerted
information contained therein made available to effort to make available results of military research
the public without payment of royalty where and development.
consistent with National security. On the other An important function to be performed within
hand, industry, university, and other private inter- the Commission's Governmental organizational
ests contend that this policy tends to impair plan is developing cooperative arrangements in-
technology transfer and reduce innovation, as it volving DOD and the civil marine agencies to
deprives the inventor of initiative and discourages assure that all Government data are made available
investment capital. to the private sector at the earliest possible time
The paradox is that the Government at one and consistent with National security. Special atten-
the same time stimulates invention through its vast tion should be given to the criteria with which
R&D expenditures, yet it a pparently impedes its DOD assigns classification to ocean-related data as
spread into commerce through certain of its patent well as to employment of the' "need to know"
policies. A new equitable patent policy is needed requirement for certain classified and unclassified
urgently to renew the stimulation of inventiveness material. The Atomic Energy Commission Advi-
while protecting the taxpayers' interests. sory Committee on Non-Nuclear Technology has
Withholding scientific and technical data from performed an important service in this area. The
the public because of security classification, or panel believes that this service should be extended
because of restrictions under the Mutual Security to the oceanographic field.
and Export Control Acts, is another source of Recommendation:
difficulty. The panel commends the work of the The Department of Defense and civil marine
Senate Small Business Committee in calling atten- agencies should be directed to review and modify
tion to the practical difficulties encountered by their procedures to ensure that the private sector
industry in obtaining Government-generated scien- has timely access to all classified and unclassified
tific and technical information. The overall prob- Government data as soon as possible consistent
lem is serious, and applies to all Federal agencies, with security considerations. Particular attention
although the Navy is of prime importance with should be devoted to the information exchange
respect to marine. technology since the largest
percentage has been developed under Na Ivy spon- problems of small business.
sorship. An advisory committee should be charged with
The Oceanographer of the Navy has estimated periodic review of the effectiveness with which all
that more than 90 per cent of the Navy-developed Government marine agencies are able to identify
raw oceanographic scientific informat ion is unclas- and disseniinate information to potential users.
sified and therefore should be made available to
the public. Nevertheless, as indicated earlier, there 11. SUPPORTING SERVICES
are insufficient funds to dissendnate such informa- The Federal Government provides many serv-
tion except for standard charts and publications ices directly and indirectly affecting ocean indus-
intended for the maritime industry. A much.
greater percentage,of oceanographic technological 7Senate Select Committee on Small Business, April 6,
information is not available to the public. One 1967, op. cit., p. 27.

V-13

tries. Other than the resource management services depth of the superjacent waters allows exploita-
and scientific research provided by many Govern- tion, the seabed and its resources are under the
ment agencies, several additional areas are ex- jurisdiction of the Federal Government. Although
tremely important to industrial ocean operations. submerged lands beyond 200 meters in depth have
These include weather forecasting and charting been leased to private industry by the Govern-
operations of ESSA, geological survey work of the ment, the United States has.not officially claimed
Department of the Interior, maintenance of navi- jurisdiction over natural resources in the seabed
gable waterways by the Corps of Engineers, and and subsoil beyond the 200 meter line. U.S.
navigational aids and life and property protection jurisdiction over fisheries extends out to 12 miles.
services of the Coast Guard. The Navy also provides A. Definition of State Boundaries and Baselines
important services in salvage, environmental pre- The boundaries dividing seabed areas of Fed-
diction, and mapping and charting. The National eral, State, and local jurisdiction; those dividing
Oceanographic Data Center provides the function privately-owned areas from the public domain; and
of soliciting and disseminating those marine data those dividing the area appertaining to the United
capable of being machine processed. States and the ocean beds falling beyond U.S.
Although the many Government services are jurisdiction are beset with ambiguities. These
not discussed in detail in this report, they are uncertainties already are troublesome for business
considered important. Indeed, the panel finds operations and appear certain to grow more severe.
Government support services assist a great variety The problems are complex and varied. In many
of ocean operations and often are critical to the locations the definition of the shoreline itself is
success of industry efforts. unclear due to the character of the terrain;
Some specific recommendations affecting pres- marshlands, floating islands, tidal effects, and'
ent and future needs for these services are found in
other sections of this report. Supportmig services migrating sand bars all complicate boundary prob-
are discussed in more detail in the report of the lems. Many instances are recorded of private
full Cominission. In general, it is essential that property washed away or submerged by storms,
support services provided by the Federal and State where resulting doubts about title must be re-
governments for a variety of ocean operations be solved in court. In other cases, the uncertainty of
. . shoreline location and the manner in which base-
continued and increased wherever growing activ 'ity lines should be drawn across bays and between
warrants. The effectiveness of these services can be
islands creates an ambiguity in locating the bound-
increased by improved coordination and in some ary between State and Federal jurisdiction.
cases consolidation of effort and facilities. A second major source of uncertainty is the
III. JURISDICTION AND LEASING POLICIES historical claim for States' rights beyond the
Government and industry interests are inti- three-mile limit. Jurisdiction of three leagues
mately involved in the terms under which public (more than nine miles) from shore has been
lands are assigned for private use. recognized by the Federal Government for Texas
Almost all ocean mineral resources are located and the Gulf of Mexico shoreline of Florida. In the
on public lands. The seabed and its resources fall case of Florida, the lack of a definitive boundary
within the sovereignty of the States along the between the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts at the south-
coast out a distanc@ of three miles except in two ern end of Florida further complicates the issue.
States.8 Most of these lands have been retained Maine, citing a pre-Revolutionary War charter as
under State ownership but in some instances justification, recently claimed jurisdiction as dis-
development rights have been ceded to counties, tant as 200 miles from its coast and has sold oil
townships, and private individuals. and natural gas exploration rights within this zone,
Beyond the zone of State jurisdiction and out an action which the Federal Government is ex-
to a depth of 200 meters or beyond to where the pected to challenge.
A myriad of local arrangements to develop
8Off Texas and the Gulf Coast of Florida the distance nearshore resources, particularly shellfish, has
is three leagues (about nine miles). It should be noted that
the boundary is not always precise due to a lack of caused further confusion. Among the States there
agreement as to the coastal base line. is a great variety of legal conventions regarding

V-14

ownership of shoreline properties and rights within nations, many problems arise, other than area
the tidal zone. There is confusion regarding the access, that. affect U.S. companies. A company
seaward extensions of the boundaries between mining, for instance, off the coast of South
States. A clear agreement between Federal and America in an area of disputed jurisdiction will not
State governments as to responsibility for man- only find that it must pay U.S. import. duties, but
aging and developing fisheries within the three-to- that it may not be allowed an investment tax
twelve mile zone also is lacking. credit or credit for taxes paid to the nation
The unsatisfactory status of the Nation's claiming jurisdiction. International agreement on
marine boundaries and the Federal Government's national jurisdictions will eliminate. uncertainty
responsibility to take the lead in its clarification and permit U.S. companies operating in such areas
has long been recognized. The problem can be to take advantage of many fiscal incentives nor-
deferred no longer. A waiting policy operates only mally available to domestic companies.
to discourage private investment and to complicate Companies considering offshore oil and mining
resolution of claims in areas where investments ventures will be reluctant, and in some cases
have been staked. restrained, from making sizeable investments un-
The panel endorses the recommendation for less the Continental Shelf's limits are precisely
solving marine boundary problems proposed in the defined and a new international legal-political
Panel Report on the Coastal Zone. It recommends framework is agreed upon to govern exploration
formation of a National Commis 'sion to create new and exploitation beyond these limits. Until this is
criteria for fixing shore boundaries, establish these accomplished, the United States should encourage
limits for each coastal State, and negotiate with continued exploration and exploitation beyond
Federal and State interests regarding the limits. the 200 meter isobath.
The intent is to establish fixed boundaries for
domestic purposes only, breaking from traditional Recommendation:
reliance upon the principles of common law. The U.S. Government should take the initiative in
Recommendation: proposing a new international framework for
exploiting ocean mineral resources to:
A National commission should be established -Define clearly the .limits of National jurisdic-
immediately to clarify the marine jurisdictional tions.
lianits of the U.S. coastal States.
-Govern operations beyond these limits.
B. Definition of National Jurisdiction
C. Exploration and Lease Terms
.The legal problems presently hindering orderly
industrial ocean development arise primarily from Oil, gas, and sulfur are the only mineral
State and Federal laws and regulations. However, resources being recovered from the outer Conti-
this concern with laws affecting activities within nental Shelf under Federal jurisdiction. Phos-
National boundaries also includes clarification of phates, gravels, sand, shells, and certain placers are
the National boundaries and the international being taken from inshore waters under State
aspects of exploiting resources beyond them. This jurisdiction. Petroleum exploration and drilling
subject is discussed in greater detail in the Report conducted in both Federal and State regimes
of the Commission's International Panel. clearly dominate these activities.
As an example of the difficulties encountered, The terms under which mineral rights in outer
two companies have acquired from two different Continental Shelf lands may be assigned to private
nations the oil rights of the same section of sea developers are specified in the 1953 Outer Conti-
floor off the Grand Banks. Canada believes it has nental Shelf Lands Act.9
jurisdiction over the mineral wealth of the Banks, The Act requires that rights to minerals be
but France, which owns the islands of St. Pierre subject to competitive bidding. This system has
and Miquelon, also claims a portion.
Because the United States has not officially 9This subject has been under extensive review for
recognized the jurisdictional boundaries of some some time by the Public Land Law Review Commission.

V-15

worked effectively for the oil industry. But the present legal and regulatory framework does
the mining industry believes strongly that con- not encourage individuals and small companies.
sidering the risks and very high costs associated with innovative ideas to develop such real estate.
with exploration and proving hard mineral re- Where procedures exist, they generally are limited
serves, the potential profits are not now suffi- to oil, gas, and mineral rights and require payment
ciently attractive to support competitive-bidding. of sizeable legal fees and bonuses.
The problem is presented in detail in -the Ocean The person or company having an innovative
Mining section of Chapter 4 in this report and in idea often is unable to devote the time and money
the report of the Marine Resources Panel. At a to obtain exclusive ocean rights. Initially, projects
minimum, development of outer Continental Shelf usually are high risk, and uncertainty in obtaining
-hard mineral resources will require amendment of favorable leases often compounds the economic
the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to take into risk, making the expected value of the return too
account differences between petroleum and low to justify the capital investment.
mining operations. The State governments should seek to devise
"seasteading'.' affangements-simple, attractive
Recommendation: leasing procedures specifically for the innovative
The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act should be use of the seafloor and water colurrin. Great
amended to give the Secretary of the Interior benefits are to be gained by encouraging entrepre-
additional flexibility in assigning rights for mineral neurial. investment. For example, the States should
development. ponder the increase in tourism likely to spring
from such underwater attractions as parks, hotels,
There also are barriers to assigning rights in and restaurants. In addition, aquacultural projects
areas within State jurisdictions. For economic and for shellfish and fin fish could be quite profitable
technological reasons, sea' bottom mining can and a source of tax revenue.
generally be expected to begin in the shallower The procedure most attractive to both govern-
waters, which are usually in State rather than ment and the entrepreneur probably will be a
Federal jurisdictions. Because of little actual ocean long-term, renewable lease conditioned upon use-
mining, State laws generally do not provide f .or it, ful development. The Jessee should be allotted
although several along the coast now have correc- sufficient time to make a profit on his investment.
tive laws under consideration. This situation makes The seasteading approach also is fully consist-
it very difficult for a company to evaluate a ent with the need forthe orderly, rational develop-
potential mining venture, because the leasing ment of marine areas. Leases can be carefully
procedures, rights, and total costs cannot be drafted so that each seasteader's operations will
determined readily. mesh with the desired pattern for overalldevelop-
ment. Moreover, if decided that a particular
seastead subsequently is more suitable for another
Recommendation: use, perhaps petroleum or hard mineral develop-
The States should enact procedures that will ment, the specific termination date of a lease
encourage hard mineral exploration and exploita- enables a change at a time anticipated by the
tion on their submerged lands. seasteader.
The leases should. be established so as not to
Several guidelines for such procedures are dis- conflict with the more complex procedures al-
cussed in the Ocean Mining section of Chapter 4. ready used to allocate sectors of the ocean bottom
for petroleum exploration and development.
D. SEASTEADING Indeed, petroleum and other mineral rights should
be expressly excluded from the leases.
The panel believes that entrepreneurs' acquisi- In addition to many difficulties not yet fore-
tion of rights to submarine areas would stimulate seen, interference with such uses as navigation and
many facets of ocean development. There are fishing would pose special problems for seastead-
countless ways an imaginative entrepreneur could ing. An obvious way to avoid conflict with other
develop the seabed and water column. However, uses would be to select locations where such

V-16

activity is light. The same purpose could be had difficulty obtaining adequate insurance cover-
achieved by limiting development projects to age. Many aspects of the problem are being solved
certain parts of the water column. by underwriters, but several remain, impeding
progress. Two unsolved areas are discussed below.
Recommendation:
To encourage innovative uses of the ocean other A. Offshore Installations
than petroleum and hard mineral development, At one time, U.S. insurance. companies insured
State governments should initiate experimental such offshore items as rigs, platforms, pipelines
programs for leasing submarine areas ("seastead- and small submersibles. However, business became
ing") within U.S. territorial waters, contingent on so unprofitable to the few companies in the field
useful development of the property. Such pro- that U.S. underwriters vacated the market and left
grams should be a part of a plan for the orderly, Lloyds of London as the sole insurer. Now the
rational development of offshore regions. gross annual premiums on offshore installations
have climbed to an estimated $80 million and U.S.
Although the panel recommends seasteading companies are showing signs of renewed interest.
only within territorial waters, such a concept will For instance, several participate in reinsurance
have increasing merit in waters farther offshore as through Lloyds, while at least one U.S. company
ocean activities expand in new uses of the sea. Just recently has written a direct policy in this area.
as in the territorial waters, seasteading will be a In 1968, several underwriters attempted to
means of providing investment protection to inno- form a syndicate to cover this phase'of offshore
vative users from multiple use conflicts. Therefore, industry but the proposal had not been effected at
the Government should consider the advantages of the time of writing this report due to considera-
special leasing arrangements beyond territorial tions of profitability and possible anti-trust implica-
waters. tions. The panel encourages the efforts of the
insurance companies to pool their resources to
IV. JOINT VENTURES undertake the high offshore risks. In time, various
Joint ventures probably will allow many ocean factors will improve the insurability of offshore
ventures not otherwise possible considering invest- installations, including:
ment size and high risk involved. Companies must -Improved actuarial statistics.
be alert to such opportunities as: -A lower rate of damage and loss due to improved
-Collaboration in research and development of technology.
ship design and shipbuilding methods, as practiced -A broader insurance base resulting from acceler-
in competitive countries, may be fruitful. ating offshore investments.
-Consortia for ocean mineral exploration and Until the insurance companies find the business
development may prove necessary in certain cases more profitable, it appears that the companies
to attract sufficient risk capital. operating offshore will continue to pay high
-Joint ventures in expensive deep ocean research premiums or in some cases resort to local pooling
may shorten the period necessary to collect or self insurance arrangements.
essential data in many fields.
B. Personal Injury to Workers Offshore
-Insurance pools covering offshore equipment and
structures may allow improved coverage for . The panel finds the insurance cost for personal
marine operations. injury in the offshore areas extremely high and for
some small companies prohibitive. A major reason
V. INSURANCE for this is that by law many offshore workers may
choose between compensation and litigation when
From large petroleum companies to small sup- seeking recovery for injury; thus the underwriters
ply and diving businesses, offshore operators have have no sound basis to evaluate premium ratings.

V-17

At present, insurance companies cannot predict turn, the plans of industry have a critical, effect on
whether litigation or compensation procedures will meeting National objectives. Clearly ocean.devel-
be followed in each case of accidental injury to an opment must be a total National enterprise in
offshore worker. Litigation awards are determined which government, industry and the academic
by juries and are often extremely high; yet, the community plan and work together on a contin-
injured worker may receive a substantially reduced uing and effective basis.
amount of recovery, perhaps nothing at all, if he is The consequences of uncoordinated action are
proved negligent. Recovery under compensation easy to foresee. For example, installations located
laws, on the other hand, is automatic, but the in areas of doubtful sovereignty might be rendered
amounts fixed by compensation schedules for the worthless should international agreements change;
various kinds and degrees of injuries are generally expensive port developments n-dght be circum-
much lower than litigation awards. vented by new modes of transportation; invest-
The dilemma relates to the coverage of the ment in recreation facilities might be jeopardized
Federal Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' by changes in the environment.
Act, which sets rates of compensation for injuries Yet the difficulty of achieving effective collab-
occurring upon navigable waters to maritime em- oration in development planning should not be
ployees other than. seamen. The Act provides an underestimated. Oceanic activities inherently in-
administrative procedure to eliminate the need for volve great risk. No one can forecast accurately the
redress through litigation in this specific area. rate of technological development nor the manner
However, it has not been modernized to account in which international law will develop. There are
for such equipment as manned submersibles and additional uncertainties which constrain partici-
mobile drilling rigs. Thus, employees on mobile pants from conm-titments necessary to an effec-
equipment at sea are able to seek recovery either tive plan. The Government, for instance, inhibited
through compensation under the Longshoremen's by political circumstances from conunitting funds
Act or by litigation on the theory that they are to multiyear projects, usually stipulates that its
"seamen." plans are contingent upon the availability of
When a claimant has such a choice, he can elect appropriations. Many industries, then, hedge their
the method that maxin-dzes his recovery. Thus the plans to protect themselves against changes in
probable claim liability is higher, resulting in larger costs and markets.
pren-durn costs to the offshore operator. If only
one means of recovery were available, the claim A. Consolidation of Federal Functions
liability would be reduced. Consequently, the
panel recommends enactment of legislation to The Panel finds there is no single focus within
ensure that only one method can be used to the Government for fostering industrial develop-
determine claim liability. Since it is simpler, less ment of ocean resources. Many Federal agencies
time-consuming, and establishes greater certainty have responsibilities in the ocean, but to date no
in predicting liability, the compensation procedure strong focus and in some instances no clear
is preferable to litigation. delineation of responsibility has occurred. Consoli-
dating some existing functions would have many
Recommendation: beneficial effects.
In order to reduce insurance costs, the Longshore- Planning and implementation functions have in
men's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act the past been less than optimum due to the variety
should be amended so it will b .e the exclusive of interests and the fragmented responsibility for
method to determine claim liability for injuries to ocean endeavors. Improvement is needed in re-
offshore workers. search planning, budgeting, and administration of
funds. A means for better coordination and
VI. COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT direction is imperative as ocean development
PLANNING accelerates and conflicts of use multiply. This
could best be achieved if a number of Government
In today's economy, industry finds -its opera- functions were consolidated. Industry is not only
tions affected crucially by Government actions. In perplexed with the number of agencies that must

V48

be satisfied in conducting marine-oriented opera- B. Government-industry Planning Mechanism
tions, but is seriously impeded in its own planning
process when, as often happens, uncertainty and The Federal Government, industry, the States,
conflict arise in the plans of various agencies. This and the academic community can make better
is particularly true for service oriented Govern- decisions if fully aware of each other's plans and
ment agencies. activities. Better communication between the
public and private sectors would help ensure
Many agencies that influence ocean operations orderly development of a National marine pro-
do so by providing such services as weather gram. With the diverse nature of private oceanic
forecasting, charting, and collection of a variety of endeavors and the size of private spending, it is
oceanographic data. It is believed that uninten- essential that effective liaison be established be-
tional duplication could be minimized and supe- tween Federal administrators and the private
rior service could be provided f6r industry if some sector. The Government's need for information
of these functions were consolidated. Not only and advice from industry, States and regions, and
could priorities be better determined, but greater the academic community is becoming increasingly
efficiency could be achieved in the use of man- essential as development of ocean resources accel-
power and facilities, improving assistance to indus- erates with an accompanying increase in multiple
try without increasing expenditures. use conflicts.
Numerous civilian agencies with ocean interests Marine operations are replete with examples
splinter non-military research and development. where joint planning is needed or must be im-
Failure to clearly assign responsibility for ocean proved:
work often results in program oversights in impor-
tant areas or frequently contributes to unnecessary -The National Projects proposed in the Report of
duplication. The fragmentation of effort and lack the Marine Engineering arid Technology Panel will
of effective coordination and planning often result require especially close collaboration in planning,
in priority and funding assignments at the project as much of the multipurpose technology devel-
level that are inappropriate to the total National oped will be of value to industry.
program. A far better base for conducting research
and developing multipurpose technology would -Consultation is important in development and
result from consolidation of some functions of marketing of products and processes. Items being
existing agencies. developed under Government sponsorship should
Consolidation of some Government functions not be competitive with those produced solely
would provide greater visibility for ocean develop- through the private sector.
ment, giving a great impetus to industrial develop- -More effective Government and industry consul-
ment in the marine environment. A unified group tation is needed in projecting schedules for leasing
can serve effectively as an information distribution offshore lands.
center. Private organizations wishing to obtain or
exchange data or information and to submit -The need to plan coastal zone use and resolve
unsolicited proposals could make fewer contacts. conflicts presents an especially important chal-
A focus within the Government would provide one lenge to Government and industry. The Panel
strong voice rather than many uncoordinated small Report on Management and Development of the
voices. It would be extremely valuable to the Coastal Zone has recommended the establishment
President, the Congress, all the Federal agencies, of coastal zone authorities on the State and local
and the entire Nation. government levels."

The role of these authorities would include
Recommendation: planning for multiple use of coastal and lakeshore
Many marine functions of existing agencies and waters and lands and resolving conflicts of mul-
bureaus should, wherever possible, be consolidated
to improve the effectiveness of the Government's 1OPanel Report on Management and Development of
participation in a National marine program. the Coastal Zone, Chapter 10.

V-19

tiple use. The Panel on Industry and Private community should be statutorily created. This
Investment concurs in this recommendation. These committee would participate in the establishment
authorities would solve routine cases of user of National marine goals and objectives and
conflict, leaving only problems of National scope provide continuing guidance to the Federal Gov-
to be resolved through Federal executive, legisla- ernment.
tive, or judicial procedures.
Recommendation: Additional details concerning the nature and
proposed functions of such an advisory committee
An advisory committee composed of representa- are given in the Report of the Marine Engineering
tives appointed by the President from private and Technology Panel and are endorsed by this
industry, States and regions, and the academic panel.

V-20

Chapter 4 Ocean Industries

1. INTRODUCTION approximate value of chemicals extracted from the
water column adjacent to the United States is
The panel has placed major emphasis on re- estimated at $127 million.2
source industries (oil, natural gas, n-dning, fishing,
and aquaculture), recognizing, however, that such B. Seaweeds
other users of the ocean as the recreation and
transportation industries also are immensely im- Domestic harvesting of various seaweeds and
portant. Sea transportation is discussed in this extraction of many derivatives has evolved into a
chapter in general terms. A detailed discussion of business with annual activity estimated by the
recreation i 's found in the Report of the Marine panel in excess of $25 million. Algin, carrageenin,
Resources Panel. and agaT are the most important commercial
Since healthy and growing primary user a.nd derivatives, but there are many others. They are
resource industries should foster sound supporting utilized in many chemical processes, often in
industries, each support and service industry has conjunction with the manufacture of food and
not been discussed individually. Instrument pro- cosmetic products including gelatin desserts,
duction, petroleum drilling, pipeline laying, diving, jams, baby foods, and toothpaste. In addition,
salvage, and weather prediction are among the kelp and other seaweeds have been used as
many support and service activities. To illustrate fertilizer in an unprocessed form. Most seaweed
the problems faced by one such industry, the harvested is brown kelp from California.
panel has included a section on instruments since In addition to harvesting natural seaweed, it is
the need for instruments pervades all other indus- anticipated that aquaculture techniques will sup-
tries. plement the supply by growing some types of
Several resource activities-chemicals from sea marine algae. There is, for example, a potential for
water, seaweeds, and marine pharmaceuticals-are raising and processing seaweed in ponds and rivers
mentioned only in this introduction. for ultimate use as animal feed.

A. Chemical Extraction from Sea Water C. Pharmaceuticals

Chemical extraction from sea water constitutes The properties of marine bioactive substances
a successful industry with no major problems have attracted widespre .ad interest and appear to
requiring Government action.' Salt, bromine, mag- pose considerable promise regarding the preven-
nesium. metal, and magnesium compounds are the tion, treatment and cure of human illS.3 Although
only major inorganic chemicals presently ex- the pharmaceuticals industry has sponsored some
tracted. These industries, well-established in the research there is little expressed interest in the
United States, compete favorably with land-based marine pharmaceutical segment. Industry spokes-
operations. For example, magnesium metal ex- men have stated that most drug companies have
tracted from sea water accounts for over 90 per many more research opportunities than they could
cent of total U.S * production, while bromine possibly undertake, and the most promising of
represents approximately half. These large shares
of the market are produced in a single facility in 2
This represents the combined annual value of sea
Freeport, Texas. Salt production from sea water is water production of salt ($8 million), magnesium metal
centered in California. In addition, eight domestic ($57 million), bromine ($30 million), and magnesium
plants rely on the ocean as a source of raw compounds ($ 3 2 million). in addition, desalination of sea
water in this country yields $8 million of potable water.
material to produce magnesium compounds. The W. F. Mellhenny, "Chemicals from Sea Water," Proceed-
ings of the Inter-American Conference on Materials
Technology, May 1968, p. 119.
Such extraction is discussed in greater detail in the 3Report of the Panel on Oceanography, President's
Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol- Science Advisory Committee, "Effective Use of the Sea,"
ogy- June 1966, pp. 52-54.

V-21

these are not associated with marine bioactive consumes about-45--per cent of free world petro-
substances. leum production but has only about 13 per cent of
To discover a new compound may cost tens of the proven reserveS.4
thousands of dollars, either by synthesis or refine- Hence a major problem facing the petroleum
ment from nature. However, once a drug is found, industry is to prove additional reserves. Those who
it usually costs millions of dollars to produce ' it forecast that the world soon would be running out
commercially. Only one of every two to three of oil and gas supplies have seen advancing
thousand compounds investigated becomes mar- technology employed to firid new reserves, and
ketable. Because of considerable development have had to revise their original prognostications.
costs, a drug company must have some assurance Today the oil industry is developing new technol-
of exclusive rights (patent or license) before it will ogy that will enable companies to evaluate and
spend the money, and it is often more difficult to hopefully develop not only.offshore oil deposits,
obtain exclusive rights to naturally occurring but tar sands, oil shale, coal conversion processes
products. and other sources on land that are not now
Nevertheless, drug companies continue to look economically recoverable.
to new sources of supply, including the ocean. If a Petroleum producers are turning to the sea in
marine specimen is found to contain a new the hope of finding and developing large quantities
substance with drug potential, the pharmaceutical of new reserves more economically than they
companies may find it more economical either to presently can on land. Thus, even though oper-
synthesize the , active. ingredient, or culture the ating and capital costs are high offshore, the
creature in the laboratory.. In many cases, there- companies are hoping that fields not yet discov-
fore, the sea may be an initial source for a given ered in the comparatively virgin marine areas will
drug, but not a continuing one. be sufficiently large and productive to be highly
competitive with land sources.

Il. PETROLEUM
B. Investment and Sales
A. Present Status and Outlook The petrol Ieurn industry produced about $1.0
Demand for oil is expected to increase rapidly billion of crude oil in 1967 from the U.S.
in the next 20 years. Much of the new domestic Table 1
supply to meet this demand will be from offshore DOMESTIC OFFSHORE EXPENDI-
areas because a high percentage of the large, easily TURES
located accumulations on land already have been (Billions of Dollars)
developed, while comparatively few have been Cumu-
found offshore. 1968 lative
The Marine Resources Panel's report includes (Est.) (Through
recent projections of free world energy demand. It 1968)
indicates that during the next 20 years the Lease Bonus and
cumulative demand will be about three times the Rental Payments . . . . $1.25 $ 4.00
total produced throughout the free world during Royalty Payments . . . . 0.25 1.85
the last 100 years. Moreover, it is estimated that, Seismic, Gravity, and
Magnetic Surveys . . . . 0.10 1.10
between now and the year 2000, three-fourths of Drilling and
domestic energy needs will be met by oil and gas, Completing Wells . . . . 0.35 3:10
despite increasing reliance on nuclear power and Platforms, Production
other new sources of energy. Facilities, and Pipelines 0.25 1.85
Although U.S. production of oil and gas has Operating Costs 0.15 0.85
increased rapidly, domestic consumption has TOTAL . . . . . 2.35 $12.75
grown even more dramatically, contributing to a Source: Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.),
steady decline in the ratio of proven domestic "Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980 and Beyond,"
reserves to annual production from about 13 in Ocean Industry, .August 1968, p. 29.
1950 to 10 in 1967. In addition, North America 4Oil and GasJournal, Dec. 25, 1967, p. 119.

V-22

Table 2
EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITY IN THE FREE WORLD'

United Latin F ree
Category Year States Canada America Europe. Africa Mideast Far East World

tountries with Ofishore
Activity2 1960 1 1 5 2 6 5 4 24
1964 1 1 15 8 21 12 8 66
1967 1 1 18 9 26 14 11 80
Offshore Concession Acreage 1960 - - - - - - - 3003
(Millions of acres) 1964 7 154 87 48 56 34 422 807
1966 9 202 125 69 127 53 760 1,345 4

Geophysical Crew Months 1960 93 5 6 - 31 - - 135
(Marine seismograph) 1964 273 22 12 133 45 26 35 546
1966 461 26 18 103 33 47 140 8285

Crude-Oil Production 1960 190 - 25 - 181 - 396
(Thousand b/d) 1964 449 - 59 8 65 684 7 1,272
1967 870 - 77 10 165 1,184 50 2,356

Proved Crude Reserves 1960 1,700 - 220 100 - 14j750 - 16,770
(Million bbi) 1964 2,200 - 260 100 1,050 32,300 100 35,010
1967 4,100 - 330 220 3,150 43,350 1,400 52,550

Does not take into account the activity in such protected waters as Venezuela's rich Lake Maracaibo.
2Excludes countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and where there is no offshore activity.
313reakdown not available.
4Data as of Jan. 1, 1967 not yet available.
5 Data for 1967 not yet available.
Source: OilandGasiournalMay6,1968,p.77.

Continental Shelf," representing approximately 12 will be affected by costs of offshore production,
per cent of the total annual value of crude oil alternative domestic sources, and U.S. import
extracted in the United States. restrictions. This Panel has not attempted to
Offshore production accounts for 16 per cent analyze the oil industry in detail but has concen-
of total world production. 6 Comparing U.S. pro- trated on problems of 'the U.S. offshore oil
duction of $1.0 billion with the estimated 1968, industry and desirable adjustments to the present
investment of' $2.35 billion shown in Table 1, the regulatory framework in fight of higher offshore
offshore yield has yet to match the very large risks.
ocean expenditures,by oil companies. Of the $4.0 Much. capital is involved in recovering oil from
billion of bonus and rental payments for offshore the ocean bottom. Existing platforms in the Gulf
sites paid to date, $3.3 billion were paid to the of Mexico cost between $1 and $6 million
U.S. Government and $0.7 billion to the States. depending on water depths and location, whereas
The $1.85 billion of royalties paid to date, site, preparation costs on land are minimal. In
however, was divided equally between the States addition, costs of operating over water are two to
and U.S. Govemment.7 Table 2 indicates the four times those on land, and offshore pipelines
relative position of the United States in offshore generally cost two to four times those onshore.
oil activity throughout the free world and also - One recent analysis of the costs of producing in
reveals the industry's rapid growth since 1960. a model field under actual conditions off Louisi-,
ana indicated that present-value net profit (using a
C. Nature of the Industry nine per cent discount rate) dropped to only nine
cents per barrel at ocean depths of 400 feet
The number and character of the companies in compared to 33 cents at 100 feet and 50 cents
8
the industry defy concise description. At least 30 onshore. No finding or bonus costs were included
to 35 U.S. oil companies are involved in offshore in this example because of variations from field to
production, supported by hundreds of contractors field. Moreover, a field of better-than-average size
who provide services for a large portion of the was assumed. It should be noted that the profits
work done at sea. A small percentage of these generated in deep water (nine cents) are not
contractors is controlled by the oil companies generally sufficient even to pay for either explora-.
through majority stockholdings. Because of high tio'n or bonus costs. This example suggests that
operating risks and the large capital outlays re- additional attention may be required for the
quired, most companies producing oil offshore are, problems related to the greater offshore depths in
large corporations. However, several small com- order to insure a continuing and healthy rate of
panies have formed groups to operate jointly activity in exploration and production.
offshore. Unlike offshore gas, the transmission of
oil through pipelines is usually performed by the 1. Timing of Federal Lease Sales
production companies.
The system of offshore lease sales is a complex
D. Problems and Recommendations subject now under intensive study by the Public
Land Law Review Commission and the Department
Oil economics is a complex subject-not only of the Interior. The competition in recent oil lease
from the standpoint of domestic production but sales indicates the system is working reasonably
also in regard to world production and import well, but some aspects of the present policy should
restrictions. The price of oil has been at a be altered.
relatively stable level in the United States in the The timing of Federal lease sales has been
past. In the future, however, as demand aP- erratic. Notice of sales well ahead of time would
proaches conventional supply capability, the price greatly aid industry budgeting, would enable the
5U.S. Bureau of Mines. industry to improve its utilization of capital,
6Richard J. Howe (Esso Production ,Research Co.), a
"Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980'and Beyond," J: E. Wilson (Shell Oil Co.), "Economics of Offshore
Ocean Indusny, August 196 8, p. 29. Louisiana," presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Divi-
sion of the Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Assn., Sept. 12,
"Ibid. 1967.

V-24

manpower, and equipment, parti cularly with re- Government for application to offshore areas in
spect to exploration and development activity, and the Gulf beyond State jurisdiction.
would permit the gathering of more data to Removal of restrictions on production from
evaluate the property to be leased. Federal leases might well make Federal tracts,
deeper and further offshore, more attractive to oil
Recommendation: companies. However, this would result in loss of
Federal lease sales for oil and gas development severance tax revenue to Texas and Louisiana
rights on the outer Continental Shelf should be because of reduced onshore output and might
announced further in advance than is current cause the States to respond in kind, thus upsetting
practice. the existing economic and political stability. Past
arguments in support of restrictions have included:
2. Federal Lease Sales for De Iep Water -Restrictions are useful to balance supply and
In 1968, there was a $600 million lease sale in demand and to improve conservation.
the Santa Barbara channel. Thus, several oil
companies ventured into very deep water-over 60 -Fields with marginal economics would be unable
per cent of the acreage is below 600 feet and the to compete with large efficient fields if the supply
corner of one lease is in water more than 1,800 were not prorated. Thus,'it has been reasoned that
feet deep. The Santa Barbara sale involved special restrictions help mamitain a standby production
capability that c /
circumstances that compensated somewhat for the duld be mobilized quickly in times
disadvantages inherent in greater depths. The of need such-@s the Middle East crisis.
tracts are very near the shore; the oceanographic -Tlie subject of prorationing involves political
and meteorological conditions are mild when -and economic ramifications related to the varying
compared to the Gulf of Mexico; oil is in short interests of large companies, small companies, and
supply along the densely populated coast of consumers These extremely complex issues pres-
Southern California; and there are no restrictions
on rates of production. The degree to which the ently are being reviewed by the Public Land Law
deeper Santa Barbara leases will allow econon-dcal Review Commission.
production will depend greatly on technology yet The percentage allowable is continuing to rise
to be developed or perfected -and on finding large due to ever increasing demand for petroleum.
petroleum accumulations. This increase will probably continue until the
The OCS Lands @ct now firriits the primary capacity of all wells is attained. Many expect this
term for exploration and development to a maxi- point to be reached in the next 5 to 10 years.
murn of five years. Continuing the trend toward
exploration and development in deep water, as 4. Environmental Prediction
well as hostile areas such as Cook Inlet, Alaska, The offshore oil industry operates in a hostile
may make it desirable to lengthen the primary
lease term. environment, particularly in hurricane areas. For
operations under normal climatic conditions, the
3. Production Rate Restrictions oil companies and their offshore contractors
receive adequate environmental forecasts from the
The Gulf region produces most of the domestic U.S. Weather Bureau and many private meteoro-
offshore oil and has the most proven U.S. offshore logical companies. Nevertheless, improved data
reserves. Texas and Louisiana have set limits on and forecasting techniques would provide im-
the production rate of each well in accordance mediate cost savings. In view of substantial added
with a percentage allowable. In order to offset costs during the hurricane season in the Gulf of
costs of operations over water, both States use the Mexico, better hurricane data and prediction
equity allowable ratio to permit companies to would be beneficial.
produce oil from nearshore and offshore areas at a The cost of shutting down during a hurricane
more rapid rate than on land. State ratios tradi- threat in the Gulf of Mexico can be considerable.
tionally have been followed closely by the U.S. Offshore operations are shut down to varying

V-25

degrees depending on the type of operation, acquired by various Government agencies has
degree of control an 'd automation, and strength reached offshore operators. Such information and
and proximity of the hurricane. It has been technology could benefit all offshore operations,
estimated that Hurricane Inez in 1966 cost especially the petroleum industry. Exploration,
Louisiana operators $1.5 million in expenses and drilling, and production in deeper waters where
lost production even though the hurricane did not technology must be more advanced make in-
come near enough to cause any property damage. creased oceanographic knowledge more needed
Property losses, as differentiated from shut than ever.
downs, have been even greater. Hurricanes Hilda The responsibility for information exchange
(1964) and Betsy (1965) each caused offshore should not fall exclusively on Government
property losses exceeding $ 100 million. agencies. The petroleum companies, by virtue of
Improved hurricane path prediction will reduce their many research efforts and ocean operating
the degree and length of shutdowns. Greater experience, have accumulated considerable knowl-
knowledge of the wind, wave, and subsurface edge on their own. Much of this is not genuinely
forces associated with hurricanes will allow im- proprietary and could be of great value to the
proved design and'construction techniques result- Nation if disseminated among other private inter-
ing in savings in construction cost, property losses, ests and Government agencies.
and insurance prerm'ums. Unfortunately, greater exchange of information
Modification of intensity or path of hurricanes will not be easy. The knowledge, customarily in
would have obvious advantages not only to the the sole possession of a few experts, is rarely well
petroleum industry but all other marine - and documented or advertised. Consequently, because
coastal interests. However, progress in hufficane person-to-person transfer generally has been ineffi-
research has been disappointingly slow; accurate cient, enormous effort will be necessary to achieve
prediction, modification, and perhaps control -greater interchange.
remain hopes for the future. To help in this There already have been some cooperative
problem, the Environmental Science Services Ad- efforts by Govermnent, universities, and the petro-
ministration recently has intensified research at its leum industry to improve technology transfer in
National Hurricane Center. such subjects as environmental prediction, plat-
Very little is known about the size, shape, speed, form, design, underwater completion, materials
and destructive power of hurricane waves. The studies, and welding techniques. For example,!one
more than 1,000 existing offshore platforms company with considerable expertise in under-
represent potential instrument sites to measure water oil well completion gave a course on the
environmental conditions and their effects. Several subject. Seven petroleum companies signed up at
offshore operators have indicated willingness to $100,000 each, while the U.S. Geological Survey
make their platforms available for data gathering. was invited to participate at no cost. On another
In addition, the use of laser or radar altimeters by occasion, a joint Navy-industry research project
aircraft may have potential for studying hurricane for measuring hurricane waves was established on a
waves, and the 'study of their feasibility deserves a cost-sharing, information-sharing basis.
high priority.
Recommendation: 6. Multiple Use Conflicts
The U.S. Government, together with industry and Conflicting uses of coastal and offsho Ire marine
the academic community, should intensify current areas is becoming an increasing burden to oil
efforts to improve understanding of hurricanes and companies. Delays in offshore operations resulting
their destructive effects. from uncertainties brought about by such conflicts
S. Technology Transfe? have cost the petroleum industry substantial sums.
A disappointingly small amount of the oceano- There is urgent need to bring private interests
together with representatives from U.S., State, and
graphic and ocean engineering data and technology local governments to develop a mechanism for
9Oil and gas technology is discussed in the Report of rationally resolving the conflicts. The advisory
the PaneLon Marine Engineering and Technology. committee recommended in Chapter 3 of this

V-26

report could be helpful in developing such a production, transmission, and distribution. Petro-
mechanism. Further discussion on multiple use leum companies normally explore for and produce
conflicts is also found in Chapter 3 with a more the gas. Transportation is handled by the trans-
detailed discussion in the report on the Coastal mission companies regulated by the Federal Power
Zone. Commission (FPC) in aft matters of interstate
7. Major Oil Spills commerce. Distribution to consumers usually in-
The Nation is well aware of the deleterious volves a separate group of independent companies
effects of the grounding of the Torrey Canyon and regulated at the State level. Although the three
functions commonly are carried on by independ-
other tankers. The subject of prevention and ent companies, a combination may be performed
control of major oil spills is presently receiving a by one company through subsidiaries. Both the
great deal of attention such as the joint pollution transmission and distribution industries are among
study conducted by the Departments of Interior the 10 largest U.S. industries in terms of capital
and Transportation. A major part of the research is investment.
being done by petroleum companies. Nevertheless, Sales of natural gas are expected to increase at
the problem is far from solved and Government an annual rate of about four per cent in the next
and industry attention is encouraged to eve op decade. In fact, the percentage of total energy
technology to prevent, detect, and nullify e consumption represented by natural gas is ex-
effects of oil spills from offshore production d pected to increase slightly, in spite of the growth
transportation operations. of new competitive primary sources of energy,
Government regulations and enforcement are particularly nuclear. As with oil, the offshore areas
necessary to define responsibility and liability, and offer great potential for new reserves, and gas
to ensure equitable distribution of costs of preven- producers as well as transmission companies are
tion and cure. Because the problem is complex, making heavy commitments here. In 1967, over
and great knowledge of the subject is held by $300 million was paid to petroleum companies for
industry, such technology development and legisla- natural gas produced offshore.
tive action must be worked out by a combination Occurring in the same environment, offshore oil
of Federal, State, and industry experts. Emergency and natural gas operations share many technical
plans should be, established to permit rapid action and regulatory problems. But beyond that the gas
to contain and clean up major oil spills. industry faces a special set of constraints associ-
8. Other Problem Areas ated with FPC regulatory policy. The growth of
Because of detailed treatment in other Sections gas supply is closely tied to such policy not only
. through FPC regulation of gas transmission
of this report and in other panel reports, sur- companies, Ibut also regulation of the production
veys,'o technology programs," jurisdictional clar- companies to the extent of controlling the maxi-
ification,' 2 and insurance problems" will not be mum price at which natural gas can be sold to the
discussed here. However, all these areas are of transmission companies.
interest and importance to the petroleum industry.
Ill. NATURAL GAS B. Problernsand Recommendations
A. Present Status 1. Reserves
The sequence of operation in bringing natural The National reserve-to-production ratio (R/P)
gas to the consumer involves three functions: of natural gas has been declining steadily since
1950, falling from nearly 27 years to slightly less
loSee Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the than 16 years in 1968. 14 The optimum level of
Panel on Marine Resources. reserves cannot be authoritatively stated. Some
I I See Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the companies believe that the national R/P ratio can
Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology.
12 See Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the 14 The R/P ratio is the proven reserves divided by the
International Panel. current. rate of annual production, a level of reserves
13 See Chapter 3 of this report. stated in years.

333-091 0-69-3 V-27

continue to decline for an additional period Under current procedures a gas transmission
without causing undue concern, resulting in a company will receive. permission to construct a
lower level of idle development capital for pro- new pipeline to a production area if it can prove to
ducers. However, individual companies already the FPC, that, among other things, sufficient re-
have felt the pressure of declining reserves, and it serves are in the area. A circular problem is there-
is doubtful that it would be in the National fore created. Transmission companies are unwilling
interest to allow much further reduction. to firmly commit themselves to the purchase of gas
Although the R/P ratio for oil is about 10 years, from undeveloped reserves, and producers are
valid reasons exist for maintaining natural gas reluctant to make the considerable expenditures
reserves at a level above 10 years. necessary to develop the reserves without prior
At some point the R/P must stop declining or assurance of buyers. Furthermore, producers are
the question of future ability to meet demand will unwilling to have their proven reserves revealed to
cause concern to natural gas users and the financial the FPC when such public disclosure would
community that provides funds for growth. When seriously hurt the companies in competition for
this point is reached, and certain companies feel offshore lease bids.
that it has been, the National R/P ratio must be This problem does not lend itself to a simple
stabilized; with growing demand this implies a solution. The panel recommends that the FPC
much greater rate of exploration and development study every possible solution, including the accept-
than presently exists. Although conventional and ance of sound business judgment as represented by
perhaps completely new types of land sources will suitable contractual commitments in substitution
provide some supplies, it appears that the offshore for geological evidence of reserves. The FPC also
areas will be of vital importance for several should examine its policies to determine the
decades. extent to which efforts to establish proven reserves
Before the reserve ratio can be stabilized, results in disclosure adverse to a company and
incentives to production companies will have to methods by which such impact, if any, can be
increase. Two areas of FPC regulatory policy could legitimately minimized.
be modified to provide part of this incentive'.
The maximum price a transniission company 2. Technology
can pay for gas at the wellhead is FPC regulated.
The FPC recognized the importance of incentives The natural gas industry is faced with increasing
for discovery of new supplies by adopting a competitive pressure in the energy market from
two-price system in the Permian area rate case and new, high-technology energy sources. This, com-
a multi-price system in South Louisiana, a location bined with increasing cost of gas supply, should
with great potential for offshore reserves. Al- provide .a strong incentive to the transmission
though differences between offshore and onshore companies to reduce pipeline costs through im-
operations were mentioned in the South Louisiana proved technology to prevent increasing costs to
rate opinion,' 5 the rates do not appear to reflect the ultimate consumer. Despite this incentive the
adequately the increased costs associated with gas transmission industry has an extremely low
offshore operations. As a result, the petroleum level of expenditures for research and develop-
companies believe there is little financial incentive ment,
for them to search for offshore gas except in The industry lacks confidence in the present
unusual circumstances. accounting procedures approved by the FPC for
Recommendation:' R&D. It is believed that lack of clear-cut definition
The Federal Power Commission should re-examme places expenditures for some R&D activities in a
very high risk category and therefore these are
its differential price concept for natural gas pro- held to a minimum. When research is successful
duction and make whatever adjustments are advis- and results in improvement to a specific pipeline
able to reflect adequately the increased cost of project, it is clear that the transmission company
offshore production. can capitalize the cost.
"Federal Power Commission Opinion No. 546, Docket If research is not successful, or if of a general
A.R. 61-2, Sept. 25, 1968. nature, the accounting treatment of the cost is not

V-28

as clearly defined. In many cases it can be recently assumed the responsibility to assure that
capitalized or allowed as an operating expense, but adequate planning exists for natural gas transporta-
some projects may not be so treated. In the latter tion. Although a major proposal submitted by a
event, failure of a major R&D project would be a consortium for sharing larger and more efficient
financial risk incurred by the company's owners. pipeline systems was denied by the FPC in 1967,
This increased business risk would not be offset every indication, including policy statements
automatically by a compensating potential for issued in 1968, is that future offshore pipeline
increased profit since the mechanism of regulated developments will require a joint industry planning-
return assures that the economic benefits of approach to receive FPC approval. It is hoped that
successful R&D now are largely passed on to the cooperation of producers, pipeline companies, and
customer or in some cases the producer. The net the FPC will lead to expediting the planning and
result is an extremely low R&D expenditure in the processing of joint-use proposals; contribute to the
industry and a reluctance to undertake the large, more orderly development of offshore areas; en-
uncertain R&D expenditures necessary for techno- courage exploration efforts; and provide econo-
logical breakthrough. mies of scale of benefit to both the industry and
To account for an R&D expenditure after the its customers.
fact in terms of "success" or "failure" appears to
be an accounting practice inconsistent with the IV. Ocean Mining
basic premise of research itself. Even if initial
hoped-for results are not achieved, the research has A. Present Status
closed out one option and provided a great deal of No hard mineral mining of practical significance
useful information in the process. Consideration of. is being conducted on the U.S. continental shelves
this principle could resolve the lack of agreement except sulfur, sand, gravel, and oyster shells. There
between the gas transmission industry and the FPC is no mineral mining in the deep ocean. Discussion
concerning accounting treatment for research ex- of offshore mining, therefore, becomes largely a
penditures. discussion of its potential, of ways to assure that
Recommendation: the potential will be realized as soon as economics
The Federal Power Commission should review its and technology allow, and of its importance to the
accounting regulations for research and develop- Nation. Successful ocean mining is being under-
ment activities to determine whether such regula- taken in other parts of the world where favorable
tions are consistent with the legitimate need of the business climates in combination with adequate
gas transmission industry for clear and realistic geological deposits make such ventures economi-
guidelines. cally attractive. Most such operations are in
comparatively shallow water.
With appropriate encouragement, the gas trans- A thorough discussion of marine mineral re-
mission industry could foster new technology that sources is found in the report of the Marine Re-
would increase the economic feasibility of gas sources Panel. That report notes that with some
production and transn-dssion further offshore and exceptions(gold, silver, and uranium) the supply of
in deeper water and also be important to the land-based hard minerals appears sufficient to
National oceanographic effort. For example, im- meet projected demands to the year 2000.
proved techniques for laying large diameter pipe- This finding, however, must be qualified. The
lines in deeper waters may well depart from the process of projecting demand for minerals and of
concept of the traditional lay barge and involve estimating reserves is extremely complex and
new seafloor construction techniques using new subject to many interpretations. Such a finding
tools, habitats, submersibles, etc. does not reflect the cost of alternative resources
and is based only on known uses and metallurgical
C. Planning processes. The effect of new uses and the substitu-
tion of new materials is difficult to predict and can
In recognition of the vital role of the offshore cause considerable error in forecasting mineral
areas as a source of gas for the industry, the FPC demands. World-wide population growth and

V-29

accelerating industrialization, however, point to an priate regulations presently hindering industrial
ever increasing demand. Indeed, total demand for participation.
metals between 1965 and the year 2000 is
expected to exceed the total of all metals con- B. Investment and Sales
16
surned prior to 1965, and for some specific
metals the increase will be manyfold. A similar No authoritative overall statistics on ocean
estimate applies to many non-metallic minerals. mining are available but the order of magnitude of
Predicting sources of supply is perhaps even existing operations can be sensed from the follow-
more difficult than predicting demand, due to ing estimates:
many geological and economic unknowns. This Excluding sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredg-
problem is magnified in the case of ocean mineral ing, the world-wide investment in ocean mining is
resources because so little is known about the about $60 million, mostly in operations in south-
geology and the technology of recovery and proc- east Asia and off England and South West Africa.
essing that valid comparisons with present produc- The annual rate of investment is estimated in the
tion from land sources are almost impossible. order of $ 10 million and is rising.
Both accelerating demand and depletion of About $200 million of minerals was taken
known mineral resources indicate that if the world-wide from the ocean floor in 1967 '17
Nation is to enjoy a rising standard of living, excluding coal and iron presently mined from
particularly in the light of an ever increasing onshore openings and chemicals extracted from
population, great attention must be paid to future sea water. Common sand and gravel accounted for
supplies; and all indications are that over the more -than half the total; sands bearing tin, iron,
long-term the ocean will become an important and other heavy minerals about 20 per cent; shells
source of supply. 15 per cent; sulfur 8 per cent; and diamonds 5 per
With the possible exception of certain strategic cent.. World-wide production of ocean minerals is
minerals, the ocean resources will be recovered by growing rapidly.
private industry only when economically attrac- . At least a handful of U.S. companies now are
tive. For such minerals as sulfur, this point already involved to some extent in foreign offshore mining
has been reached. For others, timing is uncertain. operations. Dozens more have collectively invested
It is not necessary to develop most hard mineral several million dollars in studies and exploration,
ocean resources immediately; thus no crash pro- indicating the degree of interest and the potential
gram is required. It is imperative, however, that for rapid growth from today's relatively modest
the Nation begin now an orderly program to gain a base.
better understanding of resources available and of
basic ocean technology required to exploit them. C. Industry Structure
Even with such basic knowledge, the time required Offshore mining in the United States is pursued
on land to advance from early exploration to in shallow water by relatively small companies
actual production is often 10 years or more, and dredging sand, gravel,' and oyster shells in response
due to the environment it probably will be even to unique local supply and demand situations.
greater for most ocean minerals. Sulfur, on the other hand, mined through a drill
Because of growing demand for minerals, the hole, is related to petroleum in its exploration and
inadequate knowledge of the oceans as a source, recovery techniques and in its economic and legal
and the lead time required to gain an adequate problems. ,
understanding, the panel concludes that the Fed- Many diverse companies are showing interest in
eral and State governments should take appropri- future operations due. to the variety of potentially
ate action now to stimulate ocean mining activity. profitable situations. Some companies are oriented
This should include reconnaissance surveys and
removal of some of the uncertainties and inappro- 17 Charles M. Romanowitz, Michael J. Cruickshank, and
Milton P. Overall, "Offshore Mining Present and Future,
presented at National Security Industrial Association-
16 Statement by Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of Ocean Science Technology Advisory Committee (OSTAC)
the Department of the Interior, to the House Committee Ocean Resources Subcommittee meeting, San Francisco
on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Sept. 21, 1967. area, April 26, 1967.

V-30

solely to entrepreneurial opportunities in ocean for allocation of mining rights at the current
mining, but many are corporations well established development stage for two reasons: so little is
in land mining or petroleum. Offshore exploration known about hard mineral resources or the tech-
and drilling companies, aerospace firms, and ship- nology for exploration and exploitation that in-
building companies are among others involved. It formed bidding is effectively precluded before a
is not yet clear what kinds of corporations will great deal of exploration; second, exploration is
constitute the offshore mining industry of tomor- inhibited by the financial risk that is greatly
row, but the industry need not be restricted to the increased when a chance exists that exploitation
traditional mining companies. rights may not be granted to the explorer. Until
Nearshore operations, such as placer mining for there is sufficient knowledge of the ocean's min-
gold, could be under-taken by small - companies. eral resources, the panel recommends adoption of
Deep-sea mining, however, probably will be con- a method of property allocation that encourages
ducted by large corporations or consortia because the maximum private investment in exploration;
of high capital requirements. It has been esti- namely, a method that awards exploitation rights
mated, for instance, that recovery of manganese to the prospector who makes a discovery.
nodules on a scale large enough to be economically One reason that hard minerals from the ocean
feasible will require a capital investment of about are not more actively sought is that little is now
$100 million. The traditional mining industry has known about them. This points up two major
one of the highest capital asset-to-employee ratios differences between petroleum and hard minerals-
of any industry. exploration techniques and costs. Initial explora-
tion for oil is based on the extrapolation of known
D. Problems and Recommendations geological information and relatively inexpensive
geophysical surveys. In contrast, the complexity
Industry has stated, in effect, that it is willing and cost of exploration for hard minerals to
to . take the substantial risks required by ocean establish confidence in an exploitable discovery
mining ventures if Government will provide well are many times greater.' 8 Therefore, by the time
defined and reasonable laws relative to property the prospector has gained sufficient knowledge to
rights, crew regulations, import duties, and taxes. arouse his desire for more detailed exploration
In addition, Government-sponsored services, espe- (hopefully leading to exploitation), he has made a
cially surveys, and equitable. treatment in many considerable
, investment. He will be reluctant to
potential multiple use conflicts will be required if make this investment if, in spite of his initiative,
this new industrial potential is to be realized in the exclusive rights may be awarded to another party.
near future. The panel feels that the highest priority should
be given to encouraging hard mineral exploration
1. Leasing Procedures through private initiative and that every considera-
tion should be given to a system that will
In accordance with the Outer Continental Shelf encourage this exploration by reducing investment
Lands Act of 1953, the Department of Interior is risks. The prospector' who has made a large
responsible for the management of the mineral investment leading to an exploitable discovery
resources on Continental Shelf lands within Fed- should be guaranteed the right to exploit it. ,
eral jurisdiction. Rights to utilize these petroleum Whatever method is finally adopted for assign-
and hard mineral resources are awarded through a ing hard mineral rights on the outer continental
competitive bidding and leasing procedure defined shelf, the following should be considered:
by the Act. Many State laws for assigning the
resources of submerged lands follow the principles -The method should provide an atmosphere that
incorporated in the Act. will attract many searchers. Competition is desira-
. This system has worked well for oil, gas, and ble from the standpoints of stimulating explora-
sulfur because of the great demand for utilization
rights and the bidding system allocates public 18A complete discussion of the differences in methods
resources justly under such circumstances., The and cost for petroleum and hard mineral exploration is
found in the Reports of the Marine Resources Panel and
present bidding system, however, is inappropriate the Marine Engineering and Technology Panel.

V-31

tion and maintaining our traditional econon-dc however, will allow this freedom while still permit-
principles. ting, Interior to carry out its responsibilities as
manager of the resources. A system that inhibits
-The method should rely on the stimulus of early reconnaissance exploration should be
private initiative. However, in rare cases it may be avoided.
in the National interest for the Government to If the prospector's interest is kindled by his
sponsor exploration. Since there would be no preliminary exploration or by other means, he
private investment in such exploration, leasing should be able to obtain exclusive rights for
procedures similar to those in the OCS Lands Act further exploration convertible to exploitation
appear appropriate. rights. A concession system similar to those
-A degree of flexibility in management must be successfully practiced in several foreign countries
allowed, because so little is known about the appears to be a suitable method for awarding such
pattern of future developments and because the rights while protecting the public interest. Such a
potential resources are so different in character. concession system should:
This will enable policies to be adjusted for
different minerals or for special situations; how- -Assign exclusive exploration rights for hard
ever, the policies must be clear and certain. minerals that could be converted to exploitation
rights at the prospector's option. Normally conces-
-The high risk inherent in hard mineral explora- sions are awarded to the first qualified applicant.
tion should be mitigated by assuring that pros-
pectors may exploit their discoveries. -Clearly defme the terms of exploration and
exploitation before exploration begins.
-The method should provide a reasonable eco- -Discourage speculative holding of offshore lands
nomic return to the public for the use of public through various combinations of such require-
lands and data, but its primary objective should ments as: an initial fee; minimum investment in
not be to maximize income from rents, royalties, exploration or development within specified
or bonuses, but rather to maximize ocean mining periods of time; rental payments increasing at
activity. A greater ultimate return to the Nation periodic intervals during the exploration phase;
will result from the development of a healthy and stipulation that a given acreage be returned
industry contributing to employment, tax rev-
enues, foreign exchange, and the Gross National periodically until exploitation commences.
Product. -Provide for rental or royalty payments during
-The method sho 'uld recognize that the Bureau of the exploitation phase.
Land Management, the lessor of U.S. outer Conti- -Provide for return of any portion of the conces-
nental Shelf lands, faces competition with other sion acreage at the option of the concession
nations offering development rights to their Off- holder.
shore lands on terms attractive to U.S. capital.
The preceding discussion has centered around
Recommendation: the Federal lands on the outer continental shelves.
When deemed necessary to stimulate exploration, The State methods for assigning property rights to
the Department of the Interior should be permit- submerged lands are of equal and perhaps greater
ted to award rights to hard minerals on the outer importance, since early mining activity probably
Continental Shelf without requiring competitive will take place predominantly in the shallow
bidding. waters close to shore. ,
Some coastal States now have a reasonable
The panel recommends that any U.S. citizen or system for assigning exploration and exploitation
company should. be free to conduct preliminary rights. Most States, however, have no laws at all or
exploration on the continental shelves for minerals have inappropriate laws drafted for other pur-
on a non-exclusive basis. A requirement to give the poses. It is recommended that the States adopt
Department of the Interior notification of intent, methods to assign offshore solid mineral rights

V-32

that will encourage industrial exploration. It is way for eventual utilization of the offshore min-
further recommended that such a system be eral resources.
similar to the type of concession system described Earlier in the report a survey program was
above. Uniformity in State laws is not considered a recommended to provide new bathymetric, geo-
necessity at this time, but efforts to work toward physical, and geological information on the Conti-
uniformity are highly desirable. When changes in nental Shelf, slope, and rise. Completion of this
the Federal system are adopted, they could serve task was suggested in 15 to 20 years, but because
readily as a model law for the coastal States. certain areas are of more immediate interest, it is
The panel does not believe that the lack of recommended that priorities be carefully selected
international agreement as to sovereign rights over to reflect user needs and that the survey of these
deep sea mineral resources is a major factor more important areas be completed much sooner.
preventing mining operations at this time. How- Except in special cases, the surveys should remain
ever, a clearer definition of the limits of National reconnaissance in scope, and the actual delineation
jurisdiction and an international agreement for the of commercial deposits should be left to private
deep ocean will be needed as conflicts arise. industry. A significant portion of the survey work
Accordingly, the panel concurs with the Inter- should be contracted to qualified organizations in
national Panel in its recommendation that the the private sector in order to build a National
United States take the initiative in proposing a capability and speed up data acquisition.
new international legal-political framework for
exploring and exploiting the mineral resources
underlying the high seas. 3. Other Recommendations
Only with strong U.S. participation can the best Before a thriving offshore mining industry can
interests of domestic industry and the world exist, an enormous capital investment will have to
community be served. Due to the length of time
be made. The resulting risk levels are within
normally needed to establish such a complex and
Doundaries acceptable to industry, but the pace of
important framework, the panel recommends that investment will be slow in the early stages. There
the United States take this initiative immediately. are several ways the Government Ican assist indus-
Until such a framework is established, the U.S. try in facing the initial risks:
Government should encourage and protect private
investment in the deep ocean.
-Nominal rentals and low or non-existent royalty
payments have been mentioned as ways to encour-
2. Surveys age ocean mining. In addition, there are. precedents
in foreign. countries for encouraging mining
Geological knowledge of the U.S. continental through special tax incentives. The panel has not
shelves is insufficient to provide a basis for wise made a recommendation for a specific type of tax
management of the mineral resources and is incentive, but urges consideration of one or more
insufficient to assist industry in selecting target of the following:
areas for detailed exploration.
Obtaining an adequate understanding of the (a) A tax moratorium for a specified number of
geologic structure and composition of the conti- years.
nental margins is a vast job. Companies expect to (b) Extremely rapid depreciation for ocean min-
spend large sums of money conducting surveys to ing equipment, which can be justified on the
delineate deposits, but first need some indication basis of rapid technological advances and on
where to concentrate their efforts. Broad, recon- swift deterioration from the harsh environ-
naissance scale surveys are too expensive for ment.
individual companies, considering the vast area to (c) Longer periods, perhaps 10 years, to carry net
be covered and the low probability of discovering operating losses forward for tax purposes.
economically exploitable minerals. Yet these sur- (d) Implementation of a special tax differential as
veys are a critical first step in determining the presently applied to some high-risk mining
basic character of the shelf and in pointing the operations in South America.

V-33

(e) Extension of the investment credit against precision is required. Perhaps this degree of preci-
income tax. sion is more properly obtained by installation of
private systems; however, there is more general
Such incentives would encourage industry to need for a National system that will allow survey
undertake initial, high risk ventures and also data to be obtained with much more accuracy and
make enterprise on U.S. continental shelves that will be economic for many users.
more competitive with that of foreign countries Three other topics important to offshore min-
providing such incentives. Special tax,compensa- ing have been discussed at length in different
tions should be discontinued gradually as the places: the industry's technological needs are
offshore mining industry becomes self-sustaining. found in the report of the Panel on Marine
Engineering and Technology; the importance of
-Minerals mined by U.S. companies in inter- environmental data and prediction services is
national waters should not be subject to import discussed in the petroleum section of this chapter;
duties and restrictions. To consider such minerals and the need for clarification of jurisdiction in
to be of foreign origin would impose an undue offshore areas is emphasized in Chapter 3 of this
burden on the infant industry. report, in the Panel Report on Management and
-The existence of multiple use conflicts poses a Development of the Coastal Zone, and in the
possible barrier to ocean mining. Because no International Panel Report.
strong industry represents offshore mining activi- V. FISHING
ties, established interests probably will voice
strong objections to such ventures. Problems will A. Fundamental Position
arise not only from existing regulatory policies
Fishing as an occupation is as old as mankind.
but from traditional users of the ocean for
navigation, fishing, and recreation, from conserva- In this country it has evolved through the years
tion. groups, and from owners of pipelines and with the Nation's economy and politics. Two
communication cables. important U.S. fisheries, tuna and shrimp, are
economically strong and healthy; several other
Encouragement from Federal, State, and local segments of the industry are almost as vigorous;
governments will be needed in a variety of such and still others are marginal. Vie industry often
multiple use conflicts. For example, water quality has been called sick, but this description is
standards now being set by States rarely consider misleading. It is not a single industry, but a group
the possibility of offshore mining operations. A of diverse industries, each with its own peculiar
time may arise in the future when pollution problems and economic situation.
regulations inadvertently prevent a company from These industries have some serious common
carrying out a profitable offshore niining venture problems which probably will lead to progressive
simply because mining was not considered when deterioration if not checked. Some are world
the law was formed.
problems, common to all sea-fishing nations.
-The Coast Guard should review its requirements Others are strictly domestic problems which.place
for operation of special vessels at sea. Indications the U.S. fishing industry in a weak international
are that the present regulations, particularly with competitive position. In some areas the industry is
regard to minimum crew size, are.unrealistic where subject to international treaties as well as a maze
applied to offshore mining operations. The regula- of U.S., State, and local regulations.
tions may burden the operator with an additional Fish are a freely available, renewable resource.
Although found at all depths and throughout the
and perhaps unnecessary cost. world's oceans, most desirable species are concen-
-Navigation systems sponsored by the Federal trated near coasts.19 Even the coastal fisheries,
Government, although extremely useful to off- 19'Me ratio of U.S. catch beyond coastal fisheries to
shore mining companies, do not provide sufficient total catch is about 10 per cent in tonnage with about 15
accuracy for some types of exploratory surveys. In per cent in value. If statistics on U.S. flag tuna landed in
Puerto Rico were included, the percentage would be
many types of delineation or recovery, extreme soinewhat higher.

V-34

however, may be impaired by operation of foreign craft of which 12,000 are over 5 tons. Unfortu-
vessels in adjacent waters because fish migrate nately, about 60 per cent of the vessels were built
between zones. The definition and protection of over 16 years ago. There are about 128,000
U.S. rights within various fisheries constitute a fishermen in the United States.
major responsibility of Government. The law requires fishermen to use U.S.-built
A second major Government obligation is to vessels to make domestic landings. Capital invest-
establish measures to develop and conserve fish- ment in the industry has been low in spite of a
eries resources. Often this requires difficult choices vessel subsidy program, a Fisheries Loan Fund,
between the rights of groups of commercial and and a Mortgage Insurance Program (under which
sport fishermen and between fishing and other uses the Government guarantees repayment of fishing
of the marine environment. Within coastal waters, vessel mortgages).
abatement of pollution and preservation of natural Widely disparate trends exist within this diverse
habitats are matters of major concern. industry. America's large integrated food compa-
To further orderly fisheries development, U.S. nies are able, within the present legal/regulatory
and State governments for many years have environment, to manage highly efficient opera-
conducted programs to locate and define fisheries tions for processing and distributing fish for
resources, improve basic understanding of marine domestic needs. On the other hand, many U.S.
life, and improve catching, processing, and market- fishermen, small independent companies, and
ing technology. The budget of the U.S. Bureau of small cooperatives operating U.S.-flag vessels off
Commercial Fisheries for these activities totaled this Nation's coasts have not participated success-
$50.5 million in fiscal year 1969. In addition, fully in the growing U.S. demand for fish pro-
State and local governments spend sizable amounts ducts. This has diminished employment opportu-
on fisheries development. nities and placed a drain on foreign exchange. The
In some fisheries, conservation legislation has panel urges that the domestic industry be assisted
been used to curtail competition and siifle innova- in achieving a higher level of efficiency to enable it
tion such that an excessive effort is required to to compete more effectively and serve a larger
take the available catch. The efficiency of some share of the U.S. market.
fisheries subject to potential depletion could be
improved by establishing in advance the rights of
participants to shares of a given fishery, enabling B. Investment, Sales, and Production
each to take his share in the most efficient 1. Investment and Sales
manner.
Fishing is an international business. Many U.S. The total domestic investment in fishing vessels
processors depend heavily on foreign sources Of and processing plants is estimated at $1.5
20
fish, permitting econon-des which would be un- billion. In addition, U.S. corporations have
available if the industry were forced to operate substantial investments in fishing vessels and plants
within the strictures of a high tariff or nontrans- in foreign countries.
ferrable national quota system. However, foreign The U.S. commercial catch at dockside was
competition in domestic markets has contributed valued at approximately $438 million in 1967
to the diminishing proportion of the total world with shellfish (primarily shrimp), tuna, and salmon
catch taken by U.S. vessels. comprising about 70 per cent. This. compares to
Ten years ago the U.S. ranked second in the 1966's $472 Million and 69 per cent. The 1967
world in tonnage of fish landings. Currently it retail value in the United States of all fishery
ranks sixth behind Peru, Japan, RedChina, the products (both domestic and imported) was al-
Soviet Union, and Norway. Even though U.S. most $2.6 billion .21
fishermen concentrate on high value species, the
United States still ranks only third or fourth in
value of fish landed. 20 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
The United States has the world's second 21 Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial
largest fishing fleet, consisting of 76,000 powered Fisheries.

V-35

2. Fish Production Versus U.S. Consumption can begin to take advantage of the growing
Profound changes have occurred since World demand by fully utilizing the wealth of available
War 11 in the utilization of the world's fishery resources.
resources. World catch has tripled from 43 billion
22 3. Foreign Trade
pounds to 125 billion pounds, yet catch by the
U.S. industry has remained relatively stable, be- In 1967 the United States imported $708
tween 4 and 6 billion pounds (round weight) million of fish and exported $84 million, for a net
.24 -six per
despite U.S. consumption nearly tripling in the dollar outflow of $626 million Seventy
same period. Fishing activities by many nations, cent by value of the fish products imported are
especially Japan and Russia, have been extended food fish, most of which comes from Canada,
to U.S. coasts. Total foreign catch in waters fished apan, Mexico, and South America.
by U.S. fishermen now far exceeds the U.S. catch J Many U.S. processors depend heavily on foreign
from these waters and is expected to increase sources of fish. In fact, fish processing in the
considerably. United States increased the import product value
Imports to meet the rising U.S. demand have by $430 million last year. Thus any analysis of the
increased dramatically from 26 per cent of total foreign trade problem should consider the value
supply in 1960 to 71 per cent in 1967. Yet, the added to the food product within the United
U.S. coasts are adjacent to some of the most States as well as the price paid to foreign fisher-
productive and abundant fishery resources in the men.
world and the U.S. market is the largest and most The U.S. fishing industry is expanding foreign-
lucrative in the world. Expectations are that U.S. based operations. Some reasons for this include
consumption will grow steadily, reaching 21 bil- diversification, better profits than at home in
lion pounds by 1985 and 31 billion pounds by the
year 2000. 23 many cases, and encouragement by foreign govern-
Statistics on fisheries supply available to domes- ments.
tic fishermen are not generally well known because
the research required for reasonable stock assess- C. Nature of the Industry
ment has been done on only a few species. 1. Components of the Industry
Conservative estimates indicate that fishery re-
sources off the U.S. coast are adequate to support The industry consists of several segments, in-
a total annual sustainable yield (available to all cluding fishermen, vessel owners, wholesale dealers
fishermen) of about 30 billion pounds, including and brokers, and processors. The fishermen crew
marketable species not being fished now. Depend- the vessel. Particularly when small vessels are
ing on the definition of marketable species, some involved, the captain may also be the boat owner.
estimate this total to be as high as 45 billion With larger and more expensive vessels the owners
pounds. usually will not be the fishermen. The processors
The production and consumption statistics for usually do not own their own fleet and are not
the domestic fishing industry are compiled in tending to become boat owners. The wholesalers
Table 3, covering the period back to 1945. and brokers handle a great deal of imported fish
Summarizing, the picture is as follows: annual and often add some processing, functioning as
production of four to six billion pounds, static for distributors and merchandisers. In general, the
nearly 30 years; market for about 14 billion fishing industry is substantially fragmented into
pounds, growing at a much more rapid rate than many fishing, processing, and distributing firms in
population; and resources available for a total port cities with a number of merchandising firms
catch of at least 30 billion pounds per year. The in the interior as well. Processing companies often
question then arises as to how the domestic fishery extend credit to selected fishermen to purchase
gear, construct new vessels, or renovate old ones.
12 Ibid.
2313epartment of the Interior, "Commercial Fisheries
Federal Aid to States," Circular No. 286, Washington, 24 Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial
D.C., February 1968, p. 8. Fisheries.

V-36

Table 3
UTILIZATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES,
SELECTED YEARS, 1945-67

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1967
Population, Millionsl . . . . . . . . . . 129.1 150.2 162.3 178.2 191.9 195.7

Edible Fish (round weight)
Domestic Catch, Million lbs. 3,167 3,307 2,579 2,498 2,586 2,385
Imports, Million lbs .. . . . . . . . . . 6803 1,128 1,332 1,766 2,576 2,683
Total, Million lbs . . . . . . . . . . 3,847 4,435 3,911 4,264 5,162 5,068
Per Capita Use, lbs. . .I. . . . . . . . 29.8 29.5 24.1 23.9 26.9 25.9
(meat weight) 2 . . . . . . . . . . (9.9) 0,12) 00.5) (10.3) 00.9) 00.6)

Industrial Fish (rou.nd weight)
Domestic Catch, Million lbs . . . . . . . . . 1,431 1,594 2,230 2,444 2,190 1,677
Imports, Million lbs .. ... . . . . . . . 3 14 639 980 1,515 3,182 7,442
Total, Million lbs . . . . . . . . . . 1,462 2,233 3,210 3,959 5,372 9,119
Per Capita Use, lbs ... . . . . . . . . . 11.3 14.9 19.8 22.2 28.0 46.6

Total Fish (round weight)

Domestic Catch, Million lbs . . . . . . . . . 4,598 4,901 4,809 4,942 4,776 4,062
Imports, Million lbs .. . . . . . . . . . 711 1,767 2,312 3,281 5,758 10,125
Total, Million lbs . . . . . . . . . . 5,309 6,668 7,121 8,223 10,534 14,187
Per Capita Use, lbs. : . . . . . . . . .... 41.1 44.4 43.9 46.1 54.9 72.5
Source: Compiled by the Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
IJuly 1 population eating from civilian supplies, excluding armed forces overseas: beginning 1950-50 States.
2Computed per capita consumption on edible or meat weight basis with allowances for exports and changes in beginning and end-of-year stocks.
3Estimate based on 1946 relationship of round to imported product weight.
4Estimate based on 1946 ratio of round weight to industrial product weight.

There is no National organization representing total integration of the fishing industry from the
all the interests of the processing, distributing, and ocean to the supermarket.
marketing sections of the industry, although most The trend to emphasize products having Na-
firms are members of either the National Fisheries tional distribution is increasing. The fish products
Institute or the National Canners Association, or involved must be obtainable in large volume from
occasionally both. A number of local trade organi- a sound resource base and also must have broad
zations are in the larger fisheries, such as salmon, customer acceptance.
tuna, shrimp, menhaden and lobster.
Vessel owners group together in local associa- D. Problems and Recommendations
tions, mostly on a port or regional level, organized The Marine Resources Act sets among its
under the Fishermen's Cooperative Act of 1934. objectives the "rehabilitation of our commercial
Functions of such associations vary greatly from fisheries." The panel believes that in attempting to
marketing to the provision of such benefits as achieve this objective the Nation should build on
discounts through group purchasing. Several at- strength. However, the panel also believes that
tempts have been made to create a National vessel steps taken to solve critical problems can yield
owners association, but without success. substantial gains for weaker segments of the
industry, enabling them to take a larger portion of
2. Recent Trends the available catch off U.S. shores.
As re 'cently as 1960 only one U.S. firm engaged I Access to Fisheries Resources
in the fish trade with as much as $100 million o
-business per year; a. few had $50 million per year; Fish are treated in both National and inter-
the majority had $10 million or less per year. national law as a common property resource. The
Around 1960 food firms began diversifying law of the industry has been: "First come, first
through purchase or amalgamation with fish firms. served." Action taken to moderate the ill effects
Today principal firms in the fish trade have sales of this situation has often been aimed toward
between $0.5 and $1.5 billion a year .2 5 These maintaining the position of large numbers of
developments are giving the U.S. fishing industry a individual fishermen by restricting fishing tech-
new character-more adequate access to capital; niques. Consequently, excessive, uneconomical
National and international scale thinking; mer- harvesting effort now is applied to many species.
chandising rather than production orientation; and A more rational approach to achieving reason-
better management. able competition in taking common-property re-
Large U.S. fish firms customarily have avoided sources is recommended in the Resources Panel
,ownership of fishing vessels, although the practice report. In that report an effort to apply the
has differed in various sections of the industry. All limited entry principle to those U.S. fisheries
segments, however, extend credit to fishermen for subject to potential depletion is recommended.
seasonal operations, vessel acquisition, new vessel Policies should be adopted to restrict fishing units
construction, and other purposes. The changing to a certain number, each of maximum efficiency.
character of the industry is diminishing this Controlling entry of fishing vessels should permit
practice. more effective management of the resource. Over
Many large firms now beginning to predominate the long term, production costs should be reduced
in the fish trade have extensive holdings in foreign and earning power improved. This panel concurs in
operations. They buy raw material to their qu@lity such recorruriendations. Mechanisms through
standards from that source having the optimum which shares of the resource could be assigned
combination of cost and reliability. However, include license fees and bidding for rights.
recent history does not indicate a strong trend to
Recommendation:
A quota or limited entry principle should be pilot
25 Examples: Castle and Cooke acquired Bumble Bee, tested in selected fisheries. The U.S. Government
Inc.; H. J. Heinz bought StarKist Foods, Inc.; Consoli- should provide both opportunities and incentives
dated Foods bought Booth Fisheries; Ralston Purina
bought Van Camp Sea Food Company. for States and regions to carry out these tests.

V-38

2. Fleet Renovation facilities should be introduced. This modernization
Inefficiency of the present fleet is a serious may particularly aid in developing the much
industry problem. Although the U.S. fishing fleet underutilized species as Alaska shrimp, tanner
is the world's second largest, about 60 per cent of crab, and Pacific hake.
the vessels are over 16 years.old and 27 per cent Recommendation:
have been in service over 26 years." Advances in U.S. and State Government policies should be
fishing technology during the past few years have aimed at upgrading the U.S. fishing fleet through
made most of the U.S. fleet economically, if not introduction of vessels with modern equipment.
physically, obsolete.
In the heterogeneous U.S. fishing industry, 3. High Cost of Vessels and Gear
some fisheries, such as tuna and shrimp, have fairly
modern fleets. Some fleets. are antiquated and An important legal barrier in several fisheries is
rapidly declining for several reasons. Federal legislation requiring U.S. fishermen to
The reduction of profits due to reasons of use U.S.-built vessels to land fish at a U.S. port.
foreign competition and/or a declining resource Until 1948 the law was not of major consequence
stands out among the various reasons for the because the U.S. fisherman often had tariff pro.tec-
decline of some segments of the fleet. The prices tion and rarely competed in the domestic market
U.S. fishermen must charge to make a profit can with foreign fishermen.
be undercut by foreign fishermen for one or more By 1948 domestic inflation contributed to the
of the following reasons: lower labor costs, more drastic change in the competitive situation. Tariff
advanced technology, and subsidies from their protection became inconsequential in many fish-
governments. In the case of a decreasing resource, eries and foreign policy prohibited increased pro-
overfishing and reduced yields soon result from tection. Imports of fish from allies were encour-
the inability of vessels and fishermen to adapt to aged to bolster their dollar earning capacity.
other, underutilized species. This reduction Of Lower shipyard costs abroad accentuated the
profits tends to diminish the ability of those in the vessel cost difference. Rapid rebuilding of war-
fishery to afford technological improvements or destroyed fleets, often financed through U.S. aid
new vessels of greater utility. programs, resulted in new, more efficient vessels in
Where U.S. fisheries are overfished, considera- principal competing countries. Improved freezer
tion should be given to retirement of old vessels as facilities made long distance shipment practical.
new ships are introduced. The new ships, in turn, Because of the domestic vessel construction
should be designed for ready conversion to other law, most U.S. fishermen could not buy an
fisheries whose stocks are not being depleted. efficient new vessel at prices paid by foreign
Obstacles to this goal are State laws limiting the competitors. The tuna and shri mp, industries, an
length of vessels for a particular fishery, possibly exception, have introduced new technology and
reducing the vessel's adaptability to other fisheries. purchased new vessels in sufficient quantity to
Such laws should be reconsidered. enable domestic shipyards to become competitive
Application of better vessel and gear technol- with those of foreign countries.
ogy to overfished stocks will result in a greater rate Congress has grappled with the problem of
of depletion. Fishermen taking such stocks can be foreign hull restrictions for many years, but varied
helped far more through biological research. Such interests have vigorously opposed repeal of the old
research can help ensure that conservation laws law. A vessel subsidy bill was passed to attempt to
and treaties are based on scientific findings and alleviate the problem but proved ineffective; hence
can assist in determining more abundant stocks. the 88th Congress passed a more practical bill that
Where fisheries are not in danger of depletion remains in effect until June 1969.
more modern gear, vessels, and vessel accessories The present vessel subsidy act still has short-
such as detection and navigation equipment, new comings. Statutory limitations on annual expendi-
propulsion systems, and processing and storage tures prevent subsidy payments to all qualified
applicants. Although the law requires that a
26 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. vessel's operation will not cause economic hard-

V-39

ship to efficient operators already engaged in the among the worst handicaps to fisheries develop-
fishery, no provision exists to retire an older vessel ment.
replaced by the subsidized vessel. Thus, the law Congress recognized this and by 1956 began to
generates inequities as it corrects others. ease the fishing industry's credit problem through
The law has worked to the disadvantage of U.S. Government loan programs. The Fisheries
some aspects of the work of the Bureau of Loan Fund Program has been a very effective
Cornmercial Fisheries. In addition, the Bureau has incentive for U.S. flag fishing at a nominal cost to
not had much control over which fishery would the Government. It also has removed the fishing
receive subsidy funds. The long-range solution to vessel owner from dependence on his customers
the vessel cost problem probably will come from for capital.
increased use of advanced technology and mass This program is supplemented by a Mortgage
production techniques. Insurance Program. Whereas the Fisheries Loan
Regarding the subsidy program, the Govern- Fund enables a direct cash loan to the fisherman,
ment should develop guidelines to establish priori- under the Mortgage Insurance Program the Gov-
ties in handling subsidy applications. For example, ernment guarantees mortgages used to finance
a major portion of the program should be directed construction, reconstruction, and reconditioning
to those fisheries not in danger of depletion. It of fishing vessels. The program provides a vehicle
also should help those in overfished fisheries move through which the Government can extend assist-
into underutilized fisheries. When appropriate, the ance without making a direct capital outlay.
subsidy should be applied to distant-water fish- The fisherman ordinarily will seek a loan from
eries. In all cases modern technological develop- his customer or from a bank under the Mortgage
ments should be incorporated into the subsidized Insurance Program. If reasonable financial assist-
vessels and gear. ance applied for commercially is not available,
U.S. fishermen should be permitted to buy financial assistance may be provided under the
equipment anywhere in the world where they can Fisheries Loan Fund. The existence of the fund
firid the best combination of price and perform- thus provides a fisherman with an alternate source
ance. At present, import duties often prevent of credit.
acquiring such equipment. The fund has been very helpful to hard-pressed
fishermen. Some in the industry contend that the
Recommendation: fund is so popular it frequently "runs out of
Restrictions on the purchase of fishing equipment money." Authorization for the fund is $20 mil-
abroad should be removed. Legislation should be lion; however, $13 million was appropriated in
enacted to permit U.S. fishermen to purchase 1968. On various occasions lending has been
vessels in foreign shipyards; if it is decided not to restricted to an even lesser amount because of
repeal the restrictive laws, the vessel construction overall Government expenditure limitations.
subsidy program should be expanded and modified Both the Fisheries Loan Fund and the Mortgage
to provide for retirement of older vessels. Insurance Program should be retained. Favorable
consideration should be given those fishermen who
4. Availability of Capital and Credit are or intend to become involved with underuti-
lized species having commercial potential.
The credit problems of fish processing, distrib-
uting, and marketing are no different than those of 5. Legal/Regulatory
any other industry and the normal financial
institutions have served these segments well. How- Among the most serious problems facing the
ever, the fishing segment of the industry has not U.S. fishing industry are the laws and regulations
been so fortunate, witnessing a relative scarcity of that prevent increases in efficiency. These restric-
capital since World War Il. Following the war, tions have resulted from a combination of at-
bankers everywhere became reluctant to finance tempts at conservation, competition among fisher-
fishing vessels. During the low-profit period from men for limited supplies of particular species, and
1948 through 1960, and still existing in several competition between commercial and sport fisher-
fisheries, fishing vessel financing problems were men for certain species.

V40

Except for fisheries managed under interna- are caught each year (U.S. and foreign) and the
tional convention, U.S. fisheries are regulated by maximum sustainable yield is at least 30 billion
the States under a maze of regulations adopted pounds per year. Some estimate the potential yield
over the years, many for reasons long-forgotten. of underutilized resources as high as 45 billion
Numerous State and local laws and regulations pounds annually. Given proper incentives, within
were designed to protect established small-boat three years the industry should be able to increase
Mermen by restricting the use of efficient de- its present annual catch by 20 per cent and within
vices. 10-20 years by several hundred per cent. Much of
Such laws increase fish production costs in the the increased yield would include species presently
United States. For example, laws and regulations used and close relatives not yet utilized. Examples
forbid the use of traps to capture salmon; prohibit of underutilized species include Alaska shrimp,
the taking of herring or anchovy for reduction scallops and tanner crab; Pacific . and Gulf
purposes; limit the size and nature of nets; and anchovy; Gulf and Atlantic thread herring; Pacific
forbid the use of sonar to detect fish schools. Such hake; and Tropical Atlantic and Pacific skipjack
restrictions must be eliminated. The States' in- tuna.
terest in the problem is beginning to grow and These fish could be exploited more econom-
must be encouraged. ically if comprehensive surveys were initiated and
Several avenues are available to fosterrepeal of kept up to date to establish the parameters of the
outmoded State laws and regulations. One is to resource. Rapid action and strong financial sup-
develop improved knowledge and understanding of port are required. The last survey was authorized
the ocean and its living resources to guide State by Congress in 1944 and completed in 1945.
legislators and administrators in improving conser- Depending upon the fishery stock in question, the
vation regulations. The Sea Grant. Program should new surveys proposed may review existing know]-
help augment the. technical capabilities of State edge and/or study the resource itself to acquire
fishery officials, through support of fishery new knowledge. Sport fisheries also should be
sciences and education in State universities, which, included because of the ecological interaction
in turn, should provide better advice regarding between all stocks in a given area.
fisheries regulations. Recommendation:
Problems of conservation and preservation of The Government should initiate and sponsor con-
natural habitats are not always local, but rather are tinuing surveys of U.S. coastal and distant-water
often interstate in scope. As indicated in the fishery resources, including sport fisheries.
Marine Resources Panel report, the tendency
toward parochialism in the individual States has 7. Pollution
led to fragmented solutions to fishery problems. Pollution of the Great Lakes, estuaries, bays,
For example, the East Coast States are unable to and certain offshore areas has a serious and
agree on a management program in the menhaden increasingly critical impact on domestic fisheries.
Mery despite evidence of depletion. In such cases The panel endorses the pollution abatement pro-
a comprehensive unified management plan is re- posals made in the Panel Report on Management
quired. and Development of the Coastal Zone and in the
Accordingly, this panel recommends that a Marine Engineering and Technology Panel Report
mechanism be established under which the U.S. and emphasizes that these actions can help to
Government can require the development by the achieve the goal of rehabilitating commercial
States of coordinated management measures for fisheries.
interstate fisheries subject to potential depletion if 8. Information Exchange 27
and when the States fail to meet the responsibility Before scientific research and discoveries can
themselves. Similar Federal-State mechanisms have become an operational part of an industry's
been established in the past. -knowledge and capability, the industry must be
6. Surveys 27 The subject of fishing technology is discussed in
U.S. coastal waters contain some of the richest further detail in the Report of the Panel on Marine
fishing grounds in the world. Seven billion pounds Engineering and Technology.

V-41

able to -use the technology. This ability may be aquatic plants and animals in a controlled environ-
limited by such factors as lack of technical ment or a modified ecological system. Modifica-
knowledge and capital, marginality of profits, lack tions to the natural ecology include those due to
of available peripheral equipment, environmental temperature, artificial feeding, use of barriers for
and institutional peculiarities, obsolete laws and containment or predator control, and selective
regulations, and tradition. breeding. Although the prevailing concept of
. In the past 20 years, and increasingly so in the aquaculture is growing selected, species of fish in
last few years, new materials and techniques have fresh-water ponds, operations exist in rivers, estu-
been incorporated in a few fishing vessels, includ- aries, and marshlands, and there is definitely a
ing improved propulsion units, greater refrigera- potential for the open ocean.
tion capabilities, better location and catching gear, In the United States the present level of activity
and better sea-keeping qualities. The summation of is low compared with that in Asia, especially China
all these new discoveries could have had a revolu- and Japan, but nevertheless a variety of plants and
tionary effect on the construction of fishing animals is being cultivated. Reliable and compre-
vessels and the reduction in the cost per ton of fish hensive statistics on sales of aquacultural products
production had they entered the fishing industry in the United States are available only in a few
more rapidly. selected instances.
The governments of such countries as Russia, The panel estimates that the total U.S. whole-
Japan, and West Germany have programs to adapt sale value was% in excess of $50 million in 1967,
new technology to fishing industry needs which but this can vary widely, with the definition.of
have helped their industries thrive. Only minimal aquaculture. Sales of farmed trout and catfish in
programs have been sponsored by the U.S. Govern- 1967 each exceeded $7 million wholesale, bait
ment. However, the panel notes and commends minnows exceeded $8 millionj and oysters from-!@
28
the recent exchange agreement between the Navy managed, private lands exceeded $13 million.
and the Department of the Interior 'to study In addition, a variety of operations involve
advanced acoustic technology in fish detection salmon, black bass, pompano, mullet, clams,
and adapation of fleet environmental prediction scallops, prawns, lobsters, shrimp, and other
techniques to forecast fish location. The panel animal species, as well as several kinds of seaweed.
urges that similar steps be takenj within the Statistics on capital investment in U.S. aquacul-
constraints of security, to accelerate the adapta- ture projects are elusive due to the great variety of
tion of other pertinent military research to the situations and the often proprietary nature of the
domestic fishing industry. I information. Both expanding research efforts and
In addition, much information- gathered by reduction of labor costs in commercial operations
scientists in work in biological and conservation will result in a sharp increase in the demand for
research has potential to reduce fishermen's pro- capital. The-, companies - involved are generally
duction costs substantially. There is, however, no small, but the situation is changing rapidly as some
satisfact'ory mechanism to readily translate the of the largest companies in the United-States now
results of Government technology or scientific are beginning to explore aquaculture opportuni-
information to the fishermen. ties. This trend will bring some needed capital as
Recommendation: opportunities for profit are discovered. One
A field service mechanism should be established by State recently estimated that several companies
the U.S. Government analogous to the cooperative have considered investments-in fixed facilities in
State-Federal extension service administered by excess of $100 million in different aquaculture
the Department of Agriculture in order to facili- projects; the commitment awaits favorable out-
tate traiisfer of technically useful information to come of present research efforts and removal of
29
fishermen at the local level. some political, legal, and regulatory barriers.

V1. AQUACULTURE
A. Present Status 28 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
Aquaculture in the United States today consists 29
Florida Development Commission, Tallahassee, Flor-
of a small, scattered but growing effort to raise ida, October 1968.

V-42

The panel's interest in the growth of aquacul- third dimension that can improve productivity per
ture is from the standpoint of its potential for unit of surface area.
profitable industrial ventures. It has been stated Aquaculture also has some advantages over
frequently that aquaculture can help solve the conventional fishing that enable it to supplement
world hunger and malnutrition problem; however, the catch of fish and shellfish. Since most areas
in the United States early emphasis will be on the desired for aquacultural use are within U.S, juris@
most profitable species, clearly the high-valued diction, there is no foreign competition for the
finfish and shellfish. resource as in some fish stocks. Because a degree
There is a rapidly growing demand for seafood of exclusive rights can be assigned to the "aqua-
in general, but the greatest growth is for the high farmer," and thus he need not rely on a common
priced species. As the demand grows, some tradi- property resource, the incentive is increased to
tional fisheries are declining, and many of the Improve profits through gaining proprietary
natural grounds for shellfish are being destroyed knowledge leading to greater efficiency. In addi-
by such other uses as waste disposal, land-fill, and tion, in aquaculture there is a potential to harvest
dredging. At the same time, research has shown more frequently, to harvest in seasons that do not
many areas where vast improvements are possible compete with the marketing of natural stocks, and
in the technology of aquaculture. Examples in- to control the environment, assuring greater relia-
'clude genetic control to improve the quality, bility in the quantity and quality of the supply.
growth rate, and adaptability of various species to B. Problems and Recommendations
different environmental conditions, and the possi- The growth of this industry is influenced by
bility of using presently wasted sources of nutri- man factors, many of which center around a
ents and heat to effect economical control of local y
widely-scattered and insufficient knowledge of an
envfforiments. extremely complex ecological system.
Thus, with a growing demand for seafood, an Lack of thorough understanding of ecological
uncertain natural supply of some species to meet systems is usually the first problem. Research in
this demand, and potential for vast improvements' marine ecology is expensive, and its performance
in aquacultural technology, prospects for profit- requires trained personnel and considerable time.
able ventures are increasing- The task's magnitude and the unknown probabil-
Aquaculture has many advantages for food ity of finding commercial applications- generally
production. A major impact of aquaculture lies in places this research beyond the limits of industry's
its extreme productivity per acre-a capability that risk tolerance. There are many exceptions to,this,
can lead to considerably larger yields of high-grade but developing sufficient ecological knowledge to
animal protein than fertile dry land. stimulate commercial interest remains an appropri-
The advantages of aquaculture for food produc- ate area for Federal and State government support.
tion arise in part from readily available nutrients An important parallel lies in the large amount of
and water. A basic problem, however, is proper publicly supported agricultural research. Govern-
management of these resources. Research has ment funds for basic research, channeled mostly
shown that the combination of these ingredients through the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, are
can be very productive due especially to the fact not adequate to truly stimulate this industry. The
that there is inherently a constant supply of water. panel therefore recommends that the modest
If nutrients are in the water, marine organisms fundS30 presently available for aquaculture re-
have a continuous opportunity to use them as search be increased several fold within the. next
contrasted to most land organisms that can absorb five years.
nutrients only when carried to them intermittently Industry is much more willing to undertake
by water. In addition, most marine animals are applied research programs, and many are in prog-
-.poikilotherms (cold-bloods), and because less en- ress. Often they are funded by a combination of
ergy is wasted in heat production, they are often industry, university, State, and U.S. Government
more efficient in conversion of their food intake
to edible weight. Finally., forms of aquaculture 30 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries budget devoted to
that use the water column obviously have added a aquaculture was $2.7 minion in FY 1968.

V-43
333-091 0-69-4

money. The National Science Foundation's Sea tants on the ecology of nearshore areas and
Grant College Program, in fact, has reviewed many stronger efforts to control the harmful factors are
more applications for applied aquaculture research urgently needed. Vigorous Government support
than it could fund. The panel recommends that through studies and provision of controls is clearly
the Sea Grant College Program be given greater necessary. Water is often polluted because the cost
funding to enable sponsorship of a larger percent- of abatement is greater than the readily measured
age of qualified applications. economic value of alternative uses; as aquaculture
Work in estuarine or ocean areas encounters increases in importance, it may provide much of
another serious obstacle-ownership or rights to the positive economic impact needed to counter
exclusive use of the water column or seabed. pollution.
Exclusive rights @sually are essential to any aqua- Some forms of acluaculture have existed for
culture project, but often difficult to obtain. The many years, but relative to the potential, aquacul-
problem is acute within waters under State juris- ture is a new and exciting field. In the United
diction and will in time become so in waters under States the effort is widely scattered, not only in
U.S. Government control. Few provisions or prece- States with seacoasts but throughout the Nation.
dents assign exclusive rights to the seabed or water At present there is, no strong central effort for
column for such uses, and many established aquaculture either within the industry or within
interests, such as fishing, recreation, and conserva- the U_S_ Government. The creation of such a focus
tion, regard aquaculture as a conflicting use of is essential to improve communication among
given areas. The panel identified several cases governments at all levels, the academic commu-
where investments in aquaculture were thwarted nity, and industry. It will assist guidance of
for either legal or political reasons although research efforts and documentation and dissemina-
conflicts of use were minimal. In these cases the tion of technology, and prevent unnecessary dupli-
degree of exclusivity required was not great and cation of effort.
the area involved was infinitesimal compared to The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF)
total water resources available. would be the appropriate focus in the U.S.
It is recommended that the State and Federal Government. BCF already performs some research
governments encourage the use of marine waters and provides funds to States for extension pro-
for aquaculture projects when they do not inter- grams under the Commercial Fisheries Research
fere with more important uses. Seasteading (see and Development Act of 1964. However, BCF
Chapter 3) is a means to encourage such projects never has been in a position to fund a strong
in U.S. territorial waters by making provisions for aquaculture program because its primary responsi-
granting exclusive use rights. bility was for commercial fishing which, indeed,
Inadequate technology also is a deterrent to requires much attention.
many types of aquaculture. Mechanical, physical, Therefore, the panel recommends that the
chemical, or biological methods of containment, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries be given more
of excluding predators, and of harvesting have not specific responsibility for investigating aquaculture
been developed to the point of being economically programs; this must be backed with sufficient
acceptable in many proposed aquaculture systems. funds as recommended earlier. Pilot projects to
Many of these problems will be solved in conjunc- establish research facilities and develop basic tech-
tion with the basic and applied ecological studies, niques appear warranted, and BCF well might
and others will be solved by industry through contract such projects to industry or universities.
engineering development programs when basic Without increased support of this type, the com-
research indicates potential and identifies specific mercial potential for aquaculture may not be
needs. realized as soon as this panel considers possible
Pollution. threatens or already has destroyed and desirable.
many attractive sites for aquaculture as well as V11. SEA TRANSPORTATION
natural spawning grounds. However, possibly some
present-day forms of chemical and thermal poHu_ A- Present Status
tion may actually enhance certain programs. In- The primary components of the U.S. sea
creased knowledge of the effects of various pollu- transportation industry are the merchant marine

V-44

and th e private shipyards. Merchant marine opera- Furthermore, although ships under the flags of
tions are augmented by such activities as port Panama, Honduras, and Liberia, the so-called
cargo handling. Annual revenue accruing to the "flags of convenience," are deemed within effec-
U.S. merchant marine, which encompasses U.S.- tive U.S. control, the international political impli-
flag vessels operating in coastal and world trade, cations of U.S. attempts to wrest these ships from
amounts to approximately $1.5 billion. If U.S.- their sponsor nations during peacetime emergen-
owned, foreign-flag vessels were included in the cies are great. Therefore, the panel believes that
definition, the revenue figure would be increased the rapid decline of the U.S.-flag merchant marine
by as much as $4 billion, the bulk attributable to hinders the Nation's ability to support overseas
tankers owned by U.S. oil companies. 31 military operations and maintain vital imports in
The other main segment of the sea transporta- time of war.
tion industry, the U.S. shipbuilding industry, It is important to realize that U.S.-flag shipping
includes conversion, repair, and construction of in the foreign trade is an export commodity. The
both naval and merchant vessels. The yearly value U.S. balance of trade is reduced every time a
for this activity exceeds $2.2 billion.31 Various foreign-flag ship carries trade from a U.S. port.
shipyards also have been engaged in designing and Shipbuilding also is essential as a domestic
constructing oil rigs, mining vessels, dredges for industry during a National emergency, since the
the Corps of Engineers, and oceanographic vessels, need for ships increases rapidly. In terms of
cutters, and other ships for the Coast and Geodetic emergency needs, many believe the Navy building
Survey and the Coast Guard. program, constituting more than 75 per cent of
Over the past 5-10 years, the small volume of total construction in private yards, keeps the
cargo carried under U.S. flag and the decreasing domestic shipbuilding industry sufficiently active
number of merchant vessels built by domestic to maintain the needed industrial base. In addi-
shipyards have been the subject of considerable tion, the unused potential in U.S. shipyards can be
concern. Several highly respected study groups mobilized readily in time of war.
have analyzed the problems of the U.S. merchant
marine, especially such questions as operating and
construction differential subsidies and foreign con- B. Trends
struction of U.S.-flag vessels. These problems are
extremely complex and deserve more careful, Shipbuilding in the United States is a sizable
concentrated thought than the panel was able to industry, becoming more technologically-oriented
contribute in light of the broad scope of the because of the complicated equipment and design
Marine Resources and Engineering Development required for naval vessels which are more complex
Act. than merchant ships. However, the industry does
The panel unequivocally believes that strong not operate at peak capacity or optimum effi-
U.S.-flag shipping and private shipbuilding indus- ciency because most types of vessels are ordered in
tries are vital to the National interest. The impor- very limited numbers. Thus, the pace of capital
tance of domestic shipping and shipbuilding be- investments in updated ship construction facilities
comes paramount during times of emergency or has been in almost direct proportion to the
National crisis. In such circumstances, heavy reh- available level of orders.
ance on foreign-flag shipping is not advisable However, the recent Navy trend toward multi-
though many of the ships may be under nominal year, multi-ship procurement already has stimu-
U.S. ownership. lated capital equipment improvement in shipyards.
If contracting practices for merchant ship con-
struction also followed this pattern, further mod-
'31 Laird Durham (A.D. Little, Inc.), "T'he United States ernization could be expected. When a shipyard
Ocean Industries," April, 1966, p. 13. receives an order for several ships of a particular
32 This figure reflects the value of work done during a design, the experience and learning acquired in
year. Because most shipbuilding contracts extend over constructing the first few vessels of the series
several years, "value of work done" is considered superior
to "total cost of ships delivered" as an indicator of greatly reduces costs and improves efficiency for
shipyard productivity. Shipbuilders Council of America. the remaining vessels.

V-45

One U.S. shipbuilding company has followed - successfully in international shipping. The concept
the lead of Japan by successfully marketing its involves technology no more complicated than
own standardized design for a medium-sized computerized inventory and traffic control. Its
tanker. As of mid-1968, this company had ob- most outstanding feature is simplicity. Prior to
tained nine contracts for nearly identical vessels. containerization, a typical overseas cargo shipment
The design-marketing practice has been adopted was handled at least eight times before secured
by.at least one other major shipyard. aboard ship. Containerization has resulted in much
Other ways to minimize costs in sea transporta- less handling, which in -turn' has led to lower
tion are to build larger ships and utilize nuclear handling costs and less pilferage.
power. The total energy required to carry a ton of Containerization also enables a new systems
cargo at a given speed decreases as a vessel's cargo approach to global transportation. Truck and
capacity increases, reducing cost per ton-mile. railroad flatcar scheduling can be coordinated with
Although huge tankers and bulk carriers of more scheduling for containerized ships, thus allowing
than 100,000 deadweight tons are more efficient large containers to be quickly unloaded and
on the high seas, many harbors around the world transferred. By minimizing the time a ship spends
are incapable of accommodating such immense in port, containerization results in great savings to
vessels. In fact, programs to deepen ports now are the operator and permits ports to handle more
encountering serious physical obstacles, such as ships and a much greater volume of cargo.
bedrock or highway and railroad tunnels that limit The impact of containerization can be seen in
dredging depth. Where a harbor cannot be adapted the fact that 12 per cent of all 1968 foreign
to handle supersbips, it may be necessary to build commerce handled at New York's piers is contain-
remote terminals offshore or relocate harbor com- erized, compared to 3 per cent only two years ago.
plexes. Furthermore, the Port of New York Authority
Nuclear power is another potential way to estimates that by 1975 half of all cargo brought
increase operational efficiency at sea, especially into New York Harbor will be handled via contain-
for long-distance, high-speed travel. One big advan- ers. In view of this projected boom in contain-
tage of nuclear power is that ships can operate erized shipping, port facilities will have to be
much longer without refueling. Thus, during nor- up'dated.
mal conditions nuclear ships benefit in time
savings from less frequent stops, and under war- Vill. INSTRUMENTS
time pressures they need less logistic support for
continued operations. A. Present Status
In addition, nuclear vessels require much less
space for the combination of fuel and power plant The operation, as well as the monitoring of the
and thus have a greater percentage of their operation, of oceanographic platforms, test ranges,
displacement available for cargo. Some nations are equipment, and data systems (in fact, all aspects of
not yet willing to receive nuclear vessels in their marine science and technology) depends on the
ports for fear of radiation, but it is believed that availability of diverse types of instrumentation
this will be only a temporary deterrent to the with adequate cost-performance and reliability
progress of nuclear merchant shipping. characteristics. Most important, much of the Na-
Construction of nuclear-powered passenger and tional investment in ocean programs now and in
cargo ships can be accomplished readily by U.S. the. foreseeable future will be devoted to meas-
shipyards. The industry has considerable expertise uring the characteristics of the marine environ-
from building nuclear submarines, cruisers, guided ment. Reliable, accurate instruments that can be
missile frigates, and aircraft carriers for the Navy, maintained in proper calibration are a vital factor
not to mention the first nuclear-powered merchant in the ultimate usefulness of data obtained from
ship, the N. S. Savannah. ocean survey programs.
At present, the most heartening recent develop- Recognition of the importance of reliable ocean
ment in the shipping industry is containerization. data resulted in the establishment of the National
Two non-subsidized U.S. companies have set the Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). The data are
pace in this area and have been able to compete available to the academic, industrial, and govern-

V-46

ment sectors and data exchange also has been -Lack of a common instrument performance 'lan-
established with certain foreign countries. Concern guage" and satisfactory communciations between
over proper data processing, archiving, and re- instrument producers, procurement agencies, data
trieval also should be applied to its collection- collectors, and data users.
both to instrumentation and methods employed to -Present ocean instrument procurement policies.
gather data.
Most ocean programs have been limited in both
staff and budget. As a result, specific program
objectives are often compromised and only limited 1. Language and , Communications-Need for
instrumentation is procured. Unlike conditions in Specification Guidelines
many other non-oceanographic.programs, such as Producers, procurement agencies, and users
the space program, ocean instrument specifications require standards and specification guidelines en-
are often minimized, meaningful quality assurance compassing the following:
programs are largely nonexistent, and service And
maintenance manuals and other documentation (1) Performance requirements, (2) environ-
are often inadequate to meet basic user needs. In ntal conditions, (3) test procedures, (4) quality
addition, statistical information defining condi- me
tions of use, maintenance and repair cycles, and assurance requirements, (5) design requirements,
modes of failure are seldom documented and made (6) interfacing and/or installation requirements,
available to the manufacturer. This, in turn, slows (7) terminology, (8) formats for specification and
down the correction of problem areas and prevents data, and (9) documentation.
the upgrading of performance and reliability in a Performance requirements should indicate
logical manner. types of functions an instrument must perform
Past experience shows that user demand for a and how well these functions must be carried out.
particular type of ocean instrument is generally for Thus, tests will have to measure such items as
a limited quantity of highly complex instruments, repeatability, stability, data rate, accuracy, and
often requiring custom design. In such cases, precision.
manufacturing does not lend itself to mass produc- Additional specifications should be related to
tion, one factor that has allowed the small, an instrument's interaction with various environ-
technically oriented firm to compete favorably mental conditions during operation, storage, and
with large corporations. Although large capital shipping. Therefore, testing would have to ascer-
facilities are not always essential to produce tain the instrument's ability to withstand such
marine instruments, expensive facilities are often environmental aspects as temperature, shock and
necessary for development and qualification test- vibration, pressure, noise, salt spray, and humidity.
ing. Case histories have been compiled showing the
seriousness of time lost through equipment failures
from such sources as corrosion and shock and
B. Specific Problem Areas vibration. Developing laboratory tests to simulate
The most valid complaints about oceanographic environmental conditions is difficult, quite com-
instruments are their lack of reliability and lack of plex, and expensive.
For a test procedure specification, for example,
user confidence in the data gathered. Many articles
have been written and symposia sponsored to it is necessary to d6fine precisely what constitutes
examine the diverse sources of unreliability. One an acceptance test to determine if each perform-
recent meeting identified two primary factors: 33 ance and environmental specification is met satis-
factorily by the manufacturer.
Furthermore, oceanographic instruments and
33 important components should be classified by
Government-Industry-University Symposium on In- t e, and standard specifications should be devel-
strument Reliability, May 6-7, 1968, Miami, Florida, yp
sponsored by the National Security Industrial oped for each classification.
Association-Ocean Science and Technology Committee The foregoing indicates types of specifications
(OSTAC) Ocean Platform and Instrumentation Subcom-
mittee. that could be standardized by Federal agencies

V-47

responsible for procuring oceanographic instru- Procurement policies have frequently over-
ments. However, it is imperative that the specifica- emphasized initial cost because no dependable
tions be reasonable. Current military specifica- economic and operational performance criteria
tions, for instance, would often require exist to determine the quality and usefulness of a
instruments that are overdesigned or overpriced given instrument. In addition, procurement specifi-
for commercial applications. These specifications cations often fail to take into account the total
should provide technical guidance and should not economic implication of each specification. A
restrict or fteeze a design. Rather, such specifica- typical example is the requirement for a much
tions should simplify communications among seg- higher degree of instrument accuracy than is
ments of the oceanic community. required.
A large number of independent organizations Under present conditions, instrument manufac-
gather and contribute oceanographic data to turers frequently do not have-adequate incentive
NODC. Often substantially different experimental to develop equipment or systems that will be more
results are submitted because their instruments, or cost-effective to the user. This need not be, since
sensors, while similar, may have been calibrated to industry can produce reliable equipment at costs
different standards, operated in a different man- commensurate with high quality. Until procure-
ner,. or their output data may have been processed ment policies are changed, many instruments of
differently. inherent poor quality will continue to be procured
Some specification guidelines already in exist- on a low-bid basis.
ence can be applied, with or without modification, In summary, many instruments perform poorly
to ocean instruments. However, the establishment under operational condition 's and thus cause need-
of standard ocean instrument specifications is a less repairs and delays. This latter expe 'nse is
major problem that will require considerable effort growing rapidly due to ever increasing vehicle
in man-hours and money over a long period until operating costs. In addition, these instruments
agreement is reached on the acceptability of such often are not designed to minimize the total
specifications. Voluntary groups have attempted data cost.
to write specification guidelines, but have gen-
erally failed due to the enormity of the task. C. Recommendations
The panel recommends establishing a perma-
nently staffed and adequately funded focal point 1. Guidelines
in the Government, preferably in a marine- To foster Government procurement of reliable,
oriented agency, to recommend measurement cost-effective ocean instruments, the panel recom-
standards, prepare standard specifications, and mends:
perform tests on oceanographic instruments. Some
efforts of this kind are in progress in the Navy and _Federal procurement policies should emphasize
the Bureau of Standards. lifetime cost, recommend reasonable performance
2. Procurement Philosophy standards, and require complete, adequate quality
assurance programs by instrument producers.
Measuring characteristics of the marine environ-
ment absorbs a major part of the National invest- -General guidelines should be developed for pre-
ment in oceanography. The present Federal policy paring technical specifications for instrument pro-
for developing and acquiring oceanographic instru- curement, taking into account each category of
mentation appears to minimize initial capital cost the specifications listed earlier.
rather than total data cost. Thus, inadequate -The Government should recognize the cost impli-
consideration has been given to the total cost of cations of particular technical specifications for
obtaining required data, namely the cost to the data collectors, data processors, and data users.
data collector, processor, and user. It has often
been demonstrated that a more expensive instru- -Continuing, effective communications should be
ment, by virtue of its versatility and reliability, can established among the data users, procurement
effect reductions in the ultimate cost of data. agencies, and instrument manufacturers, encom-

V-4 8

passing full exchange of information on opera- lead role in this area, it is recommended that their
tional economics, performance, reliability, and role be strengthened and broadened. The panel
testing procedures. encourages the Navy, working in conjunction with
2. Implementation the Bureau of Standards, to act as an interim focal
-The needfor oceanographic instrument specifica- point for tests and standardization activity.
tions is urgent. Since the Navy purchases a large -This function should ultimately be transferred, if
number of such instruments and presently has a necessary, to a civilian marine agency.

V-49

Appendix A Acknowledgments

Many persons were contacted by panel and staff members during the preparation of this report. The
following list includes those who made important contributions through interviews, conferences,
submission of written materials, and review of report drafts.' There may have been other persons who
made such contributions, and the panel apologizes for their inadvertent oniission. Although the report
reflects in part these contributions, its recorrunendations are those of this panel and are not necessarily
the views of any specific individuals or organizations.

Name Organization, Name Organization

Abel, Robert B ........... National Science Foundation Connelly, Win ......... Marine Acoustical Services, Inc.
Adams, C.F . ................... Raytheon Company Conner, Don E ..................... Kelco Company
Allan, Robert M., Jr ................ Litton Industries Convers, Charles C ............ Management Consultant
Allen, Louis .............. Allen Weather Corporation Cornell, Mel ..................... Bull Head Marina
Allen, Sheldon ........... Freeport Sulphur Company Cornwell, C.G . ............. American Hull Insurance
Arnold, K ....................... Shell Oil Company Syndicate
Asplin, L.1 . ..................... Shell Oil Company Cotton, Donald B ............ D.B. Cotton & Associates
Barrow, Thomas D. (R) ..... Humble Oil & Refining Co. Crapo, Stanford T . ..... Marine Acoustical Services, Inc.
Bascom, Willard (R) . . Ocean Science & Engineering Inc. Crawford, John E ...... Crawford Marine Specialists, Inc.
Dauer, Robert V ........ Global Marine Exploration Co. Crawford, W.D .......... Consolidated Edison Company
Bavier, Robert N., Jr . ............ Yachting Publishing Cretzler, Don J ............ Bissett-Berman Corporation
Corporation Cullison, James S. II (R) ......... Florida Development
Beckman, Walter C ...... Alpine Geophysical Associates, Commission
Inc. Danforth, Peter .................... Payson & Trask
Beesley, E.N ........................ Eli Lilly & Co. Danhof, Clarence (R) .... George Washington University
Benoit, Richard (R) .......... General Dynamics Corp. Davidson, William H., Jr .......... Transcontinental Gas
Berman, Bernard .......... Bissett-Berman Corporation Pipeline Corp.
Boatwright, V.T ........ General Dynamics Corporation Davis, Berkley ............. General Electric Company
Bolin, L.T . ................... Brown and Root, Inc. Dean, Gordon (R) . . Bureau of Mines, Department of the
Borch, F.J . ............... General Electric Company Interior
Bowen, Hugh M ........... Dunlap and Associates, Inc.. Dean, Robert ................. University of Florida
Bramlette, W.A . .......... Humble Oil & Refining Co. De Norme, Roger . . Belgian Mission to the United States
Briggs, Robert 0 . ......... The Dillingham Corporation Derr, Earl D ......... Royal Globe Insurance Companies
Britain, Kenneth E .......... Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co. Doan, H.D . ................ Dow Chemical Company
Brockett, E.D .................. Gulf Oil Corporation Dockson, Robert R . ........... University of -Southern
Brown, Fred E ................. Tri-Continental Corp. California
Brown, Herschel ................. Lockheed Aircraft Doig, Keith (R) .................. Shell Oil Company
Burden, William ............. Wm. A.M. Burden & Co. Dole, Hollis (R) ..... Oregon Department of Geology and
Burgess, Harry C . ...... Kennecott Copper Corporation Mineral Industries
Burk, Creighton (R) ........... Mobil Oil Corporation Dorsey, B.R ................... Gulf Oil Corporation
Callaway, Samuel R ...... Morgan Guaranty Trust Co. of Drain, J. ............... Joy Manufacturing Company
New York Duncan, C.C ...... American Telephone & Telegraph Co.
Campesi, Nick S ....................... Divcon, Inc. Dunlap, Jack W., Jr . ....... Dunlap and Associates, Inc.
Carney, Thomas ............... G.D. Searle Company Dunlap, Jack W., Sr . ....... Dunlap and Associates, Inc.
Carsola, Alfred ............. Lockheed Aircraft Corp. Edgerton, Harold .................... E.G.&G., Inc.
Caubin, Paul J . ......... Irving P. Krick Associates, Inc. Ensign, Chester (R) ........... Copper Range Company
Cawley, John H. (R) ................ A.D. Little, Inc. Felando, August ....... American Tunaboat Association
Chamberlin, Theodore (R) ......... Ocean Science and Fisher, Frank R . ............. Sinclair Oil and Gas Co.
Engineering Co. Flowers, W.W ............. Sinclair Research Company
Chambers, Leslie A . ....... Allan Hancock Foundation Fortenberry, Jerry P. (R) ............. Tennessee Gas
Chambers, R.R ............ Sinclair Research Company Transn-dssion Co.
Channel, R.C ............. Dunlap and Associates, Inc. Foster, William C. (R) .... ... Ralston Purina Company
Chapman, W.M. (R) .... Nan Camp Sea Food Company Fox, Joseph M ............. Merck and Company, Inc.
Charles, Raymond A . ...... Prudential Insurance Co. of Francis, Thayer, Jr .............. Sippican Corporation
America Franklin, J.M ....................... U.S. Lines, Inc.
Cima, Norman E . ....................... CM2, Inc. Frautschy, Jeffery D . ........... Scripps Institution of
Clark, Robert ........... Hayden, Stone Incorporated Oceanography, University of California, San Diego
Clarke, William D .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp. Freeman, N.W . ...................... Tenneco,lnc.
Cleaver, John C . .................. Aqua-Chem, Inc. Frensley, Herbert J . ............ Brown and Root, Inc.
Clements, William P., Jr ................ Southeastern Fuller, Richard C ................ Bendix Corporation
Drilling CO. Fulling, Roger W . ....... E.I.,duPont de Nemours & Co.
Clewell, Dayton ............. Mobil Oil Corporation
Clotworthy, J.H. . . . National Oceanography Association
Coates, L.D. (R) ........ Lockheed-California Company I (R) denotes those persons who reviewed portions of
Coene, G.T. (R) .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp. preliminary drafts of panel material.
Collyer, James .................. Raytheon Company
Conant, Melvin ................ Standard Oil Company *Deceased.

V-50

Name Organization Name Organization
Gaden, Elmer L., Jr . ............. Columbia University Ludwig, Daniel K .............. National Bulk Carriers
Gagnebmi, A.P . .............. International Nickel Co. Luehrmann, W.H . ................... Teledyne, Inc.
Galerne, Andre ............. International Underwater Lynch,John ................. Sea-Land Service, Inc.
Contractors Maloney, Walter E. . . . Bigham, Englar, Jones & Houston
Gaul, Roy D .............. Westinghouse Electric Corp. Maness, Irving .......... Small Business Administration
Gentry ' Robert C ....... Environmental Science Services Menzel, Daniel .................. Battelle Northwest
Administration, Department of Commerce Martin, George ....... North American Rockwell Corp.
Ge,,t,cker, Carl ................. Dow Chemical Co- Martin, William R .......... Aquasonics; Engineering Co.-
Gherardi, Walter R ................... Chubb and Son Maton, Gilbert L . ............. John 1. Thompson Co.
Gilman, Roger H . ........ Port of New York Authority May, T.P . .......... The International Nickel Co., Inc.
Ginzton, Edward L . ............... Varian Associates Maybeck, Edward B ........ The Chase Manhattan Bank
Gordon, William G. (R) ......... Bureau of Commercial Mayer, Raymond W ...................... CM2, Inc.
Fisheries, Department of the Interior McDonald, Capt. C.A.K., USN (R) ........ Department
Gottwald, F.D . .................. Ethyl Corporation of the Navy
Graves, C.L . ..................... J. Ray McDermott McDonald, Joseph ........... Public Land Law Review
Hait, James M . ................... FMC Corporation Commission
Hallamore, R.G . .................. Lear Siegler, Inc. Mcithenny, W.F. (9) ......... Dow Chemical Company
Halstead, Bruce W. . .@ ..... World Life Research Institute McKeen, John E .............. Charles Pfizer Company
Harden, M.L .................... Standard Oil of N.J. McLean, Noel B ................... Edo Corporation
Hastings, Charles E .............. Hastings-Raydist, Inc. Mero, John L ................. Ocean Resources, Inc.
Haughton, Dan ........ Lockheed Aircraft Corporation Miller, Leonard A ............... Columbia Gas System
Heath, Wallace G. (R) ............ Western Washington Service Corp.
State College Miller, O.N ................ Standard Oil of California
Henry, Vernon J., Jr . ........... University of Georgia Miller, Paul ................ First Boston Corporation
Hills, R.C ................ Freeport Sulphur Company Milliken, Frank R ............ Kennecott Copper Corp.
Holden, Donald A . ...... Newport News Shipbuilding & Mole, Harvey ...................... U.S. Steel Corp.
Dry Dock Co. Montgomery, W. Saxe ........... Geodyne Corporation
Honsinger, Leroy V ............. Todd Shipyards, Inc. Moody, John D., Sr. . @ .......... Mobil Oil Corporation
Hood, Edwin M . ...... Shipbuilders Council of America Moore, J. Jamison ........ ...... Modern Management,
Horrer, Paul L . ................ Marine Advisors, Inc. Moore, John ............... North American Aviation
Howe, Eugene E ............. Merck, Sharpe and Dome Moore, W.T., Sr . ............ Moore-McCormack Lines
Howe, Richard J. (R) ..... Humble Oil and Refining Co. Morris, W.T., Jr . .....-..... Lykes Brothers, Steamship
Hydrick, Gardner ........... Scudder, Stevens & Clark Co., Inc.
Isaacs, John ....... Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Morrish, Thomas M. (R) .......... Ocemic Foundation
University of California, San Diego Muys, Jerome C ............. Public Land Law Review
Isbrandtsen, Jakob ....... American Export Isbrandtsen - Commission
- @@ Lines, Inc. Nemec, F.A . ....... Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
Jamieson, JX ................... Standard Oil of N.J. Nickerson, Albert L ............ Mobil Oil Corporation
Jenkins, George ................... Metropolitan Life Oberle, Frank ........... Murphy-Pacific, Merrit Salvage
Jobst, Louis F., Jr . ....... City and Port of Long Beach Division
Johns, Lionel S. (R) .............. Ocean Science and Ochacher, Donald M. Columbia Gas System Service
Engineering Co. Corp.*
Jones, Albert ......... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Officer, Charles B ................ Alpine Geophysical
Department of the Interior Associates, Inc.
Jones, Robert E .............. National Association of O'Keefe, Bernard J .................... E.G.&G., Inc.
Manufacturers O'Leary, John F .... Bureau of Natural Gas, Federal
Jordan, Arthur .......... Cape Fear Technical Institute Power Commission
Jordan, S.A . ............. Westinghouse Electric Corp. O'Malley, Hubert J ............ ESSO Exploration, Inc.
Jorgenson, John H. (R) ............. National Security Oppenheimer, Carl H .......... Florida State University
Industrial Association Orlofsky, S. (R) .... Columbia Gas System Service Corp.
Joyner, H.H ...... American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Osborne, William .................. Lehman Brothers
Jurow, Irving H . ............... Schering Corporation Paige, Johii ................. International Nickel Co.
Kahl, Joseph ......... Kahl Scientific Instrument Corp. Paine, F. Ward (R) ........ Ocean Science Capital Corp.
Kane, Eneas D . ........... Chevron Research Company Palmer, R.B . .......................... Texaco,lnc.
Kaufman, Alvin (R) ...... Bureau of Land Management, Pearson, A.S. - - *..... Consolidated Edison Company
Department of the Interior Peterson, C.E. (R) ..... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
Kaufman, Otto ......... Aetna Life Insurance Company Department of the Interior
Kennedy, Joseph B . .......... Sinclair Oil Corporation Phillippe, G.L.* ...........:...... General Electric Co.
King, Lyle .............. Port of New York Authority Phillips, T.L .................... Raytheon Company
Kirby, George F .................. Ethyl Corporation Power, John J . ............. Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc.
Kirkbride, Chalmer G. (R) .......... Sun Oil Company Prior, William W. : * , , I * * , I * , . 'Trunkline Gas Company
Knowlton, Hugh ............ Smith Barney & Co., Inc. Purdon, Alexandria ....... ........... U.S. Lines, Inc.
Kushner, Harvey D. (R) ...... Operations Research Inc. Ramo, Simon .......................... TRW, Inc.
Laborde, Alden J ....... Ocean Drilling and Exploration Rebikoff, Dimitri I ............... Rebikoff Underwater
Co. Products, Inc.
LaQue, Francis L. (R) ............ International Nickel Richardson, William S . .............. Nova University
Co., Inc. Ricker, J.B., Jr .............. Marine Office of America
Laverty, William J . ......... The Sippican Corporation Rolfe, Briney ............ Sinclair Research Company
Lenagh, Thomas H .............. The Ford Foundation Root, L. Eugene ................. Lockheed Aircraft
Lenz, Wirithrop C .......... Merrill Lynch Pierce Fenner Roxer, Gerald F . .............. William H. Rorer, Inc.
& Smith, Inc. Rudiger, Carl E. (R) ............. Lockheed Missiles &
Lesser, Robert M . ....... Lockheed-California Company Space Co.
Lockwood, William .......... First National City Bank Rutledge, Carleton (R) .......... Westinghouse Electric
(New York) Corp.

V-51

Name organization Name Organization
Ryan, William R ................... Edo Corporation Swan, Dave ........... Kennecott Copper Corporation
Salladay, Steve .......... Insurance Company of North Symonds, Gardiner ................... Tenneco,lnc.
America Tajima, George (R) ........ Bissett-Berman Corporation
Sampson, Charles M ........ Freeport Sulphur Company Taylor, J.F., Jr .................. Decca Systems, Inc.
Sarett, L.H .................. Merck & Company, Inc. Thayer, Stuart ...... Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
Schafersinan, Dale A . ...... Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of Thomas, Charles (R) ............... Sun Oil Company
America Thornberg, Russell B. . . ..Global Marine Exploration Co.
Schenck, Herbert H ........ U.S. Underseas Cable Corp. Tibby, Richard B ....... Catalina Marine Science Center
Schmidt, Benno C . .............. J.H. Whitney & Co. Tishman, Robert .............. Tishman Realty Corp.
Schoales, Dudley N. (R) ........ Morgan Stanley & Co. Tonking, W.H ................... Brown & Root, Inc.
Scott, John ............. Mobil OR Corporation Topping, Norman ..... University of Southern California
Shapiro, Hymin .................. Ethyl Corporation Torrey, Thomas . Insurance Company of North America
Sheets, H.E . .................... General Dynamics Treadwell, Capt. T.K., USN ...... Naval Oceanographic
Shepard, Hardy .................... Payson & Trask Office
Shephard, Robert J. (R) .... Westinghouse Electric Corp. Turman, S.B ......... Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
Sherwood, Robert ........ International Nickel Co., Inc. Tuthill, Arthur H. (R) ..... International Nickel Co., Inc.
Shigley, C. Monroe (R) ....... Dow Chemical Company Vance, Jack 0. McKinsey and Company
Shykind, E.B. (R) ........ CMREF, National Council on Wakelin, James Ryan Aeronautical Co.
Marine Resources and Engineering Development Walthier, Thomas N. (R) ..... Occidental Minerals Corp.
Siebenhausen, C.H. (R) ............ Shell Oil Company Ward, David M ..................... Ward Associates
Simons, Merton E. (R) .... Phillips Petroleum Company Ware, T.M . .... International Minerals & Chemical Corp.
Singleton, Henry E ................... Teledyne, Inc. Warm, WX ................. Marine Office of America
Smith, A.C ..................... Ocean Systems, Inc. Warner, Arthur J. Bureau of Mines, Department of the
Smith, Warren Lee . . Kidder, Peabody & Company, Inc. Interior
Snodgrass, James (R)Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Warner, R., Jr ......... * ....... Mobil Oil Corporation
University of California, San Diego Waters, Rear Adm. Odale D., Jr., USN ..... Department
Snyder, A.E ........................ Colt Industries of the Navy
Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN . Department of the Navy Weber, Ernest M ............. Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc.
Soloman, Herbert L ......... Uris Building Corporation Wedin, John (R) .... Staff, Senate Commerce Committee
Spangler, Miller B ........ National Planning Association Weiss, A.M ........ Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of America
Stephan, Charles R .......... Florida Atlantic University Wheaton, Elmer P. (R) ......... Lockheed Missiles and
Stephan, J. Stan ....... First Bank and Trust Company, Space Co.
, Bryan, Texas White, N.C ........ International Minerals and Chemicals
Stewart, Harris B . .............. ESSA, Department of Williams, L.M ............. Freeport Sulphur Company
Commerce Wilson, Roger W ................. J. Ray McDermott
Stoddard, George A .......... Scudder, Stevens & Clark Wingate, H.S . ............... International Nickel Co.
Stoddard, George E . ......... Equitable Life Assurance Wright, Donald L .............. Jersey Enterprises, Inc.
Society of the United States Wright, Edward W . ........... Dillingham Corporation
Stowers, H.L . ............. Texas Gas Transmission Co. Zimmerman, Edwin M ............ Anti-Trust Division,
Strohmeyer, D.D . ........ Bethlehem Steel Corporation Department of Justice
Sutton, Paul A .................. Alpine Geophysical Zimmerman, Jack .... Hydrospace Research Corporation
Associates, Inc.

V-52

A.f"

PI,

@0, 7,

IJ
@National Geographic Society

Part VI

Report of the Panel
on Marine Engineering and Technology

Contents,

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-1 VI.- influence of Technology on the
''Law of the Sea . . . . .. . VI-22
Chapter I Introduction and Summary VI-2
Chapter 4 Organization . . . . . . VI-23
1. Program and Goal . .. . . . . . VI-2
11. ' Major Objectives VI2 1.
National Perspective . . . . . . VI-23
III. Major Repommendations VI-3 Il. National Organizational Structure . VI-23
IV. Ten-Year Program of 'Marine A. General . . . . . . . . . VI-23
I Development- VI-4 B. National, Advisory Committee
A. Fundamental, Technology VI-4 for the Oceans (NACO) VI-'23
B. National -Test, Facilities . VI@5,, Ill. US. Government Organizational
C. National Projects . . . . ... . VI-5 Structure . . . . . . VI-25
D. Costs . . . . . . . . . . . VI-6. A. General . . . . . . . . . VI-25
B. New Civilian Ocean Agency VI-25
Chapter 2 Major Findings and C. Interagency Coordinating
Recommendations VI-7 Mechanism . . . . . . . VI-25
D. Navy Role . . . . . . VI-25
A. General . . . . . . . . . . VI-7 IV. Focal Point in the Legislative Branch VI-26
9. Fundamental Technology'.
C. Test Facilities VI-9 Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology VI-27
A Special Deep Ocean Considerations . VI-9
-E. Special Nearshore Problems VI-10 1. Fundamental Technology . . . . VI-28
F. Great takes Restoration . . . VI-1 I A. Survey Equipment and
G. Industrial Technology - . - - - VI-1 I Instrumentation . . . . . VI-29
1. Fishing and Aquaculture VI-1 I B. Power Sources . . . . . . YI-33
2. Oil and Gas VI-1 2 1. Chemical Batteries . . . . VI-33
3. Chemical Extraction and 2. Fuel Cells . . . . . . VI-34
Desalination VI-12 3. Thermal Conversion . . . . VI-34
4. Ocean Mining . . . . . . VI-13 4. Nuclear Reactors . . . .- . VI-35
5.p6werGeneration' VI-13 5. Isotope Power . . . . . . VI-35
6. Conclusions . . . . . . VI-36
Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Technology C. External Machinery, Systems and
Development, VI-15 Equipment . . . . . . . VI-37
1. Power Application . . . . VI-37
1. Opportunities for the Future . . . VI-15 2. Electrical Distribution . . . VI-39
11. Importance, Urgency, and Rationale 3. Buoyancy and Trim Control . VI-39
for U.S. Leadership . . . . . VI-1 6 4. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-40
111. Trends Influencing Marine D.'Materials . . . . . . . .. VI-41
Development . . . . . . . VI-1 7 1 .ffigh Strength Steels . . . . VI-42
IV. Interrelationships Among Particular 2. Nonferrous Metals . . . . V142
Segments VI-18 3. Nonmetallic Materials V143
A. Government-Industry-Academic VI-18 4. Supplemental Buoyancy
B. Civilian-Military .. . . . . . VI-19 Material. .@ . . . . . VI-44
C. Relationships Among,,Nations; . VI-20 5. Secondary Materials . . . . V145
V. Technical Interrelationships . . . VI-20 6. Conclusions . . . . . . VI45
A. Science7.f-ngin.eering-Technotogy VI-20 E. Navigation and Communications. V146
B. Outerspace-Hydrospace VI-21 F. Tools . . . . . . . VI49

G. Mooring Systems, Buoys, and F. Future Needs . . . . . . . VI-1 29
Surface Support Platforms. . VI-51, G. Institutional Arrangements . . VI-133
14. Biomedicine and Diving H. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-133
Equipment . . . . . . . VI-55
1. Environmental Considerations VI-62
1. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata VI-62 Chapter 6 Industrial Technoloo VI-135
2. Bottom Composition and
Engineering Properties VI-63 1. Fishing . . . . . . . . . . VI-136
3. Physical and Chemical A. Fishing Vessels and Gear - - '. V1- 137
Properties of Seawater VI-64 B. Hunting and Harvesting . . . VI-144
4. DynamicFactors . . . . . VI-67 C. Processing . . . . . . . . VI-150
J. Data Handling . . . . . . . VI-71 D. Government Role . . . . . VI-153
K. Life Support . . . . . .. . VI-72 E. Conclusions . . . . . VI-154
IT. Test Facilities . . . . . . . . VI-77 11. Aquaculture .. . . . . . . . VI-156
A. Simulation Facilities . . . . VI-77 111. Offshore Oil and Gas VI-I 61
B. Hyperbaric Facilities . . . . VI-79 A. Scope of Offshore Industry VI-161
C. Ocean Test Ranges . . . . VI-80-' B. History of Offshore Activity . VI-163
D. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-82 C. Exploration . . . . . . . Vl- 164
ITT. Deep Ocean Activities VI-83 D. Production . . . . ... . . VI-167
A. Undersea Systems VI-83 E. Pipelines . . . . . . . . VI-169
1. SubmersibleVehicles . . . VI-84 F. Subsea Operations . . . . . VI-172
2. Unmanned and Tethered G. Government Role . *. . . . VI-176
Vehicles . . . . . . . VI-87 H. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-1 77
3. Transport and Support IV. Ocean Mining . . . . . . . . VI-179
Submarines . . . . . VI-88 A. Introduction . . . . . . . VI-179
4. Military Submarines VI-89 B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and gas VI-180
5. Conclusions . . . . . . VI-91 C. Exploration and Evaluation VI-182
B. Deep Ocean Installations , . . VI-92 D. Recovery . . . . . . VI-1 83
1. Sea Floor Habitats . . . . VI-93 E. Processing and Transportation VI-186
2. In-Bottom Habitats . . . . VI-93 F. Forecast . . . . . . . . VI-187
3. Conclusions . . . . . . YI-94 G. Government Role . . . . . VI-187
C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and H. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-188
Salvage . . . . . . . . VI-95 V. Chemical Extraction . . . . . VI-190
1. Safety and'Certification . . VI-95 A. Introduction . . . . . . . VI-190
2. Search and Rescue . . . . VI-96 B. Present Techniques for
3. Salvage and Recovery . . . VI-98 Extraction . . . . . . . VI-194
4. Conclusions . . . . . . VI-99 C. Future Extraction of Other
IV. Nearshore Activities . . . . . . VI-99 Chen-dcals . . . . . . . VI-195
A. Pollution . . . . . . . . VI-100 D. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-196
B. Coastal Engineering . . . . . VI-106 V1. Desalination . . . . . . . . VI-197
C. Shelf, Installations . . . . . VI-110 A. History and Trends . . . . . VI-198
D. Transportation and Harbor B. Techniques of Desalination VI-203
Development . . . . . . VI-I 15 C. Projection of Water Costs . . . VI-207
V. Great Lakes Restoration . . . . VI-121 D. Desalination Problems . . . . VI-209
A. Current Situation . . . . . VI-122 E. Government-Industry Roles . .VI-211
B. Causes of Pollution and F. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-211
Accelerated Aging . . . . VI-123 VII. Power Generation . . @ . . . VI-213
C. Preventive Measures . . . . . VI-126 A. Power Generation in the Ocean
D. Restorative Measures . . . . VI-127 Environment . . . . . . VI-213
E. Other Measures for Water B. Power from Ocean Energy . . . VI-216
Quality Improvement VI-1 28 C. Conclusions . . . . . . . VI-219

haptevi ioned, PtoJoqftJbF Mar" a .. .... 7. Great takes Restoration
qn,

& Resource Astay'Equipment
7
Refiii;6 of9ational Projects Development Program VI-238
to the Development Cycle VI-2211 9. Coastal Engineering and
A. Fundamental T6chnologgy,@-_`." VI-222 Ecological Studies Program VI-241
B. National Projects . VI-,222 I O@. Fisheries and Aquaculture
C. Subsystem and Component program VI-242
@Development . . . VI-222 I I., Experimental Continental
D. Operational Systems VI-222 Shelf Submerged Nuclear
E. Expected Benefits VI-222 Plant . . . . . . . . VI-245
12 Large Stable Ocean Platform . VI-246
11- Description of National Projects . VI-222
1. Fixed Continental Shelf 13. Long-Endurance Exploration
Laboratory .,,V,1-224 Submersibles with 20,000-
-2. Portable@C on'tinentalShelf FootCapability . , - VI-248
Laboratories VI-224 14. Prototype Regional Pollution
3.- IWW16 Unders'ei Su'pip"o-irt Collection, Treatment, and
Processing System . . . VI-250
Laborajqry._. vl-,@79,
15. Prototype Harbor Develop-
4. Seamount Station VI@Z@0 ment Project . . . . . VI-253
S. Deep Ocean Stations ' VI-233
6. Pilot Buoy Network . . . . VI-234 Appendix A Acknowledgments . . . VII-254

Preface

This report assesses the present national effort States and regions, private enterprise, the acadernic
in marine engineering and technology and provides community, and the U.S. Government.
broad guidance for the economical and rational The material presented in this report represents
development of a strong U.S. capability in the the effort of the panel Commissioners, staff, and
marine environment. the beneficial guidance of many consultants duri
ing
The following objectives, stated ., in sub- the course of the panel's deliberations. The
paragraphs of Section 2(b) of the Marine Re- Panel Executive Secretary was:
sources and Engineering Development Act of
1966, were felt to be applicable in establishing the Lincoln D. Cathers
scope of activities of the panel:
Under sponsorship of the Oceanic Foundation
(1) The accelerated development of the resources additional staff *was assembled to support the
of the marine environment.... panel. This staff, the Marine Commission Support
(4) The preservation of the role of the United Group, was comprised of:
States as a leader in nwrine science and
resource development.... Amor L. Lane
(6) 7he development and improvement of the Carl E. Rudiger, Jr.
capabilities, performance, use, and efficiency Carleton Rutledge, Jr.
of vehicles, equipment, and instruments for Robert J. Shephard
use in exploration, research, surveys, the R. Lawrence Snideman 11
recovery of resources, and the transmission of Robert M. Lesser (part-time)
energy in the marine environment.
(7) The effective utilization of the scientific and A special note of thanks is made to the
engineering resources of the Nation, with close agencies and companies who generously provided
cooperation among all interested agencies, the time of the Commissioners, Executive Secre-
public and private, in order to avoid unneces- tary, staff personnel, and consultants.
sary duplication of effort, facilities, and equip- The panel contactedexisting organizations (the.
ment, or waste. . National Security Industrial Association, the Na-
tional Academy of Engineering, numerous tech-
The panel has endeavored to delineate the nical societies, universities, commercial and de-
Nation's future course in the marine. environment fense industries, regional authorities, and non-
in terms of engineering and technological feasi_ profit organizations) to solicit and involve the*
bility, to assess its present structure, to point out private sector in defining problems and recom-
inhibitions to progress, and to relate the necessary mending solutions.. Coordination was maintained
input to the obtainable output. It .stresses areas with other panels through personal contact,
where engineering and technology have a bearing monthly Commission meetings, and distribution of
draft materials.
on the growth and development of industry and
the solution of defense problems. In Appendix A is a complete listing of indi-
The panel was particularly cognizant of the viduals and organizations contributing to the
need for national participation as opposed to a development of this report.
predominantly government approach, in future John H. Perry, Jr., Chairman
ocean activities. Achieving a strong marine engi- Charles F. Baird
neering and technology capability can be accom- Taylor A. Pryor
plished best by the cooperative efforts of the George H. Sullivan

V1_1
333-091 0-69-5

Chapter I Introduction and Summary

1. PROGRAM AND GOAL the state of technology. Both depths are reason-
The development of the ocean as a resource is a able targets. The two major objectives are workable
major concern closely linked to the solution of the for U.S. ocean activities and may be carried out
problems of urban development, transportation, within an acceptable international legal framework.
public health, foreign aid, and world hunger.
An essential element of the national commit- Figure 1 Key Definitions
ment to the oceans is the technology to explore
and utilize them, to occupy the U.S. territorial sea, Ocean engineering-The application of
and to utilize and manage the resources of the U.S. science and engineering to describe the
Continental Shelves. This country's position of marine environment and to develop and
technological leadership requires it to take an operate systems for its utilization.
active role in developing the earth's resources, Marine technology-The total capability to
especially those of the undersea frontier.
Technological development has been the foun- utilize the ocean environment, including
dation of U.S. strength and national growth. Its knowledge, equipment, techniques, and
extension into the oceans is necessary to continue facilities.
national development, including creation and pro- Occupy-To inhabit a volume of ocean or an
tection of employment, a more enjoyable way of area of seabed to observe, make decisions,
life, and maintenance and improvement of the and take action. Occupation includes the
national environment for the future. Economic element of permanence.
and social benefits, conitinuing acquisition of
scientific knowledge, and military necessity justify Explore-To search, probe, map, and chart
the commitment. systematically the ocean environment,
cluding the water column, floor, and sub-
11. MAJOR OBJECTIVES floor features for the purpose of enhancing
subsequent action.
The panel proposes, as the major objectives of Manage-To direct effort to conserve deplet-
an increased national commitment to the oceans, able resources, achieve continued and - im-
that the United States should develop the tech- proved yield of regenerative resources, mod-
nological base and capability to: ify the environment to facilitate these
efforts, and resolve multiple use conflicts.
-within 10 years: occupy the U.S. territorial sea;
utilize the U.S. Continental Shelf and slope to Utilize-To carry out a useful purpose or
depths of 2,000 feet; explore the ocean depths to operation; to obtain profit or benefit by
20,000 feet. using.

-within 30 years: manage the U.S. Continental
Shelf and slope to depths of 2,000 feet; achieve
the. capability to utilize the ocean depths to The earth's continents are fringed by shallow,
20,000 feet.' sloping shelves varying in width from a few yards
to hundreds of miles. The shelves and a limited
The depths of 2,000 feet and 20,000 feet for area of the steeper continental slopes beyond lie
technological development of the undersea frontier within the 2,000 foot contour, an area totaling
are dictated by the bathymetry of the oceans and nearly 10 per cent of the earth's ocean floor-
approximately as large as North and South Amer-
Key definitions are given in Figure 1. ica combined. The 2,000-foot, depth is within

V1-2

reach of present U.S. technology and closely A. General
relates to current estimates of diver working
1. A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
potential. As a primary technologica.l. goal it is
realistic, attainable, and immediately rewarding. tq,,gu@4e national,marine efforts.
The continental slopes, especially beyond the 2.An oceanic agency concentrating im, one,
agency appropriate U.S. Government groups
2,000 foot contour, are quite precipitous. For
with primary roles and missions in the oceans
example the next four 2,000 foot increments to
the 10,@00 foot contour each provide only about and including a technology development group.-
three per cent more bottom area. For depths from 3. A 10-year program of intensive undersea,
10,000 down to 20,000'feet, increased depth development.
capability is rewarded with access to an additional 4. National Projects to accelerate progress into
the undersea frontier.
75 per cent of the total ocean bottom area, while
5. A strong Navy undersea n-dssion and an
depths beyond 20,000 feet (two per cent of the - . @V j."
total) are found only in a few trenches. Therefore, improved program in deep submergence and
a natural deep ocean technological development ocean engineeering.
goal exists for 20,000 feet. (See Figure 2) 6. An effective national commitment to the
The promising characteristics of advanced ocean requiring understanding and cooperation
structural materials, new concepts of external from all segments of the national economy.
machinery and equipment, and better engineering B. Fundamental Technology
make operations at 20,000-foot depths a practical
objective. Twenty thousand feet is a 1,@gical, 7. A program to advance fundamental marine
realistic, yet challenging goal for technology. engineering and technology.
8. Development of engineering design handbooks,
technical memoranda, and other design data
with a system for continually updating this
Ill. MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS information.
C. Test Facilities

The panel's report is summarized in this fist of 9. A program to increase the number and quality
recommendations: of test facilities and to reduce testing costs.

10% 13% '75% 2%

2,000 - -Shelf

10,000-

Lu
Lu Abys,_
,a/ Plains
Z

20,000-
Lu

Trenches

36,000
Per cent of ocean bottom
Figure 2. Per cent of ocean bottom that can be explored by various operating depth
capabilities.

vi-3

D. Deep Ocean 3. Chemical Extraction and Desalination

10. A program to expand 20,000-foot ocean 25. Development of new chemical extraction tech-
engineering capabilities. nology in conjunction with desalting research.
11. Technology priorities in power sources, free 26. Government participation in advanced desalt-
flooding machinery, equipment, and materials. ing technology projects without its entrance
12. Systems priorities in survey vehicles, search into the business of supplying desalted water.
vehicles, transfer vehicles, manned stations, 27. A balanced program advancing desalination
and support systems. technology to convert seawater, inland
brackish water, and waste water into usable
E. Nearshore supplies.
13. A program of pollution monitoring and water 4. Ocean Mining
quality restoration to complement the
essential goal to halt effectively the pollution 28. A program to advance undersea exploration
of nearshore waters. technology to enable timely delineation of
14. A program of coastal biological and offshore reserves and provide growth of off-
engineering efforts. shore mining.
15. A program to improve port and harbor de-
velopment technology. 5. Power Generation
16. A Coast Guard research and development 29. A developmental program for submerged
program leading to improved maritime safety. commercial nuclear power.

F. Great Lakes

17. A restoration technology National Project IV. TEN-YEAR PROGRAM OF MARINE DE-
tailored to the immediate needs of Lakes Erie VELOPMENT
and Ontario and southern Lake Michigan.
18. An actual restoration project undertaken as
soon as technology is available. The concept supported by the panel is to
G. Industrial advance marine engineering and technology
through cooperative participation by State,
1. Fishing and Aquaculture Federal, academic, and industrial groups.
19. Development of greatly improved domestic
fish production capability. A. Fundamental Technology
20. Surveys of promising underutilized commercial
and sport fisheries. Fundamental technology is an essential base for
21. A program to pursue aquaculture development future marine endeavors. Particular categories, by
vigorously. definition, have numerous multiple interrelated
2. Oil and Gas applications. The quality and scope of funda-
mental technology must be expanded con-
22. A mechanism for optimum information tinuously to assure new developments, reduce
exchange between, the Government and the costs, increase capability, improve reliability, and
petroleum industry. afford new ways to solve problems.
23. Government furnished information on funda- Elements of fundamental technology most criti-
mental undersea technology, biomedicine, and cal for effective commercial development, scien-
reconnaissance mapping and charting, and tific exploration, and military operation are listed
increased development of environmental pre- in Figure 3 in approximate descending order of
diction and modification technology. importance. References in parentheses are to
24. A program directed toward reduction of oil Chapters 5 and 6 of this report where pertinent
spills and combating their effects. detailed discussion may be found.

VI-4

C. National Projects

A series of national facilities, programs, and
-Figure 3. projects, generically called National Projects, is
Elements of Fundamental Technology recommended for consideration during the 10-year
program to, support technological progress in the'
(a) Survey equipment and instrumentation oceans. These projects, many having strong-inter-
(5-1 -A) relationship's, are listed in Figure 4. (See Chapter 7
(b) Power sources (5-1-B), for details.)
(c) External machinery systems and equip-
ment (5-1-C)
(d) Materials (5-1-D)
(e) Navigation and communications (5-I-E)
(f) Tools: diver and@vehicle (5-1-F)
(g) Mooring systems, buoys, and surface
support platforms (5-1-G) Figure 4
(h) Biomedicine and diving equipment
(5-1-H) National Projects
W Environmental considerations (5-1-1)
(j) Data handling (5-1-J)
(k) Life support (5-1-K) National Undersea Facilities
(1) Coastal engineering (5-[V-B) 1. Fixed continental shelf laboratory
(m) Extraction techniques (6-VI) 2. Portable continental shelf laboratories
W Services: certification, inspection, and 3. Mobile undersea support laboratory
recovery (5-111 -C) 4. Seamount station
(o) Coastal ecology (control and modifica- 5. Deep ocean stations
tion) (5-IV-A and 5-V) - Continental slope
- Midocean ridge
- Abyssal deep
National Marine Programs
6. Pilot buoy network
7. Great Lakes restoration program
8. Resource assay equipment development
B. National Test Facilities program
9. Coastal engineering and ecological
studies program
The marine environment is not well known, 10. Fisheries and aquaculture program
and with today's technology it is a hostile and National Marine Projects
difficult operating area. History has borne out that 11. Experimental continental shelf sub-
adequate testing is required to utilize a foreign merged nuclear plant
environment effectively. Thus, in developing the 12. Large stable ocean platform
capability to occupy and manage the offshore 13. Long-endurance exploration sub-
areas and explore and utilize the deep oceans, it mersibles with 20,000-foot capability
will become evident that test facilities will be a 14. Prototype regional pollution collection,
national resource as.important as any other single treatment, and processing system
factor. 15. Prototype harbor development project
There are two prime elements of the national
test facility needs-(I) those to test systems,
equipment, components, and fundamental de-
velopments and (2) those to test man as a diver in
the sea. (See Chapter 5, Section.11 for details.)

VI-5

D. Costs Figure 5
The result, of the national effort will be to Cost for 10-Year Program
establish the technology needed for access to the
oceans in a convenient, economical, and reliable Ten Year Cost
manner with a taxpayer investment of less than Category (billionsof-
one billion dollars of new funding per,year over dollars)
the next,decade.
Fundamentai'Technology 2.0-3.0
Figure 5 is a breakdown of the. estimated costs Test Facilities
for the 10-year marine development program. Simulation facilities . . . . 0.4-0.6
Biomedical chambers . . . 0.1-0.2
Ocean test ranges . . . . . 0.3-0.4
National Projects
Undersea facilities . . . . 0.6-1.0
Marine programs . . . . . 0.3-0.5
Marine projects . . . . . 0.4-0.7
Operational Support . . . . 1.0-1.5

TOTAL . . . . . 5.1-.7.9
ISee Figure 2.

Chapte r 2 Major Findings and Recommendations.

The major findings and recommendations of engmieering and technology development program
the Marine Engineering and Technology Panel are over the next 10 years could provide the United
summarized under the following categories: States a wide range of industrial, scientific, politi-
cal, and military technological options.
A. General Without such an accelerated undersea explora-
B. Fundamental Technology tion and development program, a critical national
C. Facilities technological deficiency will develop. Moreover,
D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations instead of an orderly development, a crash reac-
E. Special Nearshore Problems tion would become necessary should some other
F. Great Lakes Restoration nation demonstrate an internationally important
G. Industrial Technology undersea capability.
The goals stated in this report will not be
These categories relate directly to the report's achieved unless a much greater national commit-
major marine technology discussions, most of ment to the oceans is made. U.S. ocean activities
which are concerned with surface or relatively Presently include substantial private, State, and
shallow operations to 2,000 feet. Such operations regional efforts. Therefore, the oceans deserve a
are expected to dominate national ocean activities different approach than military and space endeav-
during the remainder of this century. Within each ors which have been strictly Federal responsi-
group, findings are presented first, followed by bilities.
recommendations. This chapter summarizes the Overall undersea capability could advance more
current state of marine technology, its potential, rapidly if affirmative efforts were made to publish
and a valid approach to advancing the nation's government-developed technology. Unclassified re-
capability to explore and utilize the oceans fully. search and engineering data are sometimes not
.released because funds are insufficient to prepare
A. General public reports, manpower limitations hamper ex-
traction of unclassified technological data from
The oceans are the promise of future genera- classified documents, or the U.S. Government
tions; they are the arena for achieving a major (especially the military) chooses to withhold un-
advancement in world gross product. Ocean devel- classified data from general distribution.
opment is a major concern-more compelling to
today's national interest than space development-
integral to the solution of urban, transportation, Recommendations:
health, foreign aid, and world nutrition
problems-and vital to national defense. 1. A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
The present overall undersea c apability of the (NACO) should be established with representation
United States is extremely limited relative to the from the States and regions, private enterprise, the
potential of marine technology. Given a funda- academic community, and the U.S. Government.
mental technology program and a commitment to Its principal functions would be to (1) advise all
the oceans, the United States could produce U.S. Government agencies with missions in the
systems in 10 to 15 years that would duplicate on oceans on the planning and implementation of the
the continental shelves many productive terrestrial national marine efforts, (2) inform the Congress,
functions while attaining substantially improved (3) assist the States and private interests, (4) guide
operating capabilities throughout the oceans at all the fundamental marine technology development
depths. program, and (5) submit a periodic report assessing
Industrial, scientific, and military undersea the national ocean program. Advice should be
technology are closely linked. A properly man- given in such areas as national goals and long-range
aged, balanced, comprehensive, dynamic marine plans, facilities, manpower, National Projects,

VI-7

scientific investigations, and oceanographic opera- industrial, academic and scientific, and military
tions. and civilian government.

2. A new, adequately funded oceanic agency General Public Requirements:
should be established within the U.S. Government
to concentrate in one agency appropriate civilian -Total national involvement including efforts of
groups with primary niissions and roles in the States, regions, and private enterprise.
oceans. An important part of the new agency -An awareness by the American people of the
should he a technology development group re-
sponsible for conducting and supporting a funda- Importance of the oceans to the Nation and the
world.
mental marine technology program and providing
engineering support to th Ie agency's operating industrial Needs:
groups.
-Extensive survey information on marine re-
3. A 10-year program of intensive undersea devel- sources on which to base investment decisions.
opment should be undertaken. Such an effort
would give the Nation the technological base and -Sufficient Government ocean engineering devel-
capability to: (1) occupy the territorial sea, (2) opment funds to stimulate substantial private
utilize and manage the resources of the U.S. investment in operational systems..
Continental Shelf and slope, (3) explore and
utilize deep ocean resources, (4) meet needs for -A better appreciation of the complexities and
undersea military operations, and (5) determine costs of operating in the oceans.
intelligently future national undersea programs. -A solid base of fundamental technology and
operating experience.
4. A series of National Projects should be estab-
lished to support advancement into the undersea -A legal and political framework that fosters
frontier of industry, the States, the academic ocean exploration and production activities.
community, and the U.S. Government agencies in,
an economic manner. These projects should re- Academic and Scientific Needs:
ceive government support and, where applicable, -Sufficient funds allocated to scientific projects
be available to all users on a @ cost reimbursement
basis. Principal use of these National Projects will to provide improved engineering support of at-sea
be to test and evaluate the economic and technical scientific operations.
feasibility of advanced marine developments. -A close interaction between scientists and engi-
S. Navy undersea development efforts in deep neers in applying engineering capabilities to the
conduct of scientific projects.
submergence and ocean engineering should be
increased. The program outlined by the Deep -More emphasis in engineering institutions on
Submergence/Ocean Engineering Program Planning ocean problems.
Group appears to reflect realistically future Navy
needs. In addition to this program, an expanded Military Needs:
Navy mission in support of the applicable national -Establishment within the Department of Defense
technology goals should be recognized to take of a strong primary military mission in undersea
maximum advantage of iWsting capabilities and
facilities. Cooperative efforts between the Navy technology to meet present and future threats.
program and the civilian program should be -A clearly stated Navy mission in support of
pursued to the fullest extent. national marine programs evoking support of the
6. An effective national commitment to the Congress, civilian leaders, and the general public.
oceans will require understanding and cooperation -A recognition of the contribution that can be
from all sectors of the economy-general public, made by use of Navy capabilities in international,

VI-8

economic, political, scientific, and technological the undersea frontier parallels the history of
fields. strategic test facility needs for development of
high altitude, supersonic, and space flight. Ocean
-Funds in addition to those required for military test facilities are a national resource as important
commitments sufficient to allow use of Nav
y as any other single factor in the development of
capabilities and management expertise in support technology.
of the overall national goals. Insufficient and often unsuitable test facilities
today are seriously impeding advancements in
Civilian Government Needs: submersible, habitat, equipment, and instrumenta-
-A concentration of agencies having ocean roles tion development.
and missions. Facilities for physiological research, medical
training, diver equipment development, and satura-
-A marine and undersea technology development tion diver training are grossly inadequate.
capability. Recommendation:
B. Fundamental Technology 9.* A national program should be initiated to
increase the number and capability of undersea
Critical advances in fundamental technology are research, development, test, and evaluation facil-
required to improve undersea operating capabil- ities and to oversee efforts to improve facility
ities and reliability. Examples include: reliable, design technology to reduce costs. A two part
efficient, compact power sources; machinery and approach is needed for systems and equipment
equipment capable of ambient operation; corrO- development and biomedical development.
sion and fouling resistent, high strength-to-weight
materials; subsurface navigation and precise posi- D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations
tioning devices; underwater communication and The bathymetry of the world's oceans is such
viewing systems; and biomedicine. that approximately 88 per cent of the ocean floor
Knowledge of ocean environmental variables, lies between the 2,000 and 20,000 foot contours,
particularly such features 'as temperature, salinity, with 10 per cent less than 2,000 feet deep and
depth, biological effects, bathymetry, acoustic only two per cent greater than 20,000 feet deep.
properties, bottom and, sub-bottom geology, is
'Marino life and high@grade' mineral resources
insufficient to establish valid engineering design exist at 20,000 feet. Sedimentary deposits which
'criteria for undersea systems. may contain oil are known to exist on the
Recommendations: continental rises at depths from 6,000 to 14,000
feet.
7. A fundamental marine engineering and tech- The deep sea is of great interest to scientists
nology program should be vigorously pursued to concerned with such fields as ocean circulation,
expand the possibilities and lower the costs of climatology, nutrient supply, marine biology, geo-
undersea operations. physics, and geology.
A technological deficiency in systems designed
8. Handbooks, technical memoranda, and other to operate below 2,000 feet exists because of the
engineering design data should be developed, lack of a national commitment to 'Understand,
continually updated, and made available to the explore, and utilize the deep ocean. Deep ocean
ocean engineer to provide critical information on operations in 'general are restricted severely by
undersea environmental conditions and the behav- equipment failures and the lack of ability to do
ior of systems, materials, and components in the useful work.
environment. Military systems with deep operating capability
will provide such advantages as better conceal-
C. Test Facilities ment, improved location for acoustic systems,
expanded tactical coverage of @systems operating
The necessity for adequate test facilities to above, and larger absolute margin of safety during
permit safe, orderly, and rapid advancement into dives and submerged maneuvers. Deep operating

VI-9

systems would be required for undersea arms astrous effects @on recreation, fish and wildlife,
control inspection and enforcement. water supplies, natural. beauty, commercial devel-
opment, and scientific study. Pollution in some
Recommendations: areas is so critical that the use of nearshore waters
10. The United States should undertake immedi- for additional waste disposal cannot be tolerated.
ately a dynamic and comprehensive advanced A technology base exists to produce more effec-
development program leading to a greatly ex- tive waste treatment techniques, monitoring de-
panded ocean engineering capability. The deep- vices, and to introduce preventative and restorative
ocean goal should be set at the working plateau of measures.
20,000 feet to gain access to 98 per cent of the So much critical U.S. coastal land has been lost
world's oceans. This is consistent with the pro- to the sea that improved coastal engineering
jected status of deep ocean technology. Develop- technology becomes increasingly important. Ex-
ment of 20,000-foot systems to explore and utilize tensive erosion protection projects have been
the ocean as a whole is more rational than to undertaken, but due to a lack of basic understand-
advance incrementally at greater overall cost. ing of shore processes there often have been both
unexpected failures and undesirable results.
11. The deep ocean development program should Progress in marine transportation is leading
give highest priority to: rapidly to larger, deeper-draft bulk carriers and
-Compact power sources for vehicle .s and habitats. high speed ships with such improved cargo han-
dling systems as containers and lighters. Contain-
-Reliable free flooding external machinery, elec- erization is growing especially fast. The New York
trical systems, and equipment. Port Authority estimates that by 1975, 50 per
cent of its general cargo will be * containerized
-Materials for low weight-to-displacentent ratio compared to 12 per cent at present and only 3 per
structures; high-strength, corrosion and fouling cent in 1966.
resistant components; and supplemental buoy- Port design in addition to ship design will pace
ancy. future progress. Deepening of harbors to accom-
modate large bulk carriers is encountering such
12. The United States should undertake a pro . severe physical barriers as.. bedrock, marimade
grain to gain knowledge and experience in the tunnels, and long shallow approaches. In general,
deep ocean, focusing on technology to develop: terminals for bulk and containerized shipping must
be totally new. Utilization of land made available
-Efficient long-endurance exploration submers- by obsolete facilities can make valuable contribu-
ibles. and associated instrumentation. tions to Iurban development. Increased ocean
-Logistic support and rescue vehicles for crew activity will require government emphasis on
transfer and resupply. safety and regulation. Nearshore activities place
prime reliance on dependable navigation and
-Manned stations capable of submerged support communications.
by deep submersibles.
Recommendations:
-Submersible mother ships and stable surface 13. Disposal of wastes in coastal,waters must not
platforms to support undersea operations safely be considered an acceptable alternative to pollution
and efficiently. abatement and control without full prior knowl-
E. Special Nearshore Problems' edge of its effects. A goal should be set to halt
substantially any further pollution and to improve
Pollution is the most serious problem in the the quality of nearshore waters. The goals of this
nearshore area, having detrimental and often dis- program should be enforced by joint State-Federal
ultimate standards to be fixed immediately. These
In this panel report, the emphasis is on the engineer- standards should be tailored for incremental future
ing and technology to support activities in the coastal and compliance until the desired standards are at-
estuarine zones. Another panel report deals with the
overall problems of these zones. tained. In addition, detailed research and develop-

VI-10

ment programs should be pursued to improve , tion, abatement is required to make restoration
technology of monitoring devices to help deter- efforts effective.
mine pollution sources and distribution.
Recommendations:
14. To increase the quality and quantity of 17. A Nationa .I Project tailored to the immediate
usable coastal land, a program of coastal biolog- needs of Lakes Erie-and Ontario and southern
ical and engineering efforts should be pursued Lake Michigan should be funded'to test such
vigorously and adequately funded to perform such promising restoration schemes as artificially in-
tasks as: duced, destratification. Existing facilities should be
-Coastal process studies. used to -the fullest extent.
-Prototype developments. of new erosion preven- 18. A restoration project for Lakes Erie and
tion systems. Ontario and southern Lake Michigan should be
undertaken as soon as the technology is available.
-Applied research on nearshore ecology. The program should complement the implementa-
tion of effective pollution abatement technology
15. Port and harbor development should be based in all the Great Lakes and must be managed to
on a total systems approach. to marine transporta- accommodate Federal, State, community, and
tion. Such development should concentration private interests.
design of offshore bulk cargo terniinals and im-
proved methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) trans-
fer to allow more effective use of coastal land.
G. Industrial Technology
16. To protect life and property better, the Coast 1. Fishing and Aquaculture
Guard should pursue a research and deve opment
program to strengthen capabilities for traffic con- The total annual production of the U.S. fishing
trol, monitoring, and search and rescue (including industry has been static at four to six billion
underwater divers, submersibles, and habitats). A 'pounds for nearly 30 years, although the U.S.
study should be made of present and potential fnarket is three times the U.S. catch and is growing
underwater acoustic requirements. Frequency and rapidly. Further, the sustainable yield adjacent to
power level allocations should be established and the United States is estimated to be greater than
enforced. 30 billion pounds. The U.S. fishing fleet is mixed
in quality-partly antiquated, such as the New
England ground fish fleet, and partly modern, as
F. Great Lakes Restoration the West Coast tuna fleet and parts of the Gulf
The major problem faced by the Great Lakes is Coast shrimp fleet. ,
aging (cutrophication) accelerated by water pollu- Fishermen spend an average of half of their
tion leading to: total time at sea hunting fish, and in some fisheries
considerably more. Nevertheless, government ef-
forts to assist the industry have given greater
-Over-enrichment of the Lakes emphasis on biological science, and less on search,
-Build up of dissolved and suspended solids in the location, and harvesting technology development.
Lakes Freshwater aquaculture of catfish and trout and
estuarine aquaculture of oysters are examples of
-Oxygen depletion of the Lakesand tributaries successful local U.S. industries with good growth
potential. A strong market exists in the United
Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and southern Lake States for quality sea food products many of
Michigan are in the worst condition of the five which are adaptable to aquaculture. Open sea
Great Lakes, but none is beyond restoration. aquaculture, however, does not yet exist commer-
Technology can reverse the aging process. Pollu- cially.

V1_11

Recommendations: operation. Mainly because of power, requirements
19. Fisheries production technology should be exploration and production wells will continue to
developed through greater emphasis on engineering be drilled from the surface. An increasing number
to permit U.S. fishermen to supply a much . greater of production wells and fields will be completed
fraction of the domestic market. An expanded beneath the surface, making increasing use of
program should be undertaken to improve vessels, acoustically controlled undersea equipment.
fish catching gear, and methods. Laws governing Technology has so advanced that specially
fisheries management should focus on controlling designed barges can weld, X-ray, externally coat,
the total catch rather than restricting the use of and lay pipelines. Five thousand miles of pipe,
improved equipment and harvesting methods. For from small 2-inch flow lines to 26-inch trunk lines,
overfished stocks, emphasis should be placed on now traverse the floor of the Gulf of Mexico. To
technical support of biological research and on date, pipe laying has been Iiiiiited to 340 feet in
modification of existing fishing equipment for use medium diameter (12 inch) pipe and 100 feet in
in other fisheries. For stocks not in danger of large diameter (48 inch) pipe.
depletion, efforts'should be concentrated on gear Major oil spills from tankers have been a costly
development, vessel design, survey, and fish loca- hazard, in some cases disastrous and causing
tion technology. A substantial share of the pro- international repercussions. Even such lesser oil
gram budget should be used for contract studies discharges as cleaning tanks or pumping bilges on
by industry and private institutions. the high seas have detrimental effects on beaches
and coastlines.
20. The U.S. Government should sponsor contin-
uing surveys of promising coastal and distant Recommendations:
fishery resources, including sport fisheries, to 22. A mechanism should be established to ensure
determine the potential of under-utifized species, optimum information exchange between the U.S.
to provide information for fish location and Government and the petroleum industry.
harvesting equipment design applicable to these
species, and to support negotiation of inter- 23. Results of such Government undersea tech-
national fisheries agreements and treaties. nology programs as biomedicine to support ad-
vanced diving, fundamental undersea technology,
21. The promise of aquaculture should be pursued and reconnaissance mapping and charting should
with such development efforts as selective breed- be available to the petroleum industry to help
ing, control of temperature and nutrients, and expand operations to deeper water and reduce
containment techniques. Aquaculture projects operation risks and costs. Technology efforts
should be established, in existing laboratories should be expanded to improve Government serv-
where feasible, to emphasize engineering appli- ices in environmental prediction and modification,
cable to freshwater, nearshore, and open sea particularly regarding hurricanes and sediment
systems. behavior and transport.

2. Oil and Gas 24. The government must ensure development of
Offshore oil and gas industry initiative has improved methods to minimize the possibility of
developed a major nongovernmental marine sci- oil spills, optimize clean-up measures, and identify
ence and engineering program. Much of the result- the responsible polluters. Contingency plans
ant technology will be applicable to future should be prepared to permit immediate action to
contain and clean up major oil spills.
Government and other industry ocean programs.
Offshore production continues to move into 3. Chemical Extraction and Desalination
progressively greater depths. During 1969, explora-
tory drilling is expected in water depths of 1,300 Magnesium metal, magnesium compounds, and
feet and production established in as deep water as bron-dne are extracted from sea water commer-
400 feet. Within 10 years, such systems as remote cially, supplying 90, 34, and 50 per cent respec-
control undersea core drilling rigs may be in tively of the U.S. market. Desalination effluents

VI-12

and high @ concentration anomalies, such as the Red- 4. Ocean Mining
Sea hot spots, may make it practical to extract
other. elements of even lower average concentra- . Solid minerals exist in.the form of deposit 's on
tions. Worldwide, salt is the most important Ahe seafloor and within the bedrock. In each cate-
product-extracted, with almost 30 per cent of the, gory the resources are extremely diverse in nature,
total world production being derived from sea and value. Bottom deposits. include shells, sand,
water. phosphorite and manganese nodules, and gold and
Desalination processes can be used for multiple tin placers. Bedrock deposits include coal, sulphur,
purposes including the conversion of sea water and and iron ores. Technology for exploration and
brackish water and for purification of polluted recovery of each is substantially different.
water. No single process is optimum for the The only mineral recovery operations on the
divergent types of input water and output quan- U.S. Continental Shelf are sand, gravel, and oyster
tity and quality needed. Energy and capital invest- she.11 dredging plus sulfur extraction. Deep ocean
.ment costs dominate the economics of desalted manganese nodules are known to contain substan-
water. tial concentrations of nickel, copper, and cobalt.
The technology for commercial nodule mining,
however, has not yet been demonstrated. Future
Recommendations: ocean mining may require submersible exploration
25. The present program to devel alternate vehicles and dredges; seafloor production, boring,
op and drilling rigs; ocean accessible installations
desalting methods for differing applications should
. j@ the bedrock; and high capacity vertical and hori-
be expanded. Attention should be given to new zontal transport systems.
chemical extraction technology which can be used
with concentrated brines.
Recommendation:
28. Although the worldwide supply of land based
26. The U.S. Government's prime objective in its
saline water program should continue to be the mineral resources may be sufficient to the year
advancement of desalting technology, in contrast 2000, it is essential for U.S. industry to make an
to the business of supplying water. The fial step early start in offshore exploration and production.
in developing promising new_ or improved pro- To delineate offshore mineral reserves and provide
cesses should be based on two major approaches, the fundamental technology for future growth, the
U S Government should establish a program to (1)
both in cooperation with private industry: (1). *e*are and publish reconnaissance scale bathy-
sponsorship of construction and operation of Pr P
prototype or dern .onstration plants and (2) partici- metric- geophysical, and geological maps of U.S.
pation with water supply agencies in constructing ConQntal Shelves and deeper areas, (2) establish
favorable legal, political, and econormic incen6ves7
and operating such plants. Thus, State, municipal,
and private water supply agencies would have an to encourage industry to delineate further exploit-
opportunity to utilize new desalting technology in able deposits and develop its own extraction
a first-of-a-kind plant wherein the risk is shared technology, and (3) cooperate in developing un-
through Government financial support. dersea mineral exploration devices emphasizing
more rapid geophysical exploration tools and
unproved deposit sampling equipment.
27. The Government's desalination research and
development program should be balanced to de-
velop techniques to supply large-scale regional 5. Power Generation
water needs, including metropolitan coastal facili-
ties and ultimately agriculture; to develop more Tides, waves, currents, and thermal differences
reliable and efficient small plants for beachfront are theoretically feasible sources of power in
hotels and islands and for small inland communi- certain locations. Although some developments
ties which must make use of brackish or polluted show promise, as yet no plant in the world -is
water supplies; and to develop systems to permit profitably generating power from these sources.
industrial and municipal re-use of waste water. Principal use of the sea in power generation

VI-13

probably will continue to be for dissipating. waste would . permit later construction of relatively.
heat from fossil or, nuclear fueled power plants. small (5,000 to .10,000 kw) power sources to
-support undersea operations. -A possible subse-
Recommendation: quent development would be.,huge, stationary.
29. The Atomic Energy Commission and the new electric generating facilities fthousandsW mega
oceanic agency in cooperation with private indus- watts). Such large- facilities will become increas-
try -should sponsor development and construction ingly important- as coastal landt grows scarce and
of an experimental continental shelf submerged" expensive and -as it becomes necessary -to shift
nuclear power plant. The technology developed thermal pollution loads from the nearshore areas.

VI-14

Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Technology DevelopMent

This chapter presents a number'6f important tionship of the civilian and military' sectors of
non-technical aspects that will influence the course society has problems relating to planning, informa-
of marine technology in the United States. These tion exchange, and security classification. Ocean
include (1) 'opportunities for the future, (2) activities will stimulate new international relation-
it.nportance, urgency, and rationale for U.S. leader- ships; they can benefit this Nation and others.
ship, (3) trends influencing marine development, Current law of the sea relates only to the
(4) interrelationships among economic segments, ocean's surface. Inevitable technological progress
(5) interrelationships of technical influences, and will compel new legal codes when present surface-
.(6) influence of technology on the law of.the sea. oriented laws fail to satisfy the needs of the
Experience shows that forecasts of the near undersea *activities.
future tend to be overly opthnistic: and forecasts The rise and fall of great nations has invariably
of the far future lack boldness. A look at the included a period of territorial expansion and
distant future and the benefits of a national ocean acquisition. Nations failing to extend frontiers
program envisions communities working and living often fell victim to neighbors who pursued policies
in the oceans. of expansion. The United States originated with
The importance, urgency, and rationale for U.S. 13 colonies on the Eastern seaboard and through
leadership in ocean science and technology require purchase and settlement spread the American
that a national program be pursued vigorously. culture from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Although timing is critical, a crash program is not Except Antarctica, no important land area today
needed. The complexities of the undersea frontier remains for peaceful expansion and settlement.
require a modem store of knowledge for o pera- Overpopulation and undernourishment are rapidly
tions both on the continental shelves and in the becoming a specter of the future, and man will
deep oceans. In the progress to the shelves and turn to the sea for additional nourishment, mate-
the deep, science and technology will be con- rial resources, and perhaps living space. Future
stantly challenged. Well conceived and executed generations may dwell on continental shelves,
endeavors in science and technology have proved going ashore only to market the products of their
worthwhile in the past. National security, water undersea community and to procure items not
pollution, and international affairs are important available in the ocean. Atlantis may become not a
motives for U.S. leadership. myth of the past but a civilization of the future.
Several influences strongly pressure the Na- Complete, well planned exploration and inten-
tion's advancement into the waters of the conti- sive utilization are needed to establish firmly this
nental shelves and deep ocean. Just to maintain, new frontier. The United States should proceed
nonetheless to improve, living standards of an now with this planet's final peaceful expansion.
increasing world population requires progressively
more food, shelter, water, energy, and recreational
resources. National needs include areas for further 1. OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE FUTURE
peaceful expansion, new opportunities to earn
profits and establish new tax bases, reliable mili- The engineering and technology program rec-
tary security, and means for assisting developing ommended is aimed principally at opening the
nations to become self-supporting. undersea frontier. Particularly important is the
. Although not always distinctly defined, science, element of economical and continuous access,
engineering, and technology have interrelations with strong emphasis on reducing the costs of
essential to the national program, and they require at-sea operations to make ocean resources more
reinforcement. There is an important interrelation- available.
ship among the government, industry, and aca- From the first, the Commission was directed to
demic communities which requires an exchange of pioneer, experiment, and look to the future. Its
information and skilled personnel. The interrela- mandate was to outline activity for the foreseeable

VI-15

future and to give guidance to the U.S. Govern- placement of heat generating operations at sea
ment. where adequate cooling capacity is available. Mov-
Fulfillment. of technological potentials is a ing large stationary power plants to sea will free
difficult task. It is hoped that the following two high value urban land for other use.
mission objectives will provide the guidelines to During this same period the knowledge will be
achievement. The United States should develop acquired upon which to establish reasonable water
the technological base and capability: quality standards satisfying both commercial and
recreational interests. Beaches once closed because
-within 10 years.to occupy the U.S. territorial of pollution may be reopened, and coastal engi-
sea, utilize the U.S. Continental Shelf and slope to neering technology will be available to restore
depths of 2,000 feet, and explore the ocean depths damaged beaches, construct artificial islands, and
to 20,000 feet. otherwise enhance the usefulness of coastal lands.
Improved technology will benefit greatly scien-
-within 30 years to manage the U.S. Continental tific effort, perhaps allowing basic discoveries to
Shelf and slope to depths of 2,000 feet and utilize be made that will profoundly affect the future.
th e ocean depths to 20,000 feet. The scientist will have convenient and economical
access to entire oceans.
The two objectives are interrelated. The first Finally, the stage will be set for a new period of
provides the improved understanding and capabil- 21 st century seapower, a period characterized not
ity basic to ocean systems development. The only by a powerful Navy in the military sense, but
second, during the period 1980 to 2000, visualizes an internationally strong-and respected Nation. If
extensive use of new techniques on U.S. Conti- the Nation accepts the - challenge of this report,
nental Shelf areas. In the deep oceans development there will be established an increased opportunity
of long-term operating capability will be stimu- to solve some of the difficult social problems of
lated by needs formulated from exploration. population, poverty, and malnutrition. The United
By the year 2000, colonies on the sea floor will States should lead in meeting the challenge of the
be commonplace because industries will operate undersea frontier.
profitably at sea and people will be there to
support them. It is not difficult to conceive of fish 11. IMPORTANCE, URGENCY, AND RATION-
harvesting systems or perhaps open water aquacul- ALE FOR U.S. LEADERSHIP
ture. Much of the offshore oil and gas industry will
be operating completely submerged, and very There is little question that mankind eventually
possibly mining will have overcome ocean exploi- will make massive use of the oceans for natural
tation problems. Chemical processing plants may resources, transportation, recreation, and national
well find deeper ocean conditions compatible with security. A well-conceived program is needed-a
the needs of high pressure processes. national program that is thoughtfully scheduled,
Although it may be easy to overestimate carefully executed, and wisely balanced with
near-term progress, it is equally easy to under- other national interests. The rate at which man
estimate the long term potential. By the year becomes economically involved with the oceans
2000, the U.S. industry with the highest sales may be debated, but the need for his involvement
volume, employment, and earnings may well be is a certainty. The United States must learn
one intimately associated with the oceans. to court the oceans, eliciting responses which
Beyond the economic considerations of a com- reinforce the material, aesthetic, and social ends
mitment to the oceans, there are tremendous the Nation is striving to achieve.
social, political, scientific, and military implica- Offshore oil has demonstrated its viability. With
tions for the 1980-2000 period. Water pollution initial success, the industry can look forward
can be checked; water quality restoration-initially confidently, and an increasing industry contribu-
in fresh water areas and later in coastal regions- tion to the economy can be expected. Although
will have a firm beginning. Although during this the world supply of mineral resources on land
period the problem of thermal pollution will appears generally sufficient to the year 2000,
become fully apparent, technology will permit leadtimes require an early start. Offshore explora-

VI-16

tion and pilot production are required to delineate more ocean resources to be harvested econorni-
the more accessible reserves and to develop the cally.
technology base to meet accelerating needs. A stable and predictable legal environment will
Gradually ocean industries collectively will geri- be required. Technology should be considered in
erate a larger and larger fraction of the gross framing laws to ensure their enforceability and
national product and will help the United States realistic applicability to prospective activities. The
maintain its competitive position in the world latter quality is particularly important because
marketplace. It is easier and cheaper to maintain a development and utilization of ocean resources
position of leadership than to regain lost initiative. involve major capital investment.
More intelligent stewardship of resources will In some cases, the most valuable assistance the
be required as utilization of the oceans increases. United States can give less advanced nations is the
This implies improved knowledge, best achieved technological knowhow to develop their own
through an aggressive basic marine science pro- industry. Technology can be expanded to support
gram. Improved scientific understanding of the profitable ocean exploitation and meaningful in-
oceans also is needed to support a continuing ternational scientific programs.
advance in technology, to make longer-term National security is much more than classic
weather predictions, to realize food production military might-submarines, missiles, aircraft car-
potentials, and to determine future military useful- riers, and destroyers. In its broadest sense, it is the
ness. Science has returned dividends in the past, action a nation must take to maintain its position
and will in the future. in world affairs. The United States does not and
Now is the time to reverse the trend of should not fulfill all its needs from resources
degradation of the environment. Beaches have within its boundaries. More than 98 per cent of
been closed on Lake Erie; ocean beaches have been U.S. international commerce is carried by ships.
rendered useless by oil slicks; oyster beds have Control to assure free use of the seas is basic to
been condemned; and city water front areas have national security. But such control of the sea is
been blighted by raw sewage and chemicals relative, not absolute, applying equally to friend
dumped into harbors. Technology should be ex- and foe.
tended so these problems can be solved econorni- Seapower is best built on a sound base of
cally. industrial and commercial ocean development,
The state-of-the-art is such that it is possible to providing knowledge and trained manpower for
consider a law requiring municipal and industrial times of military need. This emphasis would
intakes to be installed downstream from their minimize Navy expenditures for in-house develop-
outfalls, in effect putting the water user in the ment, yet would provide a viable foundation for
same position as others downstream. There is no the future. The Navy must keep informed con-
reason why a user cannot return water of a quality stantly of non-military ocean activity. Its develop-
equal to that which he takes from a stream. ment program should emphasize long range items
The world's richest Nation need not live in its necessary to national security, such as deep sub-
own filth, but should set an example by directly mergence systems, which do not now attract a
facing these problems rather than leaving greater large amount of commercial activity.
problems to future generations. The technology
should be developed to eliminate the economic Ill. TRENDS INFLUENCING MARINE DEVEL-
penalty of waste treatment, making it possible for OPMENT
many activities to profit by reprocessing wastes
into marketable products. This quantitative bene- The marine environment will become increas-
fit would be in addition to the qualitative values ingly important, and national interest in and
of beauty, clean water, and recreation. emphasis on the exploration and utilization of the
The net effect of modern communication and undersea frontier will increase accordingly. Effec-
transportation has been to deny the oceans their tive planning of technology development must be
historic role as natural barriers. Interaction be- based on estimates of future trends and needs
tween nations will increase as technology allows induced by both natural and man-made influences.

VI-17
333-091 0-69-6

Barring 4 major war, world requirements for 'such more leisure time. These will accelerate the need
basics as: water, food, housing, and energy can be for additional coastal recreation areas.
estimatedr-easonably well to the year. 2000._, Impairment'of activitlesby' pollution will be-
However, it is . difficult to make. long'-r'?L'nge come more obvious and Will motivate incre a*sed
projections of such qualitative factorsa's consumer program s of abatement, enforcement, and restora-
tastes, political and legal arrangements and eco- tion. Pollution, like inflation, goes relatively un-
nomic progress. It is essentially today's technology heeded for a time but has enormous long term
that will be employed to meet such requirements implications. Before the end of the century, a
during the next 10 years. Beyond that period significant amount of national energy must be
planning becomes more difficult because of the directed to protecting and enhancing the environ-
unpredictability of technological advancements, ment.
especially real breakthroughs. Yet, when national Technological knowhow incorporated in most
interests -have dictated the 'need for both adequate U.S. products gives the United States a great
funding and high priority emphasis, solutions to advantage in the world market. To retain this
difficult technological problems have been more advantage the United States must commit itself to
rapid than most conceptual planners visualized. the development of the technology needed to
Technology can provide a better way of fife. A open the undersea frontier as a new source of
higher standard of living for a doubled world products and materials.
population in the year 2000 will require more than
twice the power, fresh water, and ra w materials
consumed today. The material demands of higher IV. INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG PARTIC-
ULAR SEGMENTS
living standards are vividly illustrated by the fact
that the United Staf@@s with five per cent of the Technology development must be accomplished
World's population consumes -almost half the in a realistic environment subject to economic,
power and raw materials produced by the entire social, political, scientific, international, and mili-
world. So that the United States cannot be tary pressures. Decisions on program activity
accused of taking a disproportionate share of -
should be preceded by objective discussions care-
World' resources, it is prudent to encourage 4evel-
fully weighing technical and policy features. Im-
o.pment of technology for new offshore.petro- portant areas of interrelationship have been iden-
leum, mineral, food, and other resources, in effect tified among economic segments: (1) government -
greatly expanding the world resource Ibase. industry - academic, (2) civilian - military, and (3)
For the near term, national security will be the relationships among nations.
most compelling influence forcing advancement of
marine technology. However, offshore petroleum A. Govern ment-I ndustry-Acade .mic
expenditures are growing more rapidly than de-
fense expenditures. A large portion of the effort Goverment's traditional role in industrial de-
will have both civilian and military application, velopment has been to provide protection for
suggesting a need for strong cooperation between business investments and information of a scien-
the two. tific or,technical nature. The State Department,
The quest for ,wealth and profit,,will help De@aitmerit of De&nse,"U.S.'Coast Guard Depart-
t I dva
advance marine echno,ogy., A nced technology ment pff6ifinterio1r, and the U.S. Patent Office
will. provide. the key to, more economic utilization pioivide protection f6'r ma'
rine industries in many
of the undersea environment. Such assets of,the forms: physical survey data pertinent to mineral
sea as buoyancy, sound transimission,' and a limit- deposits, general environmental information, and
less heat sink will influence technological develop- statistical data.
ment. Protection of business investments is of particu-
Technology development has,,allowe.d concur- lar concern to those industries interested in ex-
rent achievement of a shorter work week and a ploiting the'continental shelves. Because explora-
higher standard of living. As this trend continues, tion and survey information must precede
Americans will earn higher disposable incomes and exploitation of the shelves, broad surveys of the

V1-18

shelves must be given high priority in any-national components technically- advanced to maintain a
ocean program. Legal rights of industries operating competitive position - and (2) applying technical
on the continental shelves are particularly vague. skills and experience to solving known military
Conflicts over jurisdiction among individuals, problems. Military technology developments often.
States, and- the U.S. Government and between the are applicable -to civilian -endeavors.
United States and foreign nations over sovereignty Often a simple solution to a technical problem.
on the shelf have created a climate* of legal can open the door to major systems applications.
uncertainty hindering private investment and tech- However, because of security classification, ad-
nological development. vances in, the state-ofmthe-art can be withheld from
Various agencies of the U.S. Government have other potential users. Overclassification unneces-
programs in ocean research and development. In sarily slows communications and can cause unin-
particular the Navy has recently increased its lentional duplication of effort when civilian indus-
efforts through establishment of the Deep Submer- try is not apprised of military developments.
gence Systems Project and the Deep Ocean Tech- Devising means of transferring technology and
nology Program. The Sea Grant Program, under bringing about utilization of that technology for
way in 1968, is expanding Federal Government purposes other than those for which it was
support of applied marine sciences. developed have become activities of national im-
The present relationship among the govern- portance requiring continued high level attention.
ment, industry, and academic world in marine The transfer. problem can occur within either the
programs needs strengthening., Expanding interests civilian or military sector as well as between them.
-of industry in the ocean environment and the Research and development in the marine sci-
importance of these interests to the economic ences constitutes a rapidly increasing and relatively
well-being of the United -States argue for a strong unexploited resource. Effective transfer of tech-
non-military Government ocean services program nology carr increase the rate of economic growth,
and a guarantee of offshore protection. Govern- create new employment opportunities, and aid the
ment-sponsored technology development efforts international competitive position of American
should emphasize improved and less costly industry.
methods, thereby enabling ocean industries to Furthermore, technology is a tool that the
operate'profitably and also provide increased tax United States can use to aid other nations -striving
revenues. to improve their standards of living. Ocean tech-
Fundamental technology development cannot nology is particularly suitable to technology trans-
be effective without close coordination with the fer. First, marine activities are global in perspec-
industrial and academic sectors. A continuing tive and application. The Gulf Stream that washes
mechanism should be @ established, through which Florida shores eventually influences the climate
the industrial, financial, and academic commu- and ecology of England, Norway, and the North
nities readily can advise on marine science, engi-. Sea. Second, marine problems are relatively new to
neering" and technology. Advice is needed in the community of advanced science and engineer-
ftindamental technology, facilities, manpower, and ing, and few institutional barriers have been
national goals and projects. More specifically, a erected.
relationship similar to that which existed between Traditional means of transferring technology
the National Advisory Comrriittee for Aeronautics include the movement of knowledgeable people
.(NACA) and its advisory panels @ -would be de- and technical literature coupled with the normal
sirable. activities of libraries, technical journals, profes-
sional symposiums, corporations, and govern-
B. Civil ian-Military- ments. These are key activities, but because of the
extreme technical diversity of the oceans and the
Effective civilian-military interchange of tech- large numbers of present and potential users of
nology is obviously useful to both parties. Inde- marine data, more is needed. It is necessary to
pendent research and development programs con- construct and implement channels of distribution
-ducted by. defense contractors normally have two and methods of retrieval of these technical data,
objectives: (1) keeping a company's products and particularly from government to industrial users.

VI-19

A special problem exists with small business As a basis for harmonious international marine
which historically has had difficulty obtaining exploration and resource development, certain
security clearances and need-to-know on classified premises should underlie national- policies and
programs. Small companies often lack general programs. Excellence, experience-, and capabilities
knowledge of information sources of the Federal in marine science and technology exist in several
Government. Progressive companies prepare unso- nations and cooperation can be beneficial to the
licited proposals to demonstrate their expertise. United States.
However, unless industry is aware of project needs, In the development of ocean resources, major
time and money may be wasted in submitting capital investments must be protected.- Uncertain-
proposals for duplicative efforts. ties in -interpretation and application of existing
. The U.S. Government role in technology trans- international law may result in conflicts between
fer must be based on (1) a positive policy that the nationsi particularly with regard to the width of
release of marine science and technology is a teff itorial seas, rights of innocent passage, and the
legitimate function . and (2) an implementation of exploitation of ocean resources. A legal framework
the policy in the agencies concerned with funda- is required to prevent conflicts and to preserve the
mental technology, ocean exploration and survey, traditional freedom of the sea.
and ocean services. For example, the National U.S. marine technology developments should
Aeronautics and Space Administration has accom- consider both international competition and coop-
plished the transfer of technical data by establish- eration. Where consistent with the national inter-
ing technology utilization officers at its various est, programs should encourage increased coopera-
activities, placing responsibility in an identifiable tion and data exchange among ocean scientists and
office or individual. However, great care must be engineers of all nations. The U.S. should consider
taken in the treatment of patentable data to assure advanced marine technology as a prime export
an incentive through ownership for the developer product and as a foreign aid tool to assist
who risks funds in furthering his invention. developing countries to strengthen their capabili-
The Navy, role in dissemination of technical ties for using the ocean and its resources as a
data is particularly important because of the means to economic progress. The International
magnitude of its ocean research and development Panel proposes an international framework for
program. It should be recognized that, there are ocean exploration in its report.
penalties to both under- and over-classification.
What is most needed is a consistent'classification V. TECHNICAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS
policy directed toward optimizing the technical
and military superiority of the United States. In addition to economic, social, political, inter-
Since only the Navy can judge the implications of national, and military pressures, interrelated tech-
its data, it must carry out this function with the nical areas also influence marine technology devel-
utmost care. opment. Included are those among science,
engineering, and technology and those between
C. Relationships Among Nations outerspace and hydrospace development.
From the earliest times the oceans have SUP- A. Science- Engineering-Technology
ported bonds of commerce and culture. However,
historic relationships are changing, accelerated by Using modern technology, man can explore and
advances in marine technologyj enabling nations to understand increasingly greater portions of the
conduct activities farther from home and in deeper marine environment. Improvements in technology
water. Multinational communication is necessary lead to an ability to monitor, measure, and predict
to the beneficial utilization of the sea because of environmental phenomena more accurately. De-
the international character of marine science, the signs for,and operations of such complex undersea
sheer magnitude of the unexplored undersea fron- military systems as those employed in an anti-
tier, and the free use tradition of open ocean areas. submarine warfare and undersea command and
The size, complexity, and variability of the marine control are dominated by acoustical conditions. In
environment emphasize the importance of interna- fact, almost all undersea activities are heavily
tional cooperation. influenced by environmental considerations.

VI-20

A great scientific effort is needed. There should solutions to problems. Aerospace talents and
be close interaction of the scientist with. the philosophy of approach can and are being applied
engineer to facilitate, the effort. The overall devel- to ocean problems, especially in fundamental
opment of marine science has suffered from the technology, systems engineering, and systems man-
lack of communication between the two, and the agement. Although many problems such as navi-
present relative paucity of knowledge stems in gation and communication have technical similari-
large measure from the past lack of adequate ties, actual hardware solutions are often very
equipment. Essential in studying or exploiting the different.
ocean for any purpose are the necessary tools. Operational designs cannot be assessed without
Despite the need for improved marine engineering environmental data. Instrumentation, sensor, re-
and technology support, engineering institutions cording, storing, and processing systems are essen-
have not emphasized problems of the oceans. tial for environmental profiling. For example,
Oceanographic research operations are costly in determining effects of marine life on acoustical
terms of manpower, especially considering the properties requires special marine test equipment.
limited number of oceanographers. In 1966, the Bottom bearing strength, shear and plastic flow
United States graduated only 24 doctorate level strength, core samples, turbidity susceptibility,
oceanographers compared to 100 for the Soviets. bottom stability, and seismic activity data are
Since manpower resources are liniited, improved needed to establish design criteria. Space instru-
tools and equipment should be emphasized. Both mentation cannot serve these needs. Also, space
parties, the scientist and engineer, are responsible simulation facilities which emphasize low pressures
for better cooperation in the future. have little application to the high pressure needs of
Insufficient funds allocated to scientific proj- hydrospace.
ects have generally made impossible improved Aerospace power source needs have brought
engineering support. It is probable that the scien- fuel cells out of the research laboratory and
tist will demand the better tools and equipment transformed them into practical devices. They
technology can provide. This is underscored by the have advanced considerably the state-of-the-art
fact that scientists at the Woods Hole Oceano- and have provided impetus to the fuel cell industry
graphic Institution waited in an almost endless line for lower cost construction, standard sizes, and
to use the Alvin submersible. mass production techniques. These advancements
The science-engineering interaction also works have provided a technological base from which
the other way. Although Sir John Baker may have development of undersea power systems can pro-
been correct when he said, "Science earns no ceed at a greatly reduced cost. However, special-
dividends until it has been through the mills of ized development is still necessary to adapt this
technology," development of new technology of- basic development to the marine environment.
ten waits for scientific breakthroughs. For ex- Aerospace technology has contributed struc-
ample, aquaculture will benefit from scientific tural design techniques, high strength-to-weight
advances in fish genetics. Deep sea nodule mining metals, and composite structures. This technology
will benefit from understanding the ocean mineral has been applied to design and fabrication of
precipitation process. submersible pressure hulls and hard tanks, outer
hull or fairing structures, and flotation spheres.
B. Outerspace-Hydrospace Advanced pressure hull design entails the use of
detail stress analysis, shell buckling theory, and
Much has been said about the fallout of space experimental stress analysis techniques largely
technology applicable to the ocean environment. developed in the aerospace industry. Rocket
Meteorological satellites continuously observing motor technology involving flaw detection, alloy-
global weather patterns obtain critical forecasting ing, and processing of materials has been used in
data from unpopulated oceanic regions. Communi- development work for deep submersibles.
cations satellites have spanned vast ocean areas. Titanium is an example of a high-strength metal
Unfortunately, observations are limited to developed by the aerospace industry, but it re-
ocean surface features. The totally different sub- quires substantial modification before application
surface environment usually means totally new to deep ocean vehicles. Space technology has not

VI-21

concerned itself with the.unique ocean needs of guidance system from the Polaris program in the
resistance to stress corrosion and crack propaga- Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle.
tion. Fabrication and welding techniques for thick A parallel is readily appirent between space and
sections, critical to deep submergence programs, undersea life support requirements. Work in sub-
have not been an aerospace requirement. marine non-regenerable life support systems served
- Deep ocean vehicles are limited in pressure hull as the basis for the original systems for spacecraft,
volume, requiring many electrical components resulting in advanced non-regenerable systems.
mounted externally. Those retained inside the This knowledge is now being used to_ provide
pressure hull must conform to strict requirements sophisticated life support systems for small, deep
on heat generation, size, weight, and electro- submersibles with comparable volume and power
magnetic interference. Aerospace technology in limitations.
the areas of solid-state devices and switches, Space technology can contribute little to the
miniaturization and packaging design, circuit de- special certification requirements and procedures
sign, and reduction of interference effects. is needed for undersea vehicle pressure huff mate-*
applicable to ocean vehicle problems. However, rials,. hard tank structure, penetration fittings, and.
space technology does not provide answers to such piping. However, common safety requirements
electrical system requirements as penetration of exist for crew protection from toxic fumes, fire,
pressure,hulls and water-tight electrical connectors. smoke, and atmospheric contaminants.
Frequently, aerospace-developed hydraulic Indeed, aerospace technology has been useful in
pumps, motors, and valves have been utilized solving ocean systems problems. However, the
directly off-the-shelf, but, usually these have been degree of applicability should not be over stressed
unreliable in the undersea environment' , Aerospace since -once the undersea environment is penetrated,
technology has led to advances in viscosity index, new technological solutions are usually needed.
oxidation and corrosion inhibition, long term
storage, and high and low temperature characteris-
tics bearing on the successful application of VI. INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON,THE ,
hydraulics to marine systems. However, there are LAW OF THE SEA
no hydraulic systems or qualified hydraulic fluids
currently functioning at high pressures up to the Although the trends and relationships discussed
16,500 psi required for deep ocean systems. above will affect technology development, prob-
Reliable communications is critical to effective ably the reverse will be true in the law of the sea.
diver and submersible operations. Unlike radio and Society tends to move as an organic whole and the
telemetry methods and equipment available world- advancement of technology is inevitable.
wide for surface communications, undersea op- Laws must be tailored to the needs of society
erations depend upon acoustics and cables as. the and to the technology which is integral to their
primary means of information transfer. Under- enforcement. The technology of the sea will
water sound transmission suffers from refraction, undergo drastic change and that change has barely
attenuation, and limitations of spectral range. begun. Saturation diving, submersible vehicles, and
For rendezvous and mating of submerged vehi- undersea habitation will become commonplace.
cles, six degrees of freedom are involved, just as for The essence of the change will be the replacement
a Gemini-Agena docking. However, an additional of present ocean surface technology with totally
complication under water is variable ocean cur- submerged technology.
rents. Controllers have been developed from les- There will be critical problems to solve, but
sons learned in aircraft and spacecraft to provide when they are solved, the ability to work in the
submersible pilots with controls for rotation in subsea environment will become increasingly easy.
pitch, roll, and yaw and translation in surge, sway, In the undersea area, law must respond to a
and heave. Aerospace technology has led to the rapidly developing technology. The law will be
use of a modified computer and a modified inertial greatly challenged to keep pace.

VI-22

Chapter 4 Organization

The following ideas on organization represent date all U.S. Government activities associated with
the input to. the Commission from its Panel on the oceans into one organization. Rather, it is
Marine Engineering and Technology. An effort has necessary to take advantage of the competence
been made to emphasize only comments that that presently exists and to selectively cluster
relate to the organizational needs to promote and where appropriate to provide additional strength.
encourage progress in marine engineering and Regardless of the amount of clustering, the Navy
technology. However, it is recognized that several should remain separate to support its military
thoughts would affect much broader areas of obligations. In the civilian sector several organiza-
future marine programs. tions have limited interests in the ocean and
therefore could not fit logically into a single
1. NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE civilian marine agency.
Overall national management of ocean resource 'The@ panel feels two basic principles must be
satisfied to respond to the diverse character of
development and the related supportmig marine marine activities and the critical need for advanced
engineering and technology need strengthening. technology to support future activities. First, a
Because of the decentralized character of ocean mechanism in Iust be established to provide national
activities, the important contributions of the erspective and guidance to the Nation's engineer-
States and regions, private enterprise, and the F
academic community must be recognized. These ing and technology efforts. Second, recognition
complement the well-established role of the U.S. must be made of the necessity of continual.
Government. ad .ditions to fundamental technology. This latter
principle leads to the importance of assuring that
To date major Government contributions in ftinds to support fundamental technology develop-
marine engineering and technology have come ment are adequately distinguished from agency
from the Navy, chiefly because of its requirements general operating funds so that a steady and
for knowledge and skills associated with the continuing fundamental technology program can
oceans. However, the past two decades have seen be assured without interruption.
efforts of the private sector, led in this area by
the petroleum industry, expand such that their
expenditures are greatly in excess of non-military B. National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
Government efforts. (NACO)
The need for national participation as opposed
to a predominantly Government approach to It is essential that a mechanism be established
marine programs became clearly apparent during that can ensure orderly development and execution
the panel's investigations. The States and regions, of a national ocean program. Such a mechanism
private enterprise, the academic community, and should be responsible for providing advice on the
the U.S. Government all have vital roles to play. planning and coordination of a national program
These roles can be responsive and coordinated including ocean science, technology, environ-
only if they are provided with a, means for mental services, and ocean resource development.
cooperative long-range planning and National guid- It would be concerned, with the marine programs
ance. of all U.S. Government agencies, States and
regions, private enterprise, and the academic com-
11. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUC- munity and would provide a continuing statutory
TURE means for furnishing a representative input from
A. General all sectors. Specifically, the panel recommends a
National Advisory Committee for the Oceans.
With the diverse scope of national activities in Regardless of action taken to consolidate Federal
the ocean it is unwise and impractical to consoh- Government agencies, this committee is needed.

VI-23

1. Functions -Serve, when appropriate, as a channel of com-
The panel believes the committee could most munications and a focal point in the plans and
usefully focus its advice in such areas as the arrangements for international programs.
following: -Submit to the President and the Congress an
assessment of the national ocean program, includ-
-Review and advise on updating the 10-year ing a review of the activities of the oceanic agency.
objectives of national ocean programs. The report is to be made at intervals not less
frequently than every two years.
-Assess current levels of activity in terms of ac-
complishing the 10-year objectives. -Generate pertinent activities on its own consist-
ent with its overall responsibilities.
-Identify deficiencies and recommend assignment
of responsibilities to rectify them. As can be seen from the above list, a primary
-Recommend means to eliminate unintentional function of this organization would be to advise
duplication of effort. (1) the new oceanic agency, (2) the Navy, (3) the
Army Corps of Engineers, and (4) other U.S.
-Review and offer a national perspective to the Government agencies with marine interests. Advice
plans and budget requests of the U.S. Government should be provided on such matters as funda-
agencies by taking *into account efforts outside the mental technology, facilities, manpower, National
Government. Projects, scientific investigations, and oceano-
.-Recommend lead agencies for marine programs graphic operations. The unique feature of the
having multi-agency interests, and recommend committee will be the ease of reciprocal informa-
lion transfer among the U.S. Government, States
whether specific marine programs can best . be and region Is, private enterprise, and academic
undertaken by the Navy, by the new consolidation institutions.
of appropriate existing agencies, or by an agency
not included in the civilian consolidation.
2. . Membership
-offer guidance and recommend important new
ocean programs and facilities for the overall It is recommended that this advisory c . ommittee
national program, making effective use of the consist of 15 official members representing private
competence of both private and Government enterprise, the States and regions, and the aca-
orgagizations. demic community. The chairman should be selected
-promote means for collecting, processing, and from outside the U.S. Government. In addition to
disseminating pertinent technical information. the 15 official members, U.S. Government repre-
sentatives should be designated official observers.
-Recommend an adequate level of programs and This would assure that the committee was aware of
facilities for marine education and training. the programs and problems of the U.S. Government
-Anticipate, focus attention on, discuss, and marine agencies. All members would be appointed
by the President with the advice and consent of
recommend the resolution of multiple-user con- the Senate and would serve fixed overlapping
flicts. terms. This committee would be supported by a
-Respond to requ Iests for advice from the Presi- full-.time executive director and appropriate staff.
Oent and U.S. Government agencies with marine The members from industry should be drawn
activities. primarily from the users of the sea such as those
engaged in the transportation, petroleum, fishing,
-Help to, ensure that the national program has mining, desalination, and recreation industries.
proper and continual visibility to State and munic- Those industries that supply hardware and services,
ipal governments, private enterprise, the academic also should be represented.
community, and especially to the Congress and the The State and region members should. be drawn
public. from the Pacific, Atlantic, Gulf Coast, and the

VI-24

Great Lakes areas. The members from the aca- B. New Civilian Ocean Agency
dernic community should be drawn from universi-
ties with ocean programs. The U.S. Government A new, adequately funded civilian oceanic
members should be chosen to represent its diverse agency should be established within the U.S.
marine interests. Government to concentrate in one agency appro-
priate civilian groups with primary roles and
3. Structure missions in the oceans.
The advisory committee should be siipple- A new civilian technology development group
mented by as many subcommittees or panels as should be created within the agency to support
might be required to deal with specific topics or fundamental technology. The fundamental tech-
nology program should be managed by this new
areas of national concern requiring specialized
knowledge. It is recommended that the parent marine technology group and should utilize when
committee form an executive board comprised of appropriate the resources and facilities of existing
agencies and the private sector.
the chairman, and one member from each of the
four groups-industry, U.S. Government, States C. Interagency Coordinating Mechanism
and regions, and the academic community-to I
expedite operations between the formal full com- To complement and support the efforts of the
mittee meetings. agency and NACO and to recognize the fact that
The advisory committee should be established many marine activities would still be located
by statute and provided with funds for its admini- outside any consolidation, it is recommended that
strative operations and for accomplishing the an interagency coordinating mechanism be estab-
ftLnctions listed above. lished and chaired by the head of the new civilian
The panel considers the formation of this agency. This mechanism would ensure the inclu-
committee a critical requirement. The recommen- sion of the interests of all Federal agencies with
dation is intended to enlist a cooperative relation- marine programs not included in the proposed
ship between all sectors of the economy and is consolidation.
characteristic of programs utilized in opening new
frontiers. Indeed, it is intended to include key D. Navy Role
characteristics of the historic programs so success- The Navy is in a position to contribute greatly
ful in developing the American railroad, agricul- to advanced marine engineering and technology
ture, and aircraft industries.
related to a national ocean program. It is recom-
mended that the Navy be given an expanded role
Ill. U.S. GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONAL recognizing the support it can provide to the
STRUCTURE national program in areas closely related to its
A. General competence, facilities, and experience.
Even with an increasing involvement of non-
To ensure optimum and continuing contribu- military users, the Navy is the logical organization
tions from the U.S. Government to the develop- to support many of the overall national needs of
ment of a national program, a stronger non- marine engineering and technology. The following
military input is needed. A new marine program statements of high ranking leaders of the Depart-
would be advanced and strengthened, if it could ment of Defense and the Office of the Secretary of
build upon a consolidation of those appropriate the Navy reinforce this conclusion:
existing agencies with primary missions and tasks
in the ocean. This consolidation would support the If national oceanographic objectives require it, the
very important new civilian technology develop- Department of Defense is willing to requestfunds
ment group and would complement the Navy deep firom Congress for work only marginally related to
submergence and ocean engineering programs. In defense needs, but for which the Department of
many cases the existing competence, facilities, and Defense is in the best position to manage because
experience of the Navy should be drawn upon to of technical skills, facilities, or organization. The
support missions of national importance. direction for utilization of these funds could come

VI-25

from a non-Department of Defense organization if advantage of Navy programs in technology with
this is judged to be the best course. realistic concern for national security needs.
The Navy is proud of the role it played in leading Therefore, to capitalize on the assets of the
the revolution in oceanography and of @the indis- Navy, selected national missions should be as-
pensable support it has given so many, of the signed and adequate funds should be allocated to
programs directed 'by other federal and private the Navy.
agencies. The Navy believes that a vigorous, well IV. FOCAL POINT IN THE LEGISLATIVE
defined, and multifaceted oceanographic program BRANCH
is clearly in the national interest. It, therefore, is
prepared and expects to participate in all areas The U.S. Government's ocean program is within
where Navy experience and facilities may be of the scope of numerous committees and subcom-
value to the nation. 2 mittees of the CongreSS,4 each concerned with a
portion of the oceanographic program. Thus,
In my mind these programs (undersea technology oceanography and ocean engineering have lacked a
programs) can best be desc?ib 'ed as the develop- clear cut channel of effective communication with
ment.of technology leading toward the. occupation the Congress. Many committees of the Congress
and exploitation of the ocean bottom and the receive fragmentary information on the ocean
deep ocean. Although our primary objectives are program, usually small parts of the presentations
military exploitation, the technological knowhow of the -many departments and agencies having
developed by these programs is identical for all
3 some ocean;responsibilities and missions in addi-
types of exploitation. tion to other large responsibilities.
The above statements were used to guide the The situation is even worse regarding Congres-
Navy Deep Submergen6e/Ocean Engineering Pro- sional consideration of ocean appropriations.
gram Planning Group. This group. recommended a Ocean appropriations are a very small part of
substantial increase in the Navy undersea efforts. Defense, Commerce, Interior, AEC, and other
It is also apparent that a more fully responsive department budget requirements. Usually, no spec-
Navy contribution to the national effort in the ific ocean program is presented to the Appropria-
oceans requires: tions Committee, but when it is, the description is
di&inted.
-Establishment. within the Department of Defense
The unsatisfactory Congressional overviews of
of a strong primary military mission in undersea the ocean program probably will become worse
technology to meet present and future threats.
unless changes are made. It is necessary to create a
-A clearly-stated Navy mission to support na- Congressional committee or a Joint House-Senate
tional marine programs which will evoke the Committee for Marine Affairs to hear the entire
support of the Congress, responsible civilian lead- national program-including the parts of the
ers, and the general public. States, industry, and the academic community-as
-A recognition of the contribution which can be well as the total U.S. Government program with
made by the use of Navy capabilities in inter- emphasis on its role in the national program. The
national, economic, political, scientific, an d t ech- Congress should be asked to authorize the Govern-
' Icy "_ I @ 1 0 @1
nological fields'. ,11''' " " %'@ , ment programe I and @ endorse, the total national
r,; v;
b! _'w
-A definition, of secu ity, r auirements that,,will program.!Presentations should be made to a new
enable the civilian sector -to Aerive, miximu .oceanic. sub-cormnittee:,oU@ the @ House Appropria-
.,in
tionsCornmittee,..,,-@;--@',
Statement of the Honorable John S. Foster, Jr., Di- The reports and advice made available by the
rector of Defense Research and Engineering, Feb. 24, proposed National Advisory Committee for the
1967.
2Statement of the Honorable Paul R. Ignatius, Secre- Oceans should assist in the development of a
tarY of the Navy, to the Navy League Convention, clearer focus in the Congress.
Honolulu, April 26, 1968.
3Statement of the Honorable Robert H. B. Baldwin,
Under Secretary of the Navy, at the Fourth-U.S. Navy 4For details, see chart between pages 32 and 33 of
Symposium on Military Oceanography, Washington, D.C., hearings of House Subcommittee on Oceanography-
May 11, 1967. National Oceanographic Program, 1965, Serial No. 82-83.

VI-26

Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology

Seapower, defined by Admiral Mahan many technology to occupy...new territory. and modify
years ago, encompasses all elements contributing world. geography would give a nation, the potential
to national strength-natural resources, industrial to make valid and defensible claims -, with an
capacity, manpower, economic power, geographic excellent position to counter claims by those not
situation, and cultural status. These many.dimen- having the technology. A technology base must be
sions serve a nation in both peace and war. established for the United. States to enter the
The United States stands on the threshold of a undersea frontier.
rekindled interest in the oceans. A new age of
seapower, important to the United States and the -Economic power. New technology determines -
'world, can be achieved by technological readiness which country will be the world source of various
to utilize the sea. products. U.S. doniination.of the world aircraft
and computer markets is an excellent example;
-Cultural status. National prestige is an image of Japanese strength in fishing and shipbuilding is
strength or lack of it in the eyes of other nations. another. New industries have been created in a
This is of major concern, because (1) no nation short time by such technological breakthroughs as
wants to be a loser, (2) as a nation's prestige falls, xerography, polaroid photography, solid state elec-
other nations begin to suspect it of weakness, (3) tronics, offshore drilling, and desalination. Tech-
other nations do not want to be associated with a nology and the economics of production and
loser,.and (4) as other nations progressively with- exploration- are inseparably linked. A strong.tech-
draw their- adherence and support, the trend nology base will - likely lead -to new marine
toward becoming a loser accelerates. This is a industries.
vicious circle-strength begets strength and weak-
ness, weakness. -Manpower. An improved technology requires the
continual upgrading of the manpower necessary to
A nation's prestige or cultural status adheres fabricate, operate, and maintain the systems utiliz-
closely to the vigor of its research and technologi- ing the undersea frontier. Manpower of various
cal activities. The world community is well aware skills and interests will be required. Some will find
that today's scientific and technological strength is employment.in the actual marine environment,
the direct source of tomorrow's economic and while many more will-provide critically -needed
military strength. Space activities have illustrated support functions. that. can be accomplished only
this truth. However, activities in the marine on the land. The requisite manpower with the
environment inherently promise. far greater. eco- tools and equipment provided by technology will
nomic, military, and prestige rewards than in rapidly alter the ocean from an area of dreams to a
space. A great nation ignoring this runs the grave site of action.
risk of falling into weakness.
-Industrial capacity. Volume production can work
geographic situation. Over 70 per cent of the wonders in reducing costs. American industrial
earth is covered by water. The last major dry land capacity has met great challenges. A highly refined
frontier was discovered in 1492, when the world automobile,can be bought for less than $2,500.
population was 350 million. Today with 10 times Should it not be possible to,build a class of ex-
the population, the world is forced to turn again ploration vehicles with 20 horsepower propulsion
to the sea for new sources of food, minerals, and systems, life support, and unsophisticated com-
energy. munication electronics for $50,000 each?

In the undersea frontier, many nations with -Natural Resources. Low-cost underwater vehicles
widely divergent geographies, needs, and techno- could open a prospecting era eclipsing the-
logical capabilities are involved. Achieving Ahe California gold rush. Exploring and mapping the

VI-27

sea bottom might be accomplished in much less -the -undersea frontier and improve the U.S. world
time than now thought necessary. Support of a conipetitive position. A solid program to advance
technology base for -low-cost, reliable systems fundamental technology is needed for developing
development could hasten the exploitation of the elements and processes that- can be combined into
natural resources in the undersea frontier. useful, ocean, components, subsystems, and sys-
tems.
-Technology plateau. Much has been expressed in While an excellent base already exists-so much
the popular press about a technological plateau. so that the panel is convinced that the United
To the contrary, the panel agrees with the remarks States can achieve the goals set forth in this
by Dr. John S. Foster, Director of Defense Re- report-many categories require further develop-
search and Engineering, before Congressional hear- ment ' a lesser number require extensive effort, and
ings in early 1968: others require little advancement. This section
There is no technological plateau now nor is one concentrates on the most critical fundamental
about to be -created. @ We are convinced th at technology needs, to which the panel has assigned
research and exploratory development effort re- the following order of priority:
quires increased support during the next few years
to ensure many options-a margin of safety- -Survey equipment and instrumentation. The
against any technological challenge. Nation's most urgent needs in undersea develop-
ment are for knowledge of the ocean's living and
Dr. Foster also warned against relying too heavily non-living resources. and the technology to de-
on technical forecasting instead. of sound research termine quickly and efficiently their potential.
and exploratory development. He noted that those What is generally available must be known before
predicting the future of science have usually been it is utilized, ignored, wasted, or deeded away.
far too conservative. -Power sources. No single power source will meet
In the sections of Chapter 5 which follow, an all the power level and endurance requirements. of
assessment of the current situation and some ideas undersea tasks.. A variety of power sources is
on future marine technology needs are presented. needed.
Recommendations are made at the end of each -External machinery systems and equipment.
subdivision. In most cases, the recommendations Undersea technology will be abundantly rewarded
are those the panel would like undertaken in the by developing systems that can operate in the
near future. Longer-term recommendations reflect environment without the need for encapsulation.
judgments on potentially rewarding advanced tech-
nology not necessarily required for today's -Materials. Materials advancement can lead to
operations. large undersea payloads and more reliable ocean
The potentials discussed throughout this report subsystems and components.
are critically dependent on the discoveries and
knowhow generated by ocean science and technol- -Navigation and communications. These are prime
ogy. A substantial investment to extend and requisites to safe and successful operations on and
consolidate this fundamental knowledge promises . in the oceans.
handsome rewards in terms of sufficientresources, _Tools. Improved diver and vehicle tools are
enhanced economic vigor,.improved strategic posi- required to do useful work in the oceans.
tion, a better way of life, and a stronger national
defense. All this is the promise-the threat is that -Mooring systems, buoys, and surface support
it will be underestimated or overlooked. platforms. Surface support is used for many
undersea activities. Stable surface platforms and
1. Fundamental Technology reliable long-life buoys must be developed.
Step one in the capability development cycle -Biomedicine and diving equipment. Man can
for marine technology is base-building to establish operate in the sea safely and efficiently. only
the knowledge and. means to explore and utilize supported by a biomedical program determining

VI-28

physiological limits, medical treatments, and mini- of surveys whether they be scientific, industrial, or
mum decompression times. military-7each having special requirements. This
diversity plus the complexity, vastness, and general
-Environmental considerations. Environmental in- inaccessibility of the ocean volume make surveys,
formation is critical to the design of reliable, especially of the continental shelves and suspected
efficient, and economic equipment for use in the anomalies, a first step toward undersea utilization.
oceans.
1, Bathymetric measurement systems have been
-Data handling. Data are the product of scientific improved markedly in accuracy, speed, and con-
and exploration missions. Technology applied to venience through advancements in echo sounding.
marine data handling can vastly improve at-sea For detailed studies in deep water, however,
operations. existing systems are not adequate. Measuring and
recording profiles of the ocean bottom along
-Lifie support. Extended underwater manned op- selected courses traveled by the survey ship., plane,
erations require advanced life support systems. or satellite omits knowledge of intervening areas
that can be compensated only by increasing the
number of courses (survey lines).
ffigh endurance submersibles with side-scan
A. Survey Equipment and Instrumentation sonar and short range echo sounders offer a
method for detailed bathymetric mapping essen-
1. Survey Equipment tially independent of subsurface visibility and
surface weather. Major obstacles are the lack of
a. Current Situation Survey functions required precise navigation and limited endurance and
for undersea operations result from needs for (1) payload.
measurement and sampling of ocean and sub- Acoustic profiling with high energy sources,
bottom parameters for geophysical, chemical, and mechanical vibrators, air guns, gas exploders,
biological analysis, (2) knowledge of position, and electric arcs, and explosives can be used for deep
(3) communication of data among undersea sta- reflection and refraction work. Detailed shallow
tions, surface support locations, and onshore water geology can be defined with high resolution
centers. profiling utilizing low energy sources.
The current approach to undersea mapping For several years, general surveys of limited
involves use of surface methods almost exclusively. ocean areas (as parts of the Gulf Stream) have
Ocean surveying is limited in accuracy by the lack been conducted from aircraft. Some data are being
of precise long-range surface positioning systems. gathered on the sea surface now by weather
The advent of satellite positioning constitutes an satellites, and steps are being taken to establish
improvement, but does not approach the accuracy global surveys of the ocean surface. by satellite
required to perform undersea construction and (Figure 1). Aircraft and satellite mounted cameras,
infrared radiometers, microwave radiometers, and
geological evaluation surveys.
The same type of basic reference systems similar instruments are capable of gathering valu-
able data on ocean surface temperature, sea state,
provided by the usual geodetic methods on land- ice conditions, current and water mass movements,
ultimately of comparable accuracy-are required schools and congregations of fish, phytoplankton
undersea for mapping ocean bottom and sub- blooms, water pollution, and other important
bottom features and for recording the location of processes.
physical, chemical, and biological measurement
taken in the water column. The technology of b. Future Needs The study of ocean processes
navigation and bathymetry, mapping magnetic and and marine species on more than a very small scale
gravi tational fields, and primary sub-bottom will require the availability of data on an auto-
tectonics can be combined to synthesize regional matic or rapid retrieval basis. Ocean engineering
geology. efforts will profit greatly from the existence of
Technological aspects of ocean surveys cannot rapid access to data on the environment. Predic-
be considered separately from priorities and types tions of fish production and migration to optimize

VI-29

--SAR

41@

40b
CHL6@
S 1 14

0 Ic
T/S MO

Figure 1. Digital mosaic compiled from analog signals received from satellite ESSA -5. Eight
major storms in Northern Hemisphere on Sept. 14, 1967 are displayed. (ESSA photo)

fish catch require synoptic environmental data and their slow speed, necessitating improved instru-
predictions. Knowledge of regional and local mentation and procedures.
bathymetry, circulation, and other environmental Bathymetric survey methods involving multi-
factors is needed to design outfalls for desalting ship operations with centralized data reduction
and waste disposal operations. and mapping functions are under evaluation. Com-
General mapping functions should include ponent deficiencies and lack of priorities have
measuring and plotting magnetic and gravitational deterred implementation. The potentials of aerial
fields. Like sub-bottom profiling, the general and satellite color photography and of infrared
resource development interest is in regional fea- sensing for subsurface mapping functions should
tures and navigational aids with initial emphasis on be determined and exploited, especially in sh allow
11 A@_m

continental shelf surveys rather than localized waters and coastal areas. The potential of submers-
anomalies for substructure analysis. Continuous ibles in such operations should receive more
gravimetric surveys are limited in effectiveness by attention.

VI-30

2. Instrumentation craft have been an important aid to such measure-
a. Current Situation The measurement of under- . ments as. sound velocity in sediments.
Only chemical parameters of very general inter-
water physical, chemical, geological, and biological est, such as salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen have
parameters is accomplished predominantly with been measured with other than sophisticated
devices lowered from surface craft or suspended laboratory instrumentation or methods of volu-
from floating or submerged buoys (Figure 2). metric analysis. Some application has been made
Such measurements are limited generally to basic of fluorescence, spectroscopy, radioactive tracers,
parameters required to identify water masses and and neutron activation analysis in tracing sediment
determine their movement or to provide gross and water movement. Little has been done to
identification of biological activity and nutrients. adapt instruments for analysis in geochernical
Limited measurements from submersibles have surveying, pollution monitoring, nutrient assess-
included stereophotogriphy for topographic
ment, and other ocean activities of growing inter-
studies, temperature, salinity, and on-site sound est and concern.
yelocity measurements in upper sediment layers. Biological measurements are completely infer-
ential, consisting of chemical and physical meas-
urements that can be correlated with biological
OW W imam concentrations, movement, and activity. Biologi-
cally important properties such as oxygen, total
organics, salinity, Eli, and pH' plus the physically
important parameters can be compared with bio-
logical observations and bioacoustic measurements
to predict response to environmental factors,
productivity, and migration.
New developments by the Atomic Energy
Commission and the Navy include a deep water
sit'! isotopic current analyzer, a nuclear sediment
density probe, and an in situ oxygen analyzer.
f b. Future Needs 'New instrumentation is needed
to study biological species, their distribution,
feeding habits, reproduction, and migration as a
AN"d -t A function of chemical and physical parameters. In
addition, assistance to the biologist in the acquisi-
tion of field data can be provided through (1)
development of automatic discrimination of acous-
tic signals generated by marine species, (2) obser-
Figure 2. Meteorologic fleft) and oceano- vation of movement of species by acoustic net-
graphic (right) sensor packages of ODESSA works, (3) counting marine species migration
system, which gathers data from unmanned
buoys over wide ocean areas. (ESSA photo) through fish passes or other constrictions, and (4)
other survey techniques.
Submersibles, should be particularly well
adapted to on-site measurements of physical prop-
Measurements by divers in the water mass have erties of sea water and sediment. Sediment meas-
been limited to a few physical parameters, such as urements are needed for basic design criteria for
distance and temperature, requiring only such bottom emplacement, construction, tunneling, and
rudimentary devices as bulb thermometers, mag- laying of pipelines and cables as well as for
netic compasses, and measuring sticks or cor s. In
situ measurements have been made of sediment
shear strength. However, diver monitoring and 'Eh and pH are defined in the subsection on
manipulation of instruments lowered from surface environmental considerations of this section.

VI-31

resource surveys. Instruments and procedures for facilities should be provided on a reimbursable
on-site measurement of engineering properties of basis to service the manufacturers and users of
sediments is needed. both military and non-military equipment.
While great progress has been made- in develop- Properly' operating survey equipment is critical
ing instrumentation having digital capabilities,, to the exploration and development of ocean
further progress is essential before long-range rapid resources. Separate groups using similar equip-
ocean environmental surveillance becomes a ments not calibrated to the same standards often
reality. obtain substantially different results. At present
Much instrumentation available has been crit- no mechanism exists whereby uniform standards
icized as being unreliable and unsuited for service at of measurement can be established. Such standards
sea. Instrumentation development will flourish to are essential to efficient evaluation and analysis of
the@ extent of the commitment to utilize the sea-a data obtained under various conditions.
commitment in part dependent on the state of Recommendations:
undersea technology.
It follows that initial efforts in opening the vast Highest priority should be assigned to develop-
economic potentials of the ocean may be invested ment of survey equipment for detailed mapping of
best in developing precise, rugged, seaworthy bathymetric, geological, and ecological features;
measuring instruments. Calibration and evaluation high-speed, wide-path width bottom scanning; and
of new instrumentation is needed to provide the three dimensional plotting. Realtime 2 digital re-
proof-testing leading to dependableuse. cording and processing systems adopted to oceanic
instrumentation should be pursued. Improved
3. Conclusions equipment should be developed to perform high-
speed surveys of (1) shape, thickness, and extent
Increased knowledge of the oceans can be of sediment layers, (1) depth and shape of rock
obtained through better survey equipment and surfaces, and (3) spatial distribution of engineering
mapping techniques. Technology and scientific properties of rock sediment layers.
study can provide information for proper explora- Technology should be advanced in (1) rapid
tion and development of ocean resources. New at-sea analysis of chemicals in ocean and estuarine
equipment is needed for precise measurement of waters and in sediments for pollution monitoring,
the ocean environment both for single in-place nutrient evaluation, corrosion control, and geo-
measurements and for high-speed continuous chemical exploration, (2) on-site measurement of
measurements of variable water and sediment microgradients of salinity, pH, Eli, and water and
properties. sediment densities, and (3) magnetic and gravi-
Except where abrupt topographical changes metric survey instruments for use at depths. I
occur or where a need for detailed studies in deep Consideration should be given to observation,
water exists, the accuracy of vertical dimension measurement, and sampling functions as integral
measurements by current systems is adequate for components of a system including navigation,
mapping. However, surveys are limited in speed communications, observation platform, and han-
and economy, partially due to the lack of rapid dling equipment.
data collection and processing capability. Programs involving mapping, surveys, explora-
Platforms, equipment, data syst 'ems, and such tion,, research, and preconstruction engineering
other tools of undersea technology as test range functions will be most cost effective by applying a
operations depend inherently on instrumentation systems approach and automation. The ultimate
capable of adequate performance and acceptable goal_,should be. to return to shore with data
reliability. A primary deterrent to equipment reduced, plotted, and ready for interpretation, or
development is the inadequacy of facilities for to relay realtime data via synchronous satellites to
evaluation and calibration. data processing centers ashore.
Ocean simulators and laboratories to evaluate
and calibrate equipment are not only scarce, but 2Realtime refers to. the capability to process data
are not generally available to either manufacturers simultaneously with the event being observed, permitting
conclusions to be drawn and corrective action to be
or users. Because of high capital costs, test implemented immediately.

VI-32

Because of lack of facilities for equipment outer space. Considerable expenditures will be
evaluation and calibration a coordinated program required, however, to redesign these systems for
should be established immediately whereby cali- manned undersea applications.
bration services and development of essential Divers usually will be able to obtain electrical
standards and specifications can be made available energy through umbilical cords. But free-
to all users on a cost-reimbursement basis. swimming saturated divers working appreciable
To permit standardized development, fabrica- distances from base will need reliable, high capa-
tion, and calibration of ocean instruments and city, portable energy packages. Power demands for
sensors, studies should be undertaken to determine tethered operations may extend upward to the
realistic accuracy requirements. multikilowatt range to fulfill life support, illun-dna-
tion, work, environmental protection (especially
B. Power Sources suit heat), and other demands.

This nation must develop better undersea
power sources. When submersibles with adequate 1. Chemical Batteries
endurance are developed, they need only submerge
and surface in the sheltered waters of a harbor- a. Current Situation Deep submersibles have
This will provide great cost reduction for future used lead-acid batteries as a primary energy source
submersible operations-the elimination of surface because of their low cost, established reliability,
support. and adaptability to submerged operation. Silver-
Within the foreseeable future undersea vehicles zinc batteries have been used in a few applications
and habitats will be limited to the utilization of where improved performance was mandatory and
presently known and identified prime energy increased cost acceptable. Bottom installations
sources including (1) nuclear energy systems which such as Sealab have relied on power generated on
require only occasional maintenance and refueling, support ships or ashore.
(2) chemical energy systems replenished by sup- Small vehicles with limited mission require-
port'ships, and (3) ship- or shore-generated electri- ments employ batteries because of their relatively
cal energy transmitted by cable. low cost, although payload is reduced by battery
A portable undersea support laboratory at a weight. Because neutral buoyancy must be main-
depth of 2,000 feet and the continental slope or tained, the low overall energy availability per
midocean ridge station at 8,000 feet with crews Of pound of battery system limits greatly the endur-
15 to 25 and possibly 100 to 1,000 will require ance of most vehicles. Weight-to-energy ratios
large amounts of energy, many thousands of range from 75 to 125 and 25 to 40 pounds per
kilowatts. When the laboratory is relatively near kilowatt hour for installed lead-acid and silver-zinc
land, the energy can be generated best on shore batteries, respectively.
and transmitted to the habitat through cables.
For remote locations a self-contained undersea b. Future Needs Use of new battery reactants
power system probably will be required. Submers- such as fluorine may offer a two-to-three-fold
ible vehicles and underwater construction machin- improvement in weight-to-energy ratios, but the
ery will incorporate nuclear power systems or projected costs of such developments are high.
refuelable or rechargable chemical energy plants, Further, the weight-to-energy ratios will be chal-
because electrical cables impose serious entangle- lenged seriously by improved fuel cells and ther-
ment and vulnerability hazards. mal conversion systems. Battery development
Extensive work in the space program on the should concentrate on adapting to undersea use
SNAP 2, SNAP 10, and SNAP 8 power systems such other known high energy systems as
(Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power developed for 2, mercury-zinc or nickel-cadmium.
500, and 30,000 watts) may find application in the Methods of recharging submersible battery
undersea frontier. Reactors and conversion sys- systems at ambient pressure in the deep, ocean
tems that meet the initial power requirements of would enable battery powered submersibles to
anticipated fixed bottom habitats and future deep achieve greatly enhanced endurance. Such tech-
submergence vehicles have been developed for niques would allow the battery powered submers-

VI-33
333-091 0-69-7

ible to rival and perhaps to exceed the endurance b. Future Needs Fuel cells appear essential to
of fuel cell powered submersibles. efficient undersea operations. Hydrogen-oxygen
fuel cells for undersea use require hard tanks for
2. Fuel Cells both the fuel cell module and the fuel. The fuel
a. Current Situation Deep submersible vehicles could be stored cryogenically as a liquid, but
substantial insulation would be required.
and.habitats with power requirements in the 10 to Tankage, designed to withstand ambient pres-
100 kilowatt range may well use fuel cells in the sure at operating depth, adds considerable weight
coming decade. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell has to the power system. If a fuel cell could be
by far the most extensive development history? developed capable of pressure-balanced ambient
albeit for highly specialized and costly space operation without hard tank protection, system
applications. weight would be independent of operating depth,
Another major fuel cell type being considered and a weight-to-energy ratio of six to eight pounds
for undersea use, hydrazine-hydrogen peroxide, per kilowatt hour might be achieved. This could
has received relatively less attention but is in an result in important weight improvement in power
advanced state of development for terrestrial systems for 20,000-foot submersible operations.
applications by the U.S. Army. It is a much less
expensive device probably in part because of less
stringent qualification and documentation require- 3. Thermal Conversion
ments. Like the battery, the fuel cell is a static
energy converter producing electrical energy from a. Current Situation Thermodynan-dc power
chen-dcal energy. systems may range from the simplest, using jet fuel
Unlike the battery, the fuel cell can produce and an oxydizer with a reciprocating engine, to
energy as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied. very advanced systems, using such high energy
Fuel cells produce waste products (heat and water sources as the reaction of sodium with seawater.
from the hydrogen-oxygen cell or heat, water, and Application of thermodynan-dc cycle systems most
nitrogen from the hydrazine-hydrogen peroxide likely will be in the shallow zero to 2,000-foot
cell) which may be of use. zone, thereby allowing wastes to be exhausted
The basic concept of the fuel cell has received directly to sea. For covert operations, it would be
much conceptual development during the first half necessary to condense the exhaust and store it
of this century. Nevertheless, it took the impetus aboard so no trail would be left, and neutral
of the space race and the expenditure of over $ 100 buoyancy maintained.
million to provide the operational hydrogen- An extensive engineering effort was devoted to
oxygen fuel cell systems used in the Gemini and closed cycle thermodynamic power systems in the
Apollo projects. Such accelerated technology de- early 1950's. A complete evaluation was made of
velopment ultimately may have applications in long-term submerged operations, and several
automobiles, recreational boats, and undersea usable concepts were developed to perniit sub-
systems. merged operations of days or weeks. The pressur-
A fuel cell is planned as the power source for ized water nuclear reactor development in 1955
the Navy's Deep Submergence Search Vehicle supplanted the thermodynamic power concept for
(DSSV). The 34-hour DSSV mission time and fleet submarines, and little additional work has
power consumption rate demand peak power of been done since.
50 kilowatts and a 1,000-kilowatt-hour energy
supply. The system, including required buoyancy b. Future Needs Few undersea applications will
material, will weigh about 10,000 pounds, or 10 require a nuclear reactor energy source. Chemical
pounds per kilowatt hour. A silver-zinc battery dynamic systems (operating on the Brayton,
system providing the same energy would weigh Rankine, or Sterling cycles and utilizing a re-
about 30,000 pounds. The additional vehicle ciprocating engine or a turbine driving an electrical
weight and size required to utilize silver-zinc generator) could produce electrical energy at much
batteries would seriously affect the performance less cost and weight than a nuclear plant and
of DSSV. should receive renewed development attention.

VI-34

Encapsulation quickly raises the specific weight Three factors will influence decisions to build a
of chemical dynamic- systems for operations below nuclear power plant at an undersea site:' (1) cost
2,000 feet. Important weight reduction for mobile of electricity supplied by a nuclear plant at the site
systems could be achieved by employing systems compared with cost of long cable transmission
in which the fuel and effluent were maintained at from land or from surface floating plants, (2) the
ambient pressure with only the engine and genera- character and priority of the undersea operation,
tor enclosed in hard tanks. Ultimate development and (3) the leadtime for nuclear power plant
of a system with conversion equipment and fuel construction and operation.
maintained at ambient operating pressures might Reactor technology considerations will not
achieve power sources weighing around 25 pounds greatly influence the decision at shallower depths.
per kilowatt hour.
.For missions at 20,000 feet, there are severe design
and engineering problems, particularly in the
structural design of the condenser.
4. Nuclear Reactors Remaining problems may include a variety of
materials and operating difficulties. Maintenance,
a. Current Situation The nuclear reactor proved for example, would be virtually impossible at
to be a dramatic success on Navy fleet.submannes. depth. It would be difficult and expensive to raise
Units delivering tens of thousands of kilowatts are a plant for repair and maintenance. Maintenance
in reliable service for main propulsion and auxil- requirements might be minimized if static energy
iary loads of submarines and surface ships. The conversion systems such as thermo-electric conver-
recent launching of NR-1 is a major milestone in sion were incorporated in place of dynamic
adapting nuclear power to much smaller vehicles. turbine-generator systems. Several conceptual de-
A concept developed for the Naval Civil Engi- signs for such power plants have been developed.
neering Laboratory of a five man, 6,000 foot Unfortunately, the much smaller power require-
undersea station includes a nuclear reactor for ments of current saturation diving habitats are not
main power. A unit recommended for,a power 'compatible with the characteristics of existing
demand of 38 kilowatts was the TRIGA Oceano- nuclear reactors. Technology derived from devel-
graphic Power Supply with a steam turbine genera- opment programs to supply small nuclear reactors
tor power conversion system. Total weight of this for space applications may be adapted to the
plant (maximum capacity 100 kilowatts) was undersea power problem, particularly for manned
estimated at 145,000 pounds, more than half underwater stations at limited ocean depths.
shielding. The Navy and the Aton-tic Energy
Commission are working to develop yet more S. Isotope Power
suitable nuclear reactors for other future deep
ocean applications. Power up to 10 kilowatts is considered achiev-
able via radibisotope-dynamic conversion power
systems, in which the heat of radioactive decay
b. Future Needs There are attractions to placing produces steam to drive a conventional turbine-
a nuclear power plant on the ocean floor where it generator or power a thermoelectric converter.
would be away from population centers. If the Isotope materials with halflives ranging from
plant were operated unmanned with most systems four months to 458 years exist in varying quanti-
at ambient pressures, external pressure n-dght be ties and costs. One most promising for long
used to reduce some wall thicknesses. Waste heat missions, cobalt-60, has a halflife of over five years
removal problems would be reduced in the limit- and an energy density of 1.7 watts per gram in
less heat sink of the ocean. If the power plant were compound form. For shorter missions,
remote from manned habitats, shielding might be polonium-210 with a halflife of 138 days might be
reduced by relying upon seawater, an excellent selected.
shielding material itself. Except for power plant
maintenance problems and some materials devel- 3There are also reasons to locate power generating
opment, current technology is adequate to provide stations offshore to serve land needs. See Chapter 6,
submerged nuclear power plants. Section V11, Power Generation.

VI-35

Since radioisotopes are the product of reactor small vehicles. Until fuel cells, small nuclear plants,
operations or separation of spent fuel, careful con- and other power sources can be developed for
sideration must be given to selection and avail- deep ocean service, submersible capabilities will be
ability of isotopes when considering them for seriously limited. Figure 3 is a general presentation
electric power production. Some isotopes are of approximate ranges of useful outputs for
completely unavailable. With others, price is various power sources for submersible systems
changeable and reflects many factors, some un- illustrating the point that no one type would
related to actual isotope demand. A careful survey satisfy A missions. Figure 4 summarizes the
of information supplied by the Atomic Energy comparative usefulness potential for various power
Commission regarding cost and availability is sources. The diversity of advantages and disadvan-
mandatory before planning to utilize suc*h systems. tages of each also enforces the need for pursuing
Isotopes are expensive. With a somewhat opti- diverse approaches in power source development..
mistic 25 per cent engine cycle efficiency, power
output of 15 kilowatts would require 60 thermal
kilowatts with an expected cobalt-60 isotope cost 104 CHEMI(_AL DYNAMIC
of $390,000.
NUCL A
j03
K@@ DYNAMIC.
As with reactor systems, radiation and waste 3: WITH
-2 G _EN
CRY
2 R
heat must be considered. The advantages and 10 @@TOR,
disadvantages of deep ocean reactors are similar to
10
isotope systems. The transportation of a radio- D FUEL CELLS
0
isotope system is difficult due to the necessity of
OLAR
continuous shielding and heat rejection.
Y
Assuming acceptable weight characteristics and 0.1 OLTAIC
cost considerations, radioisotope systems can pro- SOTOPE_
vide small-power supplies having low maintenance 0.01 1 5 1 1 1 1 10
and high reliability for a number of relatively min min hr day week monthl Year year
constant power consumers (such as fixed environ- DURATION FROM HERE ON
mental monitoring systems, transponders, buoys, LIFETIME &
wellhead controls, and communications and navi- RELIABILITY
gation systems). LIMIT CONTROL
Figure 3. The range of usefiil outputs for
various power sources.
6. Conclusions

Reliable, cost effective, high energy per unit
weight and volume power sources are a primary Figure 4
requisite for a wide variety of undersea apphca- COMPARATIVE USEFULNESS OF
tions. Existing power sources in various develop- VARIOUS POWER SOURCESI
ment stages for other applications are- potential Ambient
candidates for underwater service, but each re- Ty C @iteria Low High Endur- Pressure
quires considerable adaptation to the ocean envi P, Power Power ance Capa
ronment and to specific underwater applications. bility
Clearly, no single candidate is preferable over the Lead Acid
entire energy spectrum in which submersibles, Battery 3 5 5 1
habitats, and other undersea systems may operate. Silver Zinc
The Icurrent need for suitable power sources for Battery 3 4 4 1
Fuel Cell 2 3 3 3
submersibles is urgent. Excluding combatant sub- Chemical
marines, only rechargable batteriei have ' been Dynamic 4 2 3 4
employed for main power in manned, selfpro- Isotope 1 5 1 3
pelled submersibles. The NR-l will be -the first Nuclear
submersible with nuclear power. Batteries impose Reactor 5 1 1 5
severe weight, payload, and endurance penalties on 1 is best; 5 is poorest.

VI-36

Recommendations: little undersea component development has been
While it is not realistic to presume that any one directed toward external machinery. Yet small
power source will be adequate for all underwater submersible hulls generally enclose only the man
requirements, the design, development, testing, and the electronic equipment, and in unmanned
and certification of each new source is both time systems it is desirable to utilize as little heavy
consuming and expensive. Therefore, it is also pressure-resistant structure as possible. Conse-
unrealistic to conceive of a program wherein all quently, efficient design requires the use of new
power sources will be developed simultaneously. A subsystems exposed directly to the ocean environ-
more rational approach dictates that development ment.
efforts be directed initially to low-cost adaptions The attempt to use off-the-shelf or slightly
of existing power sources to systems specifically modified equipment in submersible systems be-
designed for the ocean environment. cause of cost has in many cases proved unwise.
Development of compact, deep ocean power Few items have worked as planned, and modifica-
sources ranging particularly between 50 and 5,000 tion has been expensive. The use of off-the-shelf
kilowatts for deep submergence vehicles and habi- equipment in effect has led to in situ testing, often
tats is most urgent and should receive first priority. a costly and wasteful procedure. A few hours of
Engineering criteria, standards, and perform- operation without any equipment malfunction is
ance and -qualification specifications for power the best expected from vehicles in initial stages of
systems (including components) must be estab- operation.
lished for nonmilitary underwater applications. . The Circular of Requirements issued in late
Applied research and component improvement 1965. as part of the procurement specification for
programs must be supported. The development of the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV)
a low-cost 50 kilowatt power source for submer- specified the use of off-the-shelf equipment. But
sible operations of several days is an example. many subsystems proposed would not operate
Fuel cells should receive priority to meet the 10 when tested in the deep environment, requiring
to 100 kilowatt demand of small submersibles, a added efforts to develop, test, and qualify suitable
requirement that can be met by the DSSV fuel cell equipment for the vehicle.
project if carried out as planned. Development of Safety and progress in the undersea frontier
both hydrazine and hydrogen-oxygen systems necessitate testing, evaluation, and certification of
should be supported. Cryogenic underwater tech- equipment for external operation prior to installa-
nology should be emphasized because of its tion. Because the use of equipment exposed to the
potential application in fuel cell and thermal environment promises great rewards in the effi-
conversion systems. In the range for resource ciency of undersea systems, external machinery
utilization on the continental shelves, thermal systems and equipment development should re-
conversion systems should receive renewed devel_ ceive emphasis in the fundamental technology
opment support. development program.

C. External Machinery Systems and Equipment
The sea environment imposes entirely new 1. Power Application
operational requirements on machinery systems. a. Current Situation A key element of mobile
Mechanical and electrical equipment have been undersea platforms will be the propulsion system.
developed for operation in the atmosphere or in Neutrally buoyant vehicles may have to have
the vacuum of space, but the ocean's high pressure mobility in all six degrees of freedom-(l) heave
and corrosiveness impose more severe demands (up and down), (2) surge (fore and aft), (3) sway
than have been encountered in most previous (right and -left), (4) roll, (5) pitch, and (6) yaw.
applications. For docking or mating, very precise maneuver-
Military submarines operate at relatively shal- ability is required. For many activities speeds of
low depths with most machinery systems inside five knots or less are acceptable, but in such cases
the pressure hull and a minimum of equipment as chasing tuna or potential enemy submarines
exposed to the ocean environment. Consequently, much higher forward speeds are needed.

VI-37

The choice. of propulsion systems for submer- -Characteristics of hydraulic fluids change at
sible vehicles depends on their mission. Typical, extremely high pressures-viscosity may increase
uses-scientific studies, site. survey and inspection, 1W times while operating a system from zero to,
object recovery and light salvage, transport of 20,000-foot depths.
men and equipment, or mobile tool operations
-generally demand precise maneuverability, nor- -Waxes may form in hydraulic oils and,clog the.
mally more important than high speed. I lines.
Other challenges to propulsion system design -Gases may accumulate and block the system.
include protection from entanglement, minimum
disturbance of bottom sediments (especially for The mechanical parts of pumps, actuators, and
bottom-sitting vehicles), and creation of large motors normally designed for 3,000 pound per
forces and moments at zero speed. Propulsion square inch (psi) operation in atmospheric systems
system selection will involve weight, volume, must be redesigned for deep submergence.
simplicity, efficiency, reliability, maintainability, Most underwater propulsion systems and virtu-
and mechanical endurance. ally all hydraulic and seawater pumps are driven
The state of development and features of the by electric motors. Several methods for condition-
most common propulsion systems are: ing motors to resist the operating environment
-Screw propulsion. Well defined, with designs have been developed. These include oil-filling,
available for almost any application. Systems have encapsulation in pressure-resistant housings, and
utilized conventional propellers, ducted thrusters, sealing principle parts such as rotors and stators
with plastic compounds. None is yet completely
or rotatable pods. Precise maneuverability in all satisfactory.
degrees of motion requires no less than three screw
propellers. Most undersea electric power sources provide
direct current. Since no power conversion is
necessary, direct current motors (especially for
-Tandem propulsion. In early development, not constant-speed applications) promise high effi-
progressed beyond the analysis and tank-test ciencies. However, problems of commutation and
stages. Has promise for highly maneuverable brush wear under high pressure or in oil have
vehicles. restricted their use.
Alternating current motors have the advantage
-Cycloidal (vertical axis propeller) propulsion. In of being brushless, but require DC-to-AC inverters
use for years on tugs and ferries which require high for power conversion and speed control. Although
thrust at low speeds and directed thrust for modern inverters have no moving parts, they do
maneuvering but not three-dimensional control. not operate reliably in ambient pressures, and their
Only a prototype glass submersible presently electrical complexity adds weight.
employs cycloidal propulsion.
b. Future Needs Propulsion system reliability
- Water fet propulsion. Uses pumps to expel water and efficiency must be improved for advanced
at high velocity for propulsion. Currently in use on undersea systems. The tandem propeller concept
at least two commercially operated deep submer- appears feasible within. the foreseeable future.
sibles. One uses rotatable jets for primary thrust; Reduction of vehicle drag to reduce power con-
the other uses jet thrusters for maneuvering sumption and increase propulsion system perform-
control. ance holds limited promise.
Solution of the DC motor brush problem
Many submersible functions and habitat opera- appears imminent. The Navy has been testing 3
tions require power transmission by hydraulic and 17 horsepower DC motors of a unique brush
pumps and actuators. In theory, complete hydrau- concept with favorable results. Larger motors are
lic systems placed externally to the hull at ambient yet to be developed. AC motor inverter-controllers
pressures can be operated at still higher working are being refined, but reliability and weight im-
pressures. However, such operations have often provements, including possible ambient operation,
failed for one or more of the following reasons: should be pursued.

VI-38

Entirely new hydraulic equipment designs are mal variations, abrasion, and chemical, electro-
needed for deep submergence. Pumps, motors, lytic, and biological attack. Extreme pressure
actuators, and such power conversion equipment changes cause cable insulation to squeeze and
as fluid speed reduction gears that use corrosive, withdraw from between conductor strands and to
nonlubricating seawater as the working fluid be pinched and chafed. Voids formed in cable
would be a real breakthrough. Entirely new during manufacture can result in air bubble accum-
concepts for pump and motor construction and ulation under pressure, subsequently causing rup-
new working fluids may prove a very fruitful ture due to gas expansion during ascent.
alternative. Molded distribution boxes and oil-filled junc-
tion boxes have been utilized to distribute electri-
2. Electrical Distribution cal power. In a molded distribution box, cable,
connectors and wiring are mated in solid rubber of
a. Current Situation Electrical power must be plastic. Inaccessible connecting points are fully
distributed within and outside the pressure hull of protected from the outside environment.
undersea systems. Signals to control external Oil-filled junction boxes, although heavy and
machinery must be transmitted through the pres- bulky, are reliable in undersea systems. Pressure is
sure hull, and outside information must enter for compensated by an electrically insulating fluid
processing, interpretation, and storage. On a rela- (usually silicone oil) and a flexible diaphragm.
tively simple vehicle, a thousand or more wires When pressure increases, the diaphragm transmits
may pass through the hull. The Deep Submergence pressure to the fluid in the box, thereby support-
Rescue Vehicle will require more than 1,400 such ing the box's walls. The diaphragm may be
penetrations. A large bottom habitat may require spring-loaded to ensure a positive pressure- to keep
thousands of such penetrations. seawater out. Most remotely operated external
Electrical distribution systems within the pres- contactors and relays are placed in oil-filled boxes.
sure hull are similar to those for atmospheric
applications, but external distribution systems b. Future Needs Reliable, multiconductor hull
encounter entirely different problems. Each wire penetrators, cables, and connectors are essential to
and component is subjected to both pressure and systems development. Available components have
adverse chemical effects. Deficiencies in the state- only marginal capability.
of-the-art exist in insulation, circuit interruption Insulations capable of withstanding many pres-
techniques, and automatic system monitoring sure cycles must be developed. New techniques of
equipment. circuit interruption are needed. Reliable automatic
Electrical hull penetrators contain contacts system monitoring equipment must be developed.
which complete circuits through the hull. Their Because undersea maintenance is difficult if not
selection is important, as number and size deter- impossible, equipment must be provided to detect,
mine hull reinforcement requirements and may evaluate, and correct equipment faults automati-
affect internal and external equipment arrange- cally. Pressure and water resistant switch gear,
ment. preferably electronic rather than electro-mechan-
Penetrators must be reliable barriers to hydro- ical, must be developed to avoid bulky protective
static pressure to avoid electrical shorting or hull enclosures and to improve reliability. New meth-
flooding. Although various configurations contain- ods of hull penetration, using radio or visible light
ing, relatively few contacts have had some success, frequencies now being developed for glass hulls,
none is yet satisfactory for extended operation's show promise and warrant increased effort.
requiring many signals at great depths.
Underwater cables and connectors are a signifi- 3. Buoyancy and Trim Control
cant problem. Each must resist the high pressure
seawater environment and form a reliable pressure a. Current Situation Maintaining neutral buoy-
resistant connection at the connector-cable and ancy reliably is important because uncontrolled
connector-connector interfaces. descent or ascent could be disastrous. A vehicle's
Underwater cable'must be resistant to mechan- weight generally must be controlled through a
ical stresses from pressure cycling, vibration., ther- range as much as �5 per cent of total weight.

VI-39

Merely moving from seawater to the fresh or the vehicle operator for other duties will be
brackish water of a river mouth changes displace- required.
ment perceptibly.
Descent from warm surface waters to cold 4. Conclusions
bottom waters or 'transit through several thermal External machinery systems and equipment not
or salinity layers places a heavy burden on
buoyancy control systems. Existing systems re- designed for undersea use have proved generally
quire constant attention of experienced personnel inadequate. However, due to the unavailability of
to compensate for changing conditions. special subsea commercial equipment, equipment
Buoyancy control is achieved most simply by designed for other purposes has been used in the
pumping seawater in and out of hard tanks' oceans. Even equipment specially designed for
changing the ratio of vehicle weight to displace- submerged application requires extensive improve-
ment. This method has proven satisfactory to ment. The state-of-the-art in external machinery
2,000 feet, but pumping water against the high systems and equipment is summarized as follows:
pressures of greater depths requires expenditure of
much precious energy. Propulsion Systems Problem
When transporting specimens, minerals, or re-
covered objects to the surface, it will be necessary Screw Maneuverability requires
to provide buoyancy at least equal to the wet several units
weight of the cargo. Dropping weights may be Tandem Not tested on a full-scale ve-
inexpensive, but pumping seawater ballast is more hicle; complex mechanism
desirable because it is reversible. Further, systems Cycloidal Not tested on a full-scale ve-
operating submerged for long periods may not hicle; complex mechanism
have the opportunity to replace dropped weights. Water Jets Sediment disturbance; low
Trim in undersea vehicles has been controlled efficiency
by shifting ballast, changing the pitch of fins or New Methods Need to be developed
vanes, or applying propulsion. In shifting ballast,
seawater or mercury is pumped from one region of Electric Motors Problem
the vehicle to another, working effectively even at DC Motors Commutation and brush wear
slow or zero forward speeds. However, the system
responds slowly, and the ballast, tankage, intercon- AC Motors Inverter/controller weight and
necting piping, and pumping system add weight, reliability; flooded opera-
volume, and complexity. The vehicle must have tion
some relative forward or reverse motion to effect
trim by the use of lifting surfaces. Electrical Problem
Penetrations Weight; reliability of seals and
insulation; continuity of
b. Future Needs New fast and completely auto- circuit
matic buoyancy control must be developed. Chem- Distribution Weight and bulk of oil-filled
ical propellants may achieve a more satisfactory junction boxes; mechanical
ratio between the weight of energy storage and the circuit interruption; cable
change in vehicle buoyancy. The solution may lie reliability
in designing vehicles so their bulk modulus closely
matches that of seawater, utilizing materials and Control Problem
devices which vary in displacement to compensate
for changes in pressure and temperature, thus Buoyancy Ballast pump rates and
providing automatic buoyancy control and mini- reliability; automatic con-
mal requirements for variable ballast. trol; buoyancy generation
More efficient trim control methods -with at great pressure
quicker response will be needed as vehicle ,s become Trim System weight and speed;
larger and faster. Automatic trim controls to free automatic control

VI-40

Recommendations: greater depths, supplemental buoyancy material or
More efficient, reliable, lighter weight external advanced hull materials will be required. The
subsystems are critical to deeper ocean operating amount of such material will be a function of the
capability. Development has not received the hull's W/D ratio and the density of the buoyancy
attention given materials and power sources, al- material.
though of equal importance. A program specifi- The pressure hull buoyancy ratio must increase
cally aimed at improving reliability and developing with depth. A recently constructed submersible,
new external machinery systems and equipment- for example, with an 8,000-foot operating capabil-
propulsion systems ' buoyancy, and trim control ity has a pressure hull made of a 190,000 pounds
systems-is needed. - .' per square inch (psi) compressive yield strength
The Navy's Deep Ocean Technology Program steel and a buoyancy ratio of 0.43.
should be funded to the'requested levels. The Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV)
Civilian technology funding levels should allow designed to operate to 20,000 feet would have a
the development of fundamental knowledge pressure hull buoyancy ratio of 0.9 if fabricated of
needed to produce low-cost systems for non- the same material. The buoyancy ratio of the
military users. DSSV pressure hull would be reduced to 0.1 if a
titanium alloy of 125,000 psi compressive yield
D. Materials strength were used.
Higher yield strength titanium alloys have not
Materials problems enter critically into every been used in deep submergence pressure hulls
aspect of underwater technology. The economy because of lower toughness and possible suscepti-
and effectiveness of ocean activities are dependent bility to stress corrosion. If a titanium alloy with
upon development of improved materials for a 180,000 psi yield strength and acceptable tougli-
submersible vehicles, underwater structures, equip- ness became available, a pressure hull buoyancy
ment, and all types of components. Material ratio as low as 0.5 could be attained for 20,000
development involves not only basic metallurgical feet.
and mechanical properties but problems of pro- - Complementary needs include (1) hatches that
duction, design, fabrication, testing, in-service in- form an integral part of the structure when closed,
spection, corrosion, and marine fouling. but which can open for mating operations at great
Developments are needed in metallics, non- depth without dangerously degrading the struc-
metallics, and composites of increased strength ture, (2) techniques to utilize more than one
with sufficient notch toughness, corrosion resist- material in a hull to capitalize on the unique
ance, fatigue strength, producibility, weldability, advantages of each, (3) analytical tools to predict
and economy for pressure hulls and other struc- and evaluate preliminary design choices, and (4)
tural applications. Included in the nonmetallic fabrication techniques.
category are fiber-reinforced plastics, glass, and Development is needed of undersea antifouling
other ceramics. coatings to inhibit biological growth (Figure 5),
Neutral buoyancy is an operating requirement new coatings to protect against corrosion, and
for submersibles. Applying a principle that buoy- cathodic and impressed current techniques for
ancy is best provided by the pressure hull and combating corrosion. Materials are required for a
auxiliary buoyancy material is used primarily for variety of underwater applications in addition to
trim-the pressure hull should have a weight-to- pressure hulls:
displacement (W/D or buoyancy) ratio of 0.4 to
0.6. This allows for the buoyancy required for -Gaskets, sealants, and pressure hull penetrations.
external machinery and equipment, outer hull and Rubberized fabrics for pipelines, storage con-'
payload. In the discussions following, a spherical
geometry is assumed, because this shape provides tainers, and buoyancy bladders.
minimum W/D ratios. -Nylon and other materials for mooring cable,
No currently available production material suit- insulation, and protective sheaths.
able for pressure hulls can achieve a W/D ratio
lower than 0.5 for 10,000-foot operations. For @Transparent materials for viewports.

VI-41

strength or advanced nonferrous or nonmetallic
materials.
If many pressure cycles are involved, failure due
to fatigue rather than crushing forces must -be
considered. Unfortunately, as yield strength in-
creases, toughness and fatigue life decrease. Each
time a vehicle descends to operating depth and
returns, a fatigue cycle is incurred. If a collapse
safety factor of 1.5 is incorporated, cyclic loading
would vary from zero psi to a maximum of 86,500
psi for HY-140.
Data suggest that HY-80 can sustain 10 times
the cyclic loading of HY-1 40; however, the 10,000
cycle capability for HY-140 steel is likely to be at
least three times the cycles a submersible will
undergo during its useful life. Since HY-140
fatigue life is ample, it is not correct to imply that
an HY-140 vehicle will have a shorter service life
than an HY-80 vehicle. This would be true only if
Figure 5. Biological growth on hydrolab after service life extended beyond 60 years with dives to
one year's submergence off Florida coast near
falm Beach. Inspection of laboratory after maximum depth every other day.
removal of growth showed little corrosion had
taken place. (West Palm Beach Post- Times
photo) b. Future Nee& While steel has a higher density
than other materials considered for pressure hulls,
new ultra-strength steels (yield strength greater
-Fluids for buoyancy and hydraulic systems than 240,000 psi) may produce. in 15 years
pressure compensating systems, and lubrication. efficient 20,000-foot pressure hulls (W/D around
0.5) for small, maneuverable noncombatant ve-
Technology and knowledge of material per- hicles.
formance in the ocean has not progressed to where Although other materials may be used for
final decisions can be made as to what materials vehicle and habitat structures, high strength steel
and construction techniques are to be employed may be found the least costly once stress corro-
in future systems. Entirely new material concepts sion cracking and brittle failure problems are
overcome, and manufacturing and fabrication
may be developed and employed by the year techniques developed.
2000, but only if sufficient effort is expended in
analysis, development, and use of a wide variety of Currently HY-80 steel, for which suitable man-
materials. ufacturing and fabrication techniques have been
developed, is much less expensive than any other
1. High Strength Steels material proposed for pressure hulls. If ultra-
strength steel technology were successful, a 20,000-
a. Current Situation Ferrous materials having a foot hull with W/D ratio around 0.5 would be
yield strength of 80,000 psi (HY-80) or less have possible and steel might remain the most econom-
been used in all fleet submarines and in most deep ical material.
submergence vehicles. HY-140 steels (130,000 to
150,000 psi yield strength) now can be specified 2. Nonferrous Metals
for use in noncombatant vehicles, although the use
of HY-140 for combatant submarines awaits solu- a. Current Situation Titanium and aluminum
tion to many problems in forging, fabricating, and materials, much less dense than steel, show prom-
welding large segments. ise for low W/D ratio hulls for deep submergence
Operations at 20,000 feet will require much vehicles. However, fabrication technique and cor-
stronger steels in excess of 180,000 psi yield rosion unknowns have limited such materials to

VI-42

only a few applications. Aluminaut uses aluminum techniques have not been developed. Unfortu-
forged rings for hull construction, and the Alvin nately, the failure of glass spheres is unpredictable
employed titanium buoyancy spheres. Aluminum and usually catastrophic; once a crack begins, the
spheres with yield strength of approximately entire assembly disintegrates. In metallic structures
75,000 psi, and small titanium spheres with yield the failure mode is usually buckling; initial cracks
strength of 120,000 psi have been fabricated. and structural anomalies usually can be detected
. prior to complete failure.
b. Future Needs Extensive development and Glass technology is being applied in construc-
improvement of fabrication techniques must be tion of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center's
done to realize the full potential of nonferrous (NUWC) Deepview, a vehicle having a 44-inch glass
materials. For example, bottom habitats probably end hemisphere (Figure 6). Also NUWC's Hikino
will be manufactured in large sections on shore, design has a total glass sphere with no pene-
transported by surface ship or towed to the site, trations. The sphere incorporates a titanium ring
and lowered. Since most, if not all, structural joint between hemispheres and utilizes an acrylic
fabrication will take place on land, dry weight will inner and outer lining. Other glass construction
be extremely important in handling such large techniques include pouring, sagging by heat,'sag-
,structures. ging by vacuum, and injection molding. The Naval
Operating costs of current submersibles are Civil Engineering Uboratory is working on acrylic
related to vehicle weight due to surface support sphere construction by assembly of 12 identical
difficulties. Thus, advanced structural materials spherical pentagons.
and improved supplement buoyancy that reduce,
vehicle weight can be economically rewarding. In
the future submerged support of submersibles
could make dry weight a much less important
factor. Further, continuing development of non-
ferrous metals an d alloys for ocean equipment and
components is necessary. Included are gunmetals,
cupronickels, and cast and wrought aluminum
alloys.

3. Nonmetallic Materials

a. Current Sittiation Operation of vehicles at
20,000-foot depths will require pressure hulls
having weight-to-displacement ratios approaching
the ideal 0.4. These can be achieved only by using
the very high strength steels with yield strengths
above 240,000 psi, titanium with a 1.80,000 Psi Figure 6. Artist's concept of Deepview sub-
yield strength, glass-reinforced plastics, advanced mersible vehicle. (Navy photo)
composites, or massive glass.
Glass is expected to be developed to a usable
compressive strength level of 250,000 psi during Properties and performance characteristics of a
1970-1980. The attractiveness of massive glass lies glass filament, originally developed for Polaris
in its low density and theoretical compressive rocket cases, have been evaluated under simulated
strength, possibly as high as 4,000,000 psi. Failure conditions. Complex ring-stiffened cylindrical
generally initiates at the glass surface when tension models have been tested, demonstrating a capa-
forces are present and occurs long before compres- bility to withstand short-term exposure to 30,000
sive capabilities are reached. feet of hydrostatic pressure and long-term static
Annealed glass spheres up to 56 inches diameter and cyclic exposures at de pths to 20,000 feet.
f
>k

have been fabricated and tested, but results are Glass fiber reinforced plastics (GRP) are of very
inconsistent, and adequate fabrication control low density and offer the possibility of compres-

VI-43

sive strengths of 130,000 to 200,000 psi. Im- material, causing the Trieste to be quite bulky and
proved matrices, reinforcements, and composites unmaneuverable. Its operations with a gasoline-
offering higher compressive strength, modulus, filled buoyancy balloon are analogous to helium-
shear strength, and environmental resistance can filled balloon or blimp operations in the atmo-
lead to greatly improved weight-to-displacement sphere.
ratios and reliability. GRP materials now have Titanium spheres are used on the Alvin to
demonstrated strengths of 100,000 psi; 150,000 provide an effective net buoyancy. Radial fiber
psi appears attainable in the next decade. spheres, a variation on filament wound rocket
Oxide ceramics are another potential material motor case development, show great promise for
for construction of low W/D ratio pressure resist- supplemental buoyancy. Spheres with a weight-to-
ant enclosures. Alumina and beryllia appear the displacement ratio of 0.39 have withstood up to
most likely candidates. Current technology does 45,000-foot equivalent depth pressure; an I I-inch
not permit precision manufacture of high strength sphere with no surface resin coating has been held
ceramic parts larger than 18 inches. Spherical at 26,000 feet and tested to failure at 56,000-foot
pentagonal ceramic plates imbedded in a metallic pressures. A 32-inch diameter sphere has been
framework may offer a solution for spherical proof-tested to pressures equivalent to 22,000-foot
structures. depths.
Most vehicles currently under construction will
b. Future Needs Much must be done to develop employ syntactic foam for supplemental buoy-
the no-nmetallics into safe, reliable, producible, ancy. This is a mixture of very light hollow glass
and fabricable engineering materials for deep microspheres in a resin matrix. Current technology
submergence applications. Glass work should has yielded syntactic foams with a weight-to-
emphasize reliability, fabrication and penetration displacement ratio of 0.56 at 8,000-foot pressures
techniques, and joint ddsign. Fiber-reinforced plas- and 0.69 at 20,000 feet. Thus, the achievable net
tics need process and quality control improve- buoyancy from each foam is approximately 28
ment. and 20 pounds per cubic foot of material respeo-
Promising fibers such as carbon, boron, beryl- tively. (One cubic foot of water weighing 64
lium, alumina, and others should be developed pounds is displaced by a cubic foot of foam
further. Penetrations for manned hulls must be weighing 36 pounds yielding a net lift of 28
developed and evaluated. Oxide ceramics deserve pounds, etc.)
extensive investigation with emphasis on mosaic The importance of relative density of syntactic
structures to solve the scale-up problem. By the foam is evident from analyzing its role in vehicle
1980's, nonmetals may be practical for manrated construction and operation. Every pound of vehi-
pressure hulls. cle negative buoyancy when submerged must be
compensated by a pound of supplemental buoy-
4. Supplemental Buoyancy Material ancy. If each pound of buoyancy material contrib-
uted only one-third pound of net buoyancy, then
a. Current Situation Vehicle volume is an one pound of negative buoyancy would require
important criterion in maneuverability, which im- the addition of three pounds of buoyancy mate-
proves as volume decreases. Volume is greatly rial.
influenced by the buoyancy material employed. The result would be that each pound added to a
Combatant submarines have been of such limited vehicle would compound to a total of four pounds
depth capability that buoyancy has generally not of dry weight. Based on current costs for installed
been a problem. In fact, they carry lead for buoyancy material, each added pound of vehicle
weight-growth margin and stability. Because of weight may cost an extra $200 to $300, a cost
available pressure hull materials, deep submersibles penalty approaching or exceeding that of excess
ordinarily attain neutral buoyancy by carrying weight on a jet aircraft.
extra buoyancy material.
Gasoline is used for supplemental buoyancy in b. Future Needs Volume reductions, and perhaps
the Dieste, which has descended 35,840 feet in very significant cost reductions, can result from
the Pacific. But gasoline is inefficient as buoyancy improved syntactic foams or other supplemental

VI-44

buoyancy materials. Ultimately it will be desirable applications include steel, titanium, aluminum,
to develop a buoyancy material providing 39 to 44 glass, glass fiber reinforced plastics, and ceramics.
pounds of lift per cubic foot for 20,000-foot All have promise of meeting low W/D ratios at
operations. Syntactic foam improvements may 20,000 feet by 1980.
require stronger, lighter resins and microspheres Although such materials as titanium and glass
with improved tolerances and fatigue life; the are being improved, once manufacturing and fabri-
possible combination of glass macrospheres and cating techniques have been developed the high
microspheres in the foam matrix; and castable strength steels might remain least costly for most
foams that can be poured into small irregular undersea applications. Materials failures in marine
spaces and set at room temperature. To use glass equipment, a major shortcoming of most oceano-
spheres, techniques must be developed to elimi- graphic efforts, may constitute a major obstacle to
nate the danger of sympathetic implosion, a very better utilization of the sea. Fatigue life under
serious problem prohibiting their use currently. cyclic stress is important in selecting materials for
A possible assist may come from development submersibles, and long-term corrosion is the key
of structural members which are themselves posi- consideration for permanent structures.
tively or neutrally buoyant. For example, an outer Extensive use of supplemental buoyancy mate-
skin built of laminated GRP imbedded with glass rial for operations below a few thousand feet is
microspheres might be used both to reduce wet likely to be required for many years. Currently for
weight and to add stiffness to the outer hull 20,000-foot operations, buoyancy materials give
structure. Effort devoted to improving buoyancy only about one-half pound of buoyancy for each
materials and developing buoyant structure is sure pound of their own weight. Vehicle volume has an
to be highly cost effective and could even permit important effect on maneuverability, and the
less advanced pressure capsule materials in 20,000 buoyancy material has. an important effect on
foot systems. vehicle weight, volume, and costs. Hence, im-
proved buoyancy materials and equipment will be
S. Secondary Materials very cost effective.
Independent or contractual materials develop-
There are a great number of critical secondary ment is not being undertaken to a meaningful'
materials problems for undersea structures, vehi- extent by industry. For example, 80 per cent of
cles, and devices. They involve rubber, plastics, the Navy's exploratory development in deep ocean
fabrics, fibers, insulations, hydraulic fluids, lubri- materials is undertaken in-house.
cants,. etc. The problems are related to such
environmental effects as leakage under pressure, Recommendations:
temperature embrittlement, corrosion, fouling,
scouring, and contamination. Most materials devel- Structural materials development must be acceler-
oped for submerged use have been employed only ated along seveml paths with sufficient funds to
near the surface. Research and development on reach fair conclusions about the ability to obtain
deep sea materials has barely begun. efficient deep submersible and habitat structures.
After. 10 years, efforts should be narrowed and
6. Conclusions production choices made. Research must be coor-
Materials technology development is of critical dinated and industry initiative encouraged; the
approach should be through systems engineering.
concern, and upon it the economy and effective- Efforts should focus on:
ness of undersea activities depends. Weight-to-
displacement pressure hull ratios of 0.4 to 0.6 are -Steel,I High strength steels development and
exceedingly important due to the fundamental fabrication techniques, including study of fatigue
requirement of supporting the remainder of the problems, should be pushed to obtain a high-
vehicle to achieve neutral buoyancy. quality, low-cost material.
If the pressure capsule cannot provide needed
buoyancy, supplemental material must be added, -Nonferrous metals. Aluminum and titanium
increasing vehicle weight and cost, and reducing should be developed to provide the basis for
effectiveness. Materials considered for structural efficient (W/D=0.4 to 0.6) 20,000-foot structures

VI-45

within 10 years. Emphasis should be given to
corrosion resistance, fabrication methods, and cost
reductions.

-Nonmetallics. Large glass structures for 20,000
feet should be manufactured and tested to prove
reliability. Construction methods and quality con-
trot techniques should be stressed. Glass fiber
reinforced plastic and ceramic structures should be
built and evaluated against glass, tita nium, and
steel; efforts should be dropped if no clear
2!
feasibility is shown within 10 years. GRP work
should emphasize reliability, resistance to detain-
ination, and reduction of water absorption.

Supplemental buoyancy material should be
developed with a major effort to provide a
low-density, acceptable-strength product having 39
pounds of buoyancy per cubic foot.
A 'program to develop secondary materiaals
should be emphasized to provide the needs of new
systems exposed to seawater. More vigorous re-
search into ocean causes and effects (Section 1, Figure 7. New Ambrose offshore buoy re-
Environmental Considerations) would feed direc- placing A -brose ligh tship off entrance to New
tly into this program. York Harbor, an aid to navigation long pro-
. vided by U.S. Government (Coast Guard photo)
A more comprehensive program should be
organized to ensure proper information transfer
among user, materials supplier, and designer to must be provided for command and control and
ensure proper testing of materials. Basic materials for emergencies. Acoustic frequency and power
data should be made available in handbook form level allocations will be required as undersea
to the designer, especially for some nonmetals and activity increases.
coatings. A system also is needed for the orderly
and accurate feedback of service experience infor-
mation. Testing results should be standardized. 1. Navigation, Geodesy, and Positioning

a. Current Situation Navigation, used here,
E. Navigation and Communications means the location of one point on the earth's
surface in relation to another. Geodesy is the
Navigation and positioning are prime requisites science of determining the three dimensional
to safe and successful operations on and beneath coordinates of locations (geodetic control points)
the sea. Traditionally, the U.S. Government has on the earth's surface. Positioning is locating
supplied geodesy, chartmaking, and navigational oneself relative to a local reference not necessarily
aids to its own agencies, industry, commerce, and established geodetically.
individuals (Figure 7). While there are many Marine surveys normally are positioned by
surface navigational aids, they generally lack pre- shore based electronic systems. Multiple methods
cision for operations out of sight of land. are sometimes used, including shore based, inertial,
Communications systems are essential to intelli- satellite, bathymetric, and acoustic systems. Selec-
gence interchange (including telemetry) among tion depends upon availability, repeatability or
submersibles, support platforms or ships, undersea accuracy, distance of operations from shore, and
stations, buoys, and associated satellites or air- purpose.
craft. Safety demands reliable communications Distance from shore of commercial develop-
equipment. Primary reliable communication links ments in the ocean regions is increasing, with no

V146

compensating decrease in the need for accuracy. I f acoustic and optical navigation aids, such as coded
anything, improved accuracy will be required transponders, Would permit periodic check of
because of increased operating and exploration, position. Networks of such devices would permit
costs at greater distances and in deeper water. sea lanes comparable to air lanes for navigation
Geodetic satellite programs on land are under and traffic control. Both surface- and bottom-
way to establish a worldwide control point system mounted units could be used. Inertial guidance
to an accuracy of � 10 meters in an earth-centere d systems, if reduced in cost and complexity, could
coordinate system. Applications of satellite meth- be used to extrapolate between navigation marker
ods to marine geodesy are under study. Satellites locations.
offer unique capabilities because they are inde- Navigation is basic to most surface and under-
pendent of distance from shore and provide a water missions; it must be emphasized, however,
singular reference datum. Cuff ent navigation by that position determination is a fundamental
polar orbiting satellites requires supplementary technology that justifies advancement inde-
methods for continuous positioning in the inter- pendently of mission requirements.
vals between satellite fixes. Uncertainties in ship Evaluation of mission requirements for navi-
velocity and satellite orbit plus sensitivity to gation support reveals that current capabilities are
azimuth and elevation of the satellite from a ship inadequate for general nonmilitary purposes. It
are current sources of error in satellite navigation. further indicates that advancement of basic navi-
Inertial navigation systems can be used to keep gation technology, at least in part, should be
position between satellite fixes. Developments in separated from immediate mission requirements in
navigation by geostationary satellites promise order that (1) potentially useful systems not be
marked improvement through taking simultaneous shelved in favor of expediency and (2) a broader
bearings on two or more synchronous satellites spectrum of instruments and information systems
continuously on station. incorporating navigation input be made available.
Broad future navigational needs range from
b. Future Needs The U.S. Government may have precise sophisticated systems for comprehensive
to provide underwater navigation aids as it has ocean surveying to simple, short range, but not
such surface aids as LORAN and satellite naviga- necessarily inaccurate systems for the occasional
tion (Figure 8). boating enthusiast.
The Department of Transportation presently is
developing a national plan for navigation through
the U.S. Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Admin-
istration. The plan will consider the development
and operation of navigation aids for current and
future aviation and maritime commerce. It will
identify areas of U.S. Government responsibility
for navigation services and the current and pro-
jected technology to carry out these responsi-
ities.

2. Communications

a. Current Status The primary communication
Figure 8. Coast Guard LORAN station at link between submersibles, support ships, and
bottom habitats is the acoustic underwater tele-
Nantucket, Massachusetts. Both LORAN-A and
LORAN-C signals are transmitted from this phone. Communication is slow and difficult, par-
station. (Coast Guard photo) ticularly when multipaths and reverberation are
present. For short range communication links
Lack of long range, straightline communica- optical systems may be practicable.
tions or sensing below the ocean surface severely Transmission of submersible and station status
limits subsurface navigation. The addition of and operating data by telemetry is preferable to

VI-47

voice transmission. No satisfactory equipment
J01
cu
rrently exists for this underwater acoustic need.
Development of higher data rates is greatly de-
sired.
Aa

b. Future Needs Needed will be a long-range
acoustic communication system requiring investi-
gations into the feasibility of new types of
communication links perhaps through the benthic
layer or solid earth. In the immediate future, an 0e,
acoustic link must be developed to test and
LZ
improve underwater communications and to sup-
port advancement of other fundamental ocean
technology. For later developments, it will be
required as a primary communication link for -4
facilities where cable and radio communications
are not feasible, as in remote locations.
Specific developments required for communica- Figure 9. Communications central aboard
tions: USC&GSS Oceanographer, one of the most
completely equipped centrals aboard non-
military U.S. flag vessels. tESSA photo)
-High and low frequency sound (infrasound and
ultrasound) sources and receivers with narrow
beam and directional characteristics.
-Acoustic frequency and time convers ion meth- ocean surface. However, for surveys below the
surface, for undersea construction, and for geo-
ods to permit direct usage of a larger portion of logical evaluation, the improved surface accuracy
the acoustic frequency spectrum.
f may be nullified by the underwater navigation
-Use of refraction layers in the ocean to enhance method used.
long-range communication and minimize interfer- Undersea exploitation is limited by the lack of
ence from components. three-dimensional navigation systems, a combina-
tion of navigation and bathymetry. The ocean
-Development of acoustic and electronic concepts environment places severe demands upon subsur-
to improve signal-to-noise ratio through signal face navigation. To the extent that subsurface
manipulation. transponders or transmitters exist, accuracy is
-Exploitation of other possible communication limited by original position determination plus the
media and such advanced technology as I Iasers. inaccuracies of acoustic ranging and direction-
fix-mg.
Radio frequency communications among ships, Acoustic communications are hampered by
buoys, surface platforms, aircraft, satellites I, and several basic deficiencies which prevent reliable,
shore stations will require adaptation of equip- high speed, wide band, accurate, short and long
ment to the special requirements of the ocean range information exchange. Development of un-
environment (Figure 9). Problems must be solved de .rwater acoustic link equipment is required for
habitat-t,o-surface communications.
with respect to allocation of frequencies, and Increasing surface traffic, wider utilization of
bandwidths necessary to support ocean activities.
submersibles, and future undersea stations and
3. Conclusions operations will require networks of communica-
tions-navigation aids.
Navigation is basic to most underwater mis- Long range acoustic communications are diffi-
sions. Ocean surveying requires the same types of cult to achieve. As alternatives, seismic and earth-
basic reference systems and accuracies as on land. field communications offer interesting possibil-
Satellite navigation improves dccuracy on the. ities.

VI-48

Radio frequency equipment must be adapted to ease of maintenance, ruggedness, and simplicity of
ocean needs, and frequencies and bandwidths must operation. Poor underwater visibility intensifies
be allocated. the problem. The need to resolve the tool problem
has resulted largely in using or modifying off-the-
Recommendations: shelf equipment, but such equipment is not
A formal program applying geodetic methods and satisfactory for the more sophisticated underwater
principles at sea should be initiated to achieve the tasks. Thus, tools built specifically for underwater
work should be designed.
following:

-Establishment of marine geodetic ranges to 1. Current Situation
validate and calibrate new systems.
Land tools are designed for an environment of
-Development of improved positioning systems low viscosity, high visibility, and negligible buoy-
for shelf surveys and future extensions seaward. ancy. The diver depends upon a vast number of
these land tools modified for water use, including:
-Expansion of geodetic satellite methods to ma-
rine applications for singular reference datums and _Tools for cutting, hammering, torquing, and
establishment of geodetic control points. welding.
-Establishment of a system of navigation aids -Air tools to provide selected application of
permitting navigation accurate to 150 feet at a buoyancy forces.
distance of 200 miles from shore.
-Water jet tools for clearing muds and digging
In addition, a comprehensive broad based devel- trenches.
opment program should be undertaken to:
-Knives, scrapers, and pry bars.
Amprove subsurface navigation instrumentation
accuracy and reliability. The effectiveness of underwater operations is
vitally dependent upon the adequacy of such
-Reduce navigation instrumentation size, com- hardware.
plexity, and cost. The basic characteristics-reliability, ease of
-Seek new media and methods. maintenance, ruggedness, endurance, and simplic-
ity of operation-are more critical for underwater
-Develop equipment to establish a local vertical ha rdware than for equipment on land. The petro-
reference. leum industry has modified land equipment skill-
fully for offshore use. Government agencies,
-Pursue research and development of acoustic oceanographic institutions, and marine equipment
communications and underwater acoustic links. firms have developed hardware for many under-
-Develop a network of communication-navigation water tasks. However, most existing ocean hard-
aids. ware items are seriously deficient in the basic
characteristics.
-Perform research on communications through Human underwater activity is greatly restricted
the benthic layers or the solid earth to determine by extremely reduced light transmission inwater
their feasibility for employment in undersea opera- compared to air. Under ideal conditions, vision is
tions. little more than 100 feet; by comparison, very
small objects can be distinguished at 2,000 feet in
clear air. Typically, vision on the continental
F. Tools shelves of the world ranges from 5 to 50 feet.
Where currents keep mud and organic material in
Those who work in the oceans agree that most suspension, vision may be no more than a few
existing tools are seriously deficient in reliability, inches.

VI-49
333-091 0-69-8

In order to alleviate these problems, some basic The Naval Underwater Warfare Center has been
studies are being made in tool development; a few working on a hydrodynamic winch, a salvage lift
examples are discussed below. padeye using explosive bolts, a buoyancy transport
The hammer undoubtedly would have devel- device which can carry objects weighing up to
oped along very different lines had the human race 1,000 pounds, a position and locating system for
evolved in a medium relatively as heavy and diver use, and a diver's underwater horning system.
viscous as water. Considerable energy is wasted
under water during the travel of the hammerhead
and shaft prior to impact. An efficient manual 2. Future Needs
underwater striking tool could employ a heavy There is an urgent need for tools designed
streamlined weight traveling a relatively short especially for underwater work. 'In addition, we
distance along a straight guide. Pneumatic ham-
must consider the scientist's tasks that will necessi-
mers accomplish the same effect with shorter tate good tools.
strokes. Future tool needs include:
Explosive studs fired from a hand gun to
penetrate the hull plates of sunken vessels have -All-purpose pneumatic wrenches.
been known since before World War II. Such tools
still are somewhat crude, but the possible variants -Self-contained power tools or tools with power
warrant further development. By clustering six or supplies small enough to be placed in the diving
eight stud guns around the periphery of a circular bell and that will function for hours on the
plate with a lifting eye in the center, a very solid bottom.
lifting pad can be attached quickly to almost any
sunken, metal structure. When injecting breathing -Tools adapted for -scientific work, such as coring
gas or air into a compartment for buoyancy, a tools with self-contained power supply, bottom
hollow stud driven through the compartment wall samplers with power supplies at or near the diver,
can serve as the through-hull penetrator. and marine life sampling tools which do not
Underwater welding techniques must consider disturb the bottom.
the chilling effect of the surrounding water. The
problem is especially evident with some high- In summary, the needs are for safer, more
yield-strength steels. Methods currently are under reliable tools for the commercial diver and special-
development to weld in a gas-filled compartment ized tools for the scientific diver.,
erected around the work area.
Steel can be cut by an electric oxygen torch
with a hollow electrode. After an arc has been
struck, oxygen is forced through the center of the 3. Conclusions
electrode to burn the hot steel.
Sonic search devices may be carried by divers in Recommendations:
poor visibility. A system presently undergoing test New, more sophisticated tools are needed for
employs a continuous transmission, frequency deeper diving commercial and scientific divers. (Aft
modulated (CTFM) signal. A hand-held device artist's concept of a futuristic diver working at
emits an acoustic signal; echoes from obstructions great depths is shown in Figure 10.) To that end, a
modulate the return signal's pitch conducted to more concerted basic and applied research pro-
the diver's earphqnes. A high pitch indicates an gram must be implemented. Some industrial tool
obstruction at close range. companies already are making preparations for
Because of high cost, the device is not used such work, but Federal assistance would expedite
extensively. Greater effectiveness and lower price progress. A Federally sponsored, long-range re-
should result from volume production and compe- search and development program to provide im-
tition. For many underwater search tasks, a proved tools and tool procedures would help, but
wrist-mounted magnetic compass is adequate, but a strong interim capability is needed now to
not reliable near a wreck or other large ferrous support present programs in the commercial,
structure. military, and scientific community.

VI-50

timely use in understanding and, predicting the
marine environment.
Ifighly stable ocean platforms like FLIP and
SPAR have been designed and constructed by the
U.S. Navy in conjunction with oceanographic
institutions to collect environmental data.
Requirements for improved mooring and posi-
tioning of floating installations will continue to
increase. Larger surface vessels and platforms,
offshore airports, harbor facilities, mobile break-
waters, and multipurpose floating island concepts
depend largely on improved mooring and position-
ing systems.

1. Mooring Systems and Buoys

a. Current Situation Open water mooring of
vessels and platforms is the traditional method for
stationing at sea. Anchor and cable systems are
used to moor buoys, dredges, pipelaying barges,
semi-submersible oil rigs, and drilling vessels. Brute
force mooring techniques have evolved for shallow
water locations, exemplified by the heavy sinkers
and chain moorings used by the Coast Guard for
navigational buoys (Figure 11). Excessive weights
Figure 10. Artist's concept of future diver-
operated jackhammer.

G. Mooring Systems, Buoys, and Surface Support
Platforms

In any underseas activity, surface support usu-
ally is necessary to monitor and control, provide
logistic support, render safety and rescue assist-
ance, and serve as a local terminus of operations. 4 Ak
In the future submerged support will become more
frequent. Small moored systems classified as buoys
>
have a long history as navigation aids. Use of @_777N @11
stationary large surface vessels, barges, and plat-
forms for commercial, scientific, and defense
purposes is increasing.
Moored buoys also have collected and trans-
mitted environmental information from selected
ocean areas. Study of the feasibility of ocean
data buoys has lead to formation of a Coast Guard
project office to develop a National Data Buoy
System. Unmanned moored data buoy networks
may be deployed over deep ocean and continental
shelf areas to measure automatically environ- Figure 11. Typical massive anchor and chain
mental parameters under, on, and above the water for mooring navigational buoys in shallow
surface and to transmit the information ashore for water. (Coast Guard photo)

VI-51

prevent brute force techniques from being em- platform and the vertical pull of the taut mooring
ployed in deeper waters. line.
In recent years, dynamic systems have been Vertical stability can be achieved through ap-
developed to position surface platforms in deep propriate. hull shapes like that of FLIP (Figure 12).
water. Water depth, positioning accuracy require- The platform's design characteristics result in a
ments, operational conditions, and platform size hull with minimum response to the forces imposed
economically justify a dynamic positioning system by passing waves.
for some applications. For most deep water
floating platforms, however, direct attachment to
the bottom is necessary.
New materials are replacing the traditional steel
cables and chains. Nylon, dacron, and polypro-
pylene reduce weight and minimize corrosion
problems of deep moors. New developments in
fiber glass cables and chains also promise corro-
sion-free, high-strength moorings. Connecting de-
vices of commensurate performance are required.
The stable surface platform, or specialized
buoy, must perform a variety of tasks peculiar to
the ocean environment. Special equipment is
required to meet these needs. Surface platforms
711/
and buoys have particular requirements for posi-
. . ....... W7
tion accuracy which vary widely. The required ..........
position accuracy usually is stated with respect to
geographic location. Horizontal accuracy is de-
fined as its watch circle (the area to which the
platform's horizontal movement is restrained).
.A system for maintaining buoy or surface
platform position with respect to geographic loca-
tion or bottom reference for extended periods is a
primary requirement, except for intentionally-free
buoys. Fixed moors require techniques to predict
and counteract forces in the mooring cables. If Figure 12. Floating Instrument Platform
embedment in rock is necessary, explosive anchors (FLIP). Draft is 300 feet in vertical position.
or equivalent techniques must be used. (Wavy photo)
Dynamic positioning systems incorporating var- b. Future Needs Technology leading to more
ious thrust control techniques (cycloidal propel- stable, and durable buoys and platforms is inter-
lers, directable propulsion units, or bow and stern related with many disciplines. It begins with a
thrusters) must undergo further evaluation at sea. better understanding and definition of the winds,
Automatic control systems must be developed to
signal corrective action depending upon inputs sea state, and currents over long periods and their
surface conditions, and navigational data; an ex' dynamic interaction with floating vessels and
perimental system should be built and tested at platforms. The following specific improvements
sea. Finally, options between fixed mooring and are needed:
dynamic positioning must be studied.
-Methods to survey bottom conditions and pre-
The horizontal watch circle in which a moored dict anchoring characteristics of bottom sedi-
platform may move is influenced by design provi- ments.
sions. As the watch circle is decreased, greater
demands are imposed on the anchor, which must -New types of anchors with greater holding power
resist both the horizontal drag of the buoy or in different bottoms at greater depths.

V1-5 2

-Increased fatigue life of cables and connectors to Avoiding surface effects by using submarines is
reduce this most common cause of failure in ideal. Long endurance submersibles using nuclear,
mooring lines. thermodynamic, or other power sources could
-Development of materials for higher strength minimize the need for support ships.
chains and cables. Current surface support systems development
by the Navy include a new class of ASRs (Figure
-More reliable, longer-life shackles, thimbles, swiv- 13). These ships, with catamaran hulls, are de-
els, and other fittings. signed to support rescue submersibles as well as
other Navy missions. The ASR is a greatly im-
-Improved line tension measuring equipment proved support platform, but definitely limited by
for monitoring and limiting loads imposed by wave action in more severe seas. A test support
floating platforms on mooring cables. ship, the IX-501, will be used for surface support
-Analyses of the coupling of the motions between of Sealab III (Figure 14). It depends on moorings
the platform and mooring cable under the excita- and relatively protected waters to support test
tion of wind and sea. operations.

-More sophisticated sensing and control systems
for dynamic positioning of large drilling ships and
barges. Dynamic positioning is relatively new, and
continual advancement will be required to estab-
lish its economic feasibility under all conditions at
sea.

-Low cost (high production) expendable buoy
technology including deployment concepts appli-
cable to large-scale buoy systems for use on a
global or quasiglobal basis.

Improved technology is expected to allow Figure 13. Artist's concept of first of new
series of submarine rescue ships (ASR).
buoys to be positioned in remote areas to report Catamaran hull configuration provides stable
synoptically observations via synchronous satel- platform and large working area necessary
for launching, retrieving, and supporting Deep
lites using VHF or higher UHF frequencies. Partic- Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and
ular emphasis should be placed on improved advanced diving systems. (Navy photo)
reliability so the service interval can be extended.

2. Surface Support Platforms

a. Current Situation Human underseas activity,
except for military submarine operations, has
required surface support. Development of sub-
merged support systems will not negate this
requirement.
Today the primary operating, cost of deep
submersibles results from the ships and systems to
support them. Except for high pressure associated
with great depths, the greatest and most dangerous
ocean forces are at the surface with its attendant
weather and wave system. Great hazards exist for
the small submersible even in moderate seas during Figure 14. U.S.S. Elk River (IX-501), special
launching, retrieval, and transfer of cargo and purpose range support ship first used in Sealab
111,operations, has center well, 65-ton traveling
personnel. A few wave lengths below the surface, gantry crane, deck decompression chambers, and
wave effects disappear. two personnel capsules. (Navy photo)

VI-53

The,Navy is modifying nuclear submarines and port system could provide reliability, relative
one diesel sub to test carrying the DSRV piggy- freedom from weather and sea state conditions,
back-a promising beginning of an all-weather and safer and less costly support, and availability.
under-ice submersible support system divorced The trend is toward improved support capa-
from the hazards of the ocean surface. bility. Development of new platforms designed
Through its own laboratories and in association specially for all-weather submersible support
with academic institutions, the Navy built FLIP whether by submarine or by deep-draft surface
and SPAR, two deep draft, surface stable platform stable vessel, is strongly encouraged. By 1980, a
vessels for oceanographic and acoustic research. more subsurface Navy and a proliferation of
They have proved very successful as stable plat- commercial submersibles will dictate improved
forms; FLIP is! reported to have experienced support systems capability. Work at continental
vertical motion of only three inches in the shelf depths and deeper will require surface
presence of 35 foot waves. support- ships. where surface conditions are favor-
7he following are important operations per- able and where the underwater task is such that a
formed by stable surface platforms: surface supported system can be deployed more
rapidly or economically. For many shelf opera-
-Vehicle handling. Uunching and retrieving man- tions'large submersibles may perform tasks with-
ned and unmanned vehicles involves handling out surface support.
heavy masses through a very,rarely calm,,ocean- , For underwater tasks requiring surface support;
atmosphere interface. Equipment and techniques a variety of ships will be used. It is unlikely that a
must be improved before launch and retrieval can single multipurpose platform could perform all
be accomplished safely and routinely. Submerged support functions. A need exists to investigate
retrieval (involving underwater docking) is a possi- platform requirements including selected model
bility being developed for the Navy's Deep Sub- studies and ancillary equipment development.
mergence Rescue Vehicle. Various stabilization systems are already in use
(e.g., stabilizers, tuned ballast, hull shaping) to
-De7ballasting. Mining, construction, and salvage decrease motion of ships under way. However,
operations, at continental shelf depths may require little has been accomplished for stationary plat-
large quantities of high and low pressure air for forms other than for FLIP and SPAR. Such
dp-ballasting operations. Routine provision of air stabilization techniques as mass traps should be
supplies at depth has not been accomplished. considered. The traps are formed by two long
-Diver support. A satisfactory surface system is plates held apart at intervals; water inside is
required to continuously support extended satura- trapped, providing an apparent mass that dampens
ted diving operations at sea. the motion of the platform.
A system to maintain a surface platform's
@Logistics. Surface platforms must be supplied position for extended periods with respect to
with materials and personnel while on station. geographic location or bottom reference will be
At-sea transfer techniques during severe weather required. Project Mohole did much for dynamic
must be developed; vertical replenishment with positioning.
helicopters offers a possible solution. Platforms A variety of lifting and emplacement require-
may be required to provide potable water, electric ments will be put upon future platforms. Available
power, high pressure air, heat, supplies, quarters, equipment or technology provides for lifts up to
subsistence, and medical care to personnel working 200 tons. Winches stabilized to counteract ship's
at the site below. motions during a lift operation have been thor-
oughly studied. For heavy lift or emplacement in
b. Fuhm Needs In the past there has been a excess of 200 tons, a large floating crane or similar
strong inclination to adapt off-the-shelf equipment device must be evaluated.
to needs of surface support vessels and platforms, 3. Conclusions
resulting in repeated failure of equipment to
function in an environment for which it was not Mooring and anchoring techniques and hard-
designed. A specially designed stable surface sup- ware are inadequate for the heavy load and long

VI-54

exposure demands of present and future deep They will serve as an upper terminus, power
ocean platforms and buoys. Present mooring sys- source, supply depot, and safety monitor to deep
tems employing wire rope encounter problems of ocean construction work and undersea station
excessive weight, corrosion, kinking, low elasticity, maintenance. These platforms will evolve from
torsional unbalance, and massiveness of handling FLIP, SPAR, and other systems which can main-
equipment. Systems employing nonmetallic nylon tain remarkable stability even in adverse weather
or dacron ropes encounter problems of fishbite, conditions.
lack of electrical cables for underwater instrumen-
tation, and mechanical attachment. Recommendations:
The National Data Buoy System project under
the Coast Guard will demand substantial develop- Research and development should be performed in
ment and improvement in deep ocean mooring and mooring technology and equipment to support
buoy technology, from which engineering in many deep ocean operations at 2,000 feet in 5 years and
other areas will benefit. at 20,000 feet in 10 years.
Present support for undersea activities is chiefly Several types of buoys and platforms should be
by surface ships. Experience with FLIP and SPAR investigated to determine effects of size, configura-
demonstrates that specially designed hulls can tions at the air-sea interface, underwater-shape
maintain remarkable stability under conditions of drag, draft, metacentric and pendulum stability,
severe sea and weather. Specially designed surface platfor -in directional control, mooring attachment
stable platforms are necessary to support deep location on different mooring systems, and the
ocean vehicles, stations, and activities. The dynam- system best suited for each type of platform.
ics of various types of floating platforms are A National Project for a Pilot Buoy Network in
sufficiently different that each must be treated support of the National Data Buoy System project
independently in establishing a satisfactory moor- of the Coast Guard should be implemented.
ing system- The more promising cable materials should be
In the future, large stable surface platforms evaluated under operational conditions.
may evolve into mid-ocean storage depots, trans- Surface stable platforms capable of supporting
portation centers, power stations, etc. (Figure 15). underseas vehicles, stations, and construction and
salvage activities to 2,000 feet in 5 years and to
20,000 feet in 10 years should be developed. The
platform must provide a surface terminal for
logistic support, vehicle handling, compressed air,
OHIO; I diver support, heavy lift, electric power, and other
ser-rices as needed by the undersea activity.

H. Biomedicine and Diving Equipment

Biomedical technology must go hand in hand
with equipment development to (1) improve hu-
man capability to withstand variations in pressure
and temperature, (2) enhance vision, hearing, and
tactile perception, (3) provide mobility and orien-
tation, and (4) make tool use effective while in a
virtually weightless condition.
The most effective diver is one who operates
freely, carrying his own life support system. Thus,
technology must be applied to resolve diver
Figure 15. Artist's concept of future large problems through biomedical research and devel-
stable surface platform. (North American opment and design of proper suits and breathing
Rockwell photo) rigs.

VI-55

1. Biomedicine extended beyond 1,200 feet in the near future.
a. Current Situation Fundamental nian-in-the-sea Saturation diving, however, requires expensive
technology is bio-engineering oriented and is par- special life support equipment and instrumenta-
ticularly concerned with human functions and tion and so is not economical for most current
performance undersea. Devices, equipment, and operations.
materials must be provided which (1) enable man Special breathing mixtures pose a host of
to withstand changes in pressure and temperature physiological and bio-engineering problems.
associated with increasing depth for extended and
repeated periods, (2) accommodate his sensory (L) Physiological Toxicity of breathing gases,
requirements to maintain adequate visibility, individually and combined, for greater depths is
orientation, feel, and hearing, and (3) provide him not established firmly-particularly for extended
with directional and locator capability, mobility, periods of continuous exposure.
and tools. The total effect upon respiration and metabo-
lism of operating at greater depths imposes severe
Although experimental dives have been made to restrictions on such basic operational parameters
depths in excess of 1,000 feet, current technology as rate of ascent, diving depth, duration, and work
restricts operation to approximately 600 feet for accomplished. For example, the breathing appara-
relatively short intervals. tus must precisely measure and control partial
Scuba (untethered diving wherein the diver pressure of oxygen when the concentration is well
carries his life support system, maintains near below one per cent.
neutral buoyancy, and enjoys nearly complete Gas density and sound velocity change with gas
dexterity) currently is most useful for shallow composition and distort the voice, making com-
short-duration dives. munication difficult.
Normally in commercial operations, divers are
tethered to the surface. The diver receives gas from (2.) Bio-engineeting Essentially all engineering
the surface and maintains communication with top- designs must be revised to accommodate variations
side personnel who calculate his decompression in density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
time. Diver bottom time is increased over scuba. other properties of gas mixtures employed. Mate-
Deep diving systems often are employed when rials, equipment, and instrumentation are subject
operations require dives in.excess of 300 feet for to serious malfunction because of these variations.
several hours. It is a specialized engineering problem, and discre-
The@ nucleus of the deep diving system is a tion must be exercised in employing off-the-shelf
pressure vessel that serves as an elevator trans- hardware.
porting divers to the underwater site. Many such The Navy's Biomedical Engineering Program is
systems provide for mating the personnel trans- conducted as a coordinated effort of several
fer capsule with a deck decompression chamber groups. The Deep Submergence Systems Project
so divers can decompress in relative comfort. Deep and the Office of the Supervisor of Salvage are
diving systems eliminate in-water decompression involved principally with hardware development
and provide backup life support to enhance safety. for near-term application.
If a man is to work for a long period at a The Underwater Bio-Sciences Research Program
particular" depth he must adapt physiologically. of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery is a
Prolonged living under increased pressures has comprehensive five-year plan for basic research in
been demonstrated in such saturated diving experi- support of Navy underwater operational require-
ments as the U.S. Navy's Sealab and the Cousteau ments. Concurrent human factors research is
Conshelf. Using this technique, after about 24 directed by the Office of Naval Research. The
hours a diver has absorbed all the gas his system overall plan was issued by the Chief of Naval
will at that depth, and the time he must spend in Development, who enlisted the aid of several
decompression remains the same. Therefore, the organizations and the academic community.
longer the diver stays, the greater his productive
time compared to decompression time. b. Future Needs The following Navy programs in
Saturation diving has been employed in the underwater biomedical research and development
open sea to about 650 feet and probably will be are designed to meet future biomedical needs.

VI-S6

(1) General physiology (c) Psycho-physiological effects of air ions.
(a) Cardio-pulmonary physiology. (d) General atmosphere studies in isobaric
(i) Pulmonary ventilation, work of closed environments.
breathing, and related studies.
(ii) Thermal and gaseous effects on circu- (6) Psychology
lation. (a) Selection and training.
(b) Heat loss and caloric requirements of (b) Sensory and motor adjustments.
underwater swimmers. (c) Psycho-physiological adjustments.
(c) Nutritional requirements in hyperbaric (d) Group functioning.
environments.
(d) Physiological effects and indications of
stress resulting from prolonged exposure 2. Diving Equipment
to environments.
a. Current Situation (L) Breathing Rigs Semi-
(2) Decompression studies closed rigs predominate when diving is sup-
(a) Study of deep and prolonged dives using ported by a submersible chamber. They also
various mixtures to depths of human are used extensively by free swimming military
tolerance. divers (Figure 16). The system requires less than
(b) Feasibility studies of computer use for one-tenth the gas supply of completely open-
decompression computations. circuit breathing rigs. The diver's exhalation passes
(c) Studies of basic physical-physiological
factors in bubble formation.
(d) Development of advanced therapeutic
procedures for decompression sickness.
(e) Studies of the effects of chronic ex-
posures to hyperbaric environments.

(3) Studies of inert gases and artificial atmo-
spheres
_J
(a) Studies of new gas mixtures and effects to
depths of tolerance or to 2,000 feet.
(b) Basic and clinical research in oxygen
toxicity.
(c) Effects of gases under pressure on cellular
metabolism and neuromuscular function.
(d) Solubility and distribution of inert gases
in body tissu6s.

(4) Pharmacology
(a) Evaluation of drugs in hyperbaric environ-
@A
ments.
(b) Pharmacological agents to combat stress
and fatigue in underwater environments.
(c) Pharmacologic adjuncts . for hyperbaric
oxygen therapy.
(d) Prophylaxis and therapy of illness and
injury from marine life.

(5) Atmosphere studies: isobaric and hyperbaric
(a) Trace contaminants toxicity. Us.-I -
(b) Toxicological appraisal of undersea con- Figure 16. Diver @esting atethered, semi-
struction materials. closed breathing ng. (Westinghouse photoj

VI-57

through a baralyrne or sodalime canister which
absorbs the carbon dioxide, recycling most of the
exhaled gas for rebreathing. Semiclosed rigs are
simpler than closed-circuit, mixed-gas rigs, but the
improved gas economy (duration) of the closed-
'ARPLIFIER
4
circuit rig compels its consideration in the future.
INERT-aAS@
Closed-circuit pure oxygen rigs are very simple; co2 BOTTLE
11NN11T11
however, human physiological reaction to oxygen
restricts their use generally to depths of 25 feet for AWL
ne hour. Unless there is a basic breakthrough in -BOA
0 ...
diving medicine, closed-circuit pure oxygen rigs
will find little application.
OXYGEN RE(MATOR@
SOME
SELECTOR
The closed-circuit, mixed-gas rig offers the same VALVE
gas economy as the closed-circuit, pure-oxygen rig
(Figures 17 and 18). However, the consumption of ti@ EMERGENrY'
-VALVE
oxygen in the mixture varies with work rate and
I HER r-GAS
depth, and addition of oxygen must reflect such BOTTLE
changes. This requires precise sensors and control
devices that increase cost and complexity while
degrading reliability.
Some of the most advanced rigs employ either
polarographic or fuel cell oxygen sensors. Control
of partial pressure of oxygen through cryogenic Figure 18. Closed-circuit, mixed-gas breathing
technology has been demonstrated. rig (back view). (Westinghouse photo)
Because of the narcotic properties of nitrogen
in compressed air and the very high air consump-
tion rates, open-circuit sport scuba rigs and the standard hard hat air rigs have little place in
saturation diving.

(2.) Protective Clothing Diving often involves
exposure to cold water, making protective clothing
essential. Even water that feels warm can result in
ant heat loss if an exposure suit is not worn.
import
N
!INHALATION EXHALATION otwithstanding the many advances in diving
BAN BAN
technology, much commercial diving still is done
with the heavy rubber and canvas dress associated
with hard hat diving invented by Augustus Beebe
SELECTOR M1837 (Figure 19).
PURGE
VALVE
A recent notable departure has been the metal
suits having rigid subsections with movable joints.
These are one-atmosphere suits; whereas, the hard
hat suits expose the diver to ambient pressure. The
latest is a development from a space suit. Because
of the complex geometry of the human anatomy,
me joints are very difficult to make. To be useful,
A@l AT.I. the joints must be flexed easily while an effective
WRIST METER@
seal at pressures of several hundred pounds per
square inch is maintained.
In the last 25 years, close-fitting, pliable rubber
Figure 17. Closed-circuit, mi:xed-gas breathing and neoprene suits have been developed for free
rig (front view). (Westinghouse photo) swiniming divers. These fall into two main cate-

VI-58

The wet suit is made of closed cell neoprene
sheets, and consists of a close fitting jacket,
A 'trousers, hood, gloves, and socks. The layer of tiny
gas bubbles entrapped in the closed cell neoprene
between the cold water and the diver's body
Urn of water inside
provides insulation. The thin f
the suit is virtually stagnant and rises very quickly
to skin temperature. Because the flexible suit
material contains gas in closed cells, the increasing
pressure of depth compresses the material, dimin-
ishing its insulating value and the diver's buoy-
ancy.
Heated suits are among the most recent devel-
opments they contain electric heating elements or
tubes for hot water circulation (Figure 20). One

Figure 19. Hard hat diver. (Westinghouse photo)

gories: dry suits, intended to keep the wearer dry,
and wet suits, which have a thin, relatively
stagnant layer of water between the swimmer's
skin and the suit.
The dry suit still is preferred for extremely cold
water. It usually is made of rubber, relying on seals
at waist, neck, wrist, and ankles to keep water out.
Woolen underclothing may be worn inside. A
major disadvantage is that a tear admitting water
practically destroys the suit's insulating effect.
More sophisticated dry suits (constant volume
suits) now are available; a regulated gas supply
keeps the inside of the suit slightly above ambient
pressure and prevents squeeze as the diver changes Figure 20. Model of hot water circulation suit.
depth. (Westinghouse photo)

VI-59

new water heated garment consists of a modified return to the surface regardless of the time spent
neoprene wet suit supplied with hot water by a underwater and as rapidly as desired.
hose from the surface or from a diving chamber. Medical technology,has produced artificial kid-
The hot water enters a simple hose distribution neys and artificial lungs. It may be possible that
system from a control block at the waist and flows suitable extracorporeal gas exchangers modeled
to the hands and feet. From the extremities, water after the gills of fish could be constructed. An
flows back over the diver's skin and exits from the artificial gill, enabling a diver to obtain oxygen by
suit to the ocean at the face and neck openings. diffusion from the sea rather than from stores
Another diver, undergarment contains tubes carried in cylinders, would have obvious logistic
stitched to the fabric, an adaptation from a advantages. Even more important, a diver equip-
cooling garment used in outer space. Water enters ped with an artificial gill, extracting oxygen like a
at the waist, is piped back again to the waist, and fish from the water, could. never be exposed to
returns thence to the heating unit. The tubes toxic oxygen partial pressures (Figure 21).
extend to hands, feet, and fingers.
The bulk of a suit relying only on the insulating
value of its material limits diver mobility and
dexterity. In water below 450F., insulation will
not protect fingers inside a glove. When manual
dexterity is required, mission duration is limited to
about one hour. However, a diver can be sustained
indefinitely in near-freezing water by hot water or
electrical energy readily supplied. Present technol-
ogy would require about 500 pounds of silver-zinc
batteries for the energy necessary for a six-hour
mission. For this reason, such advanced concepts
as isotope heat sources are being investigated.

b. Future Needs The most critical problem with
exposure suits is development of a light, compact,
selfcontained energy pack for a free swimming
diver. The most promising systems rely on silver-
zinc batteries to supply electrical energy, a pyro-
technic cartridge to supply heat, or an isotopic
power source to supply both. Suits produced for Figure 21. Artist's concept of future diver
the astronauts may be adaptable. for underwater wearing gill-pack.
use. Because of the high cost of development, the
initial versions are likely to be tailored for military The possibility of man exchanging respiratory
needs. gases directly with an aquatic environment have
Diving with a selfcontained underwater breath- not been explored seriously until the present
ing apparatus is restricted by the compressibility, decade, and it is difficult to predict the outcome
solubility, and narcotic effects of gases. Increased of such research.
volumes* of gases can be made available by cryo- Underwater breathing systems during the next
genic technology. Another solution would be to few decades will be dictated by the need -for
use breathing mixtures that are not compressible. breathing support related to man existing under
Liquids such as physiologic saline solution are high pressure. More people will spend appreciable
likely to behave as biologically inert respiratory time in wet environments operating untethered
gas dilutants at great depths, in contrast to from a habitat or diving system. Therefore, they
compressed inert gases. will need compact, reliable systems and the ability
No excessive amounts of inert gas can dissolve to eliminate or reduce manyfold the present
in the blood and tissues of a diver with liquid filled decompression time penalties. The technique of
lungs regardless of depth. Hence, the diver could liquid breathing, anticipated as a revolutionary

VI-60

departure from mixed gas breathing, opens the There is an urgent demand for breathing appa-
possibility of greatly shortened decompression ratus using available breathing gases most effi-
periods. ciently and for a system to heat diving suits under
Needs in breathing gas technology include: deep sea pressures and temperatures.

-New breathing mixture components that provide 3. Conclusions
chemical inertness and nontoxicity without unde-
sirable changes in density and thermal conductivity. Current diving technology permits operations in
protected or relatively shallow waters to a depth
-Better understanding of the toxic reactions of of approximately 600 feet; however, free diving in
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen. excess of 1,200 feet will probably soon be
-Better understanding of the effects of various gas realized. With proper emphasis, this capability
mixtures-one component on another. probably can be increased to 2,000 feet or more,
but there are extremely difficult physiological
-Data on the physical aspects of respiration under hurdles to be overcome in diving at much.greater
water during various levels of physical activity. depths.
Progress of free diving at greater depths is
-Better understanding of the aeroembolism pro- retarded by such numerous problems as safety,
cesses (blood and tissue gas dynamics) and subse- breathing gases, body heat retention, diver speech,
quent establishment of more precise decompres- and decompression. Research and development is
sion procedures. in progress on these matters. Liquid breathing
-Toxicity of oxygen at high pressure and pro- research, if successful, may provide a means of
longed exposures. attaining depths in excess of 2,000 feet.
Oxygen toxicities and hypoxia. have been exten-
sively studied, but long-term exposure to such
-Central nervous system narcosis by nitrogen and inert gas mixtures as helium-oxygen, nitrogen-
other inert gases. oxygen, or hydrogen-oxygen mixtures at pressure
Closely related is the need for bio-engineering has not been studied sufficiently to establish
appropriate diver exposure lin-tits. Reduction in
development to solve the problems of: decompression time for saturation divers is ex-
pected to become a critical economic factor in
-Equipment and materials to maintain body heat utilization of free divers.
balance and to preserve tactile sense and manual In engineering designs of diver support equip-
dexterity. ment, specialized problems are involved and off-
the-shelf techniques should be used with discrirni-
-Increased resistance to breathing under increased nation.
pressures. The number of deep ocean divers is multiplying
on all coasts, and saturation diving will become
-Long, slow decompression. common practice in the near future. There is a
-Loss of body heat during prolonged submer- shortage of sustained funding for personnel and
gence. facilities engaged in advanced diving research and
medical treatment.
-Impairment of speech by artificial atmospheres.
Recommendations:
-Action of drugs and medical procedures for man Research should be pursued to make possible.
in the sea.
effective free diving at depths of 2,000 feet in 10
Effective, compact, and compatible swimmer years or less, seeking to attain increased depth
doppler navigation and sonar systems are needed. capabilities in 20 years by perfection of liquid
Today's support equipment is too heavy, bulky, breathing.
and difficult to integrate into the total diver Research and development should be acceler-
system. ated to improve and simplify diving techniques,

VI-61

diver safety, breathing gas technology, body heat The near-surface environment of the oceans
retention, diver speech, diver nutrition, and de- varies greatly from place to place and time to time.
compression technology. @ However, near-surface current velocity, sea state,
Experiments should be conducted "posing visibility, background noise, and sound propaga-
lower animals to inert gases and, mixtures up to tion are probably less variable and influential on
one month at various pressures, temperatures, undersea systems than ocean floor and sub-bottom
humidities, and activity levels to determine guide- environmental differences like bathymetry, sedi-
lines and limitation of diver exposure. ment distribution, and acoustic characteristics.
A national program to train medical personnel The sea floor is much less well known than the
and expand facilities for diver medical treatment nearsurface environment.
and research should be established. Improved techniques for undersea surveys are
needed for economical and timely completion of
1. Environmental Considerations such needed ocean information as the following:

The major features of the geophysical environ- -Gross bathymetry, slope, and roughness.
ment-air, sea, and the land beneath the sea-must ,
be understood to further ocean technology. The -Small scale bottom roughness.
systems and techniques to study these features -Sediment shear strength.
encompass ships, aircraft, satellites, buoy systems,
undersea fixed platforms, and maneuverable sub -Liquid-solid interaction and bearing strength.
mersibles. Much basic technology of marine
science is at hand to make great progress, but -Geological patterns, salt domes, and examination
efforts are fragmented and information is scat- of outcrops.
tered. -Gravity and magnetic readings and false magnetic
A thorough understanding of the following targets.
factors is necessary for operations in and under the
sea. -Small scale reflection profiles and seismic charac-
teristics.
-Submarine topography, stability of slopes, -Temperature and heat conductance.
microbathymetry, bottom composition, engineer-
ing and chemical properties, and bottom currents _Circulation and tidal currents, including turbidity
(including turbidity flow). currents.
-Temperature, salinity, density, dissolved gases, _Internal waves.
pH, Eli, and nutrients.
-Fouling, bioluminescence, dangerous animals, -Behavior of visible light and water clarity.
and false-target and sound-scattering organisms. -Sound propagation, background noise, and false
-Currents, waves, breakers, surf, internal waves, acoustic targets.
sea level, and tides. Data collection techniques now utilized (mainly
-Distribution, concentration, and thickness of sea analog) require lengthy processing and analysis
ice. procedures. Use of digital techniques, including
realtime data collection and processing at sea, is
-Spatial and temporal variation, deflection of increasing, but much still must be done to meet
vertical anomalies of gravity and magnetism. basic needs (Figure 22).
It should not be inferred that knowledge is 1. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata
completely lacking in the above factors, but
improvements in environmental measurement and a. Current Situation Submarine topography and
prediction are essential for success in increasing microbathymetry operations include (1) prepara-
national capabilities in the ocean. tion of bathymetric (bottom topographic) charts

VI-62

Research into the seafloor's changing topo-
graphy and structure also is necessary for both
military and nonmilitary use. Development of free,
self-propelled, unmanned undersea probes as well
as manned exploration submersibles will enhance
survey capabilities. Such systems must operate to
depths of 20,000 feet.
The Navy Shipboard Survey Development Pro-
gram includes capabilities to take narrow beam
and wide beam bathymetric data from a cable
towed instrument package operable to 20,000
feet. The system includes devices to display
essential data on a ship's bridge. The Navy plans
such capability for 11 vessels, 2 of which are now
in operation, US.N.S. Silas Bent and U.S.N.S.
Elisha Kane.

Figure 22. Computer aboard USC&GSS Oceanog-
rapher is used for data collection and processing. 2. Bottom Composition and Engineering Prop-
(ESSA photo) erties

of the oceans prepared to various scales and a. Current Situation Knowledge of the composi-
various contour intervals and (2) studies of the sea tion, properties, and mechanical behavior of sea-
floor to determine provinces of similar structures floor sediments is essential for designing founda-
such as basins, ridges, and rises and to determine tions, recovering minerals, predicting the behavior
direction and degree of slopes. of vehicles and equipment on or in the ocean
Location and description of submarine physio- floor, tunneling, pipeline and cable laying, control-
graphic features are indispensable to: ling pollution, disposing of waste, salvaging and
recovering objects, and interpreting geophysical
-Determining areas of potential mineral or petro- records. In underwater work, soil mechanics must
leum deposits. be applied in drilling, coring, pile driving, dredging,
-Site selection for bottom installations. mining, and operations involving penetration into
seafloor sediments.
-Surface or subsurface navigation. @ Soil mechanics is established reasonably well
for engineering tasks on land. With very few
-Developing sonar techniques for finding new exceptions, theoretical and applied ocean soil
fisheries. mechanics (away from coastal areas) is no more
than 15 years old. The studies and measurements
b. Future Needs There have been few major made in this relatively short time are few. fligh
developments in bathymetric survey techniques pressures, dynamic conditions, and inaccessibility
and systems since invention of the sonic echo contribute to the complexity of the problem.
sounder and graphic recorder, although progress The reliability of underwater soil engineering
has been made in precision depth recorders and data must be better than for land applications.
side-looking sonars. Failures of land structures due to erroneous soils
One major step, digital recording of soundings data can be remedied and normally are not
as a supplement to graphic recording, has cut catastrophic. Submerged installations, however,
drastically the time required to produce bathy- are not susceptible to convenient repairs; failures
metric charts. This development can be improved can be costly and hazardous.
even further. Faster and more detailed bathymet- Remote sediment sampling from surface ships
ric surveying methods based on advances in acous- by snappers, dredges, and corers is unsuitable to
tic, photographic, recording, and other types of obtain the relatively undisturbed samples needed
instrumentation are needed. for engineering purposes. In situ sediment sam-

VI-63

pling has been accomplished in shallow waters by Research and development needed to advance
scuba divers and in deeper water by submersibles. undersea soil mechanics capabilities include:
Submersibles permit direct observation of the
sampling process and can acquire samples with -Samplers for use by divers, submersibles, and
thin wall devices in the upper six feet of sediment. surface ships.
Laboratory experiments on seafloor sediments -Instruments for on-site measurements like vane
have been conducted using samples recovered by
coring devices, . submersibles, or other means. shear at several depths within a sediment body.
Meaningful engineering measurements can be made -Equipment to take long borings in deep water,
in the laboratory and related to in situ measure- including techniques to re-enter bore holes.
ments. Selective sampling of large areas should
yield reconnaissance information of wide applica- Anstrument packages for narrow beam echo
bility such as in preliminary site studies. sounding and high resolution profiling devices to
be towed at cruising speeds.
b. Future Needs Prediction of foundation stabil- -Instruments to record properties of turbidity
ity should be facilitated by determining such
currents.
sediment properties as permeability and dynamics
of water movement, depth-dependent strength Foun .dation engineering criteria must be estab-
gradients, compressibility characteristics, and elas-
lished and transformed into pertinent seafloor data
tic and plastic equilibrium to predict foundation requirements. Because underwater foundations
stability. Mass sediment stability characteristics
include bearing capacity, settlement, slope stabil- will be constructed on the basis of information
ity, penetrability, and breakout forces. acquired under adverse conditions, methods are
These properties are important to such applica- needed to inspect them and surrounding soil and
tions as. operation of mining machinery on the to effect repairs.
ocean floor, reflection and refraction of sound Interaction between underwater foundations
and bottom soil can result in the creation of
energy striking the ocean floor, geophysical explo- complex moments . and forces. Techniques are
ration, and foundation site selection and prepara- needed whereby lateral, uplift, twisting, and over-
tion.
To determine slope stability and layer thick- turning forces and moments can be applied and
nesses, sediment properties must be known to measured singly and in combination. Sensors to
considerable depths. Properties cannot be deter- detect changes in pressures, deflections, or dis-
placements would be useful in surveying the ocean
mined now below the uppermost few feet. Also,
there is a need to determine the probability of floor locally prior to and following construction.
occurrence, the properties, and possible effects of I
turbidity currents on installations. Instrumenta- 3. Physical and Chen-dcal Properties of Seawater
tion systems able to remain submerged for long
periods must be developed. a. Current Situation The three properties that
Chemical additives or mechanical conditioning most affect underwater design are pressure, temp-
may be able to increase sediment strength or erature, and salinity. They influence the basic
prevent stirring fine particles which reduce visibil- physical properties of seawater-density, specific
ity. However, in some places the need for artifi- volume, electrical conductivity, compressibility,
cially improving visibility is eliminated since strong sound velocity, viscosity, and surface tension.
currents carry suspended sediments away. Osmotic pressure, freezing point, and boiling point
Comparative analytical studies of all common are determined by salinity only.
sediment types are needed to relieve the need for
detailed in situ sampling. Instrumentation systems (L) Density On the average one cubic foot of
lowered to the ocean floor could transmit or seawater weighs 64 pounds; one cubic foot of ice
record data on density, sound velocity, shear weighs 56 pounds, and one cubic meter (35 cubic
strength, and sediment bearing capacity to quickly feet) of seawater weighs one long ton or 2,240
characterize an area. pounds. However, these values vary with tempera-

VI-64

ture, salinity, and pressure. The water column
consists of multiple density layers rather than a
stiadily increasing density with depth. A direct
method to measure density is needed.

(2.) Acoustic Properties Sound is the principal
means of communication and detection in the sea.
For locating objects, positions, and terrain features
or for probing the nature of sediments, I sound is
essential. Unfortunately, temperature changes with
depth bend sound waves, and the changes vary
with time and space.
For these reasons, water temperature is the
ocean property most widely measured. The Navy
alone makes more than 5,000 temperature sound-
ings per month. Such data are essential for ' the
Naval Weather Service to derive daily maps of
near-surface sonar propagation conditions.
Sound from a source in the ocean's near-surface
region follows many diverse paths generally classi-
fied as:

-Surface duct. Sound travelling in the near-surface
region. Figure 23. STD sensor for measuring water sa-
linity, temperature, and depth being lowered
-Bottom bounce. Sound reflected off the ocean from USC&GSS Oceanographer. (ESSA photo)
floor.
-Convergence zone. Refracted sound travelling (3.) Electromagnetic Properties Seawater rapidly
along a deep path and sometimes reinforced with absorbs almost every wave length in the electro-
energy from the bottom. magnetic spectrum. Radio waves (except ex-
tremely long high-energy waves) are attenuated
The development of operations in the latter immediately in water. Infrared waves are absorbed
two categories requires geophysical data. New by water molecules. Ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma
technology for measuring temperature, salinity, rays are absorbed by electrons or atomic nuclei.
and pressure includes: However, water is relatively transparent to visible
and near-ultraviolet light.
-Salinity-temperature-depth system (Figure 23)
which records water salinity and temperature at (4.) Salinity Salinity is defined in terms of
various depths. dissolved solid material in seawater. The salts
of sodium and chlorine are the most important,
-Expendable salinity-temperature-depth system. accounting for approximately 85 per cent. Of
the various constituents, only calcium is pres-
-Airborne radiation thermometer which measures ent in a state of saturation; seawater is far
sea surface temperature by infrared. radiation, from saturated with the others. Seawater's ability
enabling an aircraft or a satellite to quickly amass to dissolve large amounts . of solids and gases
data over a large area. without reacting chemically with them is one of its
-Buoy temperature sensor cables. most important properties.
Salinity varies in different ocean areas; how-
-Expendable bathythermographs for measuring ever, approximately 90 per cent of seawater falls
temperatures at various depths by surface vessels within 34 to 35 parts per thousand. New dis-
and aircraft. coveries have been made in hot spots where

VI-65
333-091 0-69-9

salinities are as high as 240 parts per thousand. In overlying waters. Carbon dioxide occurs in rela-
some areas gold concentrations are over 600 times tively large amounts in seawater as carbonates and
the ocean average. (Such discoveries could be bicarbonates.
important in ocean mining.) Some ocean areas produce abundant gas bub-
The Nansen bottle, developed in the 1890's, bles that greatly impede sound waves. In the
still is used to take samples for analyzing seawater Southern California Bight and in the Red Sea
salinity. Improved instruments are needed to virtual curtains of gas continuously are rising
sample and measure very deep waters quickly and from the ocean floor. In some areas of high
easily. productivity or of stagnation (like the Black Sea)
The mutual exchange of energy and material deep waters produce hydrogen sulfide bubbles and
between ocean and atmosphere at the ocean contain little or no oxygen.
surface depends largely on the chemistry of the
topmost layer of water. The importance of diffu- (6) Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Values of
sion processes near the deep ocean bottom, is just pH a measure of hydrogen ion concentration
beginning to be appreciated. In some cases these ran'ge from zero (highly acid) through 7.0 (neutral)
may be studied by such natural tracers as the to 14 (highly alkaline). The carbon dioxide con-
upward diffusion of radium from the sediments tent mainly detern-dnes the pH value of seawater.
into the bottom waters. Mixing mechanisms and In the deep ocean it generally decreases from
rates between upper, intermediate, and deep ocean about 8.3 at the surface to 7.7 at depths between
layers can be studied by artificial radioactive 1,200 and about 3,000 feet, below which it rises
tracers as well as natural chemical tracers. to about 7.8. Values as low as 7.5 are found in
areas of high biological activity because of carbon
(5.) Dissolved Gases Gases constitute about 0.25 dioxide liberation. Near the shore, the pH may
per cent by weight of ocean water, their solubility drop sharply due to introduction of fresh water
decreasing with increasing temperature or salinity. streams highly charged with decaying vegetation
The most important and abundant gases in the and organic matter from the land. Sometimes a
ocean are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. sharp drop in pH is found immediately above the
Dissolved oxygen is of special interest to undersea ocean bottom because of carbon dioxide produced
systems because of its corrosive effect on mate- by such bottom organisms as bacteria.
rials. Surface waters are usually saturated with
dissolved oxygen. (7) Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) Organic
The amount of dissolved oxygen decreases with matter also has a great effect on the Eh of water.
depth until an oxygen-minimum layer is reached at (Eh, or oxidation-reduction potential, is a measure
a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. Below this oxygen of the ability to accept or donate electrons, thus a
content gradually increases until the bottom is measure of corrosiveness.) Seawater approximately
reached. Very deep bottom waters frequently have six feet above sediment sometimes has Eh values
an oxygen content approaching that of surface of zero; below this level and into the sediment, Eh
water. may drop as low as -300 millivolts. At the sea
Dissolved oxygen indicates the age of deep cold surface Eh usually is about +300 millivolts. Bot-
currents entering from surface polar regions. This
tom topography strongly influences whether zero
free oxygen is consumed by deep water marine Eh occurs six feet above the bottom or below the
life. In waters within the sediments, the oxygen sediment surface. Thus, site selection surveys for
content drops radically because of the activity of
bacteria and bottom .dwelling organisms. bottom habitats and installations are necessary to
Nitrogen in seawater, occurring as free dissolved anticipate corrosion problems.
gas or in such compounds as nitrates, nitrites, and
ammonia, is essential for living matter and deter- (8.) Radioactivity Disposal of low-activity solid
mines the growth rate of ocean plants. Sediments radioactive wastes in specified areas of not less
on the bottom often have only a small amount of than 6,000-foot depth is permitted. These wastes
organic nitrogen, correlating with the concentra- are sealed in containers and should cause no
tion of organic matter in the sediments and in the problems to underwater operations.

VI-66

The natural occurrence of radioactive elements like spectral components, period of maximum
in seawater is very small, the principal element energy, and directional behavior.
being potassium740. Man-made radioactive mate- Older instruments to measure sea state include
rial enters the ocean by fallout.Although seawater ship's wave recorders, photo wave recorders, wave
greatly dilutes these wastes, some radioactive poles, and stereo photogrammetry. New instru.
elements are concentrated by biological organisms. ments take continuous measurements of the sea
Ionization chambers, Geiger counters, photo- surface from ships, satellites, and aircraft, provid-
multiplier scintillometers, and similar instruments ing accurate and more complete observations.
can be suspended from ships to measure radio- These include (1) the airborne wave meter
activity. utilizing a radar altimeter device to acquire wave
structure profiles, (2) a sonic echoing device
b. Future Needs New techniques to measure mounted on -a ship's bow to measure waves
directly temperature, salinity, and sound velocity continuously and to compensate automatically for
to greater depths are needed to provide direct ship motions, and (3) cameras'on satellites (espe@
digital and analog output required for realtime cially in synchronous orbit) to produce photo-
data processing. graphs analyzed for information on sea surface
Airborne and shipborne deep expendable re- conditions. Wave sensors on fixed ocean platforms
cording bathythermographs for direct digital meas- like the Argus Island permit study of storm waves
urements of temperature versus depth to 20,000 not normally measured by ships.
feet from a moving platform are needed. Direct Subsurface wave motion, surf conditions (im-
measurement of sound velocity to great depths is portant derivatives of surface waves), and such
required for reliable sonar operation. wave processes as generation, propagation, refrac-
New techniques are required to permit rapid, tion, decay, filtering, and subsurface pr6ssu're
continuous in situ analyses of the important fluctuations are little understood.
chemical properties of seawater and bottom sedi- Mathematical models for computer use are
ments, particularly at sites considered for undersea being developed to reduce complex wave motion
installations. data to understandable information. The Environ-
mental Science Services Administration is develop-
4. Dynamic Factors ing mathematical models of ocean-atmosphere
interactions and of the conveyance of heat and
Ocean energy decreases with depth; therefore, water. A more sophisticated model of total world
practically all the ocean's environmental energy is hydrology, including sea ice, ground water, and
contained in gravity waves, tides, and currents. Yet other factors, has been developed, but its appli-
other factors are important because of their cation is limited by lack of experimental data.
potential hazards. Instrumentation to obtain pertinent data is vitally
needed, and the technology to develop it appears.
a. Gravity Waves Predicting the exchange of available.
energy and material across the air-sea interface is Future wave measuring sensors must measure
largely concerned with the growth and decay of not only height but the entire directional spec-
gravity.(wind gcDerated) waves. This aspect has trum. Knowledge of waves for engineering design
progressed well, making available refined forecast-, criteria is lacking. Some numerical analysis tech-
ing techniques. Much data on average wave heights niques have been developed for design criteria of
exist, although data still are lacking on wave the Polaris ballistic missile and other systems.
lengths. Current research is directed primarily at These techniques have been amplified and im-
the fundamentals of energy exchange, seeking to proved, but the basic problem of obtaining proper
diminish the heavy reliance on observation and measurements has not been solved.
experimentation.
Early wave observations consisted primarily of b. Internal Waves Internal waves are not well
random visual observations from ships. Of ques- understood but are known to have an effect on
tionable accuracy, these data provide little knowl- underwater sound transmission. Internal waves
edge of more sophisticated wave characteristics usually are measured by observing short-term

VI-67

temperature fluctuations at given points in the ena. The deep ocean depths are the coldest parts
water column; however, motion of the ship or of the seas (3.80C average).
buoy from which the instruments are suspended
could bias results. The very stable FLIP platform
has been used for internal wave measurements
with good results. To predict motions in the
environment adequately, technology is needed to
measure three dimensional internal wave spectra
by digital data collection techniques.

C. Unusual Waves-Tsunamis and Hurricane Waves
Tsunamis (tidal waves) are formed by earth-
quakes or by slides that dislocate the ocean floor.
They are of 200 to 300 miles in length but only
two or three feet high in deep water. Moving at
great speeds, they usually are not detectable to the
eye until they increase to as much as 20 or 30 feet
in height when approaching coastlines.
Hurricane waves are difficult to predict because
the circular motion of hurricane winds causes the
waves to move at various angles from the path of
the storm. Hurricane waves generally accompany Figure 24. Heat probe for measuring ocean bot-
tom heat flows and taking core sample being
storm surges or storm tides that can run 4 to 15 lowered from oceanographic survey ship. (ESSA
feet'above normal high water as they move toward photo)
land. Little effect from surface wave action is felt
200 to 300 feet below the surface.
Hurricane research is active, although a storm's e. Currents Surface currents are horizontal move-
course cannot yet be predicted, nor its fury con- ments and include both tidal currents (produced
trolled. Technology is needed to slow the process by tidal movements of water in ocean basins) and
of evaporation of water from the sea in a hurricane circulation currents. Navy interest in currents
and to disrupt the convection process that adds traditionally has centered on their navigational
the extra energy to convert a rain storm into a effects. New developments in surface and sub-
hurricane. Technology is needed also to develop merged current measurements include the auto-
improved mathematical models of storms. matically recording deep moored telemetering
buoy.
d. Thermodynamics The exchange of thermal Subsurface currents, important to undersea
energy affects the thermal structure in the upper operations, include deep-layer vertical movements
ocean layers, generation of ocean weather, mainte- (upwelling or sinking) and movements caused by
nance of global atmospheric circulation, and pro- tides or large-scale turbulence. Shifts of sound
pagation of perturbations in climate. Unfortu- signals is one way of measuring subsurface cur-
nately, the process is little understood, and pro- rents. Long-range sonar is affected by dynamic
gress has been slow mainly because technology is changes in location and characteristics of ocean
not developed sufficiently for the refined observa- water masses, thus requiring extensive data on
tions needed to establish more effective theory. currents to be effective.
Ocean heat comes primarily from the sun. For However, obtaining that information in deep
undersea operations, however, heat flowing from water is so expensive and time consuming that few
the earth's crust also is important (Figure 24). It is measurements have been made. A few moored
practically uniform on the shelf and in the basins current meter arrays have been installed at the
but is significantly higher in areas of midocean Navy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation
ridges and trenches. Deep drilling into the crust is Center and elsewhere. Variations in current are
required to improve knowledge of these phenom- computed from data taken from these arrays

VI-68

and compared with concurrent temperature. and 11. Materials
salinity data. a. Physical Properties
Although deep ocean currents are generally of (1) Density
low velocity, some evidence exists that these (2) Strength
currents coupled with the presence of a structure (3) Corrosion and Fouling
could create turbulence, erode the bottom, pro- (4) Galvanic Table
duce a wake of turbid water, and affect founda- (5) Welding Characteristics
tion stability. These effects could make a bottom b. Corrosion Protection
installation more detectable by acoustic means and C. Buoyancy Materials
could upset or bury the structure; therefore, (1) Efficiency Curve for Cylinder/-
further investigation of near-bottom currents is a Sphere vs. Depth
necessity. (2) Syntactic Foam
(3) . Buoyant Outer Hull
L Hydrospace Handbook At present the ocean
d. Pressure Hull Penetrators
engineer has no single source of information III. Structural Data
summarizing data on environmental factors and a. Pressure Hulls
their effects on materials and components consid- (1) Shapes and Volumetric Efficien-
ered in designing ocean systems. The U.S. Air cies
Force prepared the Handbook of Geophysics and (2) Design Data (Equations for transi-
Aerospace Materials Handbooks to provide infor- tion areas, viewports, hatches,
mation for design of aircraft, missiles, and space- buckling)
craft. A hydrospace handbook containing informa- b. Wetted Hulls
tion on environmental factors affecting ocean (1) Design Data (Unstiffened, ring
engineering design could be invaluable. One such@ stiffened, ring and stringer)
handbook is expected to be released in the near C. Simple-Beam Equations for Moment,
future.
An important function of both industry and Shear, Deflection
government will be to assure that such handbooks IV. Fluid Mechanics
are continuously updated and technical memo- a. Fluid Statics
randa, failure analyses, and engineering data to b. Real/Ideal Fluid Flow
help advance ocean capability are published. An- C. Fluid Measurements
other responsibility is in preparing ocean engineer- d. Flow About Immersed Objects
ing texts for teaching and technical reference. e. Drag, Lift, and Cavitation
A possible Hydrospace Handbook outline:
V. Thermodynamics
a. Liquids and Gases
HYDROSPACE HANDBOOK b. Gas Laws
C. Refrigeration and Heating
Chapters d. Humidity
1. The Marine Environment e. Air Conditioning
a. Properties of Salt Water f. Modeling Theory
b. Properties of Soil, Silt, and Sand VI. Hydrodynamics
C. Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth a. Basic Relation to Gas Dynamics
d. Sound Propagation b. Propulsion
e. Light Transmission C. Steady/Unsteady Flow
f. Wave Motion and Forces d. Skin Friction
g. Sea Temperature, Salinity, Density vs. e. Shape/Drag Curves
Depth (worldwide)
h. Wave Heights, Storms, Meteorological VII. Electrical
Data, Currents a. Direct Current Circuits and Power
i. Navigation Data Sources

VI-69

(1) Batteries sampling, let alone prediction. Yet these data must
(2) Fuel Cells be more reliable for ocean than for land applica-
(3). Nuclear tion.
b.. Alternating Current Circuits l7of-military applications (especially in dntisub-
C. Electrokinematics and Magnetic Cir- marine warfare) the, advent@ of new -, detection
cuits systems utilizing bottom bounce and convergence
d. Electrostatics and Dielectric Circuits zone modes has emphasized the need to measure'
e. Electrical Connectors and Cables ocean-floor acoustic characteristics.
f. Electromagnetic Interference Reduc-., - Bottom loss characteristics are little known,:
tion because present systems and techniques are inade-
g. Connectors, Conductors, and Cable quate to measure detailed topography, acoustic
@roperties properties of sediments at all frequency ranges and,
grazing angles, and bottom losses. The marine.
VIII. Bio-Engineering geophysical surveys sponsored by the Naval Ocean-
a, H 'uman IFactors, ographic Office have provided new and- valuable
b. Diver Decompression Tables information, but more is needed.
c Diver Gas Mixtures vs. Depth Tables
d. Life Support Systems Recommendations:

New and improved instruments and instrument
IX. Communications
suits must be developed for oceanographic sam-
X. Safety and-Certification
pling and measurern eint including means of.
APTENDIXA-Table of Definitions
APPENDIX B-Milestones in Undersea History -improving underwater optical visibility.

-Viewing and recording bottom features ',Mtholut
g. Conclusions A great need exists to map using the'visible spectrum.
synoptically the physical and dynamic ocean and
ocean bottom processes. The expendable bathy- -Making rapid, in situ measurements of the mass
thermograph has provided a revolutionary tool to physical properties of both water and marine
map temperatures. Similar systems are needed to sediments, and of other properties to provide
measure sound velocity, waves, and currents. engmeenng data for seafloor construction.
Knowledge of probable extremes in the ocean -Making rapid, continuous in 'situ analysis of
environment is insufficient to establish engineering che " al properties, Eh and pH ., of".sea-water and
rmc
design criteria. Variations within the sea and the bottom sediments.
sea floor are little known or understood relative to
land variations. Exploitation of the deep sea and -Making rapid, continuous surveys of bottom
the continental shelf will require detailed informa-' topography.
tion on the interrelationships of temperature,
pressure,- salinity,, and currents and.on the effects A vigorous program should be pursued to
of fou.1ing-fand corrosion on materials, bottom examine, understand, and determine subsea physi-
mounted. structures; cables, buoy moorings,., and cal; biological, -and geologicalenvironmental condi-
systems.,- tions as they affect engineering design. The data'
Underwater soil mechanics affects all missions critical to engineering design should be'accumu-
involving objects attached to.or in contact with lated and published in handbooks, technical
the ocean floor. Soils information is important to memoranda, and engineering data sheets and up-
(1) preparation-of foundations for structures and dated continuously as knowledge permits. -
installations, (2) bottom sitting or crawling sub- Effective surface, diver, or submersible-
mersibles, (3) drilling, coring, dredging, pile driv- emplaced, engineering-oriented, in situ sampling
ing, mining, and productiory, (4) waste disposal, and measuring- devices must be developed to
and (5) salvage, rescue-;@and recovery. Soil mechan- characterize the. ocean floor-and sub-bottom and
ics state-of-the-art is not adequate' for effective to study Wrbidity currents over long pedods, if

VI-70

seafloor soil mechanics is to be, understood. The press digital outputs will be necessary to optimize
information derived should be made available in information content, especially with buoy sys-
engineering design handbooks. Operational tech- tems.
niques that minimize soil disturbance and ways of
increasing subsurface sediment structural strength c. Data Processing With shipboard computers in
must be sought. oceanographic measurement programs, speed of
data collection and processing has increased signifi-
J. Data Handling cantly. Much processing is routine as in the
reduction of Nansen cast data and correction of
Problems of handling large quantities of diverse reversing thermometers. Shipboard employment of
environmental data will continue to increase rap- the computer as a realtime data processor has been
idly. The technology of fast, high-capacit:y auto- limited. Some use has been made of realtime
matic data handling systems has increased mark- collection and processing systems for acoustic
edly in recent years with third generation high- studies, especially for and by the Navy.
speed digital computers now in general use.
Storage and retrieval systems can provide ran- d. Data Relay Developments Systems are being
dom access to large masses of data, permitting developed to telemeter data required at sea in
reduction of data storage in the computer itself. realtime directly or via relays (ships, buoys,
This advanced technology has not been applied to satellites, or shore stations) to central data process-
the marine program to any important degree as ing activities (Figure 25). Here the data can be
yet.' Shipboard computer use was begun fairly immediately interpreted and new instructions sent
recently and is increasing. However, most of these back to the survey vehicle. This offers improved
computers are being employed primarily as data accuracy and speed while making possible use of
storage mechanisms, not as realtime data proces- simpler, less costly equipment aboard the survey
sing systems. vehicle.

1. Current Situation
ESSA ODESSA SYSTEM
UNMANNED BUOY SYSTER FOR OltA]NlN OCEANOGRAPHIC AND NITIORGINGICAL DATA AT SEA.
a. Data Gathering Many new instruments for COW AN GEMEM SURVEY RESEARCH PROSPAM
collecting oceanographic data have been designed SHIP INFIERIDGAtIOUT
are
for direct digital data collection. Examples
sound velocimeters, salinometers, and expendable
bathythermographs. To date, however, these gen- IV 11thl
erally have had their own shipboard digital re- "t a 111111111.G1111 U111111
'Ac.111
corders. I'= IE,i.E,ITIONICS
(RETAIL
CC CANOGRAPHIC SENSOR PACKAGE SUR" CE BUOY -,I,
"Alff It Moo)
30-300 doy ,p,bility
b. Data Display and Recording Both digital and
analog displays are being used now in marine data --I p.,d
collection, permitting immediate, rapid data evalu-
ation and checks on collection quality. However,
many techniques still are primitive. Strip chart
records, for example, require laborious manual SENSOR PACKAGE
processing and analysis. Digital magnetic types are
in use but in lengthy experimental programs large
volumes of tape can be generated, creating a p oo'.
storage problem. Th erefore, techniques to com- IF
a, 111 acommodde up to I semp, onkAgn

4 Figure 25. ODESSA system telemeters environ-
The problem of data handling is under intensive mental data from unmanned buoys to ship or
study by the National Council on Marine Resources and satellite for subsequent transfer to central data
Engineering Development. processing facilities. (ESSA photo)

VI-71

e. Data Storage and Retrieval The data storage stability conditions, however, effects the reliability
and retrieval systems now handling marine data are of automatic data facilities.
antiquated and require either duplicate storage or Currently, the National Oceanographic Data
very slow sorting and retrieval procedures. For Center is developing data bases for physical,
example, the National Oceanographic Data Center chemical, geological, and biological data. No data
(NODC) does not possess any random access bases for important engineering criteria (fouling,
capability. corrosion, and strength of materials), bathymetric,
The National Oceanographic Data Center han- magnetic, gravimetric, bottom photography, and
dles primarily ocean station and bathythermo- sea ice exist. These data are contained in widely
graph data, plus limited geological and biological scattered generating activities and generally are not
data. NODC does not handle engineering (such as available to meet user requirements.
fouling, corrosion, and strength of materials),
bathymetric, magnetic, gravimetric, photographic, Recommendations:
or many other types of important marine data. Standardized computer hardware and software
These data exist at widely scattered locations -systems should be developed for oceanographic
throughout the Nation but could be much more tasks.'Such systems should include data plotting
useful if in compatible formats and located cen- and navigational control and should become an
trally. integral part of all government funded research
vessels. Since automatic computation equipment
2. Future Needs presently is available for use at sea, future large-
Integrated realtime data processing systems are scale government sponsored and conducted envi-
needed to handle multiple uses of new, diverse ronmental data missions should not be undertaken
instrumentation developed with digital recording unless onboard automatic realtime data collection
capability. Thus, computer interfacing is required and processing capabilities are utilized to assure
the efficient employment of scarce scientific tal-
to permit immediate processing of data from these ent.
instruments in a compatible manner. Progress to NODC should be equipped with random access
date must be extended and rapidly accelerated, capability to increase the speed and efficiency of
especially in view of anticipated buoy develop- data retrieval under various categories such as
ments. cruise or institution. Branch data centers should be
Random access capability is needed in data established throughout the nation, the location
retrieval from all marine data bases to ensure rapid depending upon technical competence and user
access by users. Random access-disks and magnetic interests.
drums are available but have not been used
extensively in the marine field, except for selected To be most effective, NODC should be sup-
mission-oriented Navy programs. ported entirely as a line item in a single agency's
budget. Ibis could be achieved best as an adjunct
to an expanded Navy ocean mission to support
3. Conclusions na tional objectives (see Chapters 2 and 4), espe-
cially since much NODC-held data will be from
A need exists for much greater realtime data classified Navy missions.
reduction and analysis at sea by computer or
through relay to central data processing facilities
ashore. Computers offer the advantage of reducing K. Life Support
large quantities of data rapidly into comprehend-
able format for prompt review and analysis. Data 'Life support in small submersibles, cargo and
from several ships can be correlated simultane- support submarines, and ocean bottom stations is
ously. The resulting on-site knowledge would complex and challenging. Fortunately, consider-
permit more efficient use of sea time for critical able knowledge and experience exist, a large part
measurements and control of data acquisition. The contributed recently by the National Aeronautics
technology of operating instrumentation systems and Space Administration, by nuclear defense
at sea under adverse environmental and platform shelter, development, by Navy's nuclear fleet sub-

VI-72

marine operations, and by the Navy Sealab experi- A second method is to bleed fresh air from
ments. storage tanks, to filter the habitat atmosphere, and
to pump contaminants overboard. Considerable
1. Current Situation power and frequent resupply are necessary; the
Life support activities may be divided into method has proved to be extremely inefficient in
seven functions: providing a uniform clean atmosphere.
The third and most feasible method is to
provide a sealed habitat with oxygen supplied
-Atmosphere control (breathing mixture and con- either from storage or from an oxygen generator.
taminant control). Oxygen storage can be either high pressure or
cryogenic; the advantages and disadvantages of
-Climate control (temperature and relative hu- each must be analyzed for a particular application.
midity). Oxygen generators have been improved over the
-Water supply (potable, wash, and machinery early years of nuclear submarine operation. The
makeup). current @ units provide good service but require
assiduous care in operation and maintenance;
-Food supply (preparation, refrigeration, freezing, improvements are necessary to enhance reliability
and storage). and safety. Currently, a very proniising oxygen
generator module (a byproduct of fuel cell re-
-Waste removal (solid and liquid waste products). search) is under evaluation for the Navy.
-Habitability (human factors design considera- Chlorate candles and chlorate candle furnaces
tion). have been used on nuclear submarines. However,
control is presently impossible, because once
-Personnel (crew's psychological wellbeing). ignited the whole candle is consumed; hence, an
automatic system appears impractical. Other meth-
a. Atmosphere Control Atmosphere control, al- ods combining oxygen generation with carbon
though the most difficult of life support functions, dioxide removal are in preliminary stages. Some
is not a new problem. Submarine and, more appear promising but only for limited compart-
recently, space vehicle designers have devoted ments and small crews.
considerable time and effort to its solution. Filters, catalytic burners, and carbon dioxide
However, only recently have human beings been scrubbers may be used to purify habitat
subjected to a completely closed environment for atmosphere. Activated charcoal filters, electro-
extended periods without frequent rotation. static precipitators, and mechanical means may be
Miners, although exposed for many hours, have considered also. Catalytic burners (as carbon
daily recuperative periods before re-entry into the monoxide-hydrogen burners) perform well with
mine, as do diesel submariners during surfacing or little maintenance or adjustment. Carbon dioxide
snorkeling. Polaris submariners regularly spend 60 removal can be accomplished by liquid scrubbers
or more consecutive days submerged with no or dry. chemical plates. To date only mono-
opportunity for their bodies to recuperate. ethanolamine scrubbers have proved efficient and
Since relatively little is known about the reliable for large volume purification. Smaller
cumulative effects of long-duration exposure, it is volumes may be cleaned by lithium hydroxide
extremely important to keep the atmosphere of plates or crystals.
manned underwater structures as pure as possible. The problems of sealed atmosphere control in
Once the desired atmosphere has been defined, submerged structures can be solved with present
various methods to maintain it can be analyzed. technology, but the system' selected will depend
The simplest method is a ducted supply and upon the structure's volume, crew number, mis-
exhaust system with filters using the earth's sion duration, and to some extent power source
atmosphere to provide air. This method is appli- chosen.
cable to land-linked mining operations having Another problem is monitoring habitat atmos-
tunnels extending under the ocean floor or to phere for contamination from materials and con-
shallow underwater habitats. surnables. Hardware in the market for both auto-

VI-73

matic and manual monitoring of atmospheric Three methods of air conditioning are available:
contarninents must be considered. For most com-
pounds, commercial detection units are available; -Vapor compression.
however, each has certain shortcomings. Manual
sniffers are extremely reliable and should be used -Absorption.
for backup and checking automatic units. Many -Thermoelectric.
types of hardware have been employed in existing
diving systems and submersibles. Vapor compression systems currently employed
Components and materials must be screened as in submarines are subject to leakage of refrigerant
soon as preliminary designs are begun. Paints and vapors at seals, valves, pipe joints, and control con-
adhesives must be selected with care, for many nections. Absorption systems, such as the lithium
evolve toxic gases during deterioration. Consurn- bromide type generally used, are extremely heavy
ables brought into the structure must be con- and bulky and have a low coefficient of perform-
trolled, including lubricating oils, halogenated ance. Both the vapor compression unit and the
hydrocarbon solvents, and aerosol packaged prod- absorption system use refrigerants hazardous to
ucts. When passed through the catalytic burner, personnel.
many create such chemical derivatives as hydro- For example, Freon becomes a personnel haz-
chloric and hydrofluoric acid vapors, even more ard at concentrations of 250 parts per million or
dangerous than the original products. Similarly higher. If not removed by the atmospheric control
corrosion, fire, and explosion hazards must be system, these vapors can contaminate the atmos-
eliminated through constant surveillance. phere during long periods of submergence. Fur-
Emergency breathing stations should be in- ther, Freon also can break down into more
stalled in numbers to support the occupants while harmful compounds in the presence of such high
rescuing them from the station or raising it to the temperature sources as cigarettes, galley ranges,
surface. Such a system would have to be closed- and pyrolytic burners.
circuit to preclude excessive internal pressure Various internal systems convert energy to
build-up within the vehicle or station, unless heat, which is ejected into the internal hull
anticipated rescue time is very short. atmosphere. The heat must be passed overboard to
Additionally, backpack breathing sets may be the sea, and since many heat sources may be
furnished for use in contaminated areas. These localized, the associated heat removal devices may
must be untethered to allow wearer to pass be localized.
through a lock. When personnel return from a The magnitude of heat rejection associated with
contaminated space, some of that atmosphere will fixed and variable heat loads must be deterrnined.
be brought into the general living compartments; Fixed heat loads are generated by internal systems
provision must be made -to control such contami- which are required for performance of mission
nation. functions but are essentially independent of crew
b* Climate Control The function of an air condi- life support requirements. Included are radiation,
tioning system is to remove heat and humidity convection, and conduction from hot piping,
from air used as a heat sink by personnel, machinery, and electrical and electronic equip-
electronic equipment, and various auxiliary equip- ment.
ment. Within certain limits, control of compart- . Variable heat loads are generated principally by
ment temperature and relative humidity is neces- life support functions. These include heat from the
sary for personnel comfort and proper operation waste and water system, galley, food storage
of internal equipment. refrigeration, laundry and showers, metabolic
Design of the air conditioning system will be water condensation, body heat, carbon dioxide
influenced by: absorbing equipment, and the oxygen recovery
and supply equipment.
-Outside water temperature. One approach to designing the heat rejection
system is to eject all waste heat to the sea through
-The need to minimize the number and size of a single heat exchanger. An intermediate coolant
pressure hull penetrations. can be used to collect waste heat from the various

VI-74

systems. Alternatively, several heat exchangers argues for a closed system, especially as depth is
inside and outside the pressure hull can be used. increased.
Both approaches must be evaluated to determine
system layout, cost, and safety. d. Food Supply The food supply can range from
Another approach employs thermoelectric de- the prepared variety used by astronauts to the
vices adjacent to a particular heat source. This kitchen-cooked meals served aboard nuclear sub-
eliminates movement of large volumes of air but marines. The latter require space, equipment, and
requires electrical hull penetrations to a hot plate additional atmosphere control equipment. Frozen
outside. Thermoelectric air conditioning can also meals with wide menu selection and well balanced
be used as a heater by the reversal of the power diet. could be furnished. Preparation would be
supply voltage. minimal. Mission duration, crew size and composi-
tion, power source, and logistic procedures will
c. Water Supply Water is required at different determine the most suitable system.
degrees of purity: potable water for drinking and
food preparation; fresh water for personal hygiene, e. Waste Disposal Solution of waste disposal
and rinse water in sanitation, laundry, and dish must consider power and men available, mission
washing. duration, depth, and location of the habitat (or
Fresh water can be supplied from storage operating depth of submersibles). Freezing or
tanks or extracted from sea water. For long chemical systems supported by between-mission
missions and large crews, storage may be impracti- replenishment would be most desirable for small
cal. Several types of fresh water machines are to medium size crews (15 to 25 men) and less than
available. For very large installations, combination 120 days.
nuclear power generation and fresh water evapora- However, for long missions and large crews
tion plants are possibilities. some mechanical means must be utilized. Blowing
Vapor compression units have been used suc- -sanitary tanks with compressed air (as in conven-
cessfully on submarines and small surface ships for tional submarines) requires greater amounts of
years; for steam driven ships, several firms offer energy with increased depth; this method becomes
reliable compact units. unpractical at great operating depths. In addition,
As part of water management, measures must sewage must be removed from a habitat's vicinity
be taken to minimize water discharge. For exam- to avoid contamination of intake water and to
ple, a system must be considered (similar to that prevent disturbing the scientific environment.
used in commercial airlines) whereby toilets are A closed system could store all liquid wastes in
flushed with water pumped at, high velocity from a a waste receptacle containing a chemical disinfect-
drain collecting tank. The tank will accumulate ant to arrest bacteria] activity. Garbage and fecal
effluent from showers and other sources. waste could be compressed, treated chemically,
In general, two basic water management con- sealed in drums, and packed in freezer storage
cepts can be considered. The first is essentially a space as food supplies are consumed. Trash could
closed system incorporating various forms of be baled and stored. It is conceivable that little
regenerating waste water while storing on board additional space and facilities would be required
waste products. It involves various filter processes. for a closed system.
Little or no makeup water will be required in an
efficiently operating closed system. f. Habitability Much work is being done in
The second system is the conventional open human factors from a design viewpoint. In early
system that rejects unprocessed all waste water design of habitats, little attention was paid to
overboard and utilizes sea water distillation as a comfort, because major emphasis was on safety;
fresh water source. This is presently used aboard however, that phase has passed. Because of con-
submarines. Fresh water from distillation is stored centration on long periods of underwater habit-
in central tanks. Additional unprocessed water ability, attention has been focused on the human
may be used for flushing toilets. However, the factors.
differential between the normal internal atmos- Habitability has become a major factor in
phere and the ambient pressure of the depths designing for sustained system effectiveness. Cer-

VI-75

tain factors like ventilation and lighting may be best .,choice will hinge on engineering analysis
equated directly to performance errors during considering vehicle or station characteristics, mis-
operation. However, design of living quarters, sion, and cost. Adaptation and improvement will
recreation areas, and other nonoperational. facilities be necessary as vehicles and stations become
also can affect ultimate performance through larger, operate deeper, and cruise longer, and as
impact on morale, fatigue, and other factors. higher standards or more difficult goals are intro-
Other design factors less directly related also duced. Reliability, maintainability, and endurance
are, important. A significant considbration in the must keep pa 'ce.
crew's adjustment to isolation and confinement is Problems remain with new hardware where no
the availability of a safe, reliable escape method. prior experience exists upon which to draw-for
example, the @overboard discharge of liquid and
g. Personnel More than any research project, solid waste and the intake of sea water in
nuclear submarines have shown that men can live sufficient volume at depths to 20,000 feet.
together in close confines for long periods. Person-
nel selection, mobility, pleasant surroundings, ac- 3. Conclusions
tivity to increase mental stimuli (school, music, A.t depths greater than 2,000 feet, transfer of
movies, machinery operation and repair, watch sea water in and waste water out of a pressure hull
standing), sanitary conditions, food preparation, demands large energy consumption, a hazardous
atmosphere, sleeping facilities, and crew size must hull penetration, and hardware of special capabil-
be considered in design of a manned underwater
structure. ities. Atmosphere control is by far the most
Good communications keep up interest in the difficult life support function.
outside world and offset isolation. This has been In air conditioning, factors influencing design
experienced during Polaris patrols when emphasis are outside water temperature and number and
has been placed on information from families size of pressure hull penetrations.
ashore, although security regulations permit no Utilization of energy by various internal sys-
reply. tems results in heat which is rejected to the
The effects of isolation and confinement upon internal hull atmosphere. This ultimately must be
human performance have been considered in ejected to the sea.
recent manned space flight programs. Dramatic Operating depths greater than 2,000 feet have a
changes have been observed in single individuals major impact on design of internal systems.
Because of the danger inherent in taking aboard
isolated for several days or weeks. In small groups large quantities of sea water and the difficulty of
(two to five individuals) some subjects developed discharging waste water at this great depth, a
regressive behavior and feelings of hostility, al- carefully planned system of water inventory man-
though anger seldom was expressed directly. Both agement will be necessary.
regression and hostility may, of course, be ex- The solution to waste disposal must consider
tremely detrimental to performance. The passage power and men available, mission definition,
of time usually increases the effects of other depth, and location of habitat or operating depth
stressful conditions like boredom, lack of com- of submersible.
munication, sexual deprivation, and machinery
noise. Recommendations:
To combat the negative effects described above,
the habitability of both living and working spaces A research and development program is needed to
shouldbe enhanced. Several features in the current provide safe, effective, econon-dcal pumps, valves
Polaris system, for example" reflect that privacy is and piping to transfer fluids and solids in and out
important to those living in a confined space. of pressure hulls at depths to 20,000 feet. As an
alternate, a completely dosed-cycle water and
waste system should be perfected.
2. Future Needs Other research and development work on life
Life support functions now can be performed support methods and equipment should be done
by any of several methods and equipments. The to support the national projects recommended in

VI-76

Chapter 7 of this report and in particular the Figure 26
undersea laboratories, stations, and vehicles. LARGE U.S. PRESSURE TEST FACILITIES

Maximum
11. TEST FACILIT IIES Static Diameter Length
Pressure Location
The conquest of three strange environments in (PSI) Feet Feet
the last 30 years demonstrated the need for
complete and adequate testing. In striving for high 20,000 4.0 8.0 IITR
15,000 5.0 8.3 Southwest Res.
altitude operation of military aircraft in the late 15,000 4.0 20.0 NSRDC
19,30's and early A940's engineers quickly dis- io,ooo 10.0 Sphere NSRDC
covered that. operating conditions in the rarified 10,000 5.0 10.0 NCCCLC
atmosphere above 10,000 feet were completely 6,000 6.0 21.0 NSRDC
different. 5,500 6.0 10.0 NCE L
4,000 7.5 19.0 Southwest Res.
They were compelled to design and build 3,750 4.0 8.5 Southwest Res.
entirely new environmental simulation facilities to 3,000 6.0 10.0 NASL
test, evaluate, and qualify aircraft engines, electri- 1,300 8.0 28.0 Perry
cal systems, and mechanical systems. Development 1,200 8.3 36.0 NOL
of the B-29 aircraft was delayed at least two years, 1,200 11.5 33.0 NSRDC.
1,200 7.5 Sphere Southwest Res.
and the jet engine was delayed for an indetermi- 1,000 .8.3 26.0 NRL
nate time beyond initial conceptual stages because 1,000 7.0 14.0 Electric Boat
facilities did not exist. 1,000 7.5 19.0 Electric Boat
After the first supersonic flight in October 111TR - Illinois Institute of Technical Research, Chicago
1947, the aircraft industry encountered problems Southwest Res. - Southwest Research Institute, San
of adiabatic temperature rise in mechanical and Antonio, Texas
NSRDC - Naval Ship Research and Development Center,
electrical components due to ram air compression. Carderock and Annapolis, Maryland
Entirely new concepts of test equipment were NCCCLC - Naval Command, Control, and Communica-
essential to Simulate high altitude, high tempera- tions Laboratory Center, San Diego, Cali-
ture operation. fornia
The first Sputnik in October 1957 launched the NCEL - Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, IPort Hue-
neme, California
world into the third new environment, the vacuum NASL - Naval Applied Science Laboratory, Brooklyn,
of space. Recent construction programs on large New York
and expensive space simulation facilities again Perry - Perry Submarine Builders, Riviera Beach, Florida
forcefully demonstrated that test facilities'niust be NOL - Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Maryland
provided to conquer a new hostile environment. NRL - Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
Electric Boat - General Dynamics, Electric Boat Division,
A. Simulation Facilities Groton, Connecticut

1. Current Situation Few environmental tests have been conducted
Developing and utilizing the undersea frontier on structures, external machinery systems, or
may face a completely unnecessary barrier-lack of other deep submersible components. As structures
test capability to qualify, certify, and ascertain and components are designed for lighter weight,
operational readiness and effectiveness of future greater strength, and increasingly improved per-
deep operating equipment. Without this capability, formance, it becomes necessary to utilize more
undersea development will be faced with failures, advanced materials, which may affect the perform-
frustrations, wasted effort, and possible loss of ance and fatigue life of the systems.
life. Navy data indicate that the fatigue life of
Within government and industry there are only HY-140 steel may be only one-tenth that of
17 large pressure test facilities capable of simu- HY-80 steel, and fiber reinforced plastic pressure
lating pressure to 2,270 feet (1,000 pounds per housings may have a very short life measured in
square inch) and five large tanks capable of only tens of cycles. Simple crush tests will not
simulating pressures to 22,700 feet (10,000 psi). demonstrate expected performance. It will be
Figure 26 presents a summary of these facilities. necessary to subject structures and components to

VI-77

temperature and pressure low cycle fatigue tests, production, they would require Navy simulation
requiring extensive test time. facility expenditures exceeding $1 billion over the
Once gross integrity of the hardware system next 10 years.
and- safety of man have been,assured, it is . If deep ocean programs merely doubled over
important to determine mission effectiveness of the next 10 -years,, existing and.@planned , test
complex manned systems operating'ina challeng- facilities would accommodate no more than 20 per
-ing @ environment. Experience has indicated many. 'cent of the required development work, only 10
occasions where complex interaction of vehicle, per cent of required equipment testing, and no
sensors, auxiliary systerns, and man require. prior testing to certify the fully assembled. vehicle.
analysis and simulation to determine overall effec- - Attempted use of off-the-shelf equipment on
tiveness for mission goals. No'simulation facilities essentially all existing vehicles forced in situ
exist where relevant parameters including pressure, testing and resulted. in a long list of equipment
temperature, and salinity can be reproduced and failures. The NR-I,is an exception; all subsystems
maniliulated to assess their combined effects. will be tested thoroughly before installation.
Navy data indicate a tremendous deficiency in Nevertheless, no facility exists to test the entire
simulation test facilities, particularly for great vehicle before launch. Initial at-sea operation
depths.5 A deficiency of 430 test years in tank without any equipment malfunction is the excep-
sizes up. to 20 cubic feet at pressures over 15,000 tion rather than the rule., Because deep diving
psi was noted, without including the need for submersibles must have much equipment external
low-cycle fatigue testing. This deficiency was to the pressure hull, many new structural and
calculated on currently defined five-year funding external machinery problems are encountered.
plans and did not provide for an increased national
effort in the deep sea. 2. Future Needs
"Equipment testing, to less than the full sub-
merged operating pressures has.been-necessary due Progress in undersea systems will necessitate
to lack of adequate - test facilities. For example' testing and evaluating equipment prior to selection
available facilities restricted testing the pressure and installation on vehicles. Testing, evaluation,
hull for - the first Deep Submergence Rescue and certification of whole. vehicle systems are
Vehicle to only 2,700 feet rather than the poten- needed to minimize failures during at-sea opera-
tial 5,000 foot performance capability. The first tions.
Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) capsule In the decade 1970-1980, a proliferation of
will be only static tested to its operating depth of deep ocean sirn ulat'ion 6cilities will be needed.
20,000 feet-because no tank-will be available: for When ..economical and. feasible, test facilities
cyclic,testing until at- least two years after delivery. should. have multiple capabilities. For example, a
vehicle test facility might be built to accommodate
No chamber capable of cycling the DSSV or-
similar capsule to operating depth is planned. diver tests as wel,LRequirements include:
Over the next five years, deep submergence- -Certification and test .facilities for small submers-
programs will pinpoint operational problems en- ibles to 20,000 feet.
countered in sustained operations at 2,000 and
20,000 feet. As feasibility of a.new generation of -Certification and test facilities1or full size deep
-1-operational systems is demonstrated, new.. deep, operating submarines and undersea stations.
diving systems will be developed with markedly " * - I o I I
increased capabilities. I- ,-Anechoic test chambers for sonar equipment and
Military systems could include deeper operMing quiet operating machinery.
attack submarines, new strategic missile -sub- -C6astal, engineering facilities.
marines, and bottom-sitting :oi bottom-mobile
systems. If these vehicles 'were approved for -Test facilities for pr .essure capsules and housings
to 20,000 feet.

Navy Ship Research and Developm ent Center,,Deep
Sea Simulation Facilities Navy- Wide, Part 1, Report C Facilities for testing external machinery and
2515-1, (NSRDC, Annapolis, Maryland, 1967). power systems.

VI-78

-Facilities for deep operating weapons and explo- capability is approximately 1,000 feet. A sectional
sives testing. view of the arrangement is shown in Figure 27.

-Hyperbaric seawater aquaria to handle organisms
which live only at the deepest depths.

IGLOO
-Small hyperbaric tanks for capture, transfer, and RECOMPRESSION CHAASER
examination of specimens inhabiting the depths. INNER I= OUTER LM

-Facilities for calibrating, testing, and evaluating
oceanographic instrumentation systems.

ELDOEL
B. Hyperbaric Facilities
TUNNEL
1. Current Situation DIVING TAW
FFESSM NO PS
I OEI OF 788
FEEr I @ @R.
The term hyperbaric facility generally is applied -T!@ @UNEK"M
22 FM @M
to a man-rated pressure chamber complex in-
tended primarily for experimental studies of hu-
man behavior and physiology under increased Figure 27. Diving facilities at U.S. Navy Ex-
ambient pressures. Such facilities have been used periental Diving Unit and Naval School for
Deep Sea Divers. (Navy drawing)
for therapy and for commercial and military diver
training. Categories of man-rated chamber uses
include:
The diving tank can be filled to a depth of
-Medical and Experimental approximately eight feet. A similar facility is
(1) Human 'physiological research planned for the Naval Submarine Medical Center,
(2) Clinical medicine New London, Connecticut. The complex at the
(3) Medical therapy Medical Research Institute, being uprated to a
(4) Biology, especially marine biology .1,000-foot capability, has a wet tank depth capa-
bility of only three feet.
-Swimmer and Diver Development The 2,000-foot hyperbaric facility being de-
(1) Physiology, including decompression table signed for the Navy Mine Defense Laboratory,
development Panama City, Florida (Figure 28), when completed
(2) Equipment development, test, and evalua- will be the largest, deepest, and most complete
tion facility of its kind in the world. One' end of the
(3) Mission training and development

-Saturation Diver Work Systems Support
(1) Oil and mineral
(2) Salvage and construction
(3) Rescue and medical treatment 0
(4) Military

The Navy currently has hyperbaric chambers at
the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda,
Maryland, and at the Washington, D.C., Navy Yard
Annex. The latter houses both the Experimental
Diving Unit (EDU) and the Naval School for Deep
Sea Divers, each having hyperbaric complexes
consisting of four connected pressure chambers.
An outer lock, an inner lock, and an igloo are on Figure 28. Proposed multipurpose pressure fa-
cility at Navy Mine Defense Laboratory. (Navy
one level, a diving tank below. Depth simulation drawing)

VI-79

wet chamber has a full-diameter door providing unacceptable. In addition, much work remains to
access for small submersibles. Support systems determine optimum decompression schedules. This
planned include comprehensive data gathering, is especially important since deep diving opera-
evaluating, and monitoring devices and a computer tions require several days of decompression.
system to allow simulation of a large open ocean Military activities -also will be expanding human
area. Preprogramming of entire experimental runs capability limits. Most marked needs will be in
and automatic gas control will be possible. Use of training and equipment evaluation. Industry is
the chambers will concentrate on diver equipment building additional hyperbaric facilities, but the
development, evaluation, and training. main emphasis probably will be on exploiting and
One industrial high pressure simulation facility, consolidating diving capabilities to -depths around
a three chamber complex, will go into operation in 1,000 feet. Test facilities with wet and dry
early 1969 at Annapolis, Maryland. It is a chambers will be needed to permit experimental
1,500-foot facility with one water filled chamber. diving to 2,000 feet.
Support systems include a gas storage and distribu-
tion system which makes possible charging any C. Ocean Test Ranges
selected chamber with air or other gas mixtures. 1. Current'Situation
Decompression may be accomplished manually of
automatically along a selected decohipression Simulation facilities cannot reproduce certain
curve. parameters of the ocean environment as the
The largest currently operational hyperbaric long-term fouling effects of marine life and the
facility is at Duke University, Durham, North acoustic effects of size. Test and evaluation of
Carolina. Its five interconnected vessels have more systems effectiveness during missions requiring
than 9,000 cubic feet of volume. The largest, a mobility, search, and use of acoustics generally
20-foot sphere containing an operating theater, is must be performed in ocean test ranges. Noise
rated to 225 feet of seawater equivalent pressure. quieting projects require anechoic characteristics,
Three of the vessels, one a wet chamber, are rated not yet satisfactorily simulated in a chamber.
to 1,000 feet. Many pieces of equipment which work well in a
The University of Maryland and Ohio State laboratory pressure tank fail in the hostile, un-
University are building hyperbaric facilities with known undersea environment. Part of the simula-
1,000-foot capacity. A facility with a 1,600400t tion problem lies in insufficient understanding of
seawater rating is nearing completion at the which parameters must be reproduced. In addi-
University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. tion, simply providing temperature and salinity
Although there is widespread interest among control increases costs greatly. Thus, it is often
the academic and industrial communities in ocean desirable to use the sea environment for equip-
related' research and hyperbaric medicine, the ment development.
substantial first cost and operating expense.deter The Navy owns all but two of the operational
many. Also, because the field is relatively new, ocean engineering ranges (Makai Range in-Hawaii
hyperbaric projects tend to be uncertain invest- and the University of Southern California range on
ments. More experience is required before the Santa Catalina Island, California). Industry assists
pattern for using these facilities is established with the Navy in much of its range operations.
confidence. The Navy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evalua-
tion Center (AUTEC), with principal facilities at
2. Future Needs Andros Island, Bahamas, and St. Croix, Virgin
Islands, is conducting limited testing.
Research will be needed to better understand When fully completed in 1970, the center will
physiological phenomena, especially with the an- have a wide range of capabilities to test, undersea
ticipated increase in depth of routine operations. vehicles, weapons, and weapon systems. Range
In determining the I imits of human endurance, functions will include operational evaluation of
experiments under closely. controlled conditions advanced weapon systems and components, meas-
are essential so immediate coffective action can be urement of submarine noise and other target
taken. In situ testing to determine human limits is parameters, evaluation of antisubmarine warfare

VI-80

exercises, calibration of low frequency sonar trans- 1969, upon installation of a portable seafloor
ducers, testing of sonobuoys, and test and evalua- habitat complex (maximum depth 580 @ feet),
tion of oceanographic instrumentation and ocean diving equipment, decompression facilities, and an
engineering developments. Like the model basin operations control center.
facilities at the Naval Ship Research and Develop- To test mobile systems, especially weapons,
ment Center, AUTEC can be made available for ranges require detailed oceanographic surveys de-
commercial and scientific use. Becuase of its pendent on precise navigational control and obser-
location, facilities may be valuable in biological, vational techniques. Coordinated, closely spaced
chemical, fishery, and other studies. bottom samples, underwater photographs, and
An important undersea engineering range is the depth records provide information for cable
Ocean Engineering Test Range operated by the routing and bottom samples, structure design and
Naval. Undersea Warfare Center at San Clemente emplacement. Data collection and emplacement
Island, California. This facility can be made techniques will be augmented greatly by use of
available to civilian users on a cost reimbursement deep submersibles on the AUTEC ranges (Figure
basis. The primary test area is a four by five mile 29). When the need for immediate, continuous
tract on the northeastern side of the island, data are critical, permanent buoy arrays have been
featuring graduated plateaus to 4,000 foot depths employed.
and a two dimensional underwater positioning 09
system.
A@
The site was first developed for full scale Polaris
underwater launch tests and was also used for
Poseidon missile tests. The Navy's Sealab III
operation will be conducted at this location.
Planned additions include a marine railway, exten-
sive pier and breakwater facilities, and a distressed
submarine simulator to train crews of the Deep
Submergence Rescue Vehicle.
The range has a special purpose surface support
ship, the U.S.S. Elk River (IX-501), converted
from a World War 11 landing ship and initially used
to support Sealab III operations. It has a center
well, a traveling 65-ton gantry crane, and two deck
decompression chambers. The US. S. Elk River can
support diver and submersible operations in rela-
tively quiet waters. Figure 29. Artist's concept of Navy's new
A UTEC research submarine as it works on
The Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port ocean bottom obtaining scientific data by use
Hueneme, California, has developed techniques for of instruments emplaced by its remotely con-
in situ testing to 6,000 feet in the open ocean. trolled mechanical arms. (Navy photo)
Their devices include recoverable submersible test
units, which have carried materials samples for 2. Future Needs
periods exceeding one year, and a deep ocean
instrument placement and observation system for In situ test ranges and facilities will continue to
in situ measurement of such parameters as shear be important in measuring complete system effec-
and bearing strength of sediments. tiveness, instrument calibration, and long-term
The Makai Undersea Test Range is being devel-. phenomena studies when pressure cycling is not
oped at Makupuu Point, Hawaii, and will include important. In such cases, range testing may well be
capabilit ies to 18,000 feet within 80 miles of less expensive than simulation.
shore. The range is being developed for man-in-sea, Ranges must be fully developed and instru-
deep vehicle, and ocean instrumentation test and merited and contain the proper facilities, including
evaluation. The man-in-sea facilities are nearest to in some cases habitable undersea installations and
completion, scheduled for operational readiness in submersibles. For testing systems sensitive to the

VI-81
333-091 0-69-10

environment, more abundant and accurate oceano- Facilities for physiological research, medical train-
graphic data will be required, probably through ing, equipment development, and saturation diver
greater use of submersible and advanced buoy operational training *are grossly inadequate. The
technology. limits of human diving endurance cannot be
Active participation by industry in establishing determined safely in situ; closely controlled labo-
and operating ranges benefits all marine activities. ratory simulation is required. There exists a major
For example, detailed bottom survey measure- need for hyperbaric trained medical doctors. Fur-
ments apply directly to ocean mining and to ther, amateur divers often preempt government
search and recovery. Equipment developed for facilities for emergency decompression, further
range monitoring can be applied in large scale intensifying the facility shortage.
environmental monitoring and prediction. The Extensively surveyed and instrumented in situ
wealth of experience accruing from installation, facilities and ranges are being developed. These
operation, and maintenance of various undersea facilities have special advantages because of their
systems will become part of the industrial base size and total environment reproduction. Much
needed to achieve the recommended national goals work remains, however, to complete range instru-
in the oceans. mentation and provide such facilities with real
operational capabilities. Although in theory the
D. Conclusions Navy's ranges are available to civilian interests,
they quite appropriately must serve Navy needs
The necessity of complete and adequate testing first, thereby intensifying the shortage of range
to conquer a strange environment has been vividly facilities.
demonstrated by aviation advancing into high
altitude, supersonic, and space flight. The ocean
environment is diffcult and will require a vast Recommendations:
array of test facilities to permit safe, orderly, and
rapid progress. Prior operational experience has A national facilities program should be estab-
borne this out. Test facilities are a national lished to (1) determine present and future needs,
resource as important as any other single factor in (2) develop and construct new facilities, (3)
the advancement of marine technology. Insuffi- improve test scheduling, (4) maintain an mi-
cient facilities already have and will continue to ventory of national capabilities, (5) provide cri-
hamper the national ocean program. teria to choose between in situ and simulation
Equipment, instrumentation, and systems de- testing, and (6) establish a center of excellence in
vilopment are impeded seriously by a lack of the technology of test tank and range design. The
environmental simulation facilities. Test tanks of program's responsibility should include conven-
two general types are needed to: (1) advance tional and hyperbaric test tanks and in situ
fundamental technology and prototype subsystem facilities. Coast Guard efforts to develop diver
and component evaluation and (2) evaluate vehicle rescue decompression tanks (including chambers
and system certification and effectiveness includ- capable of being airlifted) should be related to the
ing man-machine interrelationships. The former program.
category requires test tanks to simulate tempera- Major efforts should be pursued to seek new
ture, salinity, and pressure cycles to great depths. and economical methods of simulation, including
The latter requires larger, integrated facilities such possibilities as concrete and fiberglas tanks.
permitting dynamic duplication of relevant para- Deep (2,000 to 20,000 toot) anechoic simulation
meters. technology does not exist and should receive
The forces of economic development, recrea- special emphasis. If a breakthrough occurs, acous-
tion, and national security already have moved tic and noise suppression efforts will be greatly
man into the sea; these forces will grow at an enhanced through laboratory testing.
increasing rate. Manrated hyperbaric facilities are A significant increase in tank and range test
needed for medical and physiological research, capabilities is basic to the U.S. undersea program.
swimmer and diver equipment research and devel The importance of test facilities as a national
opment, training, operational work, and rescue. resource cannot be overstated.

VI-82

III. DEEP.OCEAN ACTIVITIES operate reliably in the cold,, corrosive, high pres- -
Most nations border on and are affected by the sure seawater environment. Successful- operations
sea; their people appreciate its power and hostility. below 2,000 feet require new @approaches expected
An expression of determination by the United to be valid all the way to 20,000-foot depths.. -
States @ to: go forward with a significant marine Although in 'i'tial investment may,-be a little "
technology program and to establish leadership in higher, no important improvements in early pro-
the understanding and development of earth's last gram schedule, or nearterm costs would occur if
frontier cannot go unnoticed. U.S. prestige-surely the -deep ocean technology goal were set incre-,
would -be enhanced if it pursued the undersea mentally at depths, of less than 20,000 feet.-The
frontier on its own initiative; the United States same problems must be solved, and use of the best
would enter international deliberations on the materials on hand- would be economically justified.
utilization of the sea in a position of strength In fact, overall costs most likely would be higher
based upon knowledge and prior achievement. for a program having depth goals set in progressive
Achieving exploration and assessment of the increment&
ocean bottom, within 10 years and the capability The sections following contain a review of the
to carry out useful operations in the depths within kinds!of systems available and likely to evolve in
three decades requires new technology. performing useful missions in the undersea fron-
. The oceans are the operating medium of Amer- tier. An assessment of the state-of-the-art is made
ica's foremost deterrent in maintaining the balance with specific recommendations for the future.
of world power. The United States cannot take the Expected- benefits range from military and scien-
risk that a potential antagonist might gain knowl- tific to political, social, and economic.
edge the United States does not possess, thereby
seizing an undersea capability advantage. A. Undersea Systems
In this report, thedeep, ocean is defined as open Although nearly 10 years ago the Dieste went
ocean areas from the surface to 20,000 feet to the deepest part of the o ,cean, nearly 36,000
beyond the 2,000-foot depth contour. The feet below sea level, submersible technology is still
2,000-foot contour was selected because it is in its infancy. The deepest dive known for a
beyond the edge of the continental shelf and -maneuverable nonbathyscaph was to 8,3 10 feet in
because 2,000 feet is the presently projected limit -early .4968., Yet this craft is but a primitive
for advanced ambient pressure diving. The forerunner of future submersible systems.
20,000-foot goal is important because it encom- It is known that,all the way to the bottom
passes all but two percent of the ocean floor and there is marine life and that high grade minerals
approximately 99 per cent of ocean volume. A few exist on the seafloor. At the foot of continental
operations at intermediate depths, such as on slopes sedimentary deposits are likely to contain
seamounts and midocean ridges, might justify petroleum. Exploration and development of re-
exceptions to the goal. sources will be@ enhanced by manned vehicles and
The step beyond 2,000 feet represents a tech- remote systems that can operate.anywhere in the
nological challenge,.not so much against a poten- water column.
tial adversary (although this cannot be certain), It is a great advantage to the scientist to observe
but against a@ new Jrontier. ..The frontier exists firsthand the environment he is studying. Ad '-
primarily because there has not been a national vanced marine technology can and must,give him
commitment to explore, understand, and master basic tools to extend his senses into the undersea
this promising expanse. frontier to unravel its great mysteries.
It should not be implied that the problems are Surveys aria needed not only to understand and
not difficult, Experience indicatesi.that operations measure environmental conditions but also to
below 2,000 feet are- limited by equipment and determine areas worth exploring-what resources,
materials capabilities. Existing systems can per- where, and in-what-concentrati.ons?-not, only on
form only small amounts of useful work. Tech- the,shelf but also in the deep sea. At the same time
nical problems exist in developing high strength, national security demands the ability to inspect,
low cost materials, compact long endurance power examine, or survey any area of interest in the deep
sources, and machinery and equipment that will ocean or ocean bottom.

VI-83

Search, survey; and recovery systems to ex- Submersible vehicles of alltypes-tethered and
amine the bottom, much as one views land from a untethered, manned and unmanned-will be useful
helicopter, arei- needed. Desirable capabilities in- in ocean activities. Once each is developed to its
clude hovering, close station keeping, precise full capability, normal comparative studies will
navigation, and the ability to return to a given establish the range of conditions and operations
spot. The system should be able to take biological, for which each is most effective.
geological, and chemical samples (including cores)
and to map, make bathymetric: charts, photograph, 1. Submersible Vehicles
listen, and touch. The floor must be explored to
discover exploitable resources, to find hiding
places, and to study seamounts, volcanoes, and Submersibles have many * operational advan-
mud slides. A 20,000-foot depth capability will tages. They function in an environment free of
permit these operations in almost 99 per cent of wave forces and the potential damage and limita-
the world's ocean volume, covering 98 per cent of tions imposed by adverse weather. They provide
the ocean's floor, excepting only the deep tren- an ultraquiet platform for acoustic studies. They
ches. can take advantage of the force of buoyancy to
New vehicles and equipment will be needed to emplace or recover objects and, perhaps most
support and maintain more fixed, portable, and important, they can bring man into the oceans for
mobile undersea systems. As Dr. John P. Craven, observation and work.
Chief Scientist of the Navy's Deep Submergence a. Current Situation Operational submersibles
Systems Project has said, "In the long run, have demonstrated limited usefulness in several
underwater transfer is the key to effective use of exploration and inspection tasks. Many special
the ocean depths." Therefore, a key secondary purpose oceanographic submersibles exist in a
mission for rescue vehicles will be underwater wide variety of configurations, hull materials, and
transfer to. supply habitats, stations, and sub- depth capabilities. Of the 82 proposed or existing
marines not in distress. Such vehicles would vehicles for which operating depths are known, 24
provide deployed underwater installations freedom (29 per cent) are planned for operations to at least
from surface support. 6,000 feet and only 12 (15 per cent) for opera-
Inherent to practicability of these vehicles is tions to 20,000 feet. The operating 20,000-foot
substantial. payload capacity. For example, the submersibles can be classified as unmaneuverable
Navy's Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle will be bathyscaphs. Additional technological advances
able to carry internally only 4,300 pounds of are necessary to d evelop capability for work at
personnel or cargo. Ambient pressure, wet cargo great depths.
carriers will benecessary to transport thousands of Typical submersibles (Figure 30) now in opera-
tons, especially for mining, construction, salvage, tion have pressure hulls generally of ring-stiffened
and the deployment of instruments and equip- cylinders or spheres made of high strength steel.
ment. Maximum speeds vary from two to five knots,
The Navy has been pursuing actively its Deep mission endurance from 4 to 30 hours, and range
Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and Deep from several miles to about 100 miles.
Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) projects and Submersibles usually are powered from bat-
is conducting preliminary studies on a Deep Ocean teries located external to the pressure hull, and
Survey Vehicle (DOSV) and a Deep Ocean Tech- have external propulsion motors. Ballast systems
nology (DOT) test bed vehicle. These projects are typically involve both soft or free-flooding tanks
of the utmost importance to extend U.S. capa- blown for additional freeboard and surface stabil-
bility and knowledge of the undersea frontier. ity and tanks or dropable weights to change
Search and rescue projects certainly should receive buoyancy at great depths.
high priority, since the world has lost an average of A number of technological deficiencies have-
two submarines per year in peacetime. Recently a reduced the efficiency and potential usefulness of
one-half million dollar isotope power source was submersibles. Most are highlighted here; more de-
recovered off the Pacific Missile Range after a tailed discussions may be found in the appropriate
long, extensive search. subsections of this chapter, pages 29-77.

VI-84

Figure 30. Typical commercial submersible.
vehicles currently operational to depths of
1,000 feet or more

U(;H

BEAVER IV

Alurninaut. (Reynolds Aluminum photo) Roughneck. (North American Rockwell photo)

A L

Ben Franklin. (Grumman photo) Deep Quest. I(Lockheed photo)

Deepstar-4000. (Westinghouse photo) DOWB. (General Motors photo)

VI-85

Shelf Diver. (Perry Submarine Builders photo) Star III. (General Dynamics photo)

Electrical cable failures have resulted from fatigue strength. Critical limitations exist in ad-
tearing by bubbles forming and expanding inter- vanced materials fabrication techniques and testing
nally upon ascent. Connectors with adequate methods.
insulation and reliable disconnect properties are
not available. Essentially no switches, relays, or b. Future Needs Vigorous pursuit of ocean activ-
fuses have been designed for ambient operation. ities will require continuing development, not only
Usually standard equipment designed for use in air of fundamental technology but also of submersible
at atmospheric pressure has been modified for systems. Submersible use can be forseen in many
undersea use by emersing it in oil, which has led to ocean activities:
some failures attributed to carbon deposits. Per-
forniance of AC and DC electric motors generally -Fish behavior and location studies and undersea
has been poor because of bearing and insulation fish harvesting.
failures.
Small submersibles have been severely limited -Undersea core drilling, site surveying for pipe-
by heavy, bulky, inadequate battery power sources lines and structures, and operations to complete,
which require time-consuming recharging. Manipu- inspect, maintain, and repair botto.'-sa petroleum
iators have proved unreliable primarily because production installations.
of electrical distribution and motor difficulties,
water intrusion, and poor control systems. -Mineral surveys, evaluations, and observation of
Hydraulic systems operated at very high differ- seafloor mining operations.
ential pressures have failed becasue of water _Search, identification, and recovery of lost ob-
intrusion and incompatibility with certain mate- jects.
rials. Lubricants operating in high pressure have
caused bearing failures and efficiency losses due to -Cargo and personnel transfer to undersea installa-
increased viscosity. Pressure compensating oil and tions. Saturated diver delivery to work sites.
gasoline used for buoyancy have serious drawbacks .Support of scientific studies of coastal and
of combustibility and bulk modulus.
Underwater communications, navigation, and oceanic processes including observation, measure
positioning systems and equipments for norunili- ment, and sampling.
tary submersibles are too limited in range and _Ocean surveillance and mapping.
accuracy. Materials are deficient in strength-to-
weight ratios, toughness, corrosion resistance, and -Support of underwater equipment.

VI-86

To effect operations, submersibles must be One of the best known one-atmosphere diving
designed to fulfill performance criteria for depth, chambers is the bathysphere in which William
endurance, speed, payload, instrumentation, and Beebe descended to a record depth of 3,028 feet
working tools. The vehicles themselves are only in 1934. Submersible work chambers used in diver
one part of a total system which includes shore operations are another type of manned, tethered
bases, support platforms, transportation to work system. Some have dual compartments, one at
sites, maintenance equipment, supply logistics, one-atmosphere pressure and the other at ambient
supporting instrumentation and tools, and person- sea pressure with provision for diver entry and
nel. Integrated design of the entire system is exit.
necessary for optimum performance. Probably the best known unmanned tethered
Exploration submersibles will be needed to submersible is the Navy's Cable-Controlled Under-
support studies directed toward utilizing and water Recovery Vehicle (CURV), operated from a
exploiting the oceans. The functions of personnel surface ship and carrying equipment for photo-
and light cargo transfer and of search and rescue graphy, television observation, limited search, and
should be included in their capabilities wherever retrieval of small objects (Figure 31). Such a
practicable. Based on the state-of-the-art of man- vehicle has unlimited endurance, low initial cost,
ned and unmanned deep submergence vehicles and and a capability for round-the-clock operation.
an examination of anticipated requirements, sub- The Navy has under construction a CURV type
mersible characteristics can be determined for vehicle capable of operation to 7,000 feet.
many anticipated technological development tasks
with a minimum number of vehicle configurations.
Characteristics should not be constrained by the
current technology; rather, they should anticipate
subsystems and components compatible with fu-
ture scientific, government, and industrial require-
ments in the deep ocean.
;'M
Submersible requirements for both shelf (to
2,000 feet) and deep ocean (to 20,000 feet)
depths include:

-Power sources.

-Propulsion machinery and control, variable bal-
last, and electrical distribution.
Figure 31. Navy's cable-controlled underwoter
-Pressure hull, outer hull, and buoyancy mate- recovery vehicle, CUR V II (Navy photo)
rials.

-Navigation and positioning equipment, obstacle Bottom crawling or rolling submersibles may be
avoidance and search sonar. tethered or untethered, manned or unmanned.
Amproved manipulators and controls. Several have been built for special purposes. In
many cases, obscured vision from disturbed sedi-
-Magnetic and seafloor anchoring. ments limited mission effectiveness. However, a
bottom crawler would be suitable on hard sedi-
-Underwater communications and viewing. ments or when turbid water viewing systems (like
acoustic imaging) become available. Recently a
-Emergency escape. research submersible operated very successfully
along the bottom by ballasting slightly heavy and
2. Unmanned and Tethered Vehicles riding on Wheels.
In recent years, several successful tethered
a. Current Situation Tethered submersibles his- unmanned vehicles equipped with special instru-
torically were typified by diving bells or chambers. ment suits have been built. Cable controlled or

VI-87

selfpropelled, they have been used for deep ocean Undersea construction and salvage will require
search, survey, and research. Examples include the heavy duty work systems-the counterparts of
Naval Research Laboratory's towed search system dredges, power shovels, bulldozers, tractors, pave-
used to locate and identify much of the wreckage ment layers, trucks, pile drivers, plows, drills, and
of the submarines Thresher and Scorpion at about cranes. Cable controlled or cable towed devices
8,500 feet and the commercial ocean bottom will be hampered and endangered by obstructions,
side-scanning sonar platforms. nearby traffic, and concentration of similar devices
A self-propelled, torpedo-like instrument pack- at a given work site. The hazards of cables suggest
age with a preset internal guidance system has wireless control links from the control station to
been developed with 14,000-foot depth capability the device. An alternate approach might be small
for the Navy. The probe, 122 inches long and 20 manned submersibles to serve as control cabs from
inches in diameter, is launched from and tracked which operators direct and monitor large work
acoustically by a surface ship. The system has been devices.
used for oceanographic and acoustic research- The competitive marketplace or comparative
gathering data on sound velocity, thermal proper- studies for military systems will determine which
ties, and other physical properties on magnetic devices-manned or unmanned-will best serve
tape. Sinking instrument packages, launched from particular needs.
a ship and later recovered when ballast or an
anchor is released, are another example of a 3. Transport and Support Submarines
successful unmanned submersible platform.
b. Future Needs As .more efficient underwater a. Current Situation Transport submarines have
observational equipment and tools for underwater b.een considered seriously for commercial use from
cutting, welding, grappling, hooking, drilling, and time to time. In contrast to surface vessels having
controlled lifting become available, a vastly ex- speed, safety, scheduling, and passenger comfort
governed to a large extent by weather, submersi-
panded era of undersea construction, salvage, bles can operate in an environment essentially
mining, and recovery will evolve through use of quiet and predictable.
unmanned and tethered vehicles and platforms. With the advent of nuclear power, advanced
The state-of-the-art has progressed well, making structural materials and fabrication techniques,
possible design and construction of a wide variety and development of submersibles for military
of equipment for special application. Further applications, the technical and economic feasi-
development is needed to improve endurance, bility of transport submarines continues to im-
accuracy, control, reliability, compactness, manip- prove. For transoceanic voyages, the transport
ulation, and depth capabilities. submarine has been suggested seriously as a carrier
Gross bottom reconnaissance for site selection, of bulk liquids weighing less than water.
geological searches, geodetic surveys, and biolog- A market will exist for recreational submersi-
ical sampling will require a Variety of unmanned bles with large viewing ports if costs Iare not too
instrument platforms. In some cases, multipurpose high. A submersible recently was a top tourist
systems may be a less expensive, quickly available attraction in Lake Geneva even though the bottom
interim substitute for manned submersibles. there is quite unspectacular.
An advanced sea elevator, derivative of the
diving bell, may effect transfer of man and b. Future Needs Whereas some products recov-
materials from surface support ships and platforms ered from the sea will be transported via pipelines,
to deep ocean installations on or in the sea floor. conveyors, and s urface vessels, submarine cargo
It might carry as many as a score of men and carriers probably will be needed between offshore
supplies to depths as great as 20,000 feet. Eventu- production sites and such intermediate points as
ally, its function may be assumed by transport undersea processing stations, storage tanks, and
submersibles, free from severe waves and weather surface platforms. A strong need will exist for
and saving a step in materials handling. The sea submersible support submarines as high endurance
elevator also may be displaced or supplemented by motherships for deep operating manned or unman-
pipelines, air lifts, conveyors, and other mechan- ned submersibles engaged in search and rescue,
ical equipment. wide-area ocean surveys, site selection, communi-

VI-88

cation-navigation aid emplacement and mainte- of submarine warfare emphasizes the necessity for
nance, and salvage-especially in regions where preeminence in this field of military, readiness. The
ice and severe weather predominate. submarine in the past has developed two of the
The mother submarine could be the forerunner principles of warfare to a fine quality-those of
of an undersea logistic vessel supporting a sub- surprise and offensive.
merged Navy and a variety of manned bottom Since World War II a development has taken
installations, Further, it could be a mobile under- place which has revolutionized the art of sub-
sea support laboratory. Significant performance marine operations and made possible the true
parameters of this mobile support submersible, submersible. No longer is the submarine forced to
recommended as a National project, would in- depend on the atmosphere for battery- charging
clude: and human habitation. This development, the
adaptation of nuclear power to naval propulsion,
-Depth capability of at least 1,000 feet. A has enabled radically new concepts to be at-
2,000-foot depth capability is desirable if the tempted.
primary technology to be developed (submerged Many factors, some military and others civilian,
support) is not compromised. should be considered in the development and
construction of military submarines. Russia and
-Submerged endurance of at least 30 days, but China are placing increased emphasis on the
modest speeds of five to 10 knots. Nuclear power undersea area and are building submarines at an
would be desirable. increasing rate. Commercial offshore technology
-Transport, launch, recovery, logistic support, and development and resource recovery activities
command control capabilities for small sub_ (particularly oil and gas) are accelerating. The
mersibles. capability to protect domestic ocean industry is a
Navy responsibility that must enlarge as offshore
-Saturated diver lockout, support, and decom- activity expands. Even if international regulation
pression to at least 1,000 feet, preferably 2,000 and registration are established for deep sea areas,
feet as recommended above. Bottom sitting capa- this capability is vital to national interests.
bility required. All of these activities influence Navy programs.
In addition to well-established roles. of antisub-
-Retrieval and transportation of objects beyond marine warfare (ASW) and missile launching,
the lift capacity of small submersibles. requirements for such missions as surveillance,
-Oceanographic data collection and survey capa- intelligence gathering, inspection, and logistics
bility. support forecast an expanded military subsurface
role.
Anternal and external servicing of submersibles The U.S.S.R. has not remained unimpressed by
while submerged. This servicing, would largely be the advantages of submarine warfare systems; that
performed by saturated divers either in the water strong nation maintains a huge submarine fleet and
or in an ambient pressure compartment. is rapidly converting its fleet to nuclear propulsion
without sacrificing numbers. It is important that
In addition, designs for transport and submersi- the nation as a whole be apprised of this and hence
ble support submarines and for special terminals, lend support to future oceanic plans and programs.
including modification of existing ports and devel- Wartime ASW includes detection, classification,
opment of underwater ports, will be needed. localization, attack, and destruction of enemy
submarines. U.S. submarines have benefited from
4. Military Submarines an extensive quieting program, and it would be a
mistake to assume that the Soviets cannot.accom-
a. Current Situation Many factors are focusing plish a similar objective. Long term reliance on
upon one unassailable conclusion-the importance present sonar detection, classification, and locali-
of the military submersible in modern warfare. zation systems cannot be an acceptable alternative.
The advantage gained by concealment under the Research and development on ASW implications
surface is of great importance. The historic success of additional depth capability to the sound chan-

VI-89

nel and beyond are extremely important and ocean, not simply at the limited depth near the
should be emphasized. surface in which submarines now operate. They
. Theconcept of depth has not been neglected in may also choose to consider- the far more challeng-
the postwar era. The advent of HY-80 steel has ing problem of being able to identify a submarine
made possible the deeper employment of military or even bottom crawler that has secreted itself
submarines. In addition, other materials have been amongst the hills and valleys of an irregular
utilized for special Navy and civilian submarines, bottom or is simply sitting on a seamount. Just as
generally smaller in size than the military type. higher altitude performance for aircraft has paid
While much progress has been made in this field, off whether it be for combat or for surveillance,
new construction materials and fabrication tech- the extended depth capability of the submarine
niques must be emphasized as they will be needed suggests the same potential benefits.
to satisfy future requirements.
The US.S. Albacore has made many contribu- Submarine-based strategic missiles are vital to
tions to submarine technology. The nuclear- U.S. deterrent capability. It has been postulated
powered oceanographic submersible, the NR-1, has that in the future substantially more U.S. strategic
great promise as an instrument both for oceanic missiles may be sea-based, not only because of
investigation to serve national needs and for reduced vulnerability but also because of the
experimenting with possible future military needs. special advantage of separating military targets
The recently conunissioned U.S.S. Dolphin will from large populations.
'investigate the tactical advantage of deeper depths Leadership in understanding the oceans be-
and is a triumph for imaginative planners. The comes more important when it is realized that
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle, soon to be America's key strategic deterrent is contingent on
completed, will provide a capability for personnel concealment, mobility, dispersion, and very long
rescue from any military submersible either in patrol time. Greater depth capability would pro-
being or planned. The Alvin, a Navy-sponsored vide a much vaster operating volume and in some
development, was a key recovery vehicle in the areas, a bottom sitting capability, thereby attain-
Palomares (Spain) operation where an aircraft- ing improved concealment.
carried nuclear weapon was located and recovered
in 2,600 feet of water. b. Future Needs Man's projected sea activities
The importance of deep oceans has not di- will demand even more accent on new ideas and
minished since the House Committee on Science concepts for underwater effort. Where man goes,
and Astronautics in July 1960 reported: his problems go, and this extrapolates into possible
new areas for conflict. The fledgling deep sea
This phenomenon [deep sound channel] may industry will grow in importance and demand
serve to introduce to contention by those inter- sophisticated protection systems.
ested in the sea that the most urgent reason for The seas suggest that they are the ideal locale
penetrating the full depths is military. The sea for locating strategic deterrence systems. Away
conceals its contents. This gives the submarine its from populations centers, the missile-carrying sub-
enormous advantage of concealment and the c6n- marine is provided with a cloak of concealment
comitant property of surprise. Even with exceed- which defies countering systems. Indeed, the
ingly sensitive devices to measure the sub's disturb- Polaris submarine is a triumph of modern science
ance of the earth's magnetic field, detection from and technology and provides an option of an
the surface becomes more and more difficult as assured response. The modern attack submarine is
the craft dives deeper. It may take a deep-diving a key factor in anti-submarine warfare and un-
sub to catch a deep-diving sub [emphasis added]. doubtedly will play an ever-increasing role in'this
Military strategists may thus consider how much regard.
more difficult the problem of detection would be The Navy should accelerate its efforts to attain
if the entire sea were a military arena, that a limited ability in the oceans' third dimension and
submarines were extremely -quiet requiring the use operate effectively to 20,000 feet within two
of active sonar for discovery and searching were decades. To facilitate going deeper, studies should
necessary throughout the entire volume of the be accelerated to determine the feasibility and

VI-90

effectiveness of carrying weapons external, to porate a maximum number of subsystems in spite
submarines. In addition, many technological ef- ,of the premium of space and weight on the
forts discussed in this section on undersea systems vehicle. Some subsystems, like navigation, record-
-and in earlier sections on- fundamental technology ing, readout, display,.aii& monitoring might be
will Airectly benefit- deeper operating military located-aboard the.,support vessel. Support vessels
systerAs. should be designe&and procured as an integral
I Considered from a different perspective, tech- part of the submersible,system.
nology developed by 1975 might permit construc- In open ocean areas, especially in ice and severe
tion of a combatant submarine by 1980 (very weather regions,, submersible support submarines
-possibly of radically different design) capable of will be needed. They will have the special advan-
operating at 4,000 to 8,000 foot depths. Materials, tages of all weather availability, and covertness.
welding techniques, penetrations, controls and . With the advent of the Albacore hull, HY-80
displays, and other advanced technology being steel, submerged missile launching, and nuclear
developed for the Navy's DSRV, DSSV, and propulsion in the 1950's, great advancements were
Nuclear Research Vehicle (NR-1) should be con- made in naval seapower. In recent years the
sidered for incorporation. The construction of promise indicated by the Aluminaut, the Trieste,
some submersible military systems capable of the NR-1, titanium, glass, ceramics, HY-180 steel,
20,000-foot operations should be considered. syntactic. foam, fuel cells, free flooded machinery,
Coupled with an extensive research and develop- and advanced sensors and controls suggest yet a
ment program, such systems might provide future new era in naval seapower.
operational flexibility and an understanding of the
tactical value of depth.

Recommendations:
5.` Conclusions'
Development and construction of exploration sub
Small submersibles capable of descending well mersibles should begin immediately with. a goal of
beyond 2,000-foot depths already exist. As fixed, operations to 20,000 feet in less than 10 years for
portable, and mobile habitats are established in prime assigments in the forthcoming decade of
deeper waters, improved submersibles will be exploration of earth's last frontier. These vehicles
required for site selection and elementary con- should have maneuvering agility, sample-taking
struction. Underwater...transfer by high payload and, small object recovery capabilities, and irn-
vehicles-.will. be a key to deep @ocean use. A useful proved sensors. A National Project for an Explora-
-challenge is foreseen in providing 20,000-foot-;. tion Submersible with 20,000-foot capability will
long-endurance- exploration submersibles to help directly contribute to these developments. The
explore and assess the deep ocean within 10 years; Navy-planned 20,000-foot DSSV should be pro-
20,000-foot work vehicles will follow on a sched- -duced,with high priority because 'of its potential
ule dictated by needs rather than technology. benefits to other national goals. % -
Survey and work submersible prototypes will Work vehicles with high payload& should be
evolve from current vehicle technology and will be produced as the next priority. Although to serve
adapted to meet concurrent needs for rescue, undersea installations, they should be developed
salvage, research, and transport assignments. for adaptation by such commercial interests as
4n addition,, a Yariety -of tethered, devices like fishing, petroleum, and mining. Tethered work
sea elevators, instrument platforms, remote work vehicles of the-sea elevator variety also should be
platforms, observation platforms,@ andi bottom pursued for the transport of. men@:and materials.,
crawlers will be needed for such operations as from surface or' submerged support, platforms,
bulldozing and..mineral recovery.-They could be bottom sites, and structures.
available well within 10 years for 2,000-foot . Unmanned instrument platform and remote
operations and later as needed for servicing under- operating probe technology should continue to be
sea habitats at 20,000 feet. .developed. Cableless control should receive atten-
: Deep submersible systems may have overlooked tion so that unmanned systems.are not automa-
some special possibilities. Current. designs incor-,., tically ruled out by cable considerations.

VI-91

Support systems should be an, integral part of mineral extraction, sea food production, and
submersible systems development. First priority underwater transportation facilities. w .
should be given to a submarine support system However, environmental constraints establish
that is itself a continental shelf work system and many common technological needs. Of basic im-
can handle deep submersibles- in a totally sub- portance to site selection, construction, and em-
merged mode. A National Project for a Mobile placement operations are underwater soil mechan-
Undersea Support Laboratory should be developed ics, terrain features, and bottom currents. There
within five years. Support systems are needed for a are common needs to develop power sources,
variety of purposes including supply terminal and distribution systems, materials, viewing systems,
logistic functions, power, and life support regen- communication equipment, life support systems,
eration. A prototype submerged harbor facility and waste management and contaminant control
compatible with submarine support ships should systems. The fabrication, emplacement, assembly,'
be constructed within 10 years. inspection, maintenance, operation, ingress/egress,
The panel is pleased to note current Navy and repair of undersea installations will place
studies on new combatant submarines and their severe demands on the entire spectrum of undersea
roles. The panel endorses in concept the programs technology.
and funding levels recommended by the Deep Technology for underwater installations will
Submergence-Ocean Engineering Program Planning result in part from extended current marine
Group. technology on mobile undersea vehicles, terrestrial
The programs recommended by the study civil engineering, and classic naval architecture. In
group'combined with those recommended by this addition there will be new design, analysis, and
panel are intended to be responsive to the national building techniques acquired from studies of pro-
need. totype installations and component and subsystem
Cooperative efforts are imperative between the experiments conducted in relatively large test
naval and civilian technology groups to determine facilities.
how programs of mutual interest are undertaken The capability to utilize the continental shelf
and to facilitate the very important function of and deep ocean areas continuously may assist in
technology transfer. preserving future rights of access to ocean depths.
The panel believes that the national interest is The recognized U.S. 3 mile limit of the territorial
best served by having a strong technological seas and the disputed 12 mile limit claimed by
capability in both sectors. several nations comprise the only areas that
All possible encouragement is given to the Navy currently can be occupied legally.
to.. increase its subsurface capabilities to operate It is possible that international law will extend
anytime, anywhere, and at any depth. the territorial sea concept seaward and allow areas
adjacent to bottom-oriented activities in the deep
B. Deep Ocean Installations oceans to be occupied legally. Availability of
technology and capability to operate in ocean
Undersea installations, portable and fixed, will bottom areas will encourage utilization of under-
have a variety of purposes. Nearterm tasks will sea resources and will complement mobile capabili-
include understanding the environment, surveil- ties described in the previous section on undersea
lance, testing, and exploration of living and non- systems.
living resources. Future uses may include territo Within 10 years, all segments of the economy-
rial protection, undersea command and control, industrial, academic, and goverriment-may have
missile and submarine basing, industrial processing, undersea installations on the continental shelves,
and power generating stations. Characteristics of and short-time visiting will occur on the slopes,
underwater observatories or laboratories will de- seamounts, and in deep sea areas. Because of
pend on surface, water column, and sea floor immediate capability and convenience, initial ac-
conditions. tivity will concentrateon the shelves. However, a
Plants, stations, and bases must be compatible vigorous decade of technology development will
with operational constraints. For example, petro- permit use of selected deep ocean areas for
leum recovery installations will differ from solid commercial or military operations.

VI-92

I - Sea Floor Habitats For similar sizes, fixed bottom structures will
a. Current Situation The United States has not be cheaper than portable habitats. However, for
placed any habitats at depths below limits of maximum response, to changing situations, and for
work at several locations the more extensive
saturated diving. Such deep habitats require pres-
sure vessels in which a one-atmosphere environ- development and added construction expense for
ment can be maintained. Vehicles capable of transportability will be justified.
transporting men and materials to a bottom in- Such stations and attendant transfer and logis-
tic vehicles could be positioned where military or
stallation'will be needed to allow the habitat to commercial needs require, such as.for recovery of
remain on the bottom. Power sources, life support, scallops or nodules or for an extended salvage
and operational equipment must be contained
within the habitat or in a satellite installa. Ition, operation. Ocean exploration will disclose new
areas for exploitation in which the ability to move
because permanent wire cable contact with the manned habitats quickly may be a key to profit-
shore or surface is undesirable. able returns.
One advanced concept is the Naval Civil Engi- Underwater inspection, maintenance, and repair
neering Laboratory's Manned Underwater Station will become increasingly important because deteri-
(Figure 32), designed for 6,000-foot depths. The oration usually accelerates with time. New tools,
station consists of two main cylinders, one for equipment, and nondestructive inspection tech-
habitation and one for a nuclear power source, niques must be developed; the last, in particular,
with small access and observation spheres above will be a formidable challenge. Underwater instal-
and below. lations must be specially designed for maintenance
and repair in a manner compatible with submers-
ible capabilities. Improved materials that resist the
sea environment will be another important factor.

k
2. In-Bottom Habitats
%6_

a. Current Situation Construction of in-bottom
habitats will depend on tunneling techniques long
used for railroad, subway, automobile, and water
tunnels. Over 100 undersea mining complexes
exist under many tens of square miles of continen-
lij
tal shelf involving thousands of linear miles of
ax
openings. As many as 4,100 men work in a single
r undersea complex (Figure 33). However, all these

Figure 32. Artist's concept of a manned under
water station. (Navy drawing)

b. Future Needs The first portable bottom labo-
date only
ratories and stations will likely accommodate only
small crews of 15 to 25 men. However, if mining,
industrial, or major military operations suggest the Figure,33. Machine shop located in a mine
desirability of bottom installations, they may 1,500 feet below sea level off Newfoundland
become substantially larger. coast. (Navy photo)

VI-93

mines have been established by tunneling from location will be required. These tasks imply
land. None opens to the water column. To vehicles with large capacity power sources or
construct in-bottom habitats or mines far from availability of a power supply submersible or shore
shore or in seamounts and on midocean. ridges, power source. They also imply the need for
tunnels driven directly from the sea floor will be reliable large-scale external machinery, including
required. motors and drives.
There are three different tunneling system There may be a requirement to establish foun-
requirements: in rock, in soft ground, and opencut dations by such methods as pile driving on the
ditches dredged from the surface. In all cases, seafloor. More data and prediction methods are
thorough preliminary. geological investigation and needed concerning the bearing capacity of large
test borings are essential. diameter piles.
In recent years great advances have occurred in
boring machines for use in soft rock. Such 3. Conclusions
machines have many cutter bits mounted on a
large cutter head with a diameter equal to that of Dr. Carl F. Austin, of the Naval Weapons
the bore. The largest boring machine in the United Center,' China Lake, Calif., has said of undersea
States has a cutter head 20 feet in diameter with installations:
43 cutter bits; five 200 hp motors rotate the head The technology to work and live beneath the sea
at 3.5 rpm. The Soviets have developed a 284oot
diameter borer. A 10-foot bore has been driven as floor is in hand at 'the present time for water
much as 375 feet in one day and 6,713 feet in one depths over the entire continental shelves of the
month. Advances up to 4,000 feet per week may world excluding areas of permanent ice cover. Let
be achieved within the next decade. us learn to use this technology to our economic
b. Future Needs In-bottom installations will be and national advantage. 6
constructed where large concentrations of men
and equipment are to be assembled for extended Deep ocean installations will be required for
periods. Sites especially suitable for tunneling are such activities as understanding the environment
seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, and large rock out- and its processes, study and exploitation of living
crops on the continental slope. and nonliving resources, surveillance, terminals and
To date, boring machines have proved econom- bases, and underwater power and processing
ically feasible only in such relatively soft rock as plants. A capability to utilize the slopes, sea-
sandstone and shale. Studies are under way to mounts, and deep ocean basins may be the best
develop machines to bore harder rocks, Future and surest way of preserving freedom of access to
development should be directed at completely the land masses under the high seas. Manned
mechanized and automated tunneling procedures. stations-beginning with portable or emplaced
Rapid tunneling at reduced costs depends on types and followed by more permanent in-bottom
perfecting boring machines and on such comple- types-can achieve continuous deeply submerged.
mentary technology as instrumentation to probe operations.
formations for water flows, grouting, guidance and Prototype ambient pressure habitats have been
control, lining, and material removal. A need also built for continental shelf depths, and one-
exists to develop systems for remote unmanned atmosphere habitats could be built for limited
operation at deep ocean sites. endurance missions at much greater depths using
Work vehicles will be needed to perform such existi ng submersible technology. Many technolog-
functions as foundation preparation, leveling, and ical needs of both habitats and submersibles are
drilling. Machines analogous to bulldozers, back- similar. On the other hand, certain technology for
hoes, cranes, and emplacement systems will be bottom habitats is in its infancy, such as under-
able to take advantage of the buoyancy provided
by water.
'Systems for boring and drilling into the bed or 6Carl F. Austin, "Manned Undersea Installation",
side of a seamount and for placing drill pipe or Proceedings of the Conference on Civil Engineering in the
'Oceans, American Society of Civil Engineers, September
other surface powered devices into an exact 1967,p.8X

VI-94

water soil mechanics, foundations, site prepara- Sudden storms and fog affect surface support.
tion, and underwater* construction equipment. Other hazards include accidental explosions, espe-
Commercial mining ventures might be consid- cially in areas containing undetonated mines or
ered forerunners of in-bottom facilities. Undersea torpedoes, and operator error resulting from physi-
mines have been in operation off the coast of cal or mental ill health.
England for over 350 years. Tunnels have been Deliberate enemy attack could involve forces
built under the continental shelves; however, ranging from conventional depth charges to nu-
tunnels have never originated under water. Such clear explosives. Research is needed to determine
operations might be required for searnount labora- characteristics of explosions and other hazards at
tories or links between bottom-sitting stations. great depth. Anticipation of hazards is necessary
Precise underwater surveying and positioning, un- to design,. fabrication, installation, certification,
derwater grouting and boring, and heavy equip- and qualification of undersea systems and their
ment technology are all in their infancy in relation crews.
to undersea construction. Several hazards directly associated with under-
sea systems-structural failure, power loss, and
Recommendations: fire-perhaps are to be most guarded against. Such
Underwat er working operations will require coor- dangers should be anticipated and minimized.
dinated development in many basic engineering
and component areas. Data are needed on the 1. Safety and Certification
interaction of waves and currents with an installa-
tion. Adequate underwater power sources, equip@ a. Current Situation Orderly progress into the
ment, and tools must be developed. Visual obser- undersea frontier demands that safety engineering
vation, television, and viewing equipment will he start during the design process, rather than
required as well as command and communications holding safety reviews of completed plans and
systems. Improved materials will be required for actions. Certification of manned vehicles, sea
reliable and long-fife installations. elevators, deep diving equipment, and undersea
Technology to support bottom occupancy habitats should be the responsibility of a qualified
should be undertaken. This includes construction group-
work systems, underwater precision surveying, soil Comparative safety of undersea systems is an
mechanics, foundation techniques, and submers- important factor in determining marine insurance
ible boring machines. Developing systems for rates, a substantial addition to the cost of undersea
underwater construction without surface support operations. System safety and certification are
could be economically rewarding. equally important to assure that an item is safely
An isolated station emplaced on a seamount designed, well built, and adequately tested. Certifi-
should receive high priority. Within 20 years cation is a continuing process that includes con-
laboratories should be established in waters as cern for safe operation, maintenance, and over-
deep as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and before the end haul.
of the century an ocean bottom station at 20,000 It is important that fire, one of the worst
feet should be built. hazards, be extinguished rapidly. Fire control
systems use multipurpose powders, gases, foams,
C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and Salvage or water delivered by portable extinguishers, fixed
pipelines, or manned hoses. Such new agents as
To support undersea activities, it will be neces- high expansion foam have been tested and have
sary constantly to examine technological progress possible undersea application. The National Aero-
and prepare for potential hazards. Loss of life in nautics and Space Administration, with a similar
undersea operations would be not only tragic but closed environment problem, has developed infor-
could be detrimental to the national effort. mation on fire fighting and fire prevention tech-
Natural hazards include uncharted obstacles, niques that may be applicable.
mudslides, sudden strong shifts of subsurface Whatever the technique, it must work fast; total
currents, marine organisms, tsunamis, and such combustion of one pound of cellulose-like material
long-term effects as corrosion and fouling. in a short period generates smoke, toxic gases, and

VI-95

enough heat to raise the temperature 500 degrees -Minimize and/or isolate sources of ignition.
in a 12-foot sphere.
No single agency is assigned responsibility for Materials to be used internally should be tested for
safety and certification. The Navy has published a flammability and behavior at high temperature.
certification manual, Material Certification Proce- Methods to suppress fire with powder or inert gas
dures and Criteria Manual for Manned Non- will not be feasible without auxiliary oxygen
Combatant Submersibles (NAVS1-11PS Publication breathing apparatus. In compartmentalized vehi-
#0900-02802010), which applies to vehicles on cles the crew must be able to retreat from a fire
which Navy personnel are diving. Legislation pro- sea] off the area, and oxygen-starve the fire or
posed to Congress would vest in the Coast Guard extinguish it with built-in systems.
responsibility to certify undersea systems. Both An authority for control of ocean system
the Marine Technology Society (MTS) and the safety, certification, operation, and maintenance is
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) are issuing needed, possibly similar to the combined Federal
guidelines for safety and certification of manned Aviation Administration/Civil Aeronautics Board
submersibles. The guides are similar in many control over aircraft. The group could serve as a
respects. MTS's Safety and Operational Guidelines source of information on system safety and, like
for Undersea Vehicles will serve as an initial Underwriters Laboratories, could develop lists of
standard for the industry, while the ABS guide, safe materials, equipments, and methods. It would
willingly or unwillingly, will be followed by those investigate accidents, report on causes, and make
who wish to enjoy the reduced insurance pre- recommendations to preven .t recurrence.
miums compliance would bring. The Deep Sub- The Coast Guard seems the logical agency to
mersible Pilots Association (DSPA) has published exercise this authority. Appropriate legislative
Guidelines for the Selection, Training, andQualifi- action would be required to extend the control
cation of Deep Submersible Pilots. This material now vested in the Coast Guard for surface ship
was contained in early form in the MTS guidelines activity to underwater operations. Its authority
and now is available in revised form from DSPA. would extend over the safety of vehicles, diving
All these documents will be very useful to the chambers, underwater power plants, diving sys-
operator and the prospective operator of undersea tems, on-bottom and in-bottom underwater habi-
systems. None, however, to date has the force of tats, and underwater storage facilities. Criteria for
law. review authority would be that a failure could
b. Future Needs Research programs are needed affe.ct human life and safety, seriously disrupt the
to , determine the likelihood of accidents, the environment, or damage property. of a second
extent of danger, and methods for anticipating the party.
hazards involved. This information should be made 2. Search and Rescue
available to the designer.
Emergency escape capability is needed. One a. Current Situation The Navy has a surface fleet
approach is the detachable buoyant crew capsule, of 10 submarine rescue vessels (ASR) which carry
used on Alvin and the Autec vehicles, operable by McCann chambers. Dependable operation of the
the crew or by rescue teams. Another is to develop chambers requires diver support. As a result of
points for easy attachment of lift cables. recommendations of the Deep Submergence Sys-
Protection from fire is one of the most severe tems Review Group (DSSRG) following the loss of
problems. Technology must be developed to: the U.S.S. Thresher, the Navy (DSSP) has placed
contracts for two Deep Submergence Rescue
-Minimize the presence of combustibles. Vehicles (DSRV). The first DSRV will be ready
for sea trials in 1969 and will be operational in
-Precipitate or remove smoke particles rapidly. 1970. Design studies for another DSSRG recom-
mended system, the Deep Submergence Search
-Inhibit the spread and duration of fires.
Vehicle (DSSV) to operate at 20,000 feet, have
-Extinguish fires without overloading air purifica- been completed, and a prototype vehicle contrac-
tion systems. tor has been selected.

VI-96

Although both vehicles can be used for search have manipulators that could be used to a limited
purposes, the DSSV has no undersea rescue capa- extent to free entangled vehicles.
bility, and the DSRV capability is limited to The Coast Guard has the major responsibility
submarines modified for the purpose. On April 26, for search and rescue at sea. It has joined with
1968, Hon. Paul Ignatius, Secretary of the Navy, industry to develop expertise and tools necessary
in an address to the National Convention of the for effective search and rescue. A Mutual Assist-
Navy League, Honolulu, made the following an- ance Rescue and Salvage Plan (MARSAP), now
nouncement concerning utilization of the DSRV being formulated, will provide the Coast Guard
by non-U*.S. Navy groups: with a limited, interim capability for undersea
rescue.
I am pleased to announce at this time that the . The search phase of at-sea operations depends
United States is willing to share with other on the search rate and the search party's naviga-
nations the obvious benefits provided by the tional accuracy. With aircraft and airborne radar
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle. A document the rate for surface search can be quite high,
has been prepared giving details and technical perhaps 4,000 square miles per hour. Underwater
specifications of this submarine rescue system search, however, undertaken by surface ships
which will be available to foreign navies on request towing sensors or by submersibles, is extremely
through normal diplomatic channels. Nations in- slow-about 0. 1 square mile per hour-as indicated
terested in this rescue system can modify their by the Scorpion search.
submarines so that in the event one becomes This underlines the major reason for the high
disabled on the ocean floor, it can be mated with cost of underwater search-the search rate. Better
the US. rescue vehicle. nis is another example of surveillance of surface and underwater traffic can
this country's willingness to cooperate i .n ocearn .c improve locational accuracy, thereby decreasing
programs. the time and expense of search operations.

The DSRV mates to the escape hatch of the b. Future Needs The Coast Guard, working
submarine, and rescue is accomplished by direct closely with the Navy, should be given responsi-
transfer of personnel from the stricken submarine bility for search and rescue operations in the
to the rescue vehicle (Figure 34). The DSRV, undersea frontier. It should work closely with
DSSV, and numerous other small submersibles safety and certification experts in industry to
establish standards to minimize undersea acci-
dents. When determined practical by the Coast
Guard, safety and rescue apparatus (such as
tracking pingers, lifting eyes, and standard mating
hatches) should be required on undersea systems.
As the number of undersea vehicles and installa-
tions grows, control over vehicle movement will
ssary, especially in congested or re-
become nece
stricted areas.
Divers and submersibles will be called on to
perform a variety of search, location, and identifi
cation tasks. These will be an essential part of
most salvage and rescue operations unless a target's
position is precisely known and the area is not
susceptible to ocean currents or sediment trans-
port. Reliable, high-resolution sensors to locate
small objects resting on cluttered bottoms- or in
sediment will be necessary.
Identification is a real problem. Visual observa-
Figure 34. Artist's concept of the DSR V. tion is the most reliable technique, yet is slow and
(Navy photoj difficult without a maneuverable high endurance,

VI-97
333-091 0-69-11

(including constant tension winches and computer -Search, location, and identification systems.
solutions of buoyancy and stability problems) are
required. Needed are advanced attachment devices _Lift systems.
to lift large, cumbersome items. A special problem -Recovery, attachment, and viewing systems and
is containing and recovering dangerous liquid tools.
cargoes.
Recovery operations at increasing depths will Recommendations:
necessitate developing submersible systems with
specialized heavy duty external equipment. For The Coast Guard should set standards and inspect
certain. applications, hovering capability during and certify safety engineering of undersea systems.
operations, creation of excess buoyancy for lift, or It should conduct research and development to
attachment of a recovery device to an object will identify hazard sources, safe materials, equip-
be -necessary. Under conditions that obviate ments, and methods, and document means of
optical observation, sensors will have to define coping with emergencies that may occur in under-
precisely the position of tools relative to the sea vehicles, structures, and operations. A principal
sunken object. A family of recovery devices will be objective should be the interchange of information
necessary to accommodate the number of shapes, among government and industrial designers, opera-
sizes, and types of objects. tors, and other agencies concerned with safety and
certification. Efforts of the group established to
4. Conclusions develop a Mutual Assistance Rescue and Salvage
Dl-- ASAID40ADI --- -- ----1- -Z @--

manned submersible equipped with observation Recovery of small objects from depths below
systems, precise position systems, and digging and diver capabilities has been accomplished. The
scraping tools. Navy's CURV and several commercial systems
have recovered numerous torpedoes on test ranges.
3. Salvage and Recovery However, when an object is lost in an uncharted
a. Current Situation Presently there exists a area of rough terrain (as off Palomares, Spain) the
substantial capability to locate, identify, and search, identification and recovery problems are
recover small objects at continental shelf depths magnified. Relief maps of the area intist be
and large objects in shallower water. In excep- prepared. At Palomares, they were based mostly
tional efforts, recovery has been achieved at On observation by television cameras mounted on
greater depths. The Navy large object salvage CURV and extensive extrapolation by graphic arts
program was directed at combining surface ships, personnel.
lift equipment, and divers to lift submarines and Great depths-2,850 feet at the Palornares
other wreckage from depths of 850 feet. Unfortu- recovery point (Figure 36)-further complicate the
nately, only limited funds have been available to operation. The lost weapon slipped several times
support development in this area. to greater depths. Had it slipped down the next
The best salvage and recovery system depends steep slope, recovery by the CURV would have
on the geometric configuration, condition, prox- been precluded by the added depth, and recovery
imity to the shoreline, depth, and extent of by any existing system would have been doubtful.
flooding and burial of target. A small surface vessel.
with divers and manually controlled equipment
may suffice for small objects in clear, shallow (D 1150
3-C
waters. In other operations, it could be necessary
to employ large, deep
-diving work vehicles oper-
7(@*
ating as part of a more complex system.
The surface vessel approach to salvage opera-
tions is obviously limited by diver depth capabilim 2 Ism ft
ties. Hollow structures (like airplanes or cabin
cruisers) n-dght be raised from shallow depths by
filling with low-density foam (Figure 35). Durin
9
the Sealab 11 Pro ect in 205 feet of water, a foam
i @ .,.@ I I@3
formed of resin, catalyst, and methylene chloride
delivered through hoses by a diver-held gun was
introduced inside an airplane hulk. It displaced
enough water to raise the hulk.

Figure 36. Bottom topography off Palomares,
Spain, site of nuclear weapon recovery. Points
of interest are: (1) original point of weapon's
impact on bottom, (2) position to which it
slid, it was first sighted, and first recovery
attempts were made, (3) take-off point of
CUR V unmanned vehicle for first recovery
milk. attempt, (4) position of weapon after second
slide, (5) ftnal lift-off point for successful re-
-very. (Navy photo)

b. Future Needs Better underwater observation
and terrain mapping equipment, power sources,
@igure 35. Artist's concept of a sunken air- and tools are needed for recovery operations.
crailt being prepared for salvage by divers. Better underwater cutting, welding, grappling,
(Navy photo) hooking, drilling, and methods to control lift

VI-98

Because of expanding industrialization and However, one critical problem is enforcement
trade, increased leisure time, and greater dispos- of existing standards. Research indicates that if
able incomes of growing populations, the near- strict enforcement were applied to primary treat-
shore zone has been under increasing pressures, ment, if each industry followed good pollution
resulting in serious degradation in many places. control practices, and if industry would plan
Multiple use of this zone must be carefully systematically new facilities with adequate incor-
planned to accommodate the interests of recrea- porated advanced pollution control, pollution
tion, science, waste disposal, and commercial would be abated effectively.
development. This section is addressed only to some advanced
Pollution, long a growing problem, now has pollution monitoring techniques and to sea oil
reached proportions requiring not only positive pollution problems. Section V-D discusses restor-
control but active restoration in some nearshore ative measures specifically applicable to fresh
areas. Coastal scientific and engineering efforts are water lakes.
necessary to gain a better understanding of shore
processes, to halt harmful erosion of beaches, and
to restore selected coastlines toa useful condition. 1. Current Situation
The Coast Guard role must be broadened and
reinforced to provide the necessary services associ- a. Advanced Pollution Monitoring Techniques
ated with preserving nearshore areas. These serv- An example of an advanced pollution monitoring
4 **@l
.- - - *- +11. -finn'C llfili7nfinn r)f thp. --+,,-A Ppeparrh and

-Estimating and mapping salinity patterns of The imagery -also disclosed that the salt water
estuaries under optimum thermal-salinity relation- front during flood tide diverts the polluted river
ships. discharge to the southern shore and over the
-Delineating drainage patterns of - tributaries shallow shellfish areas, thereby causing contamina-
tion. Data collected orf temperature, salinity, tidal
having heavy overhanging foilage.'
fluctuations, etc., provided -a standard for semi-
-Identifying well mixed and poorly mixed estu2 quahtitiative interpretation of the imagery. Dis-
aries. advantages of the infrared system are that it is not
-Identifying bed and bank sediments. an all-weather reconnaissance system, it reveals
nothing about the type of pollutant, and it
-Locating offshore bars and breaker regions. determines relative, rather than absolute, temper-
atures.
-Monitoring construction of such harbor engi- Other successful experiments using airborne
neering structures as jetties, docks, groins, etc., infrared systems for thermal pollution studies are
and their effect on circulation patterns and sedi- being conducted in the Columbia River at Rich-
ment dispersal. land, Washington. Infrared' imagery and radio-
-Locating sources of pollution having thermal metric measurements are being collected from
characteristics. aircraft, and the data are being processed by
several computer techniques developed to produce
-Detecting both submarine and terrestrial springs. qualitative and quantitative displays. One is used
-Studying water turbulence. for qualitative evaluation of thermal data from a
three dimensional color display (Figure 37).
-Recording wind streaks, hence wind direction.

-Locating shoal areas.
-Locating sea ice and identi6ng its type, age, and
fracture patterns.

Studies using infrared were conducted in 1966
on the Merrimack River Estuary, Massachusetts,
by the.U.S. Geological Survey. Airborne infrared
imagery was obtained in August and September of
the estuary from Haverhill to Plum Island at low,
flood, high, and ebb tides.
From the imagery, thermal effects of papermill
Li 04 I'A S I j@@
waste, its diffusion in the river at various phases of
the tidal cycle, and individual sewage outfalls were
detected easily. Estuarine flushing was found to
vary widely in different parts of the lower estuary.
The surface expression of the freshwater-seawater Figure 37. Oblique three- dimensional display
interface could be seen clearly. of infrared image collectedover Columbia
Infrared imagery in the Merrimack study pro- River near nuclear reactor site of the Atomic
vided a synoptic, integrated, comprehensive, and . Energy Commission's Hanford Project.
rapid method to detect pollution sources involving (Battelle Northwest photo)
thermal differences. It was useful in determining
circulation patterns in the estuary. The imagery Turbulence patterns and mixing zones near
provided a synoptic view of the estuary surface's atomic reactor coolant discharge points in the
thermal condition at high, low, flood, and ebb Columbia River are being determined. Isothermal
tides. It precisely delineated the salt water front at maps of the river surface are being plotted. The
flood and high tides and defined the main channel rapid scanning infrared imaging systems obtain
at low and ebb tides. measurements that reveal detailed turbulence and

V1_101

rnixing zones otherwise extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to define. Isothermal plots of the river
surface indicate the magnitude and @ aerial distri-
bution of the heat discharge to the river. Hot
spring development along the river bank, due to
discharge of reactor coolant into a trench near the
river, also has been defined.

S7
b. Oil Pollution and Other Hazardous Substance
Pollution of the environment by oil and other
hazardous materials can occur almost anywhere at
any time. Some recent examples in the Un ted
States and its possessions are:

-San Juan, Puerto Rico (1968). The tanker, S.S. Figure 39. Pelican caught by great oil slick
from tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast Guard
Ocean Eagle, carrying 5.7 million gallons of crude photo)
oil from Venezuela, ran aground, broke in half,
and spilled more than 2 million gaflo.nslof oil in
the water (Figures 38 and 39).
miles of coastline, including recreational beaches,
and many ducks and other waterfowl were killed.
The source of the material was not determined.

-Long Beach, California (1966). A levee around
an oil company's holding pond broke in a storm,
and 200 barrels of crude oil were dumped into the
harbo r.

-Missouri River (1966). A chemical company's
storage tanks ruptured, discharging 50,000 gallons
of ammonium hydroxide, 100 tons of molasses,
and 1,000,000 gallons of liquid fertilizer into the
river.

Figure 38. Oil streaks from derelict bow sec- -Mississippi River (1965). A hurricane sank a
tion of oil tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast barge loaded with 600 tons of chlorine, necessi-
Guard photo) tating evacuation of area residents in Louisiana
during salVag6 operations.
-York River, Virginia (1967). The Liberian regis-
tered tanker, S.S. Desert Chief lost between 500 -Spring Oeek, Missouri (1965). Railroad tank
and 1,200 barrels of crude oil during unloading cars containing 20,000 gallons of cresylic acid and
operations. An estimated 10 miles of the york. 40,000 gallons of high octane gasoline were
River and several recreational beaches were fouled, derailed, spilling their contents into the creek. Fish
and waterfowl were killed. were killed, and groundwater supplies were con-
taminated. Downstream water users were notified,
-Cape Cod National, Seashore (1967). Several and further damages were averted.
large slicks of oily material contaminated about 30 -Minnesota-Mississi 1 i Rivers (1963). Storage
1pp
tanks ruptured, spilling 2,500,000 gallons of crude
7Most material from here to the end of the discussion soybean oil and 500,000 gallons of salad oil. Two
on the current situation was taken from: Secretary of the thousand ducks were killed, and recreation and
Interior and Secretary of Transportation, Oil Pollution, A wildlife areas were fouled for 130 miles down-
Report to the President, Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, February 1968. stream.

VI-102

-0iattahoochee River, Georgia (1963). A burst areas require both government and industry to
pipeline spewed 60,000 gallons of kerosene into give careful attention to pollution control meas-
the river five miles above one of Atlanta's water ures.
supply intakes. The river was polluted for three The quantities and varieties of oils and other
weeks. A treatment plant supplying one-fourth of hazardous materials transported and stored by
Atlanta's water was shut down for two days, after industry are staggering. For example:
which greatly increased chemical treatment of the
water was necessary. -Four billion barrels of petroleum and natural gas
liquids are used annually in the United States, and
-Coosa River, Alabama (1963). A tractor-trailer the figure is. expected to reach 6.5 billion barrels
hit a bridge and spilled 25 tons of barium by 1980.
carbonate. Downstream water supplies were
threatened. -Twenty-five billion pounds of animal and vege-
table, oils are consumed or exported annually.
-Minnesota River (I 962).'A 'storage facility pipe-
line broke, releasing about 1,400,000 gallons of -Eighty billion pounds (1964) of synthetic
cutting oil, light mineral oil, and zylene into the organic chemicals are produced annually by some
river. 12,000 chemical companies. These chemicals,
many toxic or with unknown effects on aquatic
-111inois River (1961). At Peoria, Illinois, a hose and even human life, range from everyday food
ruptured during the unloading of anhydrous flavorings to pesticides.
ammonia from a barge. Forty-two persons were
hospitalized, and 5,600,000 fish were killed. No readily available compilation exists of the
number, size, and character of facilities for moving
-Mississippi River (1960). Industry drained several and storing these materials. However, the quanti-
tons of phenol into the river near Baton Rouge. ties indicate the high probability of pollutants
Water supplies for New Orleans and nearby spilling into the Nation's waters from transporta-
communities were contaminated. tion and terminal facilities.
These are only a few of the almost continuous Newspaper headlines seldom announce the flow
series of similar experiences reported across the of 10 or 30 or even 300 gallons of waste oil into a
nation in lakes, rivers, and territorial waters. nearby stream or lake. The event is proclaimed
Oil and other hazardous materials constitute a only by the trail of grime and damage left behind.
major pollution threat to the Nation's water These catastrophes might go unnoticed except that
resources. The danger exists both inland and along they are repeated so often.
the coasts. Whether the spill is large or small,
occasional or continuous, each source must be (2.) Pipelines This country is laced by 200,000
evaluated for (1) the relative hazards involved, (2) miles of pipelines with pressures to 1,000 pounds
the preventive measures that should be instituted, per square inch. These lines carried more than one
and (3) the damage-control and cleanup capabili- billion tons of oil and other hazardous substances
ties that may be needed. in 1965. Many sections are laid in and across
waterways and reservoirs. , Lines are heavily Con-
centrated where the. de 'mand. for petroleum prod-
(I.) Waterborne Sources of Oil Pollution With ucts is great-in the most populous areas along the
the growth of world and domestic commerce, coasts, rivers, and lakes. Thus, our pipeline system
increasing numbers of vessels of generally larger threatens pollution of our waterways, port areas,
capacity have been. required. Almost exclusively, and sources of drinking water. There are enough
oil is the fuel of the waterborne commercial fleets, leaks from accidental punctures, cracked welds,
and perhaps one vessel in five is engaged also in and corrosion to require alertness and technical
transporting oil. Thus, water transport constitutes improvement.
a great potential pollution threat. The great
numbers of these possible pollution sources and (3.) Offshore Petroleum Offshore oil and gas
the fact that they are mobile over extensive water ioperations are being conducted in the Gulf of

V1_103

Mexico, off Southern California, in Cook Inlet, Figure 40
Alaska, in the Great Lakes, and even off the East ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS
Coast. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico almost Cargo Escaping
6,000 wells have been drilled since 1960, and Condition In or Near Far From
thousands of miles of oil and gas pipelines Response Hull Hull Hull
crisscross the Gulfs floor. Time
Such operations may pollute offshore waters Before
through well blowouts, dumping oil-saturated Imminent 1 N.A.' N.A.'
drilling muds and oil-soaked cuttings, and Oil lost Casualty
in production, storage, and transportation. Pipe- 0-24 Hours
lines on the seabed from the offshore platforms to After Casualty 2 4 6
storage facilities also threaten pollution if ruptured
by storms or ships' anchors. 1-20 Days
After Casualty 3 5 7

2. Futm Needs Not. applicable.
Source: Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., "A Possi-
ble Solution to Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil
A major effort must be undertaken to curtail Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (An-
- polis, Maryland, 1968), p. 2.
oil, pollution from ships and oil rigs. A systems
approach to preventing pollution spillage at sea,
how to monitor it, and how to disperse it is FIigure 41
discussed in the following pages. CONTROL TECHNIQUES WITH APPRO-
The shipping and oil industries, have some PRIATE ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS
methods to prevent spills and to clean up those
occurring. Most are suitable only for small spills; Control Environ-
many require bulky equipment or chemicals diffi- Techniques or mental
cult to carry to the scene. Therefore, one approach Systems' Number2
to combat oil spills is to make equipment and
materials more readily transportable. Another is to Build foam barriers into cargo tanks
adapt present methods to be"effective,against the (oil-permeable impedance) 1
largest spills. Solidify oil , 1
In chemical, food, and other industries there Design safety features into tank 1
are agents, systems, and procedures for the con- Inject foam sealant into selected tanks 2
trol, dispersal, or conversion of petroleum-like Act to free grounded ship (sacrificial
substances. A search of other industries is needed approach) 2
for techniques and equipment adaptable to con- Gel oil 2(1)
trolling oil spills. Close tank vents (escape impedance) 2
Finding and applying existing techniques and Pull light vacuum on selected tanks 2
equipment may offer hope of a rapid solution to Unload tanks to free ship, using
the oil pollution problem, but that solution may stored high-pressure air 2
not be best. Concurrently, research and develop- Sluice cargo between seldcted tanks 2
ment efforts should seek completely... new solu- Install water ballast tanks in
tions. critical areas 2(l),
The problem can be subdivided according to Burn oil above tanker 2
the condition or location of the dangerous cargo Solidify oil in selected areas 2
and the response time of a remedial system. Figure Build sealing devices into tank 2(l)
40 lists nine combinations of cargo condition and Design air-tran@portable super-
response time, giving each an environmental foam sealant system 3
number. Figure 41 lists some remedies or remedial Heat oil ready to pump 3(2)
systems and the environmental number (or alter-' Bring in emergency high capacity
nate) to which they probably would apply best. pumping system 3

VI-104

Figure 41 (Continued) -The system will be in some way handling
Control Environ- hundreds of thousands of gallons of crude oil-a
Techniques or mental substance normally the consistency of lukewarm
Systemsi Number 2 tar. The objective will be to dispose of the
contaminant before it damages nearby shore facili-
ties. Therefore, the rate at which the system works
Bring in high capacity fuel transfer is imp.ortant.
system (hose, jets, helicopter-
hose system) 3 -Tankers, like any other vessel, are more likely to
Bring in emergency receiving system suffer damage in rough weather. In such weather
(corrals, flexible containers, etc.) 3 high winds move escaping contaminants toward
Bring in emergency pump power shorelines most rapidly. Therefore, any system
source 3 must have good sea-keeping qualities, functioning
Burn combustible liquids 3 well under very unfavorable conditions.
Evaporate oil - high temperature 3(5) (7)
Act to free ship (sacrificial approach -Even the emergency equipment installed aboard
with outside system for rapid ship to save sailors' lives often receives cursory
help) 3 maintenance. Equipment to preserve beaches,
Corral oil (equipment carried wildlife, and shoreline industry and property
aboard tanker or with probably would receive even less attention. There-
helicopter aid) 4 fore, the system must withstand being unused for
Corral oil with other outside aids 4(5) years with little or no preventive maintenance.
Use foams in other ways 4(5)
Use large-scale corralling 5 3. Conclusions
Sink oil 5(7) . Data collected by infrared imaging systems can
Use surface oil evaporation equipment 5 be used for quantitative and qualitative water
Corral oil with equipment shipped in 5(7) pollution studies. Qualitative evaluations of
Use water surface cleaner, ship- or imagery using oblique three-dimensional displays
air-mobile 5(7) and stereo coverage will allow the interpreter to
Airdrop light-weight surface cleaning sense the true intensity relationships. The poten-
materials 6(7) tial of color-coding specific radiation levels and
Use chemical combustion promoters developing false color imagery has been demon-
Use combustion sustainers such as strated. These techniques and their variations
artificial straw 6(7) should make possible more effective systems to
Use surface cleaning ships (high monitor pollution.
speed, high capacity) 7 Oil and other hazardous substances are a
Use skimmer 7 continuing major pollution threat to the inland,
Use corrals 7 nearshore and offshore waters of our Nation.
iMost of the remedial systems of Figure 41 are not Catastrophe can occur anywhere or anytime,
existing systems. There are few systems available now, especially in areas of.high population concentra-
and existing systems either have not been adequately tion. Methods to combat major pollution accidents
2tested or results of their tests have not been published. are entirely inadequate.
Numbers in parentheses are alternate environmental
numbers.
Source: Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., "A Possible Recommendations:
Solution to Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil
Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (Annap- Detailed research and development programs in
olis, Maryland, 1.968), pp. 3-5. infrared imagery use for pollution monitoring
should be increased.
The primary development objectives are actu- A major systems program should be imple-
ally conventional, since they call for the cheapest, mented to cope effectively with the accidental
lightest, smallest system. that will do the job. pollution of the Nation's waters by oil and other
However, other factors require consideration: hazardous substances, including investigation of

V1_105

A National Project for Coastal Engineering and tures, and often the recreational appeal of the
Ecological Studies, as defined -in Chapter 7, will seashore is lost or greatly dirriinished.
develop the fundamental technology to investigate Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource.
the unknowns with emphasis on ecological disturb- Sand once was carried to our shores in abundant
ances. Near-shore ecology needs as related to the supply by streams, rivers, and glaciers. Unfortu-
scientific community are described more fully in nately, large stretches of our coast receive essenti-
the basic science panel's report. ally no replacement sand from these sources.
In coastal planning the first requirement is Inland development by man reduces further sand
.adequate technical knowledge of shore processes, available for erosion abatement of the shore. Thus,
storm frequencies, and storm tide elevations for to save sand, wasteful practices must be eliminated
the area concerned. Espedially on the Pacific Coast and losses prevented wherever possible.
(including Alaska a 'nd Hawaii), the effects of Fortunately, nature has provided extensive
tsunamis (earthquake-generated waves) must be
stores of beach sand in bays, lagoons, and estu-
considered. This inform ation, applied to the topo- aries; these can be used in some areas as beach and
graphy of the coastal area and the adjoining dune replenishment. Massive dune deposits also are
continental shelves, makes possible prediction of available at some locations; however, these 'must
flooding and erosion hazards in each area. Such be used with caution to avoid exposing the ar Iea to
knowledge then may be used to establish zoning flood hazard. Sources of sand are not always
n-1 --A 41- ---A- -___ __ A

methods of pollution control and restoration- The lack of such critical information consti-
even the redesign of ships, if necessary. tutes a technology barrier if (1) the needed criteria
require- the acquisition of data which cannot be
B. Coastal Engineering obtained without technological advances, (2) basic
understanding is inadequate to permit accurate
The shoreline of any nation is a natural location interpretation of such data, or (3) the acquisition
for industrial and commercial activity, transporta- of the information requires long-term observation.
tion terminals, and transfer facilities. It is where
the most prized resorts and residential neighbor- Principal inadequacies of basic engineering
hoods develop and it is an essential recreational criteria exist in environmental design, coastal
area for a majority of the population. The bays, planning, conservation of sand, construction and
modification technology, movement and stabiliza-
estuaries, and nearshore waters rank among the tion of sediment, and environmental protection.
most important for food production and harvest-
ing, not to mention hatcheries for many species Environmental design criteria to support coastal
important to the ocean fisheries. Therefore, the modification and construction is needed in (1)
shoreline (coastal zone) must be considered a vital sub-bottom structure -and bottom topography
national resource. (bathymetry), (2) prevailing and maximum con-
Shorelines have been misused and poorly ditions of wind, waves, surface currents, tides, and
managed for such a long time that major advances subsurface currents, and (3) design methods that
in our knowledge and its application to the coastal accurately acodunt for the effects of these environ-
zone are essential to prevent further degradation mental factors in planning and design.
and to effect restoration. Greatly increased prior- For the coastal zone, much technology is in
ity in national planning must be given to protec- hand. However, such information is hot readily
ting existing shoreline and facilities, modifying the available to the coastal engineer at present. The
shoreline to achieve its most prudent utilization by well-recognized need to develop environmental
the many competing demands, and its extension criteria for planning and design (particularly those
by construction of inlets, peninsulas, and offshore activities in which coastal zone development is
islands. expected to be most rapid and extensive) is being
pursued as rapidly as time and present funds
1. Current Situation permit.
The most effective shoreline modification and The state of knowledge for translating environ-
construction of fixed structures in the coastal zone mental data into design criteria is not adequate,
require knowledge of: (1) coastal zone oceano- particularly for wind and wave forces. Model
graphy, physiography, ecology, and substructure, studies of natural processes at the land-sea inter-
(2) the properties of sediments both above and face have had only limited success, mainly because
below the waterline, and (3) the multitude of scale effects are poorly understood. The major
natural processes occurring in the coastal environ- concern and uncertainty are for structures, vessels,
ment. Further, such modification and construction or devices which penetrate the air-sea interface and
must consider that changes in the shoreline or are integral parts of undersea activities.
bottom topography, modification of sediments, In undersea activities, principal unknowns are a
and introduction of man-made objects will alter knowledge of subsurface currents, the effects of
natural coastline processes. surface waves on subsurface structures, the rela-
Planning and design phases prior to modifica- tion between subsurface phenomena and the dis-
tion and construction require qualitative and turbance of ecology, and the phenomena occuring
quantitative information to provide accurate defi- at the air-sea interface. This information is essen-
nition of nearshore properties and processes. Also tial for optimum planning, design, and modifica-
the engineer must be able to predict the effects of tion of structures in the coastal zone. Lack of
these properties and processes on the modification initiative in advancing technology for measuring
or structure and, also, to predict the effects of basic coastal environmental characteristics will
modifications and structures on the environmental have serious negative effects on all future engineer-
and coastal processes. ing programs in the coastal zone.

VI-106

Currently construction in the coastal zone is In deeper waters, in waters with adverse surface
accomplished almost entirely by surface methods conditions, and where the bottom is coral, consoli-
and equipment. Moreover, most construction tech- dated sediment, rock, etc., subsurface drilling,
niques have remained static for the past century blasting, hydraulic jetting, and hauling may be
(excluding development of new power sources). necessary. The presence of equipment in the sea
Divers are used for preliniinary surveys, inspection, will compel the presence of men so means of
salvage, simple installation, and assembly opera- underwater communication and observation will
tions, but the operations are basically dependent be essential for supervision and control.
upon land or seasurface methods. These requirements do not pose insurmount-
It is conceivable that wave ener will be able problems, although considerable development
,gy
controlled and focused to accomplish work at the is needed. Primary is heavy machinery operating
land-sea interface. Natural bottom contours guide on the ocean floor to haul or handle material. In
wave fronts, concentrating wave energy at points coastal areas, such equipment could be powered
along a coastline. If wave refraction and reflection by cabled electric power or snorkel equipped
could be controlled by the emplacement of port- engines. Work illumination will be a major
able undersea barriers, enormous work could be problem to undersea operations; hence, further
accomplished at a great saving of time and money. development of illumination devices-even electro-
Moving sediment along the coast from an over- magnetic or acoustic-will be required.

the water line and sacrificial cathodic protection @Evaluation of new methods and equipment for
can usually solve the problem but become pTohib- major Shoreline modification and construction and
itively expensive. for island building.
Different activities will dictate levels of expend- -Development of faster and less costly methods
iture that can be justified economically. Control of and materia IIs to stabilizIe sediment.
biological encroachment and encrustation is both a
structural and an operational problem. It requires -Reduction of future costs by stockpiling sand,
many solutions for different areas and species. once a dredge is set up and in operation for
Mechanical protection against environmental another purpose. For example, after a dredge has
forces and erosion is, less difficult. Both chemical replaced sand on a denuded beach, large stockpiles
and biological corrosion are technology barriers of sand can be strategically placed so that wave
requiring improvements in corrosion-resistant ma- action automatically replenishes losses over future
terials, protective coatings and devices. years.

b. Future Needs 3. Conclusions

The following observational and measurement Shore..erosion is caused by wave action, tide
capabilities are required to permit meaningful currents, rain, wind action, and severe storms and
study and definition of coastal zone processes: is affected by offshore depths, slopes, shape of the
shoreline, and other factors. In most cases, shore
-Methods and instrumentation for rapid on-site erosion can be controlled by properly planned and
measurement of the engineering properties of executed corrective measures. Shorelines have
sediments (i.e., static compression and shear been misused and inadequately managed; major
strength, stability, bearing characteristics, and advances in knowledge must precede preventive
dynamic response). and restorative action.
Protection, modification, and extension of
-Methods, equipment, and instrumentation for shorelines assume greatly increased importan'ce'in
rapid core sampling of sediments and rapid (prefer- national planning. Optimum modifications 'of the
ably automatic) analysis of cores for primary shoreline and construction of fixed structures
physical, geological, and chemical properties. require a- knowledge of oceanography, physiog-
-Methods and instrumentation for continuous raphy, sediment properties, and natural processes.
mapping of bottom sediments by primary geo- Planning and design prior to modifica. 'tion and
-al proper- construction require accurate definition of near-
logical classification and primary physic
ties (e.g., density, sonic attenuation, and shear shore properties and processes and interrelated
velocity). effects.
Principal inadequacies of basic engineering cri-
-Effective experimental methods and associated teria exist in environmental design, coastal plan-
instrumentation and data processing systems for ning, conservation of sand, construction and modi-
study of primary coastal processes, particularly fication technology, movement and stabilization
those controlling sediment transport and deposi- of sediment, and environmental protection.
tion. Coastal planning requires technical knowledge
of shore processes, storm frequencies, and storm
Special research and development programs are tide elevations for the area concerned. Undevel-
required for: oped or sparsely developed areas offer great
opportunities for proper advance planning and
-Development of improved modeling techniques development control.
for the study of coastal processes, including design Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource
of such improved model basin equipment as wind, requiring conservation. Protection of our seacoasts
wave, and current generators and controls plus a is not an insurmountable problem. Construction
variety of materials for simulation of water and and modification in the coastal zone is frequently
sediment properties. accomplished by antiquated surface methods and

equipment. -Wave energy can be focused by port- gained there.will be the foundation for the thrust
able. structures to accomplish enormous work. into the deep oceans.
-,Dredging is a'.major coastal zone activity. ' Several ambient pressure, continental shelf
Sediment stabilization @ will become a greater habitats have'been demonstrated in recent years,
problem as more complex current patterns and in the United States and abroad. They have been
more traffic result from human activity. Present temporary installations depending -upon cables to
methods of protecting materials from corrosion, surface ships or shore for power.
biological attack,. erosion, waves, and currents are A Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory as de-
inadequate or excessively expensive for many scribed in Chapter 7 is designed to facilitate
missions. development of the technology to occupy and
manage the shelf and to minimize logistic support.
Recommendat*
ions: The laboratory will be available for joint civilian-
The following observational and measurement academic-military use in the accomplishment of
capabilities should be.developed: subsystem and component development tasks.
-Methods and instrumentation for on-site meas- 1. Current Sitatuion
urement of the engineering properties of sedi- a. Habitats Widely varying approaches have been
ments. suggested and tried for undersea habitats. Some
-Methods, equipment, and instrumentation for are quite small; others are large, providing working
rapid core sampling and automatic analysis. of space for six to eight divers. For a single worksite,
samples. a relatively immobile shelter may be planted on
the bottom. Moving worksites for inspection of
-Methods and instrumentation for continuous communication cables or pipelines may require a
mapping of bottom sediments. mobile habitat integral to a submersible vehicle.
. All systems have three features in common:
-Effective experimental methodology and associ-
ated instrumentation and data processing systems. -They can maintain the diver at or near the
Research and development programs should be: ambient pressure at the worksite for extended
periods.
conducted to:
-The habitat (or an elevator-like chamber inter-
-improve modeling techniques for the study of facing with it) can bring divers to the surface for
coastal processes and controls. decompressi .on. When an elevator is used, divers
-Evaluate new methods and equipment for major nearly always are transferred to a separate and
shoreline modification and construction a nd island larger chamber on the surface for decompression.
building. -The chamber at the underwater worksite has at
least one bottom hatch from which divers can
-Develop faster and less costly methods and enter the water and return.
materials to stabilize sediment. Functionally, seven habitat types can be identi-
fied: (1) continental shelf station, (2) variable
C. Shelf Installations depth habitat, (3) composite chamber, (4) decorn-
pression staging system, (5) personnel transfer
In order for man to conquer the sea, he must go capsule/deck decompression chamber, (6) vehicle
into the sea. Much has been said about the with diver lockout, and (7) hybrids.
complexity of advancing technology to exploit,
occupy, and manage the,U.S. Continental Shelf. b. Continental Shelf Station The most elemen-
However, it is now technically possible to occupy tary configuration provides structural simplicity
the shelf by applying devel .opments of the past and relative freedom for divers from the turbulent
several years. Conquest of the ocean depths must air-sea interface (Figure 42). If intended only for
start on the continental shelf, for experience bottom installation, the hull need be designed for

VJ_110

, M,06w,

Figure 42. A.movable continental shelf station
which completed successful trials in late 1968.
(Oceanic Foundation photo)

only small pressure differentials-indeed, it may be
made of fabric or rubber. Providing the men in a Figure 43. Artist's concept of a composite
station with electric power, food, water, sanita- chamber suspended from a shipmounted crane.
tion, and supplies can be formidable, especially in (Navy photo)
foul weather. For a very largevork force active
over acres of the sea floor, one can envision several
stations arranged about the worksite. The equiv-
alent of a fence, fixed lights, storage, implement -With the hatch open, it can serve as an ante-
sheds, and the foreman's office would complete chamber to the diving compartment or as a lock to
the resemblance to a job site on land. enter or leave the diving compartment when the
chamber is on deck.
c. Variable Depth Habitat The variable depth
habitat is anchored o 'n the ocean floor but can be -If a major fault should make the diving compart-
floated to intermediate depths. The habitat serves ment unusable during a dive, the divers can enter
as a work station, transport vehicle, and living the observation compartment tinder pressure.
quarters. If the worksite extends vertically to the (Normally, divers would work from the lower
level of one or more decompression stages, divers compartment, while observers would stay in the
can continue useful work during each decom- observation compartment throughout the dive.
pression stop. This system typically is confined to The observers, not being subjected to high pres-
a small-scale operation, involving two or three sures, can leave the compartment as soon as it is
divers under rather special site and task conditions. hoisted on deck).
i I . The composite chamber is quite versatile, is
d. Composite Chamber This sytem is virtually a relatively easy to transport, and is more suited to
variable depth habitation suspended from a ship- the smaller, short-term missions than to major
mounted crane (Figure 43). The diving compart- diving projects. Without the ability to mate with a
ment is nearly always a pressure hull, making it larger chamber, the composite chamber compels
possible to decompress divers on the surface. An divers to remain inside until fully decompressed;
observation compartment (usually spherical) is this puts a definite limit on the total time under
mounted atop the diving compartment and con- pressure.
nected with it via a pressure-tight hatch; it
performs several functions: e. Decompression Staging System This is a series
of underwater stations located at principal decom-
-With the hatch closed, it can carry one or two pression stop levels. Personnel working at a
scientists or engineers in a shirt-sleeve environment bottom site may decompress by entering the next
to view the underwater job site. higher habitat, spending a night, then swimming to

VI-1 11

the next (Figure 44). Gradually ascending through the PTC is mated with the DDC, both, being
several such stations, diving personnel undergo pressurized equally. The PTC is lowered by a
decompression and simultaneously make use of crane. The system's pertinent features are:
heretofore enforced idle time. This system is
attractive only under special conditions of terrain. -Divers live and sleep above water.
Plans to expand one nonmilitary undersea test -The PTC has horizontal mobility within the
range include a series of habitats from nearshore to
shelf depths, including this use of decompression range of its surface support platform and full
staging. vertical mobility.
-Both chambers can mate at any pressure -from
atmospheric to maximum rated pressure to trans-
fer divers. The system can be mounted on a dam,
drilling platform, barge, or ship.

Possible alternate means of operation include
(1) two PTCs mating with adjoining compartments
of one DDC or (2) PTC serving two or more DDCs.
Forsafety reasons, a DDC should consist of not
less than two self-contained pressure vessels; two
main chambers and an entry lock are the most
practical.-

9. Vehicle with Diver Lockout The system is a
Figure 44. Artist's concept of a decompression two-compartment vehicle with one compartment
staging system. lWenin0ouse photo) exposed to ambient pressure (Figure 46). The
system is valuable for a series of short, widely-
spaced dives (e.g., photographing and marking
f. Personnel Transfer Capsule/Deck Decom- damaged spots on -a submarine telephone cable).
pression Chamber This system, first used for Such a system could be used where weather
commercial saturation diving, allows divers to live restricts deployment of normal surface support
in a deck decompressi .on chamber (DDC) (Figure methods. Currently, storage batteries are the
45). A single small chamber, the personnel transfer power source for the vehicle, limiting mission
capsule (PTC), transports divers from deck duration to a few hours and restricting speeds to
chamber to the worksite. The divers enter when less than five knots.

4,
_J @A

Figure 46. A submersible vehicle with diver
lockout. The diver lockout hatch is located
Figure 45. A personnel transfer capsuleldeck aft on underside of hull where open hatch
decompression chamber system. tWestinghouse cover is visible. (Perry Submarine Builders
photo) photo)

VW 12

If such a system were integral to a full-size Thought must be given to problems of logistics,
nuclear submarine, speed and endurance limita- chamber operation, and maintenance; when several
tions would be virtually removed. The size of the men are under pressure for a week or more, plans
diving team, supporting sensors, and amount of must be made for food supply, laundry, and
equipment delivered to a site would extend satura- personal hygiene. These problems are greatly
tion diving capability beyond anything possible simplified if the main habitat is located on the
today. surface rather than several hundred feet beneath.
Continuous, correct gas supply and carbon dioxide
h. Hybrids The systems described above are not absorption must be wen planned before the
all-inclusive; variations on any system are possible, operation; redundancy of systems is necessary,
and combinations of two or more may be effective especially if operations are to be conducted in
for particular missions (Figure 47). For example, a remote areas.
bottom-anchored ' variable-depth habitat with a
mating trunk used with a DDC would permit i. Availability of Decompression Chambers
divers to eat, sleep, and undergo decompression in Several small decompression chambers are in use
a larger surface chamber. A DDC could be com- today, approximately as follows: Gulf, 40;
bined with a submersible decompression chamber California, 20; Florida, 2; and Alaska, 6. During
operating from a fixed winch. The submersible peak seasons, commercial divers in the Gulf
chamber could be fitted with a propulsion system number around 1,000 and in California, over 300.
to provide limited horizontal positioning capa- There are approximately 25 combination person-
bility. The operator could remain in a shirt-sleeve nel transfer -capsule/deck decompression chambers
environment inside a spherical observation cham- today.
ber atop the diving chamber.
The main task of a diving program is to select j. Accidents The number of divers working off-
the best system for a particular job and site and to shore in the Gulf is expected to increase markedly
evolve a safe, economical method of operation. in the next few years; an estimate of 3,000

I-A*

UJU

All
oil

MW
AP A

Figure 47. Artist's concept of underwater habitat des4gns. (Napy photo)

VI-113
333-091 0-69-12

within 10 years is conservative. Presently no pipelines and cables include plowing, hydraulic
medical facilities on the Gulf Coast are available jetting, combined jetting and suction dredging, and
and attuned to the needs of divers. Three to five use of shaped charges.
diver deaths occur each year in the Gulf. Protecting offshore oil and gas pipelines from
damage by dragging anchors, soil movement, and
.k. Bottom Activities Many activities already are underwater currents has required improved deep
taking place in the shallow bottom areas. Tunnels burying techniques. Large trenching barges can dig
built on the, surface in sections can be economical ditches 12 feet deep and 5 feet wide in water 200
where the conditions are favorable, as in protected feet deep, using a special dredging sled pulled
waters with unconsolidated sediments on the along the pipeline. Towed sea plows on sleds are
seafloor. Sections of tunnel several hundred feet in used to bury seafloor cables. A sea plow of
length are fabricated,on shore, floated to the site, sophisticated design was used to bury more than
lowered into a dredged trench with a suitably 100 miles of transatlantic cable in waters from 120
prepared foundation bed. The sections are joined to 900 feet deep to safeguard it against damage
together with the aid of divers, and the trench is from fishing vessels.
backfilled@ The Trans-Bay Tube now under con- Dredging, a well-established construction and
struction. for. the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid mining technique in shallow waters, has been used
Transit System is an example. It has tunnel to deepen navigation cliannels, remove overburden
sections about 48 feet wide and 22 feet high, for foundations, excavate open-cut type tunnels
located 135 feet below sea level at the deepest and outfalls, mine and place fill materials, and
point. As advances in procedures for working recover placer and seafloor deposits. The dredges,
under water are made, open-cut tunneling may be however, are severely limited in capacity and
extended to deeper, less-protected offshore sites. cannot be considered for major seafloor construc-
Tunneling in soft ground follows the same tion or mining in deep water.
general procedure as tunneling in rock, except Construction and mining require moving large
drilling and blasting are not required, and critical amounts of material. Commercial mining requires
attention must be given to temporary lining. For production rates of thousands of tons per day to
very soft and wet ground, especially for undersea be economically justifiable. Capacities of this
sites,,shield tunneling methods are used. While the magnitude to 2,000-foot depths may be achieved
technology of shield-driven tunnels is well along, by developing improved hydraulic or airlift
continued improvements. will increase advance- dredges.
ment rates and reduce costs.
Site preparation can be accomplished by pile
driving and caisson sinking-standard operations in 2. Future Needs
conventional construction work, particularly in Improved cements that will set rapidly in low
the nearshore regions. In-the offshore petroleum temperature sea water and concretes more resist-
industry, piles and pipe caissons are being driven ant to deterioration in sea water are needed. As
from barges in water depths exceeding 300 feet- demand grows for concrete foundations in waters
The most commonly used drivers are pneumatic to 2,000 feet, major improvements will be needed
hammers, sometimes combined with such supple- in placing concrete from surface barges. Concrete
mentary means as jetting and drilling. Vibratory mixing and emplacement on the seafloor using
and sonic drivers are used occasionally and may underwater plants or equipment may be required
have considerable growth potential. in the more distant future.
In,the nearshore zone, concrete can be placed There will be a need to extend tEenching and
underwater from the surface using either drop- dredging operations to greater depths and deeper
bottom buckets or tremies.' Bags filled with cuts. Devices such as mobile breakwaters and
concrete or grout intrusion of emplaced aggregates pneumatic curtains to shield operations may be
are sometimes used. Methods for trenching to bury needed. The ability to observe and monitor under-
water would help greatly to increase operating
8 efficiency, but a major breakthrough in observa-
Funnel-like devices lowered into the water to deposit
concrete. tion techniques in turbid water will be required.

V1- 114

Assistance by submersibles probably will be 3. Conclusions
needed.
It is now technologically possible to utilize the
Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories capable continental shelves in view of the progress and
of operation at any depth to 2,000 feet should be
developed during the coming decade. Each such development of the past several years. The experi-
station should be equipped for submerged trans- ence of working on the shelf should provide.
solutions to subsequent problems of utilizing the
port vehicles to convey crew members or supplies deep oceans.
to and from the surface or nearby shores. Crew Several ambient pressure, continental shelf hab-
size will vary greatly and will be dictated by the itats have been demonstrated in recent years;
mission.
Specialized subsea power equipment will be however, these have been temporary installations
depending on cables to surface ships or shore
required analogous to drills, cranes, bulldozers, installations for power. Technical advances during
pavement layers and concrete pourers used on the next 10 years will permit autonomous manned
land. Their ability to be mounted on a family of stations on the ocean floor.
standardized, remotely controlled, power-driven Present habitats and concepts for the future
chassis would increase their versatility. When an have three main features in common:
operator is required at the work location, the
assembly might well be designed for temporary _They can maintain the diver at or near the
attachment of a small portable operator's capsule ambient pressure at the worksite for extended
or a small submersible vehicle. periods.
Assembly and fabrication of an underwater
complex completely under water may be required -The habitat (or an elevator-like chamber inter-
When the entire structure is too cumbersome on facing with it) is capable of bringing divers to the
the surface or the components are of a configura_ Surface for decompression.
tion that can be assembled only in place. Regard- _The chamber at the underwater worksite has at
less of depth, the operation will require carefully least one bottom hatch from which divers' can
planned evolution of an integrated system includ- enter the water and return.
ing surface vessels, pontoons, submersibles, divers,
monitoring equipment, and automatic controls. Tunneling in soft and hard ground Iunder the
All underwater work operations will require water is feasible and can be aided greatly by
coordinated development in many basic engineer- manned underwater support.
ing and component areas. Soil mechanics and
foundation design are clearly essential, as are data Recommendations:
on the interaction of waves and currents on the
installation. Underwater power sources, equip- Pursue the National Projects to develop and
ment, and tools adequate for the tasks must be construct Fixed and Portable Contiriental Shelf
Laboratories; Seamount, Slope, and Abyssal Sta-
developed. Accurate means of locating and posi- .
tioning the installation must be available. Visual tions; and Mobile Undersea Support Laboratories
as well as other forms of undersea habitats during
observation, television, acoustic imaging equip- the 1970's.
ment, and command and communications systems
will, be essential. Improved materials are a basic D. Transportation and Harbor Development
requirement for reliable long-life installations.
It is predicted. that within 10 years all segments The present U.S. commercial oceanborne cargo
of the economy-industrial, academic, military, trade ($36 billion annually) will continue to have a
and civil government-will be managing selected major irnpact on programs to extend ocean uses.
portions of the U.S. Continental Shelves and This, moreover, should continue as the value of
conducting exploration operations in the deep sea. the U.S. world trade should more than double in
Immediate capability, convenience, cost, and the next 20 years.
potential productivity dictate that initial activity The impact of maritime transportation on U.S.
be concentrated on the continental shelves. national interests is a product of underlying

VI-115

technologic, economic, and political forces opera-. York is a major port for imports; however,
ting on a worldwide scale, as well as of interests Norfolk, Virginia, is the major port for export on
and policies within U.S. Government control. the Atlantic. New Orleans is the major Gulf port
These forces affect not only U.S. shipping interests for export. Import and export trade of the Gulf
but shipbuilding -interests as well. And, finally, Coast is distributed primarily among the Louisiana
programs for offshore harbor development have and Texas ports. Similarly, import and export
important interrelation with such Federal and trade on the Pacific Coast is distributed among the
State activities as urban renewal, trade promotion, California and Washington ports. The competition
and transportation development. between these adjacent ports is illustrated by the
Revolutionary changes in merchant ship config- fact that Long Beach harbor handled 7,582,000
uration and integration of ships into multi-mode short tons with only 1,447 receipts, whereas the
transport systems for point-to-point cargo delivery adjacent Los Angeles harbor handled 10,379,000
will have great influence on developing uses of the tons, with more than 4,000 receipts.
oceans. As maritime transportation progress leads It . is obvious that Long Beach harbor is
to larger, deeper-draft ships and containerization shipping a larger percentage of bulk cargo requir-
techniques, today's ports will be unable to handle ing less -handling and shorter turn-around times.
these ships. Programs for progressively deepening All factors'relating to packaging, equipment, and
these ports now are encountering severe physical personnel must be considered in any evaluation of
obstacles, costly dislocations and ecological dis- the influence on trade in U.S. ports.
turbances created,by channel dredging. Competition between ports exists where more
than one port is in an area. This competition i Is
1. Current Situation generally a stimulus to efficient port operation. It
requires that users and potential users be con-
a. Shipping and Ports Data on past and present vinced constantly of the economy and efficiency
volume of waterborne trade by U.S. and foreign of a port.
flag vessels, compiled by the Bureau of Census, The erection of modern physical facilities to
reveal that export and import waterborne trade is improve efficiency is only the beginning. Total
increasing. During 1950, ocean shipments totalled cost is the dominant consideration in routing
159,389,000 sho 'rt tons of which 39.3 per cent freight. Inland transportation, port charges, and
was carried by U.S. flag vessels, Total tonnage water transportation costs combined must equal or
increased to some 405,205,000 short tons by better that of a competitive routing.
,1964; however, only 9.9 per cent was carried by Technological advances, especially automation
U.S. flag ships. Tanker cargo carried by U.S. flag and handling, are penetrating the ocean shipping
vessels dropped from 53 per cent in 1950 to only business rapidly. The port authorities must create
5.9 per cent in 1964. This drastic shift from U.S. new port facilities as they are needed-deep water
flag vessels to foreign vessels is a function of terminals, offshore terminals, and automated han-
myriad factors including shipbuilding costs, wages, dling equipment for new large bulk.cargo carriers.
age of ships, and automation. Most other maritime nations are doing more
The Atlantic coastal region in 1966 accounted than the United States to keep pace with tech-
for the major share of imports, whereas the nological change. Gigantic superports are being
combination of Atlantic and Gulf Coast ports planned in Ireland, France, and Japan; expansion
accounted for most of the Nation's exports. Cargo is under way in Italy, Belgium, and Holland.
tonnage by all vessels for coastal distribution has During the next few years as utilization of
remained approximately constant for the last 10 oceans changes, many problems must be solved;
years. During 1964 the principal oceanborne actual construction of the hardware may be the
import commodities were crude petroleum, resid- simplest. Expediting paperwork, removing customs
ual fuel oil, gas, iron ore, and aluminum ore. The bottlenecks, coordinating land and water trans-
major export commodities were bituminous coal port, developing simplified pricing system, in-
and wheat. creasing safety, and dislocation of ports and labor
Many U.S. major ports have a disparity between will be most difficult. Port and harbor problems
the amount of cargo imported and exported. New will be solved only through systems. analysis,

VI-116

research and development, and modern procure- and to redistribute the cargo for overland ship-
ment policies. Similar procedures made large ment.
defense and communications systems possible. In the past, the Corps of Engineers has
The broad and complex interrelationship responded to the demand for deeper harbor
between harbor and waterfront development must facilities by progressively deepening these major
include the following Federal programs: ports. However, they are encountering serious
obstacles that constrain future dredging: (1)
-The civil works program of the Army Corps of damage to water supplies by salt water intrusion
Engineers. into aquifers, (2) dislocation of private property
adjacent to harbors and channels, (3) relocation of
-The water pollution and fish and wildlife pro- major land transportation and communications
grams of the Department of the Interior. facilities, (4) replacement of such major navigati.on
-The urban renewal, open space, urban beautifica- structures as locks, (5) encountering bedrock',
tion, historic preservation, water and sewers conduits, vehicular tunnels, etc., (6) disposal of
grants, public facility loans, and public works dredged spoil, and (7) disruption of harbor ecol-
planning programs of the Department of Housing ogy.
and Urban Development. The greatest obstacle to harbor development is
the cost of relocations and dislocations resulting
-The economic development, trade promotion, from channel enlargement. Major harbors have
technical assistance, business loan, and port plan- such extensive industrial developments at waters
ning programs of the Department of Commerce. edge that harbor or channel improvement requires
relocation of industrial, commercial, and residen-
-The transportation systems, transportation facili- tial structures.
ties, urban freeway, and Coast Guard port and At Oakland, California, harbor deepening
maritime programs of the Department of Trans- would result in very high costs for modifying
portation. Army, Navy, and city waterfront facilities. The
-The surplus facilities disposal programs of the Chelsea River Channel in Boston Harbor is dredged
General Services Administration and of the nearly berth-to-berth in several locations, and
.Department of Defense. dislocations will be required if dredging proceeds
to greater depths. In New Orleans, producing oil
wells located on and adjacent to the banks along
Forecasts of port needs, identification of urban the Calcasieu River, Pass Channel, and the Missis-
renewal opportunities and desirable recreation sippi River Channel must be moved if the channels
areas, delineation of pollution problems, and are enlarged.
determination of means of financing all need Examples of major land transportation facilities
study. that must be relocated include highway tunnels at
The United States is on the threshold of a Oakland, Baltimore, Norfolk, Mobile, and the
revolutionary change in merchant shipping. For mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The many highway,
economy of operation the trend is to larger sizes, rail, and subway tunnels crossing New York
deeper drafts, smaller crews, better cargo handling Harbor constitute an outstanding example.
facilities, and higher speeds. Most of today's ports The problem of removing increasing quantities
will be obsolete and unable to handle the more of rock to accomplish harbor deepening is a
cost-effective ships. Offshore handling and unload- problem associated with particular harbors. On the
ing facilities will be needed where it will be Gulf Coast dredging very long approaches through
impractical to provide for the greatly increased unconsolidated sediments covering the gently slop-
ship drafts. The efficiency of larger, more auto- ing adjacent shelf is a problem.
mated ships will require concentration in a few Deeper dredging creates water conservation
large, well equipped ports rather than many small problems by permitting the intrusion of the salt
ports. @ Ports should be located away from con- water farther up fresh water streams or rivers and
gested downtown areas providing ample room to by damage to the -protective -covering of fresh
exchange cargo rapidly, to return the ships to sea, - water aquifers. The problem of damage to water

VI-1 17

supplies appears to be most significant. on the -Resolution of the conflict in use of U.S. Conti-
Atlantic Coast, particularly in the Delaware River nental Shelf areas.
estuary. Potentially serious problems exist at the
mouth of the.Columbia River and in San Francisco -Reduction or elimination of wrecks, debris,
Bay. pollutants, and litter on the U.S. Continental
Identifiable problems exist in the Great Lakes Shelf.
and the Pacific Coast harbors: -Establishment of safety standards for continental
shelf structures and devices.
-Disturbance to harbor bottom and lake bed
ecology. -Continuance of the Nation's lead in continental
-Pollution affecting water quality, fish species, shelf capabilities 'and activities.
and fish habitats. -Estuarine pollution, conservation, regulation
-Changes in tidal flow that affect the habitats for (tentative).
fish and shellfish. The present functions and activities of the
-Loss of waterfowl breeding grounds through Coast Guard are:
spoil dumping. -Provide search and rescue services.
The effect of harbor deepening on the estuarine -Develop and Iadminister a merchant marine
ecology has resulted in growing concern by natur- safety program.
alists and conservationists throughout the country,
emphasizing the need for additional information. -Maintain a state of readiness for military opera-
tion in time of war or national emergency.
b. Protection of Life and Property The U.S. -Provide a comprehensive system of aids to
Coast Guard is envisioned as the principal agency navigation for the armed forces and, marine
for (1) rescue of ships, submersibles, and divers, commerce.
(2) safety inspection and certification of submers- -Enforce or assist in the enforcement of Federal
ibles, diving equipment, diver training, and small laws on the high seas or waters subject to the
boats, and (3) relevant law enforcement. However, jurisdiction of the United States.
it is necessary to examine the Navy's role in
certification of Navy submersibles so that the -Conduct an oceanographic program, maintain
experience can be transferred to the Coast Guard. data on ocean status, provide ice-breaking services
The panel endorses the role contemplated for the and iceberg patrol, and train officer and enlisted
Coast Guard in future ocean operations. reserves.
There is proposed legislation and discussion by 2. Future Needs
the Coast Guard on a U.S. Continental Shelf safety
program as an orderly, comprehensive, and co- Today and for the foreseeable future the
,6rdinated means of protecting life and property on marine transportation industry is essential to the
the shelves.9 This treatment of safety reflects this well-being of the United States. The viability of
Continental Shelf Safety Program and has been the national economy to a large extent is depend-
endorsed by the National Council on Marine ent upon a steady growth in world trade. National
Resources and Engineering Development. The pro- defense relies heavily on shipping and shipbuilding
gram includes the following major areas of en- to ensure adequate military response. Marine
deavor: transportation and trade help maintain satisfactory
political relationships between the United States
and most of the maritime powers of the world.
9 The future of the ocean transportation industry
Has not yet cleared the House Merchant Marine is dependent on faster, more economical ships,
Safety Committee; no bill number assigned as of January
1969. possibly nuclear powered, that will allow the

VI-118

United States to become a leader in world shipping To plan properly a program for port and urban
once again. waterfronts, alternatives to harbor deepening must
A program for port and urban waterfront be considered if this is not economically feasible.
development and redevelopment should be estab- There are basically four technical alternatives to
lished involving all interested Federal and State harbor deepening. First, where there is a long
agencies. It should embrace a range of activities approach channel to reach port or harbor facilities,
from creation of entirely new port or waterfront offshore unloading stations within protected
complexes to rehabilitation and conversion of waters may be constructed. Corresporiding han-
existing port and waterfront lands and facilities. dling and transportation systems ashore must be
The program should entail: (1) comprehensive constructed or modified to deliver the bulk com-
surveys of port-transportation requirements, inter- modities to their final destinations. It is conceiv-
facing with community needs, and studies on able that the construction or modification would
urban renewal, recreation, and pollution, (2) de- be financed by private or joint enterprise.
velopment of plans for port, harbor, and water- Second would be a combination of lightering
front area renovation, and (3) integration of port by barge, followed by transit up the channel to the
and waterfront planning with programs for conser- pier head. Extensive studies reveal that, depending
vation of estuarine resources. The Army Corps of on local conditions, it is economical in some cases
Engineers already has begun work related to the to transship cargo and lighter by barge.
first two in cooperation with the Departments of Third is to provide more efficient scheduling of
Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, the bulk carrier by determining the decrease in the,
and Interior as follows: ship's draft due to fuel consumed en route and
computing the decrease in the ship's draft due to.
-The Department of Housing and Urban Develop- cargo to be unloaded.
ment and the Corps of Engineers have conducted a A fourth alternative is a systems design of ship
preliminary survey of areas engaged in or inter- size and port capacity in conjunction with existing
ested in harbor or urban waterfront renewal. channel depth, involving faster ships with im-
Waterfront renewal activities to be planned proved cargo handling facilities and scheduled
involve: (a) eliminating sources of drift and debris, control of all ships calling at the port. As the
including removal of dilapidated or obsolete struc- world's fleets increase in number and speed, it is
tures, (b) clearing lands for housing, open space, or conceivable that fleet controllers similar to airway
recreation, (c) substituting small boat or marine controllers may effect proper and safe traffic flow
facilities for abandoned commercial areas, and (d) within. the harbor.
removing sludge and solid pollutants from urban If channels are to remain fixed in depth, and
harbor areas. ship size and speed are to increase as predicted,
-The Corps of Engineers presently is engaged in installation of offshore cargo handling facilities is
pilot studies in the New York and Boston areas to necessary. Any extensive harbor and channel
determine what new Federal initiatives or authori- deepening must be preceded by an extensive
ties are required to execute waterfront renewal land-use pattern study. Due to consumer and locale
plans. The studies will identify the legal, financial ' requirements, it also may be advantageous to
and associated problems of harbor area renovation relocate the industry, shortening land routes in the
stemming- from abandoned private facilities and transportation networks.
sunken or derelict vessels. They will recommend For bulk cargoes in general, it is conceivable.
changes in statutory authority to insure optimum that political and economic conditions at the
use and effective redevelopment of the harbor area destination may compel the preprocessing of some
resources. bulk cargoes for the recipient countries. This
would reduce substantially the backland'o
-The Department of Transportation is developing requirements for bulk cargoes in U.S. ports.
a Port and Harbor Access Program based on
planning methods to determine optimum urban
roads, terminal points, and intercity roads and rail 10 Backland is the area of a port city where warehouses,
lines to serve the port area. terminals, etc. are located inshore from the waterfront.

V1_119

However, higher landing and ten-ninal costs may The high rate of ship technology development
result and the trade-offs must be studied. could make a large investment obsolete before its
I Of the various nontechnical alternatives to normal economic life. (For example, general eco-
channel deepening, the legal and regulatory pre- nomic lives for systems elements are: container-
don-dnate, including restrictions to ship operation, 10 years, ship-25 years, terminal-50 years,)
channel regulation, and safety. As ship size Therefore, it would seem advantageous to con-
increases, directional stability at low speeds struct the facilities that have shorter economic
becomes more difficult; hence, to avoid high fees lives and are easily maintained or replaced-
for using tugs in channels, many ships maintain pipelines, conveyor belts, long finger piers, etc.
speed, creating a substantial wake that damages Other non-technical considerations would
structures along the channel. As ship size and include the decline of the present commodity
traffic in the port increase the probability of movements, the increasing volume of new com-
collisions and channel blockage also increases. modities, shifting trade routes, population pres-
Economic loss from total blockage and port sures causing port systems to be reduced in size,
shutdown is incalcuable; higher insurance costs safety requirements, air space requirements, pollu-
and port charges are a distinct possibility. tion, etc.
Large ships may create major economic prob- The Coast Guard, as the Federal maritime law
lems in regional port development. As ship size enforcement agency, has the responsibility to
increases, the tendency is to concentrate cargo enforce Federal laws relating to water pollution.
capacity at one location to the detriment of The Coast Guard also is responsible for enforcing
neighboring port facilities, causing socioeconomic the Oil Pollution Act of 1961 which prohibits
impact on the region with predictable reaction by offshore pollution. These are largely preventive
labor unions. measures only, and it would appear that broader
The exhaustion of bulk cargo sources threatens responsibilities should be authorized. Over the
U.S. Continental Shelf and in other Federal
ports and their regions with a shift of trade routes navigable waters, there is a need for this agency to
and ports of call. If the source of cargo for large provide greater assistance in the protection of the
ships is depleted and channels have been deepened natural resources through pollution abatement and
explicitly for large ships, the huge investment in control.
the channel and perhaps in the handling equip-
ment will be wasted. If channels are not deepened
and ship s Iize increases, port authorities and other 3. Conclu sions
regulatory bodies may impose a progressive tax on The present U.S. commercial oceanborn`6 cargo
large ships as an economic restraint on super sizes. trade will continue to have a major impact on any,
Since depth is the most expensive variable in programs designed to extend ocean uses.
channel construction, *the tax probably will be a The future needs of the transportation industry
function of ships' lengih, beam, and draft-with are dependent on faster, more economical ships,
emphasis on draft. possibly nuclear powered, that will allow the U.S.
As bulk ships increase in size, so will the to become a leader in world .shipping once again.
inherent dangers of such hazardous cargoes as Technological advances, automation,@and need
naptha and nitrates. Port authorities may restrict for economy of operation are penetrating water-
large hazardous cargo operations to remote areas; borne shipping business at a very rapid pace. As a
or by law they may restrict dangerous cargoes to result, port authorities must stand ready to create
ships of present sizes. such new port facilities as deep water terminals or
Regional development of port systems will be offshore unloading terminals with automated han-
influenced by the very nature of large ships dling equipment for new large bulk cargo carriers.
coupled with advanced scheduling techniques. Progress in marine transportation is leading
Operators of super ships may find it more profit- rapidly to larger, deeper draft, bulk carriers and
able to change the schedules and use one port high speed ships with improved cargo handling
system suitably modified for their increased capa- systems such as containers and lighters. The
city. impact of container ization on the efficiency of

V1- 120

cargo handling is revolutionary and will continue V. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION"
to increase.
Port design in addition to ship design will pace Virtually every activity man pursues modifies
future progress. The deepening of harbors to his environment in some way. While not all these
accommodate large bulk carriers is encountering modifications are detrimental, the sum of discrete
such severe physical barriers as bedrock, man-made activities undertaken to achieve specific goals can
tunnels, and long shallow approaches. In general, be detrimental unless efforts are made to balance
terminals for containerized shipping must be resource utilization and environmental quality.
totally new and located outside downtown metro- This balance must be sought with a full under-
politan areas, a trend which can release valuable standing of the interactions between resources,
land for urban development. benefits, detriments, and long-range costs to
Offshore unloading platforms and lightering society.
techniques are being considered as one of the most The public has become aware of the importance
progressive and economical means of handling of this balance only very recently; previously,
larger, deeper draft ships. concern for preserving and maintaining our natural
The Coast Guard role in protection of life and resources was subordinated by parochial interests,
property must be strengthened; this responsibility This shortsightedness now demands measures be
for the U.S. Continental Shelf undersea activity taken to cure the sicknesses of our environment;
must be consolidated under one responsible preventive measures alone will pass a. legacy of ruin
agency. It is obvious that chaos will result from to future generations.
the advancing use of the U.S. Continental Shelf The five Great Lakes demonstrate misuse and
with its myriad of men and equipment unless one abuse of environment by man. One only need
agency concentrates systematically on the tasks of compare the rate of population growth in areas
protecting life and property. immediately surrounding each of the Lakes with
Finally, to insure proper protection of life and the rate -of -deterioration of water quality (Figure
property, the Coast Guard should pursue research 48). Ranked according to impaired water quality
and development programs to strengthen capabili- or interference with beneficial uses, Lake Erie
ties of traffic control and monitoring, search and exhibits the greatest impairment, followed by
rescue (inclu ding underwater scuba divers, sub- Lakes Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior.
mersibles, and habitats), pollution abatement and Total population in the drainage basins around
control (oil and other hazardous materials), and each of the lakes corresponds closely; the rate of
fisheries regulation. population growth reflects the rate of accelerated
aging or eutrophication processes in the lakes.
The conclusion is inescapable-man is directly
responsible for the accelerated deterioration of
Recommendations: water quality, If corrective action is not taken,
further deterioration will parallel future popula-
tion growth.
Port and harbor development should be based on a Fortunately, this situation has been recognized.
total systems approach to marine transportation, by all sectors of our society, and preventive
concentrating on design of offshore and improved measures to arrest deterioration are being imple-
methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) transfer. to, mente.d.' These measures, however, probably are
allow more effective use of the coastal land. not enough. Whether the lakes-Lake Erie in
To ensure proper protection- of life and prop- particular-can recover from previous environ-
erty, the Coast Guard should pursue a research and
development program to strengthen capabilities
for traffic control, and monitoring, search and
rescue (including underwater divers, submersibles, Most of the material in this subsection was taken
from Battelle Northwest, Research Report, Great Lakes
and habitats), pollution abatement and control (oil Revtoration-Review of Potentials and Recommendations
and other hazardous materials), andfisheries regu- for Implementation to the Commission (Unpublished
report, Battelle Memorial Institute, Richland, Washington,
lation. 1968).

VI-121

a
p.

N.
A
Duluth

Or
Pop. in Mi
millions 0 it-,
6 2
5 W
4
3
2 Pop
I Mi ns
4
,,,1840 1860 188r4 94019 0 1) W
02 A
ronto
Pop. I oronto
Mil ions r_rT
11 1840 1860 1880 1 UOO 1920 1940 1960
M11-uk.1 10
9
8 -
7
rm Arbor Detroit
all
4'
,4
- V
Chicago 3
2
Toledo

Main Commercial Fisheries Labor.a r s
a
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Intengr 1820 1840 1860 f. 18.8[0 1900 1920 1940 1960
Other Agencies (U.S. and Canada)

Figure 48. The Great Lakes and their drainage basins, showing population increase in each
basin. (Battelle Northwest photo)

menial damage through implementation of preven- The Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tive measures alone is debatable. The recovery tration (FWPCA) Report (1966), Water Pollution
period probably would be inordinately long and Problems of the Great Lakes Area, identifies the
the forfeited benefits considerable. Thus, restora- major physical problems of the Great Lakes area
tive as well as preventive measures must be as:
considered to achieve resource utilization and Over-enrichment of the Lakes.
environmental quality managed in the best inter-
ests of the United States and Canada. -Build-up of dissolved solids in the Lakes.
A. Current Situation -Bacterial contamination of the Lakes and tribu-
The fact,that something has gone awry in Lake taries.
Erie is obvious: People cannot enjoy its use in the -Chemical contamination from industrial waste
same ways th .ey could 20 years ago. Southern Lake discharges.
Michigan and parts of Lake Ontario exhibit some -Oxygen depletion of th Ie Lakes and tributaries.
of Lake Erie's symptoms. The common denom-
inator limiting the multiple use of the Great Lakes
resources is water polhition.12 Most authorities Like all lakes, the Great Lakes are undergoing
agree with this conclusion. an aging process leading to extinction. Historically,
young lakes are relatively barren of biological life;
12 they are ofigotrophic. As aging progresses, the
Testimony of Dr. David C. Chandler, Director, Great material retained by the lake gradually increases in
Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Michigan. the bottom sediments; the sediments decompose,

VI-122

and the lake waters become richer in nutrients on -Unsightly, malodorous masses of algae and other
which minute water plants thrive. As the plant pollutants interfere with the recreational use of
population on which they 4eed increases, the waters and beaches, clog municipal and industrial
population - of minute water animals and higher water intake&, and idepress property values.
animals multiplies.
Increased biological productivity. changes both Nearly all Lake Erie is eutrophic; Lake Ontario
the surface and deeper waters. The lake passes is nearly eutrophic, and Lake Michigan exhibits
from the oligotrophic phase eventually into the some symptoms of eutrophy, especially in the
eutrophic phase in which organic and inorganic southwestern part. Isolated evidence of pollution
materials fill the basin. Rooted aquatic plants has been observed in Lakes Huron and Superior,
become established, gradually converting the area although in general, water quality in these lakes is
to marshland. good.
Eutrophication, the aging process, is the process Increases in the dissolved solids of the Great
of enrichment with nutrients. Accelerated eu- Lakes have been observed over the years since
trophication of lakes results from the input Of routine water quality analyses first were initiated.
nutrient materials, largely nitrogen and phos- Despite dissolved solids concentrations not having
phorus from man's activities. Natural aging impaired water uses seriously, local problems
proceeds slowly in the geological time scale; influenced by population and industrial growth are
however, acceleration of the process by human experienced near points of large waste discharges.
activity causes aging that can be observed within a The dissolved solids problem probably will be
generation. reduced somewhat through recently adopted State
Accelerated eutrophication is emphasized water quality standards. Because most bacterial
because it is critically impairing the benefits of the contamination can be directly traced to man, it
Great Lakes. It is a very difficult problem re- can be remedied more easily.
quiring several remedial measures. Problems of The accelerated aging of the Great Lakes is not
build-up of dissolved solids and oxygen depletion the sole cause or symptom of deteriorating water
are closely associated with eutrophication. quality. However, because other pollution effects
Accelerated eutrophication of Lake Erie is are intimately linked to this phenomenon, meas-
manifest as follows: ures to prevent accelerated aging and to restore
water quality help solve other problems. An
-Blue-green algae, diatoms, and other algal prOlif- example is lessening oxygen depletion caused by
erations cause noxious odors and appear as the biodegradation of organic wastes.
unsightly scums on the water surface. Oxygen can be depleted through addition of
-These algae impart unpleasant tastes to water organic substances to a body of water and the
supplies. proliferation of algae. Most organic pollutants can
be controlled by treatment methods consistent
-Dissolved oxygen levels are depressed in ther- with water quality standards.
mally stratified areas.
-Desirable bottom dwelling, clean water animal B. Causes of Pollution and Accelerated Aging
species are displaced by less desirable species
tolerant of pollution and low oxygen concen- To defime the necessary action and formulate'
tration. restorative methods, it is essential to understand
-Fish populations change from such highly-prized the nature of causative factors. The following
game fish as pike, trout, and whitefish to such factors contribute to the accelerated aging of the
Great Lakes:
coarse, less valuable fish as carp, catfish , and
sheepshead. 1.1 Municipal Wastewater
-Objectionable filamentous algae growing in
shallow waters wash up onto the shores and Municipal sewage is the principal source of
beaches. nutrients, especially phosphor-us; 75 per cent of

VI-1 23

the phosphorus, added to Lake Erie comes from problems. Of course, the problem will grow as
municipal wastewater, and 66 per cent of the water transportation and recreational boating
phosphorus is derived from detergents. Two-thirds increase.
of the phosphorous is retained in the lake,
principally in its'bottom sediments. Needless to S. Oil Discharges
say, the effects of municipal wastewater discharges
. Oil, discharges are undesirable, for they cause
have had 'a drastic effect on aging. There is no
doubt that domestic sewage is a predominating ecological inbalances and drastic effects on aes-
contributor to the deterioration of water quality thetics. On the other hand, special oils could
because of its nutrients, as well as', its bacterial and have limited beneficial effects by reducing the
organic contamination. penetration of the sunlight, necessary for the
growth of algae that contribute to eutrophication.
2. Combined Storm Sewage 6. Dredging
Combined storm sewage sometimes is a greater For many years harbors and channels in the
problem than municipal wastewater. Combined Great Lakes have been dredged to provide suitable
storm sewage from a heavy rainfall can overtax the channels for waterborne transport. The spoil, rich
capacity of a treatment plant; hence, substantial in nutrients, usually consists of sediments carried
volumes of untreated wastewater are bypassed to by tributary streams and rivers and of sewage and
receiving bodies of water. industrial waste residues. Dumping spoil in the
lakes, the Practice for many years, releases more
3. Industrial Wastewater nutrients than when sediments and residues are
undisturbed. Hence, dredging causes an increase in
Often industrial wastes are routed to municipal the recycling of sediment-stored nutrients, espe-
treatment systems for the mutual benefit of the cially phosphorous. Important benefits would
community and its industry. These wastes gener- accrue if the dredging spoil were deposited on
ally have the effects discussed under Municipal isolated land so nutrients would not be washed
Wastewater, paragraph 1 above. However, many again into the lakes.
large industries bordering the Great Lakes find it
more economical to accomplish treatment within 7. Thermal Discharges
their own complex. -Many do not effect a suitable.
degree of treatment, thus contributing to acceler- Thermal discharges can have both beneficial
ated aging. Nutrient-laden effluents, organic con- and detrimental effects on accelerated aging. Dis-
taminants, noxious chemicals, and sediments or charge of such heated effluents as industrial and
inorganic residues are contained in industrial power plant cooling water can induce extensive
wastewaters. algal growth during seasons when water tempera-
tures are normally too cold. Conversely, during
4. Watercraft Wastes seasons when water stagnates and becomes strati-
fied in the Lakes, thermal discharges could help
Wastes from watercraft are not treated to the restore circulation. Stratification causes oxygen
extent of municipal wastewaters, or most often deficiencies in the bottom waters of a lake, in
not at 411. In the United States, recreational turn, causing vastly increased nutrient recycling
watercraft wastes *are'equivalent to that discharged from the bottom sediments.
by a community of 500,000. However, this contri-
bution to water quality deterioration of the Great 8. Nutrient-Laden Inflow from Tributaries
Lakes is insignificant by comparison with other
nutrient, sources. While its treatment is beneficial, Inflow from tributaries and impoundments add
especially to public health, it is very doubtful that nutrients to the lakes. Because impoundments
watercraft wastes alone would accelerate aging of suffer the same aging problems, both the causes
the Great Lakes. However, on a very local basis-at and remedies are essentially the same as for the
a marina, for example-it may cause very serious lakes. This illustrates the need to treat the Great

VI-124

Lakes as a total basin, implementing preventive As silt and erosion runoff flow into the lake,
and restorative measures for tributaries as well as nutrients are dissolved and are available for bio-
the lakes themselves. (This aspect is discussed logical utilization. Land use practices, especially
further below.) land development in urban and agricultural areas,
have contributed to accelerated aging; measures
9. Waterfowl must be undertaken to control this nutrient

source.
The Great Lakes, on an extensively used rm*gra-
tory flyway, are a resting and habitat area for large
numbers of waterfowl. However, the birds' contri- 12. Agricultural Runoff
bution to eutrophication of the Lakes is a part of Agricultural runoff, another very important
the natural aging process. source of nutrients entering the Great Lakes,
consists of eroded soil, leached salts and fertilizers,
10. Fisheries and excess fertilizer. Measures to alleviate some of
That fisheries have suffered from water quality the nutrient contribution in the runoff include
deterioration in the Great Lakes is well known. contour plowing and other land management
Actually, the annual catch of all species in Lake techniques, judicious fertilizer application, and
Erie has not decreased with accelerated eutrophi- control of agricultural wastewater where possible.
cation. However, less desirable species have It is difficult to control nutrients in agricultural
supplanted the more desirable game fish, because runoff, because treatment methods cannot be
spawning and rearing areas have been contami- applied to point sources. It is a problem of,
nated or destroyed. The bottom fauna have been perhaps, the same magnitude as combined storm
changed by pollutants and sediments, altering the sewage. In the Midwest alone, it is estimated that
the nutrients from animal wastes are equivalent to
game fish food supply so only the more tolerant,
that from 300 million people. Obviously, only a
less desirable species can thrive.
The predation of sea lamprey has had some fraction reaches the Great Lakes, but the potential
impact, but this has been less important recently from this source is enormous.
in Lake Erie than in Lakes Michigan and Superior.
The purposeful addition of nutrients is a 13. Urban Land Drainage
common technique for increasing fish production
in lakes, while catching or removing large quanti- Although distinguished from combined storm
ties of fish constitutes a reduction of nutrients. sewage, this problem has many similar elements,
This is important in the Great Lakes because assuming that a separate sewer system exists for
planning and management of fisheries resources storm runoff. Urban or storm drainage is com-
can benefit nutrient control. For example, nutri- posed of such nutrient materials as street sedi-
ent removal as part of a restoration program ments, grit, oils, salts, and street refuse. It usually
requires that dead alewives which wash ashore is discharged directly to a receiving body of water,
from Lake Michigan be removed. Additionally, because the potential contamination by pathogens
alewives can be a source of protein. Hence, two is quite low; yet, the nutrient concentration may
functions can be accomplished concurrently: not be low, particularly rich.soil areas.
nutrient removal by vigorous fishing for an unde-
sirable species and production of a significant 14. Subsurface Waste Disposal
amount of protein.
Rural areas and many development areas
11. Sediment Interchange around the Great Lakes have septic fields for
domestic wastewater disposal. Nutrients in sub-
Sedimentation (including silt, erosion and agri- stantial amounts drain to the lakes in areas having
cultural runoff, dead biological life, and waste- certain soil characteristics; however, these regions
water residues) constitute the ' second most are fairly dispersed and do not constitute a major
important source of nutrients in the Great Lakes. source of nutrients.

VI- 125

IS. Atmospheric Quality Deterioration has occurred in other smaller lakes. The fact that
the FWPCA and other agencies are working to
The carbon dioxide content of the world's control elements contributing to eutrophication
atmosphere has increased a small amount, and the
and to restore water quality reinforces Dr.
temperatures of the atmosphere have increased Brinkhurst's conclusion.
likewise. Consequent temperature increases in the Technology to control eutrophication may be
water cause a small drop in dissolved oxygen. classified as preventive or restorative. Preventative
measures remove nutrients from the water before
It is virtually impossible to predict what would discharge to a receiving body,., and restorative
happen to. the. eutrophication trend by removing measures remove the nutrients or the products of
any single nutrient -source. While priorities should eutrophy from the affected body of water. Meas-
be established for preventive and restorative tech- ures which reduce nutrients usually improve other
niques, many. methods must be implemented water quality parameters, (e.g., bacterial content)
before restoration can be achieved. , . I I which may have little effect on eutrophication.
Factors contributing to accelereated aging are
ranked below according to their importance in the
problem. Hence, they serve as the targets for both C. Preventive Measures
preventive and restorative measures:
1. Nutrient Exclusion
High Impact Most research has been to' develop suiiable
.Municipal wastewater methods. to remove nutrients from municipal
wastewater. Most methods, however, can be
Agricultural runoff
Sediment interchange applied 'also to other nutrient-containing aqueous
flows. The soap and detergent industry is seeking
Medium Impact substitutes for the phosphate in detergent formula-
tions, because detergents account for a substantial
Industrial wastewater part of the phosphorus in municipal wastewater.
Combined storm sewage Activated sludge secondary treatment plants
Urban land drainage can be operated to optinlize nutrient removal.
Dredging Aeration rate, aeration time,. aeration solids, and
Nutrient-laden inflow from tributaries return sludge 'ratios.,are critical to effective phos-
Fisheries phorus removall These plants also can be operated
to accentuate denitrification, employing a variety
Low Impact of operating procedures.
Capitalizing on the principle that nutrients in
Watercraft wastes municipal wastewaters cause prolific growth of
Oil discharges algae, algae are cultured under controlled condi-
Thermal discharges tions in the treatment plant. The algae then are
Waterfowl harvested to remove the incorporated nutrients,
Subsurface waste disposal leaving the effluent low in nutrient content. The
Atmospheric quality deterioration limiting factor in the removal of nitrogen and
phosphorus by this metho& is the efficiency of
Can the eutrophication process in the Great algal harvesting.
Lakes be reversed? -This is an extremely significant Chemical co-precipitation with lime and
question, because the effort and funds expended hydrous aluminum and iron oxides is highly
on Great Lakes restoration. will greatly influence effective in removing phosphorus from municipal
the answer. In referring to Lake Erie, Dr, Ralph L. wastewater, but nitrogen removal is less effective.
Brinkhurst of the University of Toronto said, "It's Of all removal processes, ion exchange is the most
the healthiest corpse Ive seen." He firmly believes effective for removing. both nitrogen and phos-
that eutrophication can be reversed, citing specific phorus. Ammonia stripping also has been effective
studies that demonstrate eutrophication reversal in removing nitrogen.

VI-126

Spraying effluent on land has been relatively D. Restorative Measures
effective in removing nutrients from municipal
wastewater, but drainage from the land must not Restorative measures are intended to remove
be allowed to flow into a receiving body of water. nutrients from water. While prevention involves
Membrane processes, primarily for dissolved millions of gallons per day, restoration in the
solids removal, have some capability for nitrogen Great Lakes involves hundreds of cubic miles of
a.nd phosphorus removal but are expensive. water. This point should be carefully remembered
Distillation is efficient for removing nitrogen when alternative courses of action are considered.
and espec .ially phosphorus. Some restorative techniques discussed below
Other methods have been proposed, but most are based on Iiinnological theory rather than actual
are still in the research or developmental s ages. experimental or developmental work. Others are
based on applications to lakes of much smaller size
Recent FWPCA hearings. on Lake Michigan no than the Great Lakes.
doubt will accelerate efforts to evolve an efficient,
inexpensive method for phosphorus removal. The
Secretary of the Interior stated that phosphorus 1. Seating Bottom Sediments
removal from municipal wastewater should be If the addition of all nutrients were terminated,
maximized, and municipalities that discharge ef- recycling of nutrients from previously deposited
fluents to Lake Michigan should accomplish 80 per sediments would continue accelerated eutrophica-
cent phosphorus removal by 1972. tion of the Lakes for a considerable time. One
Agricultural runoff, a significant source of solution is to seal the bottom sediments from the
nutrients, is more difficult to control. However, overlying waters. This seal must be renewed
some measures can be taken to exclude nutrients, periodically, perhaps annually, if accumulation of
including land management to prevent erosion and additional nutrients by natural causes continues.
subsequent pollution by siltation.
Measures are be-ing implemented to control 2. Flushing with Low-Nutrient Water
watercraft wastes, including retention of wastes Use of low-nutrient water to flush eutrophic:
onboard for treatment ashore and onboard proces- lakes has been employed with some success to
sing equivalent to secondary treatment and a restore water quality. This method was used in
corresponding degree of nutrient removal. Consid- Green Lake near Seattle, and similar experiments
erable research and development sponsored by the are planned for Moses Lake, Washington. The great
FWPCA, Navy, and Coast Guard is in progress. quantities of low-nutrient water required make
Another measure that can be implemented to application of this method in the Great Lakes
exclude nutrients from the Great Lakes is the questionable. Further, downstream waters may be
cessation of dredge spoil, garbage, trash, and refuse adversely affected by the flushed nutrients.
disposal in the lakes. Of these, dredging has caused
concern in localized areas because of the amount 3. Nutrient Removal
of nutrients associated with the spoil. Although two-thirds of the phosphorus intro-
duced into Lake Erie is- retained in the bottom
2. Nutrient Diversion sediments, significant amounts also are retained by
fish, algae, and rooted vegetation. Removal of fish
Diversion of nutrient-containing effluents (such will be considered in later discussions. It is
as municipal wastewater) around bodies of water is essential that algae and aquatic weeds be removed
a technique successfully employed in the past to from the Lake. Cutting nuisance aquatic weeds
prevent accelerated eutrophication. Despite its and leaving them in the water effects no nutrient
success, this method could prove shortsighted. The removal. Furthermore, the harvested algae and
pollution problem merely is passed to a down- weeds must be removed so nutrients do not
stream impoundment, lake, bay, or estuary. This is reenter the lake by leaching and drainage. One
not acceptable resource management unless sub- solution would be to utilize them for added
stantial mitigating circumstances exist for which, benefits as sources of protein, fertilizer, mulch, or
the long-term effects are thoroughly understood. animal feeds.

VI-127

4. lbermal Destratification. measure that must be repeated at frequent inter-
During seasons when oxygen deficiencies exist vals, and the chemicals could accumulate in fish
in the bottom waters of a lake, nutrient avail- and eventually be harmful to man.
ability at the sediment-water interface is greatly
increased. Oxygen deficiencies result largely from 8. Chemical Inactivation
water stagnation in temperature layers and from Research is in progress for a method to chem-
biological decay on the lake bottom. Destratifica- ically inactivate the nutrients by preventing their
tion or restoration of water circulation to allow utilization by the algae. One promising method is
oxygen to be absorbed from the air reduces the to develop chelating agents which will complex
availability of nutrients in the bottom sediments, with divalent ions that function as co-enzymes in
thereby arresting or retarding the aging process. nitrogen fixation by algae and to determine the
Destratification can be accomplished by mech- types of algae growths which result.
anical mixing, aeration mixing, or thermal mixing.
In the first, the lake is mechanically stirred so that 9. Prevention of Light Penetration
zones of stratification are thoroughly mixed. In The development of a substance to decrease the
the second, the same -mechanical mixing allows penetration of light into the Lakes by increasing
oxygen from the air to be absorbed in the . water. either reflectance or opacity has been proposed.
In the third, mixing is accomplished by heating. This substance must be nontoxic, biologically
5. Dredging stable, and nonrestrictive to oxygen transfer into
Since bottom sediments are a potent source of the water. No known substance satisfies these
nutrients, removal of the sediments has been criteria and others required to maintain maximum
recommended for restoring lakes. However, Great beneficial use of the water resource. Further,
Lakes sediments are quite thick in certain areas. during certain seasons photosynthetic organisms
This and the expanse of the Lakes dictates can provide measureable quantities of oxygen
during hours of sunlight, so the addition of a light
exertion of Herculean efforts to completely
remove the sediments. Care must be exercised to retarding substance must not disrupt this.
minimize release of nutrients during the dredging 10. Rough Fish Removal
operation.
Part of the nutrient inventory in the Great
6. Biological Control Lakes is retained by the fish population, and
Biological control of algae and aquatic weeds is removing the fish reduces the inventory. However,
possible if suitable animal populations are discov- many fish species are highly desirable for game or
ered to graze on the blue-green algae and rooted commerce. On the other hand, substantial popula-
vegetation. Developing strains of viruses or para- tions of rough fish, such as carp and alewives, are
sites to prey exclusively on the algae and aquatic undesirable.
weeds is an alternative. Research to attain these A concerted effort to remove these fish would
objectives has had very little *success to date result in.reduced nutrients. It would be prudent to
consider processing these fish for usable protein, as
7. Chemical Control burial of the fish within the Great Lakes Basin
could allow the nutrients to be washed again into
Mthough copper sulphate has been very the lakes.
successful for almost a century in controlling Since desirable fish species are also a nutrient
prolific growth of algae, it is also toxic to other source, increased harvesting should be encouraged
life forms. Research investigators are seeking within the bounds of sound conservation practice.
highly specific algacides to kill only the noxious
species. Chemical control, not being a nutrient E. Other Measures for Water Quality Improve-
removal method, treats oniy@ the symptoms of ment
eutrophication;.the dead algae settle to the lake
bottom, increasing the potential nutrient reservoir Accelerated eutrophication, the cause of the
in the sediments. Further, it is only a temporary most serious long-range consequences, is not the

VI-128

sole cause of water quality deterioration in the 4. Thermal Discharges
Great Lakes. The following paragraphs discuss Thermal discharges should be managed so that
measures which will improve Great Lakes water water quality standards are met and these dis-
quality. Most plans cited below are recommenda- charges are beneficially employed wherever pos-
tions of the Federal Water Pollution Control sible.
Administration and others who are continually
studying the Great Lakes Basin. S. Oil Discharges
1. Municipal Wastewater Treatment . Treatment of oil and other hazardous materials
should be undertaken to exclude them from the
A minimum of secondary treatment should be Lakes.
provided by municipalities discharging wastewater
to the Great Lakes. Treatment should be efficient F. Future Needs
and continuous, accomplishing 90 per cent
removal of oxygen-consuming wastes. Limits The foregoing subsections have shown that:
should be established for such specific pollutants
as suspended solids, settleable solids, ammonia, -The causes of water quality deterioration in the
phenolics, oil, and those materials exerting a Great Lakes are fairly well defined.
biochemical oxygen demand. The levels should be -Technology is available to prevent most water
set commensurate with their ability to interfere quality problems.
with beneficial uses of water. Whenever possible,
treatable industrial wastes should be processed by -Technology to restore the water quality of the
municipal systems, and master plans should be Great Lakes is or can be developed.
formulated for integrated treatment facilities in
urban areas. Areas with septic tanks should be To abate pollution substantially and to improve
incorporated into sewerage systems as soon as water quality before implementing restoration
possible. Continuous disinfection of all municipal measures, ultimate standards should be established
wastewater also should be effected as soon as in cooperation with the States, the regions, and
possible. the Federal Government. Once fixed, the stand-
ards should be strictly enforced. Incremental
2. Industrial Wastewater Treatment compliance may be necessary in some instances to
All industrial wastes should receive the equiv- offset the economic efforts of the ultimate stand-
alent of secondary treatment, and those industrial ards and to allow time for new treatment equip-
wastes causing chemical pollution should be ex- ment to be incorporated. The Great Lakes should
cluded from the Lakes or should receive a suitable be used as an example for applying national
level of treatment. standards.
Maximum reduction by the best available treat- It has been determined that significant preven-
ment should be implemented for acids and tive measures are being implemented to improve
alkalies, oils, and tarry substances; phenolic com- Great Lakes water quality. Undoubtedly Lake Erie
pounds and other organics which produce objec- will become truly dead if accelerated eutrophica-
tionable tastes and odors; ammonia and other tion proceeds unimpeded.
nitrogen compounds; phosphorus; suspended If only preventive measures are implemented
materials; toxic and highly-colored materials; and technology for improvement is only partially
oxygen-demanding substances; excessive heat; applied, the Great Lakes could be restored to a
foam-producing compounds; and other materials desired level of water quality, but only after
which detract from aesthetics or other uses of considerable time. Some speculate that recovery
water. would be measured in terms of geological time.
3. Agricultural Runoff Even if technology for improvement is fully
applied (i.e., full utilization of preventive and
Pesticides and herbicides should be applied to restorative technology), restoration of desirable
minimize the amounts that drain into the Great water quality could take as long as a generation.
Lakes in surface or subsurface runoff. This assumes that eutrophication is reversible-a

VI-129

333-091 0-69-13

point of considerable controversy. However, of benefit. Hence, Point B is commonly referred to
recent research appears to confirm that reversal to as the most economically efficient project scale,
some degree is possible. because this point maximizes benefits in terms of
Therefore, in summary, if present resource associated costs.
management practices are not improved, Lake Erie
will continue to accelerate toward its demise, and
the other Lakes will likely succumb in the order:
Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior. If only
preventive measures are taken, Lake Erie may
recover in a few thousand years, and water quality
in, other Lakes will be maintained; Lake Ontario B BFNEFITS@COSTS
also may show improvement. If both preventive ac
and restorative measures are implemented, marked
improvement in Lake Erie might be observed
within a generation.
These statements, however, are far too general
to support the necessity for restoration. The
question, "What is the desired level of water
quality in the Great Lakes?" has never been
specifically answered. The objective should be to
optimize the benefits which would accrue because
of enhanced water quality in terms of the cost of
COSTS C
attaining such enhancement.
Within the general framework of a market :igure 49. Benefit-cost analysis.
system, there are clear-cut reasons to suppose that
public intervention can control disposal of wastes Since the degree of restoration can be directly
into water bodies. Not only can government implied from the derived optimum cost (Point Q,
intervention improve efficiency as measured in a detailed benefit-cost analysis can identify how
terms of market values, but it can and should take much restoration is enough.
explicit cognizance of extra-market values. Since
the character of water courses in heavily populated Several benefits that can be quantified:
areas is such that interdependency between uses is _Enhancement of land values.
inevitable, a major problem confronting -public
policy is to gauge accurately the significance of -Reduced cost of water treatment for domestic,
various interdependencies and foster the efficient municipal, and industrial supplies.
multipurpose use of the water resource.
The answer, then, to the question of how much -Enhancement of the fishery resource, both
restoration is enough can be determined through a commercial and sport.
detailed benefit-cost analysis similar to that which
-Enhancement of water-based recreation activities
long has been used to evaluate the economic
feasibility of large public projects. and increased potential for water-based recreation
Figure 49 illustrates the type of analysis re- opportunities.
quired. At the outset, the costs of improved water -Minimized potential public health hazard.
quality probably will not be matched by the value
.of associated benefits. Eventually, the value of Amproved aesthetic appeal of the Lakes and
benefits will rise until incremental benefits equal attraction of tourists.
incremental costs (Point A). Benefits will exceed
costs from A to B, but the ratio will gradually Benefits derived from improved water quality
decrease until the incremental benefits are again change continually. For example, demographic
equal to incremental costs (Point B). Beyond that and sociological trends as in increased population,
point, increments of cost will exceed increments leisure time, income, and mobility will put in-

VI-130

creasing pressure on the Great Lakes, as a recrea- As other restoration plans proposed earlier, this
tional resource. The change is compounded by the example is directed toward reducing the avail-
fact that as population density increases, social ability of nutrients from bottom sediments. It has
pressures arise to place a higher value on recrea- been demonstrated experimentally that the avail-
tional opportunities. Therefore, the value to the ability of nutrients to the water mass is regulated
individual of such opportunities in the future will by the oxygen content of a lake's deep waters.
be greater than today. By the year 2020, for As these waters become oxygen deficient, decom-
example, the projected population in the Lake position of organic matter without oxygen results
Erie Basin alone is expected to pass 23 million, in chemically reducing conditions in the sedi-
compared to 9.8 million in 1960. The rate of ments. This further results in iron and manganese
increase in water-based recreation demand is esti- compounds being dissolved and sediment nutrients
mated to far exceed this population growth. being released. Further study of this phenomenon
There has been much speculation about the is an integral part of the National Eutrophication
cost of a restoration plan for Lake Erie. The Research Program wherein pilot scale tests in
following example provides an order-of-magnitude YJamath Lake, Oregon, will be used to determine
estimate of cotfi, for a potentially feasible method. the influence of sediment-water interchange on
It already has been shown that preventive meas- algae production.
Iures must be 'implemented to remove the causes of A second effect of oxygen depletion in the
accelerated eutrophication. Moreover, it has been deep waters is the marked change in the aquatic
stated that restorative measures must be imple- ecology. The demise of the mayfly nymph on the
mented so that the time of lake recovery will be bottom of Lake Erie is related to the low oxygen
short enough to avoid forfeiture of substantial concentration. Since the mayfly provided a major
benefits. The example assumes that the recommen- source of food for desirable fish species, these too
dations for preventive technology will be imple- have declined. A more direct effect of low oxygen
mented. concentrations is the gradual takeover of the Lakes
by rough fish that are more tolerant of low oxygen
Earlier subsections on Prevention and Restora- levels.
tion (C and D) outlined the technology considered In the Public Health Service 1965 report,
and, in some cases, tested on a small scale. The pollution of Lake Erie and Its Tributafies, the
following is one approach involving a large engi- dissolved oxygen values in the bottom waters of
neering effort. It is a method to destratify Lake the central basin of Lake Erie are described as
Erie by artificial recirculation. This example is not having decreased during the past 35 years from
offered as the ideal solution. (Undoubtedly a about five milligrams per liter (mg/1) to less than
complex of restoration methods will be required, two, with many areas near zero. Typically, severe
and several techniques must be implemented.) It is late summer stratification can occurover an area
intended to provide a reference concept that will of about 2,600 square miles or about 25 per cent
assist in defining the necessary level of planning, of the entire lake. The total volume of the water
effort, and funding in a more quantitative manner colurrin (average depth- 12 fathoms) in this area is
than previously. As such, the artificial recircula- about 120 million acre feet or 35 cubic miles.
tion case study can serve as a focus for further Carr 13 provides an excellent review of dissolved
evaluation. oxygen conditions in Lake Erie. Although it is
It must be emphasized strongly that restoration difficult to generalize, Carr's work suggests that
of a take as large as Erie represents a major the oxygen-depleted hypolimnion occurs in the
environmental modification and, hence, must be water column below 50 feet. For the particular
approached with caution. The analysis and evalua- configuration of Lake Erie, this condition prevails
tion required before such an undertaking is for about the last 10 feet of the central basin. If
beyond the scope of this discussion. Although
much information necessary to evaluate the feasi-
bility, engineering requirements, and effects of an 13
artificial recirculation project already exists, sub- Carr, J. S., Dissolved Oxygen in Lake Erie, Past and
Present, University of Michigan Great Lakes Research
stantial additional work will be required. Division, Pub. 9, pp. 1-14.

VI-131

so, about 20 to 40 million acre feet are oxygen as large as 20 times that calculated by the design
deficient. method; however, for purposes of this analysis,
An alternate calculation based on a 270 million this value is not applied.
pound oxygen deficit suggests that 20 million acre Using the design methodology of Cook and
feet could be seriously depleted. 14 These values Waters 16 and the aforementioned volume of water
are in sufficient agreement for purposes of this to be circulated (i.e., 40 million acre feet in 100
analysis. days), the following values result:
The conclusion, then, is that artificial destratifi-
cation of Lake Erie will require displacement of
about 40 million acre feet of bottom water, which Engineering Parameters
must be brought to the surface to be replaced with Volumetric water rate 200,000 CFS'7
surface water during the summer months i.e., Diameter of circulators. 10 feet
ibout 100 days). Ungth of circulators 50 feet
Artificial destratification is not a new concept, Number of circulators 500
but application on the scale represented by Lake Compressed air volume
Erie requires new considerations. Numerous de- (total) 1,300,000 SCFM"
stratification tests have been conducted in the
United States, Great Britain, and Europe. Whether Compressor horsepower
any permanent installations have been made is (HP), total 600,000
unknown. Cost Parameters
Results of these experiments have not always
been predictable, probably due to the nature of Capital costs
sediments and the initial oxygen content. This Circulators @ $200,000 $100,000,000
experience emphasizes the obvious need for Annual operating costs
caution in any major effort to change the environ- Fuel (diesel) 8,150,000
Iment. A direct parallel can be seen in large-scale Amortization (10 yrs. st. line) 10,000,000
weather modification programs. Maintenance and repair 5,000,000
The use of airlift recirculators has been de- Personnel 5,000,000
scribed, and detailed design methods have been $28,150,000
developed. Airlift recirculators (vertical, open-
ended pipes with compressed air introduced near For contingency purposes, this total value can be
the bottom end and discharging below the surface) rounded upward to $30 million per year.
are extremely efficient movers of water against As presently conceived, airlift circulators would
essentially zero head. For example, air consuni- consist of vertical, open-ended riser tubes mounted
ption rates are approximately one-hundredth of a on barges. Power, for compressing the motive air
cubic foot per minute per gallon of water circu- introduced near the riser's bottom would be
lated per minute. Velocities issuing from. the provided by diesel engines-approximately 1,000
circulator will be from five to six feet per hp per circulator. Each riser would be 50 feet in
second." length with the upper end terminating about 10
Application to the destratification of Lake Erie feet below the surface. Blowable ballast tanks at
obviously requires considerable extrapolation. This the lower end of the riser will allow the riser tube
is particularly true of the induced circulation that to be elevated for moving into shallow water for
occurs outside the circulator. Another expert repair and storage. With the ballast tanks flooded,
estimated that the net induced circulation may be

16 Ibid.
14 Commoner, B., "The Killing of a Great Lake," The I ?CFS is cubic feet per second; 200,000 CFS is
1968 World Book Supplement to the World Book approximately equivalent to the average annual flow of
Encyclopedia. the Columbia River at its mouth.
15 Cook, M. W. and E. D. Waters, Operational Charac- 18SCFM is standard cubic feet per minute; standard
teristics of Submerged Gas Lift Circulators, U.S. Atomic refers to the conditions of average atmospheric tempera-
Energy Commission Report HW-39432, Dec. 1, 1955. ture and pressure.

VI-132

the riser tube will hinge down from the barge and H. Conclusions
lock into its operational position.
Mobility of the barge-mounted system will This section identifies and f@cuses attention on
permit towing to mooring sites selected on the the action required to restore Great Lakes quality
basis of water quality analyses. to a desirable level. Accelerated eutrophication
and other water quality deterioration are described
with the contributing factors. Current technology
G. Institutional Arrangements to prevent water quality impairment resulting
from man's activities and to restore water quality
Well-founded restoration plans that incorporate to a level that provides for optimum beneficial use
the best available technology are of little value is reviewed.
unless institutional arrangements provide means Also, the necessary economic analysis to iden-
for successful implementation. All too often, tify the costs and associated benefits or restorative
desirable proposals for improved water manage- measures are discussed. Institutional arrangements
ment practices have not been implemented are mentioned to identify the requisite characteris-
because constraints of existing water law, water tics of an agency to jead the planning and
management institutions, administrative regula- restoration programs.
tions, and water use customs had not been Finally, restorative techniques of the Great
considered adequately. Lakes are discussed with one example examined in
It takes only a cursory examination to discover detail to help identify the magnitude and cost of
that, in both the United States and Canadian parts needed restoration actions.
of the Great Lakes Basin, there are a multitude of Any plan to restore the Great Lakes will involve
Federal, State, and local agencies, universities, a tremendous undertaking because of the scale and
research institutes, and industries with active nature of the resources involved. Technology to
programs related in some manner to one or more deal with freshwater environments is not oriented
aspects of the quality of the Great Lakes re- toward solving problems of the Great Lakes
sources. As one would suspect, there is consider- magnitude; however, technology developed in the
able overlap in interest and activity among these marine sciences has been directed toward solution
programs. of large-scale problems. Therefore, experience in
In view of the rapidly deteriorating quality of marine technology would be highly beneficial in
some of the Lakes, particularly Lake Erie, it is formulating and implementing plans to restore this
apparent that existing institutional arrangements vast resource.
are not adequate to handle the problem. This Two opinions often have been strongly stated
raises the question-should a new organization be in both the marine sciences and Great Lakes
set up, or does an existing agency possess enough research. First, the experts agree that the applica-
of the requisite characteristics that, given the tion of marine science and technology skills to
necessary authority and funding, it could success- study the restoration of the Lakes would be
fully formulate and implement restoration plans? highly appropriate. Second, and more importantly,
It is essential that full advantage be taken of the almost all the experts contacted believed that this
vast reservoir of knowledge and skills that exists desirable relationship has not been exploited suffi-
among all the resources agencies and organizations ciently.
active in the Great Lakes Basin. The problem is Use of Great Lakes resources is limited by
neither a lack of capability among available per- water pollution. Although a variety of classes of
sonnel nor a shortage of suitable technology with pollution are evident, the most serious long-range
which to attack the water quality problem. problem results from accelerated eutrophication or
Rather, it is the need for an effective vehicle with the aging process of these lakes. Lake Erie is not
which to accomplish (1) needed leadership, coordi- dead.
nation, and utilization of available talent including Suitable technology is presently available to
the special capabilities to be found in marine successfully undertake measures to prevent further
sciences and (2) successful implementation and water quality deterioration and accelerated eutro-
management of a large-scale restoration program. phication.

VI-133

Recommendations: tion-indicates that this part -would cost about $30
Implementation of measures to prevent, water million annually after. a substantial initial capital.
quality deterioration and accelerated eutrophica- investment. This provides a, basis for which to
tion is essential before restoration can be achieved. examine and compare other aspects of a restora-
A: detailed economic analysis should be under- tion program.
taken: (1) to identify the quantifiable benefits A goal should be set to halt substantially any
accruing for various levels of improvement in the -further pollution and to improve the quality of
quality of Great Lakes resources and (2) to nearshOre waters. The goals of this program should
determine the associated costs of achieving these be enforced by joint State-Federal ultimate
improvements. This analysis should include consid- standards to be fixed immediately. These stand-
eration of forfeited benefits if resource manage- ards should be tailored for incremental future
ment practices are not improved and should compliance until the desired standards are
encompass all significant aspects including do- attained-
mestic, municipal, and industrial water supply; A National Project tailored to the immediate
power; irrigation agriculture; watershed manage- needs of Lakes Erie and Ontario and southern
ment; and recreation and aquatic resources includ- Lake Michigan should be funded to test such
ing pleasure boating. Without the knowledge that promising restoration schemes as artificially in-
such an analysis.would provide, the most desirable duced destratification. Existing facilities should be
and justifiable level of water quality remains a used to the fullest extent.
matter of conjecture and debate, and any restora- A restoration project for Lakes Erie and
tion program would lack direction and a defensible Ontario and southern Lake Michigan should be
goal. undertaken as soon as the technology is available.
A restoration program, in addition to preven- The program should complement the implementa-
tive measures, is necessary to improve the quality tion of existing pollution abatement technology in
of the Great Lakes to any significant degree within all the Great Lakes and must be managed to
an acceptable period. A detailed study of one part accommodate Federal, State, community, and
of such a program-artificially induced circula- private interests.

VI-134

Chapter 6 Industrial Technology

The technology of several domestic 'industries insure access and availability of suitable areas and
with major interest in the oceans or close to shore to zone for optimum multiple use of the resource).
is discussed. These include the following resource
industries:
-Living Figure 1
Fishing PRESENT TECHNOLOGICAL STATUS OF
Aquaculture VARIOUS DOMESTIC INDUSTRIES
-Non-Living Type Examples
Oil and gas
Ocean mining Existing Industries
Chemical extraction Mature, healthy, Oil and gas on conti-
Desalination and growing nental shelf
Power generation Chemical extraction
from sea water
Recreation' not treated separately here, is men- Mining of sand, gravel,
tioned only for the sake of completeness. It is sulfur
discussed more thoroughly in the Marine Re- Shrimp and tuna fishing
sources Panel Report. Transportation, and harbor Surface marine recrea-
development are discussed in Chapter 5 of this tion
report. Early stages of Desalination
Each industry subsection includes pertinent growth Bulk and container
surnmaries and recommendations, with major find- transportation systems
ings and recommendations given at the front of and associated termi-
the panel report. Each industry's technology is nals
treated from the viewpoint of present status and Aquaculture, fresh
trends, future needs, and recommendations, with water and estuarine
emphasis on recommendations that can be imple- Underwater recreation
mented by the Federal Government.
There are tremendous differences in the indus- Mature but static Most segments of
tries' present and anticipated rates of growth. or declining fishing
Further, widespread differences exist among the Shipbuilding
various segments of an industry, as in fishing. Merchant shipping
Figure I depicts the present technological Future Industries
status of.ocean industries in two broad categor- Nearterm promising Mining of placer min-
ies-existing and future industries. Assignment of (where nearterm erals
an industry to a given category has been somewhat is less than 15 Oil and gas beyond the
arbitrary. years) continental shelf
When development of an ocean industry is
proceeding well, as in oil and gas activities on the Long range Sub-bottom mining
continental shelf, only minor adjustments in Fed- (excluding sulphur)
eral policies and programs are indicated. Aquaculture, open
When developments are in early stages of ocean
potential large-scale growth, as in desalination, the Deep water mining
Federal Government's role can be decisive in Power generation from
maintaining the expected rate of growth. In the waves, currents, tides,
case of underwater recreation, the roles of State and thermal differ-
and local governments also are important (to ences

VI-135

When development of an industry is not incentive and competition necessary for resource
progressing, more drastic changes are recom- development by free enterprise.
mended, including those of a fiscal, legal- The Federal Government should keep a watch-
regulatory, or technological nature-all of which ful eye on future industries with longer range
are interrelated. For example, U.S. fishermen potential and maintain close liaison with those
should be permitted to purchase vessels abroad industries and the acaden-dc community, as new
and should not be, required to pay excessive duty developments may reverse the outlook. Two major
on foreign gear. This would help improve, for recommendations emerge from a review of the
example, the technical position of the New industries' technological status.
England groundfish fishermen, enabling them to
compete more effectively with foreign fishermen. Recommendations:
In addition, technology's role in the Bureau of National Projects such as the Fixed and Portable
Commercial Fisheries should be upgraded con- Continental Shelf Laboratories should be under-
siderably, with substantial emphasis given search taken. Such projects would permit many users to
and location techniques. lease and use these facilities to test the economic
I When an industry's development is yet to begin, and technical feasibility of new undersea develop-,
as in offshore placer mining, special incentives to ment options.
pioneers and special attention to removal of
legal-regulatory and economic obstacles are A statutory mechanism is needed throng .h
needed. The Federal Government can do much which the Federal Government, State govern-
prior to the beginning of a new mining enterprise, ments, industry, and academic community can
such as implementing a more comprehensive re- cooperate to provide responsible advice and plan-
connaissance survey program of the shelves and ning for a truly national ocean program. Such a
encouraging broad basic engineering programs pres- mechanism would help ensure that the overall
ently beyond the financial capability of most program makes effective use of the competence
industries. and facilities of both Government and private
The nature of the encouragement for other organizations. In addition, it could be used to
potential ocean industries depends on the partic- identify deficiencies in basic engineering disci-
ular industry. Incentives for deep water oil and gas plines, facilities, and manpower. Further, this
development, for example, would be sornewhat mechanism could ensure consideration of impor-
different from deep water mining for many rea- tant ocean programs not presently planned by
sons, including: industry or Government. Finally, this mechanism
-Availability of oil and gas industry venture could monitor the progress of National Projects
capital is different from .that of mining. and the Government's fundamental technology
efforts. The common need for this became appar-
-The immediate past history of offshore oil and ent in hearings and interviews conducted with a
gas has created a more experienced industry. broad cross section of marine interests.
-Extracting liquid or gas is far different from such 1. FISHING
mining operations as dredging nodules.
The case for a growing and stable fishing
A common thread running through most ocean industry, as a resource of employment and Na-
industries is the realization that aid in areas of tional income was vividly illustrated by the follow-
basic engineering and in costly technology devel- ing:
opment facilities (available for lease) will be vitally
useful. However, it is recognized that the mining The annual catch is worth $438 million (196 7) at
and petroleum industries will wish to conduct dockside, but to the processor it is worth $1
their own detailed surveys and develop much of billion. Fishermen have $500 million tied up in
the final phase of the extraction technology. Both vessels that keep shipyards and gear manufacturers
are important, but if the Government performs busy. 7he industry and closely allied shore activi-
these functions, it will virtually eliminate the ties provide half a million jobs. U.S. fishermen,

VI-136

whatever their present,woes, would appear to be a critical with respect to the pelagic fish. The
national asset. localization step may rely on sonars, odors emitted
by fish, lasers, etc. Localization is critical with
- From a technological point of view, there is a respect to groundfish.
current need within the industry to: Each phase is dependent on basic data provided
by biological research. However, it is not essential
-Improve capital equipment (vessels and gear). that such research be completed in order that
technological advances relating to wild population
-Encourage more comprehensive and integrated production and harvesting be made more effective.
use of marine technology. Yet such research must be supported continually
to optimize operations and to expand the number
The advance of a given industry is only partially of species which can be fished economically.
dependent on scientific research and discoveries. It
may be limited by lack of capital, technical
knowledge, or proper complementary equipment. A. Fishing Vessels and Gear
Environmental and institutional peculiarities pose 1. Fishing Vessels-Present Status
problems in certain locations. The effects of fiscal,
legal, and regulatory problems are discussed in The U.S. fishing fleet is numerically one of the
detail in the Report of the Panel on Industry and world's largest-about 76,000 powered craft of all
Private Investment;. this report concentrates on typ.es exceeded only by Japan. About 60 per cent
technology. of U.S. vessels are over 16 years old, and 27 per
Research has been undertaken on a piecemeal cent have been in service over 26 years. While the
basis, but the crucial interaction between compo- fleet is in a continual state of renovation and
nents dictates that a more comprehensive ap- replacement, there is much room for improve-
proach is needed. Fisheries technology can be ment.
considered in terms of operational phases: The U.S. fish harvesting segment utilizes over
12,000 documented vessels of five tons capacity or
-Location, tracking, and , identification of com- larger, nearly 64,000 motor boats, and about
mercial species. 3,500 small unpowered boats. The 12,000 vessels
-Harvesting, including the concentration and con- total more than 415,000 gross tons. Estimated
trol of species-preferably on a selective basis. present market value of vessels alone exceeds $500
million. The range of individual vessel prices is
-Transporting catches from fishing ground to from less than $1,000 to as much as $1,750,000.
processing facilities at sea or ashore. There were 128,000 domestic fishermen on
vessels, boats, and ashore in 1965 (U.S. figures), an
-Processing and preservation. average of less than two fishermen per boat. It is
obvious there is a significant number of one-man
boats.
In location, tracking, and identification there Foreign fishing fleets off our coasts are domi-
are two major steps: (1) search for the general nated by large, complex craft capable of operating
area in which commercial concentrations are to thousands of miles from home port. By contrast,
be expected and then (2) the localization or most U.S. fishing vessels are small coastal craft.
detection of the precise position of the fish. The The small size in itself is not a deficiency because
long-range search involves broad-scale mapping most fishing operations are close to our coast.
with heavy dependence on environmental informa- (Figure 2 shows a departing fleet of coastal shrimp
tion. It ultimately could receive much support vessels.)
from satellites, buoys, and computers with appro- Although considerable variation exists among
priate instantaneous sensing equipment. Search is fisheries, 95 per cent of all U.S. fishing vessels are
constructed of wood, while only five per cent are
iSenator E. L. Bartlett, Congressional Record, Jan. of steel. Of the 12,000 documented vessels of five
30, 1968. tons or more, about 67 per cent have radio-

VI-137

names as English sole, Dover sole, black back or
yellowtail flounder, fluke, rex sole, etc. For the
most part, however, in the United States they
appear
on restaurant menus or in food stores as
fillet of sole. Such larger species as halibut often
are steaked, finding ready retail market.
Flounder is taken primarily by otter trawls, the
1N same gear that catch most of the cod, hake,
haddock, pollack, ocean perch, and many other
kinds of groundfish. This conglomeration of fish is
the foundation for the most rapidly growing edible
fish commodity in the world-the frozen fish
M
block from which fish sticks are made. The
demand at dockside for these fish has grown
A@7 between 1948 and 1966 from 850 million pounds
q@
-_@ 46-
to 1,900 @ million pounds. To compete in this
expanding market, U.S. fishermen must meet the
Figure 2. Departure of shrimp fleet (Bureau price established by foreign competition.
of Commercial Fisheries photo)
telephones, 49 per cent have depth finders, 27 per b. Strength of the Supply Some species of
cent have automatic pilots, 19 per cent have groundfish off our coast are plentiful enough to
direction finders, and only seven per cent have meet domestic demand and provide a substantial
radar. These percentages vary greatly by fishery. export surplus. The supply of other species,
however, has been considerably reduced by heavy
The U.S. fishing fleet is not fully utilized, due
partly to the seasonal character of fisheries and the fishing pressures, often by foreign fishermen.
inability of much of the fleet to participate in
several fisheries. Some under-utilization results c. Domestic Production Decline The New Eng-
from the inability of a substantial portion of the land otter trawlers at the end of World War 11 were
fleet to compete with other more modern vessels the strongest and most vigorously growing branch
in the U.S. fleet and with foreign fishing fleets. of the United. States flag fishing industry. How-
Many vessels are unable to locate and catch fish ever, the share of the domestic groundfish market
under conditions of changing resource availability. claimed by the otter trawlers dropped from 74 per
Figure 3 shows vessel utilization by fishery for the cent in 1948 to 29 per cent in 1966, causing a
U.S. fleet. Regardless of the reason for idle time, decline of U.S. position in the Northwest Atlantic
the data indicate an inability to spread fixed costs fishery from first to eighth or ninth place.
by larger annual catches. U.S. Federal policy has been partly responsible
I As indicated in Figure 4, 40 per cent of the for the decline in harvesting New England ground-
documented vessels are part time (operating less fish by encouraging other North Atlantic nations
than 120 days). The figure lists fishing vessels part (particularly Canada and the Scandinavian coun-
time or full time by type of fishery in 1962. It tries) to increase their dollar earnings. In addition,
should be borne in mind in interpreting these Canadian fishermen have received liberal vessel
statistics that. -a large number of people fish construction subsidies and much related support
commercially only in summer and for additional from both their federal and provincial govern-
earnings, often. encouraged by the low cost of ments.
commercial licenses.
d. Effects on Domestic Fishermen Our fishermen
2. Case Study of New England Ground Fishery have been forced, as a result, to restrict their
activities to the higher priced resources of inshore
a. The Demand Many species of flatfish inhabit flounder, Georges Bank haddock, and scallop.
the U.S. Continental Shelves; some have such trade These species are taken by the smaller U.S. vessels

VI-138

with more ready access than foreign fishermen to inefficient, and obsolete vessels and men. It is this
the more lucrative but restricted U.S. fresh fish fishery that is the cause of the widely published
markets. reports that the Russians are catching A the fish
and crowding U.S. fishermen off their own fishing
e. Public Image of the Fleet It is precisely this grounds. The reasons for this, as indicated above,
fishery in New. England (as well as California, are not those generally stated. It should be
Oregon, and Washington) which is the origin of the emphasized that this decadence of the fleet is not
popular view that the entire U.S. fishing industry due to negligence of the fishermen and is not
is decadent, declining, and composed of overaged, typical of the entire industry.

Figure 3
VESSEL UTILIZATION BY FISHERY FOR THE U.S. FLEET, 1962

Average Average Average Average
Fishery trips per days at sea days at sea days vessel
year per trip per year unutilized
per year'

Gillnet/Drift . . . . . 72 1.9 137 115
4
N.A. Trawler . . . . . 17 12.1 200 52
N.A. Dragger . . . . . 80 2.82 223 29
Oyster Dredge . . . . . 21 4.4 93 159
Clam Dredge . . . . . 139 1.2 167 85
Swordf ish . . . . . . 15 5.2 76 176
Menhaden Seiner . . . . 48 2.5 121 131
Shrimp Trawler . . . . 25 5.73 142 110
Snapper Boat . . . . . 18 5.3 97 155
Tuna Seiner . . . . . 7 18.0 133 119
Salmon Seiner . . . . . 14 5.7 80 172
Halibut Boat . . . . . 6 14.2 85 167
Salmon Troller . . . . 18 5.8 105 147
Salmon and other Gillnet . 16 4.4 72 180
Pacific Dragger . . . . 24 4.9 117 135
Crab Boat . . . . . . 53 2.3 121 131
Herring Seiner . . . . . 11 9.6 102 150
Lobster . . . . . . . 86 1.6 137 115
Mackerel and Sardine . . 14 5.6 80 172
Industrial Fish . . . . . 24 5.0 120 132
Pound Boat . . . . . 136 1.1 150 102
Tuna Clipper . . . . . 6 40.0 250 2
Whaler . . . . . . . 96 2.0 193 59
Scallop . . . . . . . 19 10.0 190 62
Tuna Trollers . . . . . 8 15.0 122 130
Cannery Tender . . . . 50 3.0 150 102
Charters : , * , , , 21 3.7 77 175
Longliner . . . . . . 92 1.2 ill 141
I Assumes a 252 working-day year. Saturdays, Sundays, and eight holidays have been excluded.
22.8 represents small draggers. Large draggers average 5.6 days.
35.7 represents medium trawlers. Large trawlers average 15.1 days.
4N.A. = North Atlantic.
5 Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries.
Source: Basic data from a private survey of the fishing industry by Fish Boat magazine.

VI-139

Figure 4
U.S. DOCUMENTED FISHING VESSELS CLASSIFIED AS PART-TIME OR
FULL-TIME, BY FISHERY, 1962

Part-time Full-time
Number Nu m'ber Number
Fishery documented operating Per.cent operating Per cent
vessels under over
120 days 120 days

Gillnet/Drift . . . 633 266 42.0 367. 58.0
N.A. Trawler' . . . . 177 - - 177 100.0
N.A. Dragger . . . . 875 114 13.0 761 87.0
Oyster Dredge . . . . 599 282 47.1 317 52.9
Clam Dredge . . . . 264 66 25.0 198 75.0
Swordfisher . . . . 74 53 71.6 21 28.4
Menhaden Seiner . . . 222 167 75.2 55 24.8
Sardine and Mackerel . 72 52 72.2 20 27.8
Shrimp Trawler . . . 4,024 1,127 28.0 2,897 72.0
Snapper Boat . . . . 546 207 37.9 339 62.1
Tuna Seiner . . . . 106 31 29.2 75 70.8
Tuna Troller . . . . 391 168 43.0 223 57.0
Tuna Clipper
(large seiner) . . . 66 - 66 100.0
Salmon Seiner . . . . 1,120 504 45.0 616 55.0
Halibut Boat . . . . 383 149 38.9 234 61.1
Salmon Troller . . . 1,421 710 50.0 711 50.0
Salmon and
Other Gillnet . . . 752 466 62.0 286 38.0
Pacific Dragger . . . 152 12 7.9 140 92.1
Crab Boat 480 197 34.0 283 66.0
Herring Seiner . . . . 25 3 12.0 22 88.0
Longliners . . . . . 53 40 75.5 13 24.5
Lobster . . . . . . 62 20 32.3 42 67.7
Industrial Fish . . . 206 52 25.2, 154 74.8
Pound Boat . . . . 214 160 74.8 54 25.2
Whaler . . . . . . 5 5 100.0
Scallop . . . . . . 172 - - 172 100.0
Cannery Tender . . . 260 260 100.0 - -
Charter 2 . . . . . 1,467 910 62.0 557 38.0

Total . . . . . 14,821 6,016 40.6 8,805 59.4

N.A. = North Atlantic
2Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries.
Source: Basic data from a private survey of the fishing industry by Fish Boat magazine.

VI-140

3. Commercial Fishing Gear Types-Present Status

Commercial fishermen in the United States
employ a variety of equipment and vessels to
harvest fish and shellfish. Each fishery is character-
ized by its specialization of fishing gear and I
vessels. Commercial fishing gear design is dictated 7-
by the species to be harvested, its size, habitat,
mobility, and by conservation requirements.
Commercial fishing gear may be classified as:

-Nets (seines, trawls, gill nets, etc.).

-Hook and line (hand lines, long lines, trolling
lines, etc.).

-Gear for gathering immobile species (shovels,
tongs, rakes, pumps, and dredges).

7Traps and barriers (pots, pound nets, wires, etc.).

Figure 5 lists the value of catch to the
fishermen by type of gear for 1966. Figures 6, 7,
and 8 are photographs of 0 nets, a clam dredge Figure 6. Operation ofgill net hauler aboard
and a snapper trap. R/V Oregon, shown hauling 6-inch stretched
mesh tuna gill net. (Bureau of Commercial
Figure 5 Fisheries photo)
CATCH BY GEAR TYPE, 1966
Value of Principle
Gear Catch to Species
Fishermen
($ Million) Caught

Otter Trawls 154 shrimp, bottom
fish
Purse Seines 89 salmon, tuna, men-
haden,anchovy
Pots and Traps 54 crab, lobster
Baited Hook
& Line . . . 51 salmon, halibut
Gill Nets . . . 42 salmon, shad, perch,
bass, mackerel
Dredges . . . 33 scallops, oysters,
clams
Tongs and Rakes 20 oysters
Haul Seines . 4 bait, herring
Pound Nets 3 herring
Hoes and Forks 3 clams
Fyke and
Hoop Nets 2 perch, alewives,
catfish, bait
Trammel Nets 2 pompano, mullet,
weakfish
Other Gear 15 miscellaneous
472 Figure 7. Clam dredges being hauled aboard
Source: Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Com- R/V Silver Bay. (Bureau of Commercial
mercial Fisheries. Fisheries photo)

VI-141

Pots and Traps 6.0
Long Lining 4.1
Other Gear 7.5
Although electronic gear has been well devel-
oped,as navigational, safety, and fishing aids for
the last decade, few vessels have installed the full
array of available equipment.
Agriculture, road building, and other heavy
equipment industries have long recognized hydrau-
lics as a versatile, efficient means of transmitting
r. Yet, only now is it beginning to find
p
widespread use in the U.S. fishing industry. New
'71 developments are being implemented in the new
tuna seiners and king crab vessels being built and
converted on the West Coast for the Alaskan
fisheries. The problem is not that fishermen,
shipyards, or naval architects who design vessels
are backward. Systems of this type usually must
be built into vessels, and when a new vessel is
built, it usually has this gear. However, hydraulic
gear is an exception as it generally was added to
tuna vessels (even old ones) during the purse seine
Figure 8. Trap being hauled aboard with catch
of red snapper. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries revolution.
photo)

4. Trends of Fidiing Vessels
It is of particular interest that pound nets Design trends are to:
Yielded only $3 million worth of fish in 1966; yet
they once were the most efficient gear for catching -New hull shapes for greater speed, sea handling,
salmon in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest. Only carrying capacity, and saf@ty.
20 years ago, more than 600 were in operation, -Introduction of more multi-purpose concepts.
catching salmon far more efficiently than any
other gear since developed. The small fishermen, Construction trends are to:
more numerous than. the pound net operators,
were successful in having legislation passed to -Increased use of metals and less of wood, leading
outlaw these "overly-efficient traps." 2 to stronger, more roomy vessels and greater
An analysis of 9,251 fishing operations indi- versatility in layout of quarters and holds.
cates that 80 per cent of the vessels used were less
than 60 feet in length, while only 4 per cent were -Lower maintenance costs due to better materials
greater than 90 feet. The following is a percentage such as steel alloys and anti-corrosive paints.
breakdown of the gear type used in the 10,666
vessels represented by the analysis: Propulsion trends are to:
Otter Trawling 37.6 per cent
Troll Lines 15.1 -Greater horsepower for more speed. New engines
Purse Seining 11.9 have lower weight-to-horsepower ratios, requiring
Gill or Trammel Nets 9.8 less space and increasing hold capacity. (Increased
Dred Iging 8.0 speed is especially important for tuna vessels.)
-Greater horsepower for better dragging power
2A fishing operation is defined here as a company, for trawlers (which in this case may be more
partnership, or individual proprietor. important than greater speed).

VI-142

Size trends are to: -Greater use of hydraulic power throughout vessel
for steering, deck winches, deck cranes, hoisting
-Larger vessels optimized for a particular mission. winches, etc.

-Crew quarters trends are t o added sp ace and -Increased mechanization of existing operations
comfort, including improved sanitation and mess for faster handling of lobster traps, king crab pots,
facilities. and clam dredges.

-Fuel capacity trends are to larger tanks to permit -Newly-designed nets and fishing techniques for
longer trips and additional time at the fishing faster and safer handling of fishing gear such as
grounds. tuna purse seines, king crab pots, scallop dredges,
and trawls.

Fish hold trends are to:
In summary, fishing gear has changed measur-
-Larger capacity due to .better construction tech- ably in the past decade. The king crab fishery has
niques, smaller engine room requirements, and been aided by new crab pot design. Synthetic
larger vessel size. webbing, having swept through the entire industry,
has been. of great impo rtance. The power block
-Better insulation materials. and- large synthetic purse seines have revolution-
ized those fisheries usin The pound
-Sanitation improvements by use of metal pen . g purse seines.
boards, improved covering materials, and refrigera- nets discussed earlier were enormously efficient
tion. devices, although their use is curtailed now bv. law.

Safety trends are to:
6. Federal Effort
-Inflatable life rafts, stronger rigging, non-slip Exploratory fishing and gear research-closely
deck materials, safety guards, firefighting equip- related-provide the fishing industry with informa-
ment, etc., particularly in new construction. tion concerning the location and extent of fish and
-Features which reduce insurance rates and im- shellfish resources and with knowledge of new and
prove working conditions at sea. improved harvesting devices. These activities aid in
meeting overall industry needs by:

-Reducing effort spent in locating concentrations
5. Fidiing Gear and Operational Aids of commercially useful fish stocks. It has been
Current trends are toward: estimated that fishermen now spend an average of
50 per cent of time at sea locating fish, although
-More sophisticated electronic gear for navigation this varies greatly among fisheries, and is consider-
and fish finding installed aboard new and existing ably more in some.
vessels. -Providing a broader base for expansion to alter-
-More powerful deck gear to handle larger fishing nate fishery resources, thus reducing idleness and
gear being installed on new vessels and conver- instability within the fishing community and.
sions. increasing the variety of fish products available to
consumers.
-Larger fishing gear being employed on vessels -Reducing harvesting costs, thus increasing the
with higher engine capacities. ability of domestic fishermen to compete with
-Larger fixed fishing gear (anchored in a single foreign imports and other domestically produced
locality such as king crab pots). animal proteins.

-Greater use of snythetics in floats, pots, traps, -Providing efficient techniques and vessels to
trawls, seines and ropes. harvest resources not possible with existing gear.

VI-143

-Disseminating through demonstration and tech- Figure 9
nical services results of the above objectives. BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES,
Figure 9 lists the Bureau of Commercial Fish- BRANCH OF EXPLORATORY FISHING,
eries (BCF) budget in exploratory fishing Fiscal PROGRAM FUNDS, FY 1968
Year 1968.
Figure 10 shows distribution of BCF personnel Total Funds
engaged in exploratory fishing and gear research Region and Location ($ thousa -nd)
by position type and location, Fiscal Year 1968. It
should be noted that there are no naval architects, 1 - Seattle, Washington . . . . 550
only three mechanical engineers, and but three 2 - Pascagoula, Mississippi and
electronic engineers working on fishing fleet prob- I St. Simons Island, Georgia 1,340'
lems. With this low staffing level the Bureau 3 - Gloucester, Massachusetts . 450
cannot devote adequate attention to this subject. 4 - Ann Arbor, Michigan . . . 265
Figure I I shows Bureau of Commercial Fish- 5 - Juneau, Alaska . . . . . 175
eries exploratory fishing vessels and missions, Total . . . . . . 2,780
Fiscal Year 1968. Figure 12 is a photograph of one
of the newest exploratory fishing vessels operated 'includes $400,000 non-recurring cost for outfitting new
,by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. exploratory fishing vessel Oregon/L

Figure 10
BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF EXPLORATORY FISHING, DISTRIBUTION
OF PERSONNEL, BY POSITION TYPE AND LOCATION, FY 1968
Type of Position Seattle Pascagoula St. Simons Gloucester Ann Arbor Juneau Central Total
Wash. Miss. Isle-nd, Ga. Mass. Mich. Alaska Office
Fishery Biologists 9 14 4 5 8 3 4 47
Fishery Methods and
Equipment Specialists. 4 4 1 2 4 2 0 17
Mechanical Engineers 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 3
Electronic Engineers 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 3
Biological Aids and
Technicians . . . . 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 8
Administrative Officers
and Assistants, clerical
personnel, Port Captains
and Fleet Supervisors . 4 12 3 5 2 1 2 29
Vessel Crew . . . . 7 15 10 13 3 5 0 53
Total . . . . 27 -53 18 26 17 12 7 160'
'Total number of authorized positio-includes several vacancies.

B. Hunting and Harvesting practically unutilized off the United States. Thus,
there is room to develop unexploited resources if
Many great fishery resources of the north technological developments and economic
temperate zone are fully exploited or overex- conditions allow this expansion. Potential areas of
ploited. Marine harvest has definite limits, possibly technological development are those concerned
much lower than theorized. During the past with fishing vessel design, fish detection systems,
decade, fishing fleets have been expanded and new and new harvesting systems.
areas and new species fished. Overfishing may A concerted effort to upgrade the existing U.S.
cause a serious decline of a species or an increase fishing fleet through improved capability of vessels
in population of another, possibly less valuable. and gear, more efficient bull forms, increased
While true that many groundfish resources now propulsion power, more effective deck hardware,
in high demand are heavily exploited, many and improved capturing devices-would play an
pelagic resources such as anchovy, thread herring, important role in improving the competitive posi-
jack mackerel, Pacific saury, etc., are lightly tion of our fishermen. However, if the United
exploited. Many midwater resources currently are States is to take advantage of the biological

VI-144

Figure 11

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, EXPLORATORY
FISHING VESSELS AND MISSIONS, 1968

Name of Vessel Home Port Length Year Mission
Built

George M Bowers Pascagoula, 73 1956 Inshore exploratory fishing
Mississippi and gear research,
Gulf of Mexico
Oregon Pascagoula, 170 1967 Exploratory fishing and
Mississippi gear research, Gulf of
Mexico and Caribbean
Oregon St. Simons 100 1946 Exploratory fishing and
Island, Georgia gear research, North Caro-
lina to Florida and
Caribbean
Delaware Gloucester, 147 1937 Exploratory fishing and
Massachusetts gear research, Western
North Atlantic
John N. Cobb Seattle 93 1950 Exploratory fishing and
Washington gear research, N. E.
Pacif ic
John A Manning Juneau, Alaska 86 1950 Exploratory fishing and
gear research, biological
research, Alaskan waters
Kaho Saugatuck, 65 1961 Exploratory fishing and
Michigan gear research, Great
Lakes
Delaware //1 Gloucester, 156 1968 Exploratory fishing and
Massachusetts gear research, Western
North Atlantic

Replaced Delaware in late 1968.

productivity of the oceans, plans must be initiated
for the orderly transition of-fishing from basically
a hunting process to one in which greater artificial
control can be exerted. This transition should
include:

-Perfecting the hunting process by maximizing
fish detection capabilities.

fishing gear.
Minimizing escape of fish within the influence of

-Leading, herding, o .r aggregating fish to increase Figure 12. Exploratory fishing vessel Oregon 11,
operated by Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
availability to harvesting systems. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo)

VI-145
333-091 0-69-14

.-Developing techniques that allow harvest of the -Does the net catch as many fish in the first 15
more abundant smaller organisms in the food minutes of towing as in the last 15 minutes of
chain. towing?
It is felt by many that the most urgent needs -How can it be determined whether the. net is
are to apply existing technical knowledge and to torn during a drag?
secure adequate capital for new vessel construc-
tion. This should be done by making investment These are just a few examples to describe the
capital more readily available to fishermen willing trial and error procedures of fishermen. They show
to upgrade their equipment. This subject is dis- the need for additional. development in fishing
cussed more thoroughly in the report on the systems and imply that many problems are phys-
fishing industry by the Panel on Industry and ical and, therefore, need engineering solutions.
Private Investment.

2. Future Requirements and Possibilities
1. Present Limitations
A recent report described how an engineer a. Fishing Vessels New concepts are foreseen in.
designing fishing vessels and deck machinery that
might be impressed with the modern electronic would allow more time for fishing and require less
equipment available to locate stocks of fish, time for handling gear. The major emphasis should
navigate precisely, and stay in contact with other
be on developing entirely new vessels and fishing
fishermen and shore facilities.3 However, he also' strategy. Perhaps such unconventional hull designs
might be disillusioned with the relative antiquity as hydrofoils and catamarans should be consid-
of the fishing gear and the fishing captain's almost
ered. Submersibles offer unique advantages in a
total lack of information concerning its perform-
supporting role, their ultimate uses yet to be
ance. He might ask several questions the captain
would be unable to answer: determined.
Typical submersible advantages include free-
-Why. d Io catch rates sometimes vary g .reatly dom from the effects of sea surface conditions,
ability to operate under ice, better fish detection
between nets concurrently fishing the same spe-
cies? capabilities, and the ability to observe the per-
formance of fishing gear and fish reaction to the
-How many fish are present on the grounds? gear.
A systems analysis should be made of major
-What is the speed of the net over the bottom? U.S. fisheries to determine optimum fishing strat-
-What is the net's speed through the water? egy, possibly introducing radical changes in fishing
practices. For example, it could lead to high speed
-What chang es occur to the net when towed fast fish detector vessels or aircraft, highly automated
or slow? fishing vessels capable of remaining on the fishing
ground for long periods, high speed vessels to
-How many pounds of tension are exerted on the transport catches to shore, and floating processing
webbing? plants.
-What effect do wind, tide, and current have on b. Search (1.) Nedictions The value of environ-
gear performance? mental information to the fisherman is well
-How long does it take for the net to reach recognized. The value of predictions hes in effect-
bottom? ing improvement in locating and catching fish.
Even now, ocean environment predictions are of
-When does it leave the bottom? -great economic value in the North Pacific albacore
fishery, the Gulf shrimp fishery, and others. Yet
3McNeely, R. L., "Marine Fish Harvest Methods- the collection, analysis, and use of oceanographic
Recent Advancements and Future Engineering Needs, information by fishing captains is seriously defi-
MTS Journal of Ocean Technology, April 196 8. cient. Fishing vessel masters make decisions daily

VI-146

as to where to. fish, and the processor and tion. There should be nothing that an airplane
distributor must act on their predictions of the spotter can see with the naked eye that a low
success of the fishermen. The system's economic orbiting satellite utilizing cloud-penetrating remote
efficiency will be increased to -the extent that sensors cannot,detect.
scientific information leads.to improved decisions.
Even small improvements in the precision of (3.) Data Collection The number of instru-
fishermen's predictions can effect important mon- mented platforms established in the oceans must
etary savings in the multi-million dollar fishing be increased greatly to make maximum use of
industry. satellites. Instruments should be placed on re-
Predictive capabilities are closely related to search vessels and on ships of opportunity. It will
variations in the ocean's circulation patterns which be necessary to provide by mass production
are, in turn, related to variations in incoming solar sturdy, simple, inexpensive and reliable salinom-
energy, outgoing earth heat, and associated eters, current meters, bathythermographs, plank-
phenomena. The lack of regularly received data ton samplers, and water pigment measuring de-
from large ocean areas and lack of understanding vices.
the energy exchange between the atmosphere and Moored and drifting unmanned buoys to sense
the ocean prevent systematic analysis. Synoptic various ocean and atmospheric parameters and to
environmental observation requires costly and telemeter the data to shore via satellite,,will
extensive collaboration among oceanographers, revolutionize our understanding of the ocean.
meteorologists, and space scientists. Until this Buoys will be particularly useful in areas seldom
energy exchange is understood, the quality of traversed by ships. Production of inexpensive,
ocean current predictions will be poor. sturdy, dependable buoys from which several
Technology to provide the basic data is now meteorological and oceanographic parameters can
available. Satellites and computers can keep the be recorded continuously requires intensification
entire world ocean under instantaneous observa- of effort. Development of instrumentation for
tion to provide data to help manage the harvest of continuously recording biological parameters is
the ocean. strongly urged.
Figure 13 illustrates a system of satellites and
(2.) Satellites fbr Navigation and Detection buoys to collect and distribute data useful to the
Ocean upwellings (where schools of surface and fisherman.
near-surface fish congregate, and plankton, the
basic food of fish, flourish) are directly observable
by satellite.
The open ocean hardly has been touched by
commercial fishermen except whalers and tuna
long-liners. The old live bait tuna clipper did not
range far because: (1) it was tied to coastal sources
of live bait, (2) it traditionally remained in known
tuna areas, and (3) flocks of birds, which do not
venture far from land, were relied upon to indicate
schools of tuna. However, modern tuna purse
seiners now are working 500 to 600 miles off- p,
shore.
The fisherman frequently is led to tuna schools
by porpoise schools that can be detected also by
satellites. Possibly, satellites will be able to spot P
tuna -schools directly. Fish school spotting by
shipborne and shorebased aircraft has been a
normal adjunct of tuna, mackerel, sardine, and
anchovy fishing in the eastern Pacific and of Figure 13. Artist's concept showing satellites
and buoys used for collecting and distributing
menhaden in the Gulf and Atlantic for a genera- data. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries drawing)

VI-147

(4.) Data Reduction Greatly improved computer through empirical trials; some are ancient con-
facilities will be required to assimilate, store, and cepts, including nets and traps; many are quite
convert into usable form the vast quantities of inefficient.
data gathered by satellites. The fishery scientist The combined talents of biologists, economists,
will become increasingly involved with ocean, engineers, and physicists must be applied to
weather, and space scientists in develop ing pro- increase harvest efficiency. Passive fishing systems
grams to provide data to fishermen. Initial collabo- utilizing large automated traps with electricity,
ration is being developed by the U.S. Bureau of sound, or light to herd fish are but one example.
Commercial Fisheries with the National Aeronau- Large pens or traps can be attached to the seabed
tical and Space Administration, the U.S. Navy, and where ground fish migrate. Mechanical or electrical
other agencies working principally off California, barriers can help herd fish into traps for pumping
in the Gulf of Mexico, and the tropical Atlantic. into vessels or to,processing plants ashore. Figure
14 illustrates this method. Floating traps can be
(5.) Satellites for Data Transmission The satel- used to harvest pelagic fish. Automated lift nets
lite system also can relay computer data to can discharge fish into holding pens.
fishermen at sea-the link in the chain requiring
least development. Facsimile charts already are
being transmitted by Japan for fishermen at sea.
Receiver costs are reasonable for oceangoing fish-
ing vessels, and communication satellites could
provide this service to vessels far from port.

c. Fish Detection Systems Locating fish schools 1
is very time consuming and costly. To reduce this
time, methods to detect fish schools should be ;r
investigated, including acoustical systems, pulsed
laser systems, chemical techniques to detect or-
ganic residues left by fish, and devices to detect
electromagnetic and temperature disturbances
caused by fish.
Active sonar for locating and passive acoustic
devices for identifying marine life by characteristic
T
noises are being used (the latter by the Russians). Figure 14. Artist's concept showing fish being
Underwater television might also be used for pumped into a vessel. (Bureau of Commercial
detection and identification. Except active sonar, Fisheries drawing)
such devices are not developed fully, and more
importantly, are not in general use because of high
costs. Successful application of current and A brief review of possible future techniques
improved technology will depend on mass produc- follows.
tion, volume purchases, and cost reductions.
(1.) Chemicals Fish respond to chemical concen-
d. Harvesting Systems Efficient harvesting of trations of considerably less than one part per
pelagic fish populations will require the capability billion. Chemicals have been used to attract or
to control the movement of species, and to repel fish. It is possible chemicals can be developed
concentrate them for capture. Various mechanical, to concentrate commercial species selectively and
cheniical, acoustical, optical and electrical tech- repel predators during harvesting.
niques have been used with varied degrees of
success to -fence in desirable species, to fence out (2.) Acoustics Little scientific effort has yet
predators and to attract and immobilize species for been exerted to develop acoustical devices to
harvest. Present methods have been devised attract or repel fish. The Russians have repelled

V1-148

schools of fish successfully by transmitting whale Many excellent fishing grounds from the stand-
predator noises; the fish, seeking shelter, concen- point of size, reasonable depth, availability of fish,
trated against the bottom. A trawl net, towed and nearness to port are not being utilized because
along the bottom, thereby yielded a greater catch. of rough bottoms. One such area off the coast of
Bubble fences to repel predators or guide fish to Washington contains over 1,000 square miles made
entrapment devices may depend on acoustic ef- unfishable mainly by scattered small boulders.
fects. Considerable research into the principles of Explorations have located only a few small tracts
operation has been conducted without much through which fishermen can tow nets safely. The
success to date. Nevertheless, the industry has not area could be a major fishing ground through use
exploited the results of acoustic gear research to of pots, traps, and rugged trawling equipment.
the fullest. Undoubtedly, one reason is the inade- A primary objective of technological improve-
quate means of communication among the re- ments must be to reduce present fishery produc-
searcher, the typical user of acoustic gear in other tion costs. It should be economically feasible to:
fields, and the fisherman. (1) fish in areas of low species concentration, (2)
fish in depths not worked now by surface fishing
(3.) Optics Lights to attract and direct certain operations, (3) harvest species lower on the food
species are well known and widely used in various chain, and (4) fish ocean floor areas too rough for
forms to improve catch. These methods are empir- present gear.
ical and not based on behavioral research which
could perrrdt optimizing such variables as inten- 3. Long-Range Future
sity, spectral content, geometry, and direction.
Current experience indicates that such research a. Fishing-Up One long-range concept to help
will be fruitful. develop U.S. leadership in the world fishii@g com-
munity might be to fish-up (to fish waters above
(4.) Electficity Electrical devices to fence, at- from a position on the ocean floor) on the U.S.
tract, and immobilize species have received much Continental Shelf. Probably many of the tech-
interest, and their potential appears promising. niques discussed earlier would be utilized in a
Immobilization is relatively predictable, and crude fishing-up system. If successful, the Nation's fish-
design criteria are available. An electro-trawl for ing capability would be increased.and the competi-
shrimp developed under the Bureau of Commercial tive position with foreign nations on our own shelf
Fisheries is now on the market. An electric improved. Foreign countries, obviously, could
stimulus causes shrimp buried in bottom sediments develop a similar competitive advantage,on their
to jump into the path of the trawl. Despite the shelves.
interest in such devices, some feel its use in salt
water will be confined in the near future to just a b. Modification of the Environment Modifying
few fisheries because of economics. the environment to improve productivity 6f se-
Future harvesting techniques will make increas- lected species is not practiced on a commercial
ing use of underwater technology, including: (1) scale. However, the possibilities of increasing
system designs to view catching devices in opera- nutrient concentration through fertilizing or
tion, (2) more effective catching devices resulting artificially-inducing upwelling, of providing arti-
from redesign based on direct observations, and ficial cover (artificial reefs or floating plastic kelp
(3) submersibles for various supporting functions. beds), and of improving or creating spawning
In the future, it should be possible to harvest conditions (probably in shallow bays, lagoons, and
whole communities of organisms, particularly estuaries) should be considered.
those in the deep scattering layers. Typically these Increased knowledge of the ecology and physi-
layers contain concentrations of 10 to 12 inter- ology of desirable species must be obtained if such
mingled species from a half inch to two inches modifications are to be economically feasible.
long that rise to the ocean surface at dusk. Further, economic feasibility probably will require
Technological developments should help in har- establishing systems to utilize organic wastes for
vesting the larger organisms for volume production nutrition and waste heat to induce upwelling or
of protein concentrates. temperature control in confined waters. A much

VI-149

greater understanding of organic nutrients and the products, most do not change the product form.
effects of organic wastes must be obtained before Figure 16 shows a menhaden reduction plant, and
fertilizing can be effective. The technology to Figure 17 illustrates frozen shrimp processing
implement these operations is available if basic techniques.
information can be obtained.

C. Processing

1. Present Status

The object of research in processing techn
ology
is to ensure the greatest variety of fishery products
of consistently high quality and nutritional value
at lowest cost.
Processing the U.S. catch and raw imports is . . . . . . . . .
done in more than 4,000 plants throughout the
country. The regional location and estimated Figure 16. Menhaden reduction plant for fish
number of workers employed in 1965 are shown meal. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo)
in Figure 15.

Figure 15
PROCESSING FACILITIES (1965)

Persons Engaged
Establish- Average Average
Section ments for season for year

New England 532 12,583 8,398 J
Middle
Atlantic 488 6,787 6
Chesapeake 621 9,679 7:.2:
South
Atlantic 443 7,826 5,541
645
.Gulf 847 18,056 12,
Pacific Coast 746 7@r
557 26,207 16
Great Lakes 256 2,923 2:429
i
Mississippi
River 417 2,368 2160
Hawaii 24 435
it
357

Total 4,185 86,864 61,310
These totals do not include U.S. Territories. Figure 17. Processing frozen shrimp. (Bureau
Source: Fishery Statistics of the U.S., 1965, Bureau of of Commercial Fisheries photo)
Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Of 4,185 plants, 1,057 process and package A summary of processed products from domes-
fresh or frozen fish and shellfish products, 324 are tically caught fish for 1966 is shown in Figure 18.
fish and shellfish canning plants, and 160 manu- While domestic production has been essentially
facture industrial fish products. While many plants static over the past 30 years, the domestic con-
also perform a wholesale function, the remaining sumption has increased at a much faster rate than
2,644 firms are primarily wholesalers and brokers, the population. For example, in 1945 the demand
performing minor aspects. of processing but pri- for fish and fish products in the United States was
marily concerned with distribution. With the 5.3 billion pounds or 41 pounds per capita in
exception of a few firms who dry and cure fish terms of round weight, the same as the catch is

VI-150

Figure 18 given in. The domestic demand in. 1967 was about
4
14 billion pounds or over 72 pounds per capita.
WHOLESALE VALUE OF PROCESSED The major increase during this period was to
PRODUCTS FROM augment domestic animal and poultry feeds. As
DOMESTICALLY CAUGHT FISH (1966) the demand for animal protein continues to grow,
the market for fish products should continue to
Item ($ thousand) increase rapidly.
The trends in production and consumption of
Packaged fishery products are shown in Figure 19. Recogniz-
Fresh . . . . . . 118,329 ing that U.S. exports have been minimal, one can
Frozen . . . . . . 367,402 estimate the round weight consumption by simply
Canned . . . . 495,231 adding domestic catch to imports.
Cured 54,166
I nd u str ia I. . . . . . 82,830 4Comparable BCF figures are in terms of edible meat
Total . . . . . . 1,117,958 weight per capita. Such figures show a static trend of
10- 12 pounds per capita over the past 20 years.

Figure 19

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF FISHERY PRODUCTS IN
THE UNITED STATES, SELECTED YEARS, 1945-1967

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1967
Population, Millions' . . . . 129.1 150.2 162.3 178.2 191.9 195.7
Edible Fish (round weight)

Domestic Catch, Million pounds . 3,167 3,307 2,597 2,498 2,586 2,385
Imports, Million pounds 6803 1,128 1,332 1,766 2,576 2,683
Total, Million pounds 3,847 4,435 3,911 4,264 5,162 5,068
Per Capita Use, pounds . . . 29.8 29.5 24.1 23.9 26.9 25.9
(meat weight)2 . . . . (9.9) 01.8) (10.5) (10.3) (10.9) (10.6)
Industrial Fish (round weight)

Domestic Catch, Million pounds . 1,431 1,594 2,230 2,444 2,190 1,677
Imports, Million pounds 3 14 639 980 1,515 3,182 7,442
Total, Million pounds 1,462 2,233 3,210 3,959 5,372 9,119
Per Capita Use, pounds . . . 11.3 14.9 19.8 22.2 28.0 46.6
Total Fish (round weight)

Domestic Catch, Million pounds . 4,598 4,901 4,809 4,942 4,776 4,062
Imports, Million pounds 711 1,767 2,312 3,281 5,758 10,125
Total, Million pounds 5,309 6,668 7,121 8,223 10,534 14,187
Per Capita Use, pounds . . . 1 41.1 44.4 43.9 46.1 54.9 72.5
IJuly 1 population eating from civilian supplies, excluding Armed Forces overseas: beginning 1950-50 states.
2Computed per capita consumption on edible or meat weight basis with allowances for exports and changes in beginning
and end-of-year stocks.
3Estimate based on 1946 relationship of round to imported product weight.
4Estimate based on the 1946 ratio of round weight to industrial product weight.
Source: Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.

VI-151

A start has been made in developing less Figure 20
conventional uses for fish. For example, the BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES,
United States can be credited with first using BRANCH OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY,
canned tuna, breaded shrimp, and the fish sand- PROGRAM FUNDS, FISCAL YEAR 1,968
wich. Processes have been established to manufac-
ture fish protein concentrate from lean species.
New methods are being developed to preserve and Location ($ thousand)
increase shelf life of fishery products.
Two tables indicate the Federal effort in Seattle, Washington 660
processing technology. Figure 20 lists the Bureau Pascagoula, Mississippi 135
of Commercial Fisheries program funds in process- Gloucester, Massachusetts . . . 470'
ing, Fiscal Year 1968. Figure 21 shows distribu- College Park, Maryland . 670
tion of Bureau personnel engaged in processing Ann Arbor, Michigan . . . . . 165'
research by position and location, Fiscal Year Ketchican, Alaska . . . . . . 285
1968. Terminal Island, California . . . 135

2. Problems Total . . . . . . . . . . 2j520
a. Inspection With increasing mechanization and IIncludes contributed funds from other agencies.
efficiency of handling and processing, factors
affecting quality must be considered. The quality
of U.S. fishery products varies greatly; only a small canners of the Pacific Northwest under an agree-
percentage is inspected by the Federal Govern- ment with the Food and Drug Administration. In
.ment for quality or health hazards. Under the general, the canners (particularly salmon and tuna)
Department of the Interior's voluntary inspection have relatively rigid standards and inspection
services, 260 million pounds of fish and fishery syste'ms. However, it appears that much more
products were inspected during 1967. effective inspection is needed for fresh and frozen
However, inspection may be conducted by such fish and for small-operator plants.
other groups as the States and the National A small number of food poisonings. involving
Canner's Association. The latter inspects salmon fishery products have occurred and have been

Figure 21
BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF TECHNOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION
OF PERSONNEL BY TYPE OF POSITION AND LOCATION, FY 1968
College Ann Ketchikan, Terminal
Type of Position Seattle, Pascagoula, Gloucester, Park Arbor, Island,
Washington Mississippi Massachusetts Maryland Michigan Alaska California
Chemist . . . . . . . . . . 22 5 15 14 4 4 2
Chemical Engineer . . . . . . . 3 - - 4 1 -
Mechanical Engineer . . . . . . - - 1 - - -
Food Technologist . . . . . . . 1 1 6 1 1 1
Physicist . . . . . . . . . . - - - 1 - -
Health Physicist . . . . . . . . - - - 1 - -
Microbiologist . . . . . . . . . 3 2 1 - 2 1
Statistician . . . . . .. . . . . - - - I - -
Animal Husbandry . . . . . . . - - 2
Nutritionist . . . . . . . . . - - 1
Home Economist . . . . . . . . - - - 1 -
Technician . . . . . . . . . . - - 1 - 6 1
Miscellaneous Personnel
(includes clerical, aides, and
part time) . . . . . . . . . 17 4 10 30 6 1

Total (179) . . . . . . . . 46 12 34 55 21 8 3

Totalnumber of authorized positions, including vacancies.

VI-152

widely publicized. Instances involving other foods involved mostly with biological and conservation
also have occurred but their public image has not research, not having studied the environment on a
been damaged as severely as that of fishery scale of interest to fishermen. By 1960 the
products. situation had begun to change. Now not only can
The consumer is developing increased awareness the scientist inform the fishermen beneficially, but
of the need for quality and health protection in all in the near future scientific data may reduce the
classes of food-poultry, meat, and fish. As a fisherman's production costs substantially, ena-
result, mandatory inspection of fishery products bling him to harvest a much larger percentage of
soon may be instituted by Federal and State the sea's living resources. However, no presently
governments. satisfactory mechanism exists to transmit data to
the fishenrian similar to the county agent organi-
b. New Products Emphasis also will be placed on zation in agriculture.
convenience products manufactured from cur-
rently abundant and under-utilized marine re-
sources. It is estimated that over half the seafood 2. Environmental Effects on Fish Location
products on the market today were unknown a
decade ago. These include breaded fish portions, Pelagic fishermen in particular, but bottom
breaded shrimp, heat-and-serve fish sticks, frozen fishermen increasingly, require a more precise
fish dinners, and other convenience items that are appreciation of the effects of environmental
a basic part of seafoods used by the American changes on fish availability than any Government
consumer. service can provide now.
Great emphasis frequently is put on the lack of
c. Technical Barriers A chemical change in the precision in scientific prediction. However, each
oil of stored, frozen, or processed fish is one major fisherman must make decisions daily whether
factor causing quality to deteriorate. As yet, scientific information is available or not. If scienti-
successful control has not been developed. The fic information, theory, and models Improve the
antolytic enzymes in fish flesh rapidly bring about precision of predictions by five per cent, the effect
undesirable textural and flavor characteristics in on his economic success would be measurable.
frozen fish. Moderate quality is maintained for an
average of only three months. Methods to control
enzyme activity have not been developed. How- 3. Navigation and Bottom Charts
ever, the use of anti-oxidants is reportedly extend-
ing the shelf life of fish meal and fish oil. The fisherman has long used Government navi-
gational and bottom charts to great advantage.
3. Promising Technological Breakthroughs However, fishermen need precision navigation be-
yond that now provided by Governmental services.
Controlled atmosphere storage could retard Satellite navigation equipment is too expensive
degradation of fresh fish and increase shelf life. and bulky. Many fishing areas are not covered by
Such protein products as fish protein concen- Loran C; and Loran A, a system of reasonable
trate could become commercially available as price and bulk, does not adequately cover major
supplements to foods nutritionally deficient in fishing_ grounds to the south of the United States.
animal protein. They also could be used in gravies It is of interest that a private navigation system is
and soups. deployed along many foreign coasts and is used by
Fish oil could become a component of human the U.S. Navy for special applications. It has high
food in the United States. For example, fish oil in accuracy, reliability, simplicity, and low cost.
Europe is normally used to. make margarine. Navigation by bottom type and character al-
ways has had great value to fishermen. Bottom
D. Government Role trawlers require much better knowledge of the
1. Technology Transfer continental, shelf and slope than is available on
Government charts or likely in the near future.
Until 1950 fishermen knew more about the Most knowledge has been acquired by individuals
ocean and fish than scientists did. Scientists were through experience.

VI-153

4. Emphasis in the Bureau of Commercial Fish- protein concentrate (FPQ presents possibilities for
eries vast increases in demand; process technology is a
The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has a small key factor here.
number of college trained engineers in exploratory Production from the fishermen's viewpoint
demands major consideration. Since the fishing
fishing and gear research (Figure 10). The magm- industry is quite heterogeneous, it is natural that
tude of engineering problems in the fishing fleet the fishing Ifleet should also be described in the
indicates that the Bureau should expand its ocean
same fashion. Some fisheries, such as those of
engineering and exploratory fishing efforts sub-
stantially. tuna, shrimp, and Alaska king crab, have fairly
The Bureau must expedite engineering of new modern fleets; but some are static or rapidly
vessels, gear, and equipment for search, detection, declining as a result of foreign competition or
and harvesting. This should be closely coordinated fishery depletion, giving the entire industry a
with the Sea Grant College Programs, especially similar reputation. Part of the New England
the at-sea technician training. groundfish industry is an example. The domestic
fleet is second only to Japan in number of vessels;
E. Conclusions moreover an examination of gross tonnage shows
the U.S. fleet is essentially a coastal and inland
The status of the domestic fishing industry can waterway fleet. However, this should not neces-
be summarized as follows: annual production of 4 sarily be regarded as a disadvantage, because the
to 6 billion pounds, static for nearly 30 years; U.S. domestic fish production is obtained predom-
market for about 14 billion pounds, growing much inantly from fishery resources adjacent to our
more rapidly than population; resources off the coasts-
U.S. coast for a catch of at least 30 billion pounds In addition to the vessel, the production aspect
per year. The question arises as to how the involves search, detection, and harvest. Fish hunt-
domestic fishing industry can leave the first figure, ing has been estimated to require an average of 50
move toward the second, and prepare for the per cent of the fisherman's sea time, but in some
third. fisheries it may be considerably more, thereby
As in other industries, technology in fisheries is constituting a very costly factor. Hunting itself
applied to supply, demand and production prob- consists of two steps: searching for the general
lems. With respect to supply, technology is re- area of commercial , concentrations and then
quired to assess and assure the continued availabil- detecting the - precise position of the fish. , Long-
ity of fish stocks supporting traditional fisheries. range search involves broad-scale mapping with
In addition, it is required to assess and develop heavy dependence on environmental information.
fisheries for under-utilized resources (e.g., Atlantic Ultimately, it could receive much support from
and Gulf thread herring, Pacific hake, etc.). Efforts satellites, buoys, and computers with appropriate
directed toward traditional resources encompass instantaneous (realtime) sensing equipment.
the technology of supporting biological research, Search is critical to pelagic fishing. Detection
as in preventing overfishing and ensuring that relying on sonars, fish odors, and lasers is criti-
conservation laws and treaties are based soundly cal with respect to groundfish.
on research, not emotion. Additional technological There are many quite fertile under-utilized fish
effort is required to prevent destruction of stocks resource areas adjacent to our coasts. Because of
by pollution. The effort directed toward under- this and the costly time expended in hunting fish,
utilized resources poses such new technology a concentrated effort should be made toward
problems as harvesting species of low concentra- improving vessels and gear in the hunting process,
tion or fishing in depths not now feasible, Aqua- resulting in an immediate financial return to our
culture promises to increase the supply of edible coastal fisheries.
fish in fresh water and estuaries, especially the The United States has paid relatively little
luxury species. attention to radically new fishing methods and
With respect to demand, it is estimated that systems linked to broad analysis of oceanographic
over half the fish products on today's market were variables. In this respect, we are far behind the
unknown a decade ago (e.g., fish sticks, etc.). Fish Soviet Union, despite the inherently greater indus-

VI-154

trial and research capacity available to American A field service mechanism should be established
industry. by the Federal Government analogous to the
Vessel and gear engineering (as distinct from Department of Agriculture Extension Service to
biological science) and eventually the benefits of facilitate transfer of technical information to the
fundamental marine technology will play a larger fisherman at the county or fishing port level. For
role in general fishing technology. Benefits from example, the Government should provide pelagic
advanced marine technology will arise from devel- and bottom fishermen with information on the
opments in such areas as materials, advanced effects of environmental change on fish availability
sonars, exploratory submersibles, buoy networks, and knowledge of the latest domestic and foreign
satellites, and underwater stations. advances in fishing gear.
An updated survey should be completed of
promising coastal fisheries and distant water fish-
Recommendations: eries, improving knowledge in the case of our
traditional stocks and delineating resources in the
Fishing technology should be directed toward case of under-utilized species. The survey should
maximum utilization of food resources and devel- be updated continually and should include sport
opment of efficient means of exploiting them. The fisheries because of the ecological interactions.
major portion of the effort should focus on Improved charts should be provided for bottom
maximizing efficiency in catching fish (as con-, trawlers in particular to portray more information
trasted to the processing phase), emphasizing those on the continental shelf and slope. The charts also
fisheries not in danger of depletion. should have overprints of predicted areas of
To achieve a more immediate economic return, fishery stocks.
effort should be concentrated initially on prob- The ocean engineering program in the Bureau
lems more amenable to near-term solutions. This of Commercial Fisheries should be expanded and
includes primarily learning how to reduce the time adequately funded. A National Vessel and Gear
spent in search and detection. Methods showing Development Program within the Bureau of Com-
promise include optical, infrared, electrical, and mercial Fisheries should be established to conduct
acoustical. basic bio-engineering studies and provide technical
Additional improvements in harvesting gear and support of biological research relating to new
techniques should focus on: harvesting systems, new and improved fish detec-
tion systems, and improved performance of new
-Minimizing escape of fish within reach of fishing fishing vessels. This should provide support and
gear. coordination to the activities of the present
-Leading, herding, or aggregating fish to increase regional laboratories.
their availability to harvesting systems. The staff of this national program should
include engineers and biologists (or bio-engineers),
-Developing techniques to harvest the more naval architects, and other scientists to undertake
abundant smaller fish in the food chain. basic studies and provide effective liaison, with
private engineering firms and academic institu-
High speed, automated vessels should be uti- tions. A substantial share of the program's budget
lized wherever possible in coastal fisheries, in order should be used for contract studies with industry
to improve efficiency and become more competi- and private institutions. A submersible should be'
tive with foreign fishermen. available to study fishing gear performance, the
For some fisheries attention should be directed reaction of fish to the gear, and to explore novel
toward use of specialty vehicles for different tasks. methods of detection. A modem gear research
This might include a high-speed vessel or aircraft vessel capable of handling types of harv 'est systems
for fish detection, another type vessel for harvest@ likely to be developed would be necessary to
ing and a third for transporting catches (as might demonstrate such systems to the fishing industry.
be used in distant water fisheries). At present we A close working relationship should be estab-
combine all three functions in one vessel and lished with Sea Grant Colleges, industrial firms,
thereby pay a penalty for it. and the fishing industry.

VI-155

11. AQUACULTURE in the United States, there is a relatively small
but intensive effort to advance the field of
Aquaculture today often is discussed as one aquaculture, specifically for the most desirable
part of a long-range solution, to, feeding the billions species for the luxury market. Examples are
of people expected to inhabit the-earth * Some shrimp, oysters, abalone, lobster, salmon, trout,
authorities claim that (except in a few, cases) pompano, clams, and scallops. Efforts to produce
aquaculture is not a viable solution to this prob- the more common fish are minimal, primarily
lem. In this. section acquaculture will be discussed because of consumer disinterest. In Hawaii, exten-
as a potential supplemental source of food. Some sive studies are being conducted in breeding
of the technology needed to enhance aquaculture mullet, a highly prized fish food in the islands.
will also be described. As a matter of interest, the U.S. shrimp
Aquaculture may be defined as a systematic industry grossed $96 million in 1966 and was our
and scientific farming program in restricted water most valuable fishery. Oysters in the same year
areas including inland waters, coastal waters and ranked fifth with a catch worth $26 million. Thus,
open sea.5 This definition of aquaculture is not the American palate seems to be better pleased by
intended to include advanced techniques for im- gourmet seafoods.
proved conventional fishing. The pages following discuss examples of aqua-
A. Present Status and Trends culture being undertaken with certain gourmet
species. This is not intended to encompass all areas
1. General Activity of aquaculture interest but illustrates a few to
show the promise in this field.
Aquaculture, often discussed as impractical or
too visionary in the United States, is no longer a 2. Shellfish
dream. Examination of the status and success of Shellfish farming, primarily oysters, clams, and
aquaculture in other parts of the world reveals the scallops, has been practiced for many years in
practical applications of this source of food more bays, estuaries, ocean shelves, and other shallow
clearly. A. report by the Institute of Fisheries, salty waters. A more intensive method of shellfish
University of British Columbia, states that Main- farming utilizing special methods of seeding, grow-
land China in 1960 produced 2,000,000 tons of ing, and harvesting in ponds or sheltered enclosed
fish by fresh water culture of a total 4,000,000 areas is practiced also.
tons for the entire nation's inland fish catch, thus Shellfish cultivation equipment is quite differ-
50 per cent of inland fish production in Red China ent, .depending on whether in large shallow ocean
was by aquaculture. In the same period, the areas or small ponds and enclosed areas. In the
United States produced a total 6of 1,249,000 tons ocean areas fish cultivation requires boats, dredges,
of fish for human consumption. nets, etc., and is to some degree a mechanized
In 1966, pond culture in Israel yielded 9 ' 454 operation. In small ponds and enclosed areas
tons of a total 24,503 tons of fish produced by all cultivation is done where seeding, growth, and
methods. Pond culture realized approximately 40 harvest can be regulated carefully. It is widely
per cent of total production in this small country. practiced in low labor-cost areas, as it currently
Japan, long an aquacultural leader through the requires considerable manual labor. Because this
necessity of feeding her population, continues to intensive cultivation achieves greatly increased
be a leader. Today 13 per cent of the total value of productivity per unit area (or volume), and be-
Japan's marine products is derived from aquacul- cause it is now largely a hand operation, it is a
ture. fruitful field for new equipment development.
Further, specialized heavy equipment is needed to
SPresident's Science Advisory Committee, Effective prepare new growing areas.
Use of the Sea, Report of the Panel on Oceanography
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 10. 3. Salmon
6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer-
ing Development, Marine Science Affairs-A Year of Plans Another example of U.S. aquaculture is the
and Progress (Washington: Government Printing Office,
1968), p. 224. salmon hatchery program on the Columbia River.

VI-156

In 1967 the Columbia River system produced
about 15 million pounds of salmon by aquacul- 80 -
tural methods, coAtributing to a total U.S. salmon
catch of 202 milli'o'n pounds. While only seven per 79 -
cent of total production, this contribution is
indicative of the potential of aquacultural tech- 78 -
niques. 77 -
The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries conducted cc
uj
a benefit-cost ratio (B/C ratio) analysis of the U" 76 -
Coho and Chinook salmon produced at the
z
Columbia River hatcheries in relation to salmon WO 71 -
caught by fishermen and the results were startling.
l- 74 -
Coho ran as high as 7.8 to 1.0 and Chinook ran b
z
from 2.5 to 4.5 to 1.0. This ratio is conservative w- 73 -
but represents a reasonable reflection of the
advances aqualculture can provide.' 72 - 0
In addition to work progressing in the
Columbia River, Dr. Lauren Donaldson at the 71
College of Fisheries, University of Washington, is 70 -
966 pectoral marks excluded
doing extensive work in aquaculture by breeding 11966 pectoral marks included
salmon. 8 1 1 1 1 1
61 61 62 63 64 65 66 i57
Dr. Donaldson's Chinook salmon data after YEAR
eight cycles indicates some progress has been
made. Studies of the returns of Chinook salmon to Figul, 22. Trend of body length on return
the University holding pond for 1960 through year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.
1967 revealed increase in growth, length and
weight, as well as a significant increase in fecun-
dity for both the three-year-old and four-year-old
females (Figures 22, 23, and 24).
The emphasis in selection has been on the
three-year-old returning Chinook salmon. Al- 7
though the variation from year to year is great, the
increase in length for females-excluding the re-
turns of 1966 with the pectoral mark' averaged
about a centimeter per year over the past eight
years (Figure 22). Also the average yearly increase 6
r
in weight for three-year-old Chinook females was 60@
about 200 grams (Figure 23). In the past eight 2
z
cycles, egg production for the three.-year-old
salmon increased at a fairly steady Tate. The yearly S2

7
This B/C ratio was based on the ex-vessel price (fish
gutted and gilled but not headed and not processed).
gThe material on Chinook salmon and trout in
subsections 3 and 4 was taken from reports by Dr.
Donaldson.
9For the brood years 1960 to 1966, the young salmon 4 -1966 pectoral marks excluded
fingerlings were marked by amputation of a fin or the - - - 1966 pectoral marks included
maxillary bone. This procedure handicaps the fish in I I I I I I
varying degrees and makes exact interpretation of the 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
results of the selective breeding difficult. Removal of the YEAR
pectoral fins from the 1963 brood year fingerlings, which
returned during the fall of 1966 as three-year-old adults, Figure 23. Trend of body weight on return
was especially damaging. year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.

VI-157

has changed dramatically. In 1944, the first year a
5400 - fair number of spawning fish of the two-year age
class was available, the fish averaged 36.3 centi-
meters forked length. By 1968, the average length
for two-year-old spawning rainbow trout had
5000- increased to 60.4 centimeters, an average increase
of a centimeter a year. The three-year-old
spawners in the past 14 years (1954 to 1968) have
o 4600- increased from 50.5 centimeters forked length to
68.1 centimeters, an average annual increase of
1.25 centimeters. An actual example (Figure 26)
Z
4200 shows the results of controlled rearing techniques.

B. Future Needs

3800 There is a need to develop an integrated
1966 pectoral marks excluded systems approach to the field of aquaculture,
- - - 1966 pectoral marks included consisting of effective collection, trapping, hatch-
J_ _L J_ _L _L ' - ing, stowage, and processing facilities. If such a
60 61 62 . . 51 61
YEAR system were adopted, industry would be able to
contribute heavily to expand the program. An
Figure 24. Trend of fecundity on return year example of the systems approach is found in the
of three-year-old Chinook salmon females. oyster industry.
Suspended culture of oysters is performed now
average increase was about 200 eggs per fern e, in small areas, the oysters growing on strings
from 1960 through 1967. suspended from floating rafts or underwater racks.
Sea survival of the Chinook salmon has been Seeding the oysters, setting the racks or rafts, and
good, returns exceeding I per cent of the finger- harvesting are hand operations. It is technically
lings released (1.0 to 3.25 per cent). The program possible to make racks (with suitable oyster
has now become stabilized; 250,000 select finger- attachment materials already in place) to be
lings are released each year and 2.5 to 5 million installed by hand but seeded automatically from
eggs are obtained when the fish return. Five to 10 nearby seed beds. Properly designed, an entire rack
per cent are selected to continue the select stock. could be conveyed to a harvesting device for
Excess eggs and fingerlings are transferred to other removing the mature oysters mechanically or
streams, where we hope they will contribute to hydraulically, sorting them and packing them in
commercial and sport fisheries. one continuous operation.
The entire growing medium could be regulated,
4. Trout using three-dimensional units and controlling the
oysters' growth with properly regulated water and
A program of selective breeding of rainbow nutrient flows. The engineer would work closely
trout has been carried on at the University of with the marine biologist who would determine
Washington's College of Fisheries for the past 36 optimum temperature, nutrient level, and water
years. Changes during the past 0* years have been turnover required to maximize shellfish growth
pronounced (Figure 25). When the program was and quality.
initiated in 1932 the trout reached maturity in He would treat the oyster farm as a system
their fourth year at an average weight of l1h (including both the physical and biological param-
pounds and produced 400 to 500 eggs at their first eters established by the marine biologist and the
spawning. economic limitations imposed by product value
After 36 years, the males of select stock reach and the local labor market) to achieve the best rate
maturity in the first year. and the females all of return on investment. In a region of high labor
mature in the second year. The rate of growth also costs, the environmental control system might

VI-158

Figure 25
SIZE AT SPAWNING AND NUMBER OF EGGS PRODUCED BY
SELECTED RAINBOW TROUT BROOD STOCK
Number Number of eggs
Spawn- Age at of Fork length from each female
ing recorded females (centimeters) at spawning
year spawning spawning Average Maximum Average Maximum

1944 2 12 36.3 39.0 1,653 2,121
1946 . 2 39 41.9 48.0 21011 2,982
1948 . 2 78 41.2 50.0 1 958 3,094
1950 . 2 129 35.5 45.5 1,315 2,097
1952 2 51 40.9 45.0 2,145 3,810
1953 . 2 27 38.9 43.5 2,032 3,631
1954 . 2 47 44.6 51.5 2,377 3,960
- 3 36 50.5 57.0 4,042 6,106
1955 2 28 50.7 56.5 3,894 5,123
- 3 28 59.6 67.0 5,029 8,850
1956 . 2 84 49.0 53.5 3,281 5,915
- 3 9 59.2 65.0 6,149 7,331
1957 2 58 46.4 55.0 3,161 9,639
- 3 14 67.4 72.0 7,117 11,475
1958 2 57 57.6 66.0 5,617 9,077
- 3 2 73.5 74.0 15,767 16,839
1959 . 2 39 60.0 63.0 5,224 6,960
- 3 6 70.2 73.0 8,689 11,580
1960 . 2 63 59.6 68.0 5,132 8,268
- 3 6 70.8 72.0 9,030 11,186
1961 2 29 52.9 59.0 4,809 6,838
- 3 5 67.1 71.0 9,092 13,515
1962 2 73 57.8 68.5 6,080 13,407
- 3 20 66.1 72.0 9,176 16,482
1963 . 2 83 52.5 63.0 - -
- 3 8 67.6 70.5
1964. 2 48 59.1 66.5 6,091 8,845
- 3 12 64.0 74.0 9,768 13,684
1965 . 2 81 58.5 65.5 6,274 11,826
- 3 30 68.3 78.0 11,556 16,160
1966. 2 131 57.0 63.0 7,798 16,872
- 3 32 68.7 74.5 13,304 19,922
1967 2 36 60.7 67.0 7,335 13,707
- 3 29 67.2 73.5 11,090 20,602
1968 . 2 70 60.4 66.0 9,259 18,144
- 3 8 68.1 72.0 11,718 21,288

VI-159

771

Figure 26. Results of controlled rearing tech-
niques with lake trout. Lower two fish grew
under normal conditions.

include pumps, temperature controllers, automatic
monitoring of nutrients, etc. In a region having
cheaper labor, the system might be largely a Figure 27. Mackerel reared on plankton from
ocean, Nuthent-rich deep waters brought to
manual operation with a minimum of capital the sunlit surface support. prolific plant life on
investment. which fish thrive. Waste heat from fossil or nu-
clear power plants may benefit aquaculture and
Artificial upwelling techniques, artificial reefs, selected fisheries. (Bureau of Commercial
and control of environmental temperatures can Fisheries photo)
increase fish production further. As an example,
the University of Miami has a research grant for
raising shrimp, using waste heat from power Engineering aspects of shellfish farming (partic-
generation plants at Turkey Point, Florida to ularly equipment employed, means for enclosing
control water temperatures. Thermal energy dis- farming areas, and methods for controlling the
sipated from nuclear installations offers a whole growth environment) need concentrated attention
new field of development, particularly in aquacul- for improvement and economy. Very little has
ture. The New England lobster population is been accomplished in practical demonstration of
declining becasue long-range climatic cycles have open sea aquaculture techniques to date. With the
reduced water temperatures below the levels favor- proper encouragement to industry, the techniques
able to their growth. needed will be developed, leading to increased
Heat from man-made sources, if properly ap- catches, improved efficiency, and better fulfill-
aquaculture and
plied, potentially could benefi ment of needs for fish protein.
selected fisheries. Basic understanding of how A concept of an open sea aquacultural opera-
waste heat can be used is being investigated in a tion is illustrated in Figure 28.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries project to rear
mackerel artificially under controlled environ- C. Conclusions
mental conditions (Figure 27).
The. United States can contribute substantially Aquaculture can make a major contribution to
to development of new and improved techniques the war on hunger, by applying recent scientific
in aquaculture by applying its experience and and -technological advances to existing practices or
competence in. such -fields as pathology, ecology, by development of new techniques in such fields
microbiology, nutrition, genetics, chemistry, and as pathology, genetics, nutrition, ecology, and
engineering. Application of techniques in devel- engineering.
oping countries could aid materially in the war on Aquaculture is practiced in the United States to
hunger. Immediate benefits to the United States various degrees in raising luxury crops or augment-
would be increased production of food items now ing natural stocks. Aquaculture programs are
considered luxuries because of limited supplies. scattered among several groups. Real progress will

VI-160

should be made of the rationale of changing
escapement quotas in certain estuaries on the West
'Coast.

III. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

A. Scope of Offshore Industry
Y
L Worldwide

a. Investment Cumulative investment, now near
4
$18 billion, is likely to triple in the next decade.

b. Production-Reserves Free World offshore
production, quadrupled since 1960, now repre-
sents about 8 per cent of Free World output.
Offshore proven reserves, tripled since 1960, now
Figure 28. Artist's concept of open sea aqua- account for about 14 per cent of the Free World
culture. (Westinghouse photo) total. If the figures include production from
protected waters, (such as Venezuela's Lake Mara-
caibo, which alone produces 2 million barrels per
require recognition of the need for a systematic day (b/d) and bays such as along the U.S. Gulf
approach and a cooperative relationship between Coast) the percentage rises from 8 to 16 per cent.
Government and industry. The Persian Gulf in the Middle East has most of
Widespread, low-intensity aquaculture, as prac- the Free World's offshore oil reserves and provides
ticed in many developing countries where large about one-fourth of current world offshore pro-
areas are available for the purpose, may result in duction.
relatively low yields and profits. The potential of Figure 29 depicts offshore activity in the 80
aquaculture is greatest in these places where Free World countries; it does not include pro-
improved technology may be expected to increase tected waters but represents true continental shelf
yields greatly. activities. Thus, whereas the figure shows 1967
Free World production at 2.4 million b/d, it is
Recommendations: almost 5.0 million b/d if Lake Maracaibo and
A program to coordinate and foster aquaculture other inland water areas are considered. The Far
East and Africa represent the fastest growing areas.
should be established and managed by the Federal It is estimated that by 1980 total over-water
Government. This program should focus on tech- production from the continental shelves and pro-
notogy needed for potential commercial applica- tected waters will rise to 20 million b/d, or about
tions. Use should be made of Gov ernment, State, one-third estimated total production.
academic, and industrial facilities. The program
goals should be directed toward both domestic and Offshore activity ranges from early seismic
world aquaculture needs. work to full-scale production operations. The pace
An intensive program to strengthen and expand has been increasing sharply since 1960 in all
the scope of Federal laboratories engaged in geographic areas. Most jack-up and semisub-
mersible offshore rigs built in the past two years
aquaculture would be of great benefit to industry have gone into foreign service because of the
and would allow further research in fertilization, expected increased offshore activity in those areas
nutrition, population ecology, pathology, predator in the next few years.
and pest control, soil chemistry and biology, and
design and construction of ponds, lagoons, and 2. United States
estuarine impoundments.
In view of the improvement in salmon produc- a. Investment The petroleum industry has in-
tion, an economic, political and ecological inquiry vested about $7.5 billion in offshore Louisiana,

VI-161

333-091 0-69-15

Figure 29
EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITY IN THE FREE WORLD'

Category Year U.S.A. Canada Latin Europe Africa Mideast Far Free
America East World
Countries with Offshore Activity2 1960 1 1 5 2 6 @5 4 24
1964 1 1 '15 8 21 12 8 66
1967 1 1 18 9 26 14 11 80

Offshore Concession Acreage . . . . 1960 - - - - - - - 3003
(Millions of acres) 1964 7 154 87 48 56 34 422 807
1966 9 202 125 69 127 53 760 1,345

Geophysical Crew Months . . . . . 1960 93 5 6 - 31 - - 135
(Marine seismograph) 1964 273 22 12 133 45 26 35 546
1966 461 26 18 103 33 47 140 828

Crude-Oil Production . . . . . . 1960 190 - 25 - - 181 - 396
(Thousand b/d@ 1964 449 - 59 8 65 684 7 1,272
1967 870 - 77 10 165 1,184 50 2,356

Proven Crude Reserves . . . . . . 1960 1,700 - 220 100 - 14,750 - 16,770
Willion bbl) 1964 2,200 - 260 100 1,050 32,300 100 35,910
1967 4,100 - 330 220 3,150 43,350 1,400 52,550
I Does not take into account activity in such protected waters as Venezuela's rich Lake Maracaibo.
2Fxcludes countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and where there ism offshore activitv.
3Breakdown not available.
Source: TheOilandGasJournalmaV6,1968,p.77.

and its operations have recovered about $3.5 United States, the Free World's only commercial
billion in revenue from oil and gas sales-a $4 offshore gas areas lie in the North Sea, off
billion net deficit." Yet, the U.S. industry still Australia, and in the Adriatic. Some however, will
regards the offshore as its last big frontier. be large producers in the future. Britain's Gas
Council estimates England's share of North Sea gas
b. Production-Reserves Latest figures from the reserves at 25 trillion cubic feet; the search for gas
is just beginning on the Netherlands' side of the
American Petroleum Institute place U.S. offshore sea. 1
oil reserves total at 4.3 billion barrels, including - There is a strong possibility that the Free
2.4 billion off Louisiana and 1.4 billion off World offshore gas production will follow the trend
California. U.S. offshore oil production has of offshore oil with a sudden growth spurt in the
climbed from 335,000 bjd in 1960 to over next few years.,Any offshore gas discovered near
1,300,000 b/d in 1968. One major company sizable market areas will find outlets.
reports that offshore Louisiana accounts for over However, expensive failures .have occured off
one-third its total production; another reports that
half its production increase in North American Norway and Sweden. All efforts in the German
liquids will come from Cook Inlet, Alaska. part of the North Sea ceased after about a dozen
expensive dry holes were drilled.

3. Natural Gas b. United States In this country offshore natural
gas is becoming big business, and much future
a. Free World Six per cent of Free World natural growth in supply is expected to come from
gas production comes from underwater areas, close-in offshore areas. For example, one company
compared to 16 per cent for oil. Outside the reports that its offshore Louisiana reserves repre-
sent over half the company's total.

10 Wilson, J. E., "Economics of Offshore Louisiana
presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Division, Mi@_
Continent Oil and Gas Association, Sept. 12, 1967. The Oil and Gas Journal, May 6, 1968, p. 77.

VI-162

4. Technology-The Broad Picture began in the summer of 1968 and shallow holes
a. Capability Exp .loratory wells have been drilled have been successfully drilled in 17,500 feet of
from floating rigs in waters deeper than 600 feet, water.
and exploitation wells have been drilled from huge B. Background of Offshore Activity
fixed. bottom-mounted production platforms in .
waters deeper than 300 feet. Recently, one com- 1. History
pany invested almost $200 million in lease bonuses Offshore oil was first produced about 1894 in
for 47 tracts in the Santa Barbara Channel, of California from wells drilled from wooden wharves
.,which 16 are in water deeper than 600 feet, six
deeper than 1,200 feet, and one in 1,800 feet of or from wells directed seaward from the beach.
water.. Exploratory wells are presently being Petroleum operations in the Gulf of Mexico began
drilled in depths up to 1,300 feet, and production in 1936. The first offshore well completed beyond
may be established in waters as deep as 400 feet the sight of land was off Louisiana in 1948; a
during 1969. It is expected that by 1980 industry typical early platform is shown in Figure 30. The
will have the capability to explore for and produce first offshore pipeline was completed the following
hydrocarbon reserves in almost any area of the year. Today production has been established more
world; however, alternate sources of petroleum than 70 miles from shore and in water depths to
probably will enter the energy. market before 340 feet. Production pipelines have been laid
petroleum deposits are exploited in deep ocean successfully in 340 feet of water. The first subsea
areas. well with all components under water was com-
pleted in Lake Erie in 1959; there are now 50 to
b. Equipment There are about 180 mobile drill- 100 throughout the world.
ing rigs throughout the world, valued at about $1
12
billion, 35 per cent floaters. It is estimated that
by 1980 there will be about 400 mobile units,
about 60 per cent floaters. To reduce the cost of
development drilling, it may be necessary to use
multiple drilling rigs on a single floating platform.
In the Santa Barbara Channel it may be more
wells on
economical on some leases to complete
submerged platforms connected to and controlled
from operating platforms in shallower water.
Extensive tests with actual underwater wells,
coupled with experiments to determine diver and
Y
diverless capability have provided confidence that
the technology to install and operate underwater
facilities in the Santa Barbara area can be de-
veloped. The method used for each lease will be
governed by economics, safety, and environmental
considerations.
Using Federal funds, a group of oceanographic Figure 30. Early offshore platform beyond
institutions has contracted with industry to drill a sight of land, in 50,feet of water. Designed to
house a crew,of 50, it was.completed in 1948
series of core holes to 2,500 feet below the sea and is still in operation.
floors in waters to 20,000 feet deep in the
Atlantic, the Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico, and the
Caribbean Sea. This program, called JOIDES, Drilling capability in the last 10 years has
progressed from water depths of less than 100 feet
1211igs that do not touch bottom but maintain position to more than 600 feet. In addition, leases have
by anchoring or dynamic positioning. The other two been granted by the Department of Interior for
types of mobile drilling rigs are submersible and jack-up. petroleum iexploration and production more than

VI-163

100 miles off the U.S. shores and in waters up to be conducted, the actual cost per mile is about
1,800 feet deep. About 100 core holes have been one-third as much as on land. A sound pulse is
drilled beyond the U.S. Continental Shelves, some generated, a portion of which is reflected from the
in waters nearly 5,000 feet deep in the Atlantic layers of sediment and rock under the ocean floor.
Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The reflections when received at the surface are
recorded on a graph showing an approximation of
the depth and characteristics of underlying geolog-
2. Phases ical structures. In earlier surveys black powder or
dynamite was used to generate the sound pulse.
Offshore activities are conducted in three Today, electrical sparking systems, air guns, con-
phases: tained-gas explosions, mechanical boomers, and
Exploration consists of geophysical surveys to other nonexplosive energy sources are used. Seis-
locate subsurface structures favorable for the mic data are recorded routinely on magnetic tape
accumulation of hydrocarbons, followed by ex- and processed by digital computers, enhancing
ploratory drilling to determine the presence or quality and reliability.
absence of oil or gas under the ocean floor. - The above-mentioned geophysical techniques
Production involves development drilling fol- are indirect methods for examining structures
lowed by installation of equipment for produc- under our continental margins. The most satisfac-
tion, well service, and maintenance. tory method to date for obtaining geologic sam-
Storage of the product and transportation to ples of rocks on or at shallow depths under the sea
shore is the final phase of offshore activity. floor has been with small coring devices operated
from a surface ship. These devices drill a hole
C. Exploration several hundred feet into the sea floor and recover
1. Geophysical Surveys and Geological Analysis samples of rock for further study. Similar holes
have been drilled in the U.S. continental margin
Exploration encompasses the broad reconnais- beyond the shelves to 1,000 feet beneath the sea
sance surveys followed by more detailed surveys floor in waters from 600 feet to 5,000 feet deep.
that actually delineate the geological structures Coring in such depths has been accomplished from
that may contain oil or gas deposits (i.e., explora- floating, dynamically positioned vessels. As long
tion activities involve locating promising areas for ago as 1961, several experimental core holes were
drilling activities). Exploration begins with geolo- drilled in 11,700 feet of water as part of the early
gists making a general study of the structure of the phase of Project Mohole.
earth to select an area with characteristics possibly Exploration technology has made rapid strides-
favorable for oil or gas recovery. in new seismic energy sources and receiving sys-
After selecting a promising area, tests pinpoint tems. Computers permit analysis of the data while
the site to probe further for possible reserves. under way at sea. The Navy Navigation Satellite
These can be simple magnetometer readings taken System will permit seismic teams to determine
from an airplane or ship. By showing a variation in more accurately survey locations in remote areas.
the earth's magnetic field, the tests indicate
geologic structures below the ocean floor. In 2. Exploratory Drilling
addition, towed marine gravimeters can determine Determining the presence of oil or gas requires
very small variations in the earth's gravity field. full scale drilling operations at the site, a much
Both types of geophysical surveys can be made in more difficult and expensive task than drilling
any depth of water and at any distance from land. shallow core holes. Multiple strings of casing must
However, in themselves, they usually do not be set in the hole to keep it open. To control
provide information of sufficient accuracy to drilling fluids or fluids in the rock, large blowout
permit siting an exploratory well. Oreventers-must be installed should high-pressure
The most successful technique to locate test oil or gas be encountered. The drilling rig must
drilling sites is seismic profiling. Such surveys maintain position at the wellsite for many weeks
require much more expensive equipment but or months. More than 10;000 wells already have
because of the high speed at which the surveys can been drilled into the U.S. Continental Shelves.

VI-164

Most of these are for exploitation purposes and Figure 31 shows the categories of offshore
have been drilled from fixed platforms, artificial drilling platforms, their cost, daily operating rate,
islands, or directionally from shore. and depth capability. There are three general types
The petroleum industry has more than $1 of mobile platforms-submersible, jack-up, and
billion in offshore drilling equipment presently at floating.
work. Drilling contractors, hired by operating oil The jack-up rig is mounted on a buoyant hull to
firms, generally bear the burden of the capital which extendable legs are attached. The legs are
investments for this phase of the operation. raised for moving the rig and lowered to the ocean
While the types of platforms used to support floor to lift the platform above the ocean waves
the drilling rigs vary greatly, the rigs are fairly during drilling operations (Figure 32). The number
standardized. They Consist of: (1) a tall steel tower of jack-up rigs has grown steadily, with about 75
to hoist the bit, pipe, and other equipment in and in operation in depths to 300 feet. Designs have
out of the hole, (2) a system to-rotate the pipe and been proposed for jack-up rigs for 600 feet of
bit, and (3) a system to circulate fluid to the water. Recent innovations include a self-propelled,
bottom of the hole. jack-up rig resembling a ship, to operate in 300
Fixed platforms supported by pilings were feet of water.
constructed in shallow offshore waters as the The submersible rig is mounted on a submers-
drillers followed the seaward extension of oil ible hull that is ballasted with water and sunk to
fields. As the industry moved into deeper waters, the ocean floor for support during drilling opera-
it continued using this type of foundation for tions (Figure 33). The largest submersible rig is
exploitation drilling. However, for exploratory designed to drill in 175 feet of water with 25-foot
drilling, where the incidence of dry holes is deck clearance; however, most submersible rigs are
inherently. higher, fixed platforms soon became limited to 100 foot water depths. About 35
too costly. submersible rigs are in use currently, a number
The industry then began to develop mobile almost constant since 1958 due to depth limita-
drilling platforms. This minimized the capital tion and the increasing popularity of jack-up rigs.
investment chargeable to each well site. The first The advantage of the jack-up and submersible
mobile platforms were submersible barges for rigs is that they rest on the bottom while the
operation in 20 to 40 feet of water and evolved platform stands clear of the highest waves, ena-
from the barge-mounted drilling rigs used in bling them to operate in rough seas. The jack-up
southern Louisiana marshlands. Later, jack-up rig has more depth flexibility and capability while
mobile platforms were developed for greater water the submersible rig, a monolithic structure, can be
depths. towed more readily from one location to another.

Figure 31
COSTS AND DEPTH CAPABILITIES OF.OFFSHORE DRILLING PLATFORMS

Initial Cost' Day Rate 2 Typical Operating
Category ($ million) Depths (Feet.)
Fixed Platforms . . . . 1.0 to 15.0 5,000- 7,000 0-300
Mobile Platforms .
Bottom Supported
Submersible 3.0 to 5.0 6,000-10,000 20-175
Jack -up . . . . . 4.0 to 8.0 6,00&15,000 20-300
Floating
Semisubmersible 7.0 to 10.0 .12,000-17,000 130-600
Ship-shaped . . . 3.0 to 7.0 10,000-15,000 50-600
Depends upon soil conditions;.wave, Wind, and ice loading; and the number of wells supported by the platform.
2Includes rig, labor, transportation, routine daily services, and routine expendable materials.

VI-165

The sernisubmersibles are floating platforms
supported on tall columns which rise from buoy-
ant barge-like hulls or cylindrical torpedo-shaped
tubes (Figure 34). Upon arrival on location they
are ballasted so that approximately one-half the
unit is below Nater-Their advantage over drilling
M ships. or barges is that the major structure is
located above or below the region of most severe
wave action. This configuration provides improved
stability by its large inertia, -and by having a
vertical natural frequency of movement which is
affected little by wave forces.

Figure 32. Self-elevating (jack-up) mobile drilb
ing rig. Open fabricated legs increase strength
without substantially increasing resistance to.
waves. (The; Offshore Co. photo)

@; _V't'

_A
J

Figure 34. Sernisubmersible -rig (SEDCO 135)
measures 300 feet on a side and in drilling posi-
tion displaces 16,800 tons. (Southeastern Drill-
ing photo)

The semi-submersibles can be raised by pump-
ing ballast water from the tubes and columns.
Finally, they can be used to drill while resting on
the sea' floor if in sufficiently shaflow water.
Ship-shaped platforms consist of a drilling rig
Figure 33. Submersible drilling rig. (Shell Oil supported on a barge or self-propefled ship. A
photo)
barge, because it is not self-propelled, must be
While floating platforms lack the stability of moved by tugs to new assignments, but it has the
the bottom support type, they are not as restricted advantage of low initial cost. The ship-shaped
to a given depth of water and are cost-competitive platform can transit at higher speeds and at less
at 200 @ feet or more. The floating platform expense. A disadvantage of the ship-shaped vessel
includes two major categories: semi-submersibles platforms is that much drilling time can be lost in
and the ship-shaped type. bad weather due to vessel motion; however, this

VI-166

may not be an important consideration in pro-
tected drilling locations (Figure 35).
The floating platforms can drill in depths
exceeding 600 feet, with some of the latest
exceeding 1,000 feet. The floating drilling vessels
normally are held over the drill hole by a system
of anchors; however, some of the newer vessels are
hold by various types of multidirectional thrust
systems (Figure 36). Most companies plan on
conventional anchoring in depths to 1,300 feet.
Drilling exploration wells often requires being on
station for long periods (100 days, for example)
and excessive fuel would be consumed if dynamic
positioning were used. However, in comparatively
sheltered waters with moderate winds and sea
states, the costs of dynamic positioning systems
compare favorably with conventional mooring
systems.

7
Figure 36. Artist's concept of dynamically posi-
t d drilling vessel designed to maintain a fixed
ione
position without anchors. (Esso Production
photo)

3. Delineation Drilling

Drilling a delineation or appraisal well (combi-
nation exploratory and development well) is be-
coming a common practice in the United Kingdom
secto of the North Sea. The operators use the
wells to define or appraise a geological structure '
'Figure 35. Self-propelled drilling ship Glomar once it has been confirmed by a successful wildcat
Sirte measures 380 feet x 64 feet, displaces 9,500 operation. The practice has been to re-enter
tons, and is one of the largest drilling ships in
operation. (Global Marine photo) previously suspended delineation wells and equip
them for gas production, thus realizing consider-
able capital savings.
Should a drill ship be compelled to abandon its
station, upon return it must be able to relocate the D. Production
seafloor wellhead and reinsert the drill string. 1. Present Capability
Recently, acoustic systems have been. designed and
tested for hole re-entry. Sea floor pingers or Recently a fixed platform was installed in 340
transducers will be increasingly used Ior precise feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico. At the time of
repositioning, for effectively relocating the well- installation this depth was a world record. This
head, and for accurately guiding the drill string. 2,900-ton structure, towering more than 550 feet

VI-167

from the bottom of. its legs to the top, of the Sometimes a contractor will be engaged differ-
drilling mast, can drill as many as 18 directional ent from the one involved in exploratory drilling,
wells. Figure 37 is a photograph of-this platform. because of the changed nature of the drilling in the
Some companies believe permanent fixed plat- development phase. Usually several holes are
forms can be installed in depths of more than 600 drilled before the platform is established to pin-
feet. Generally, various well and production con- point the oil pool in quantity and quality. The
trol equipment is located on the platform. initial well usually is drilled vertically, but subse-
In some cases the subsurface reservoir is close quent wells usually are drilled slanting out from
enough to shore that the wellhead and producing the platform to cover a wider area. Depending
equipment can be located on land; in other cases upon depth and other considerations, reservoirs
man-made islands have been built to support these more than a mile horizontally from the platform
facilities. Obviously, these approaches are confined can be reached in this manner. Such wells usually
to fairly shallow waters. are completed conventionally with the wellheads
above water on a platform.
With such a platform, it also is possible to
connect more distant wells to production-handling
equipment on the platform. Such wells cannot be
drilled from the platform itself and require a
floating rig. Some may be completed using existing
u
riderwater completion techniques. (Underwater
I tion is discussed in a subsequent section.)
comp e

3. Installation of Producing Equipment

After development drilling, the rigs are re-
moved, and producing equipment is installed.
Since crude oil usually is accompanied by large
volumes of entrained. and dissolved gases (and
-1 eventually water), a major purpose of the platform
operation is to separate these materials. If there is
too much gas or water mixed with the oil, it
cannot be pumped ashore efficiently or econom-
ically. Provisions are, made on the platform for:

Oigure 37. World's largest fixed platform located -Measuring accurately and controlling flow rate
in 340 feet of water in Gulf of Mexico off the @ from oil or gas wells..
mouth of the Mississippi,River. (Shell Oil photo)
-Cleaning the flow lines Jo remove sand and
paraffin deposits.

2. Development Drilling -Injecting chemicals for control of corrosion,
scale, or hydrates in the well and the flow lines.
After oil is found through exploratory drilling
(usually. with a mobile platform), the exploitation -Separating entrained gases and water from the
cycle is begun. First is development drilling, raw product. (Oil, gas, water, and natural gas
almost all done from a fixed surface platform liquids seldom occur as pure products in the field.)
using land technology. Associated activities and
problems involving separation and subsequent -Accessibility. for periodic maintenance.
storage and transportation of the hydrocarbons _Storage before subsequent transportation.
generally dictate use of a surface platform as a
base of operations. -Facilities for supplementary recovery operations.

VI-168

-Facilities for pumping the oil wells after they
stop flowing by natural pressure.

4. Lag Between Exploratory and Production Drill-
ing Capability

The ability to explore and drill for petroleum
resources in deep water exceeds the capability to
produce once it is found. Recent lease acquisitions
in depths beyond 600 feet exceed present produc-
tion capability. Also, the problems and expenses
of underwater production and well maintenance
are much more extensive than those of explora-
tion.
Oil and gas in relatively shallow water are easier
to produce on fixed platforms, because the pro-
duction systems and pipelines are not significantly
different from those on land. Many of these fields
have been producing for years, but of hundreds of
wells drilled in water depths greater than 200 feet,
only a few have been brought into production.
Costly production platforms on legs 200 to 300
feet high have rendered many recovery operations Figure 38. The monopod located in Cook Inlet,
economically impractical. Wells in great water Alaska. The single-leg platform, installed in 1966,
depths also present problems of maintenance, and has mi"imized effects of ice loading and lends
itself to rapid installation in strong currents.
the pipelines required to connect these distant (Brown and Root photo)
platforms to shore are proportionally more expen-
sive.
Some underwater wells in deep water already 5. Automatically Controlled Platforms
have been capped to await,such developments as: A completely automatic platform complex has
(1) an increase in the price of crude oil and gas, (2) been installed in the North Sea for gas extraction.
enough adjacent discoveries to justify a joint The entire platform and all its generators, pumps,
pipeline, or (3) technology advances that will dehydrators, and other equipment run completely
make recovery from them profitable. unattended with only occasional visits by super-
Costs in shallow water can approach those of visory and maintenance personnel. This platform is
deep water under special high risk conditions as in monitored from shore by closed circuit television
Alaska's Cook Inlet. Platforms in this location that could also indicate fire or illegal trespassing.
must withstand tidal currents up to eight knots Such offshore wells are remotely controlled
which in the winter move pack ice as much as six, through automatic valve actuators receiving in-
feet thick past the installation four times a day. structions usually via microwave. In addition,
Each platform costs more than $10 million-an these systems require communications equipment
expenditure for a stable base that is a minimal cost and an electric power source to operate the valve
on land. motors. Pneumatic or hydraulic valve actuators
The largest four-legged platform is a 3,200 ton, can be used, but these require continuous high-
43-well unit to be installed in 75 feet of water in pressure air or hydraulic fluid.
Cook Inlet. Another unique platform rests on one
column which stands on a base. Steel in the E. Pipelines
28-foot diameter column ranges from one to two
inches thick, the thicker sections being in the areas Pipelines are laid in an offshore field to gather
buffeted by the pack ice (Figure 38). the oil or gas produced from individual wells into

VI-169

a central collecting point where it is pumped dropped to the bottom during severe weather. In
ashore via a large pipeline or stored for loading the Cook Inlet operation, shutdowns accounted
onto a barge or tanker. In some cases, portable for more than half the elapsed time.
storage facilities are installed near the platform to
allow production to begin before the pipeline is b. Short Curved Stingers The use of a short
completed. curved stinger with tensioning devices is an alterna-
In the production phase, the offshore oil tive having the principal advantage of reducing
and gas industry is largely a single industry. laying stresses. The advantage of tension declines
Historically, additions to the gas reserves have as pipe diameter increases, since the effect of
come chiefly via the oil producers. Only in recent tensioning is to lessen normal laying stresses which
years has the search for gas as an independent increase in proportion to the square of the pipe's
commodity begun in offshore areas. The principal diameter.
activity of the gas industry in the oceans has been
related to pipelines. All offshore gas is brought 2. Present Status and Problems
ashore by pipelines. Offshore contractors have developed methods
1. Laying Techru ,ques of laying 12-inch diameter pipelines in depths up
to 340 feet. Lengths of pipe are joined aboard
Most offshore pipelines are laid using either of specialty designed barges. The joints are welded,
two methods: a long stinger stretching from the x-rayed, primed, wrapped, and concrete-coated as
lay barge to or close to the bottom or a short the pipeline is fed.off the end of the barge. An
curved stinger in conjunction with tensioning estimated 5,000 miles of pipe, ranging in size from
apparatus. Both have limitations. Figure 39 shows small diameter flow lines to 26-inch trunk lines,
a conventional pipelaying barge with a long stinger now traverse the sea floor in the Gulf of Mexico;
which allows the pipe to follow a gentle slope to large-diameter lines have been installed in the
the bottom during the laying operation. Persian Gulf (to 48 inches) in depths of about 100
feet. Figure 40 shows a novel reel barge which was
a. Long Stingers Unless efficient locating and developed to lay up to six-inch diameter flow lines
control instruments are developed, the usefulness at high rates. Rollers straighten the pipe as it is
of the long stinger is limited, especially under laid. The tide-swept Cook Inlet has presented the
adverse tide and weather conditions as in the Cook toughest problem, and installation costs in this
Inlet or North Sea. Frequently the stinger is area have reached $500,000 per mile even for
relatively small-diameter pipe.

Figure 39. Conventional pipe-laying barge with
a floating stinger allowing pipe to assume a Figure 40. Barge laying small-diameter pipe
gentle slope to bottom during laying operation. from reel at a high rate. Rollers straighten pipe
(Shell Oil photo) as it is laid. (Shell Oil photo)

V1- 170

Depth is probably the most immediate problem Wall thickness and welding improvements offer
facing offshore pipelaying. Distance is also an promise of reduced costs.
important but less urgent problem. Crude oil
pipelines have been laid in 340-foot waters. How- a. Wall Thickness Wall thickness of onshore
ever I, methods for laying the large diameter, pipelines is governed by operating pressure. Off-
high-pressure gas pipelines have not been tested for shore it is governed by stresses encountered in
water depths greater than 300 feet. Pipelines have laying and heavy-wall pipe is used to lower such
been laid up to 100 miles in shallow water in the stresses. It is estimated that $2.7 million could be
Gulf of Mexico. An 88-mile, 22-inch line was laid saved in the construction of a proposed 30 inch
recently in the Persian Gulf in 300 feet of water. A Red Snapper line offshore Louisiana if the wall
French firm demonstrated in 1966 that under- thickness were reduced from 0.562 to 0.500 inch.
water pipelines can be laid in. greater depths when Subsequent studies found that with adequate
they laid an experimental, small-gauge line in the handling equipment, the 30-inch, 0.500 inch wall
Cassidaigne Deep near Marseille in waters as deep thickness pipe could be used safely in 150 feet of
as 1,080 feet. water and that the factor of safety during the
The low cost of tanker transportation may limit laying operation could be increased by continuous
the laying of long-distance underwater lines. Be- applications of tension to the pipe. These findings
fore the Suez Canal was closed, oil could be emphasize the need for further improvement in
shipped around the Arabian Peninsula from the pipelaying procedures.
Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean at the same cost
as it was moved less than a third that distance, b. Other Factors Increased acceptance of micro-
across the peninsula by pipeline. wire and fully automatic welding will contribute
With costs declining as tanker sizes increase and to lower costs. The pace of welding is a piedomi@
with offshore lines costing two to five times as nant factor determining the rate of offshore
much as onshore lines, the probability of many. pipelaying; the other is keeping the pipelayig
long-distance underwater pipelines being con- barge supplied. with pipe in rough seas. Any
structed seems to be diminishing. On the other development that saves time and reduces delays
hand, the new supertankers have such deep drafts will cut costs.
that they are unable to enter many major ports
and must be loaded and unloaded offshore. In
4. Forecasts
addition, mooring a large tanker is very difficult in
open, unprotected waters. Finally, long-distance Since natural gas pipelines require large diarn-
underwater lines require the same support facilities eters, they are more expensive and present more
as onshore lines (e.g., stations, valves, operators, difficult technological problems. Hence their
manifolds, etc.) plus much more expensive corrO- depth and distance to shore are more restricted
sion protection. than oil pipelines. Tankers could be used when
The problems of gas pipeline support appear these depth-distance limits are exceeded; however,
similar to those of oil pipelines in the ocean to do this the gas must be liquefied. Cryogenic
environment and in some cases are intensified liquefaction of natural gas is economical only for
because of special characteristics ofgas pipelines. long-distance transportation a .nd requires major
For example, their greater diameters cause han- installations for liquefaction, handling, and stor-
dling and fabrication to be more difficult and age. Such a program is already planned or under
make the pipelines more vulnerable to disturbance way between Algeria and France, between Libya,
and damage by subsurface ocean currents and deep Italy, and Spain, and between Alaska and Japan.
turbulence created, by storms. It is difficult to predict what, if any, future
advances may allow production of natural gas
3. Cost Factors from greater water depths or longer distances from
shore. It . appears that offshore pipelines will
Laying an offshore line is at least twice and continue in use primarily to transport offshore
more often five times as expensive as laying an production to onshore facilities over relatively
onshore line, making costs a major consideration. short distances, less than 200 miles.

VI-171

F. Subsea Operations The fact that the industry is buying leases in
1. Potential Advantages and Philosophy ever deeper waters implies that the bidders expect
that it will become economically and technically
The potential advantages of having an under- feasible to produce in deep water.
water operating capability are: Any discussion of subsea operations must be
preceded by qualification of the type of field
-Extension of production capabilities to greater involved. Each field is different in water depth,
depths than those for which fixed platforms are size, and product nature; in closeness to shore; and
economical. Fixed steel platforms (similar to in many other factors which must be taken into
Figure 4 1) can be designed for very deep water, but account.
there is an econon-dc and technical limit to their The requirement for collection, storage, or
maximum height. Moreover, to emplace them is transportation a few miles off Santa Barbara,
extremely risky, particularly when the site is far California, is not expected to resemble those in
from available fabrication sites. areas distant from shore as in the Gulf of Mexico.
In the Santa Barbara area a simple pipeline
-Removal of operations from the often turbulent without underwater separation facilities may suf-
surface environment to avoid loss of platforms in fice, while- in the latter, production and storage
hurricanes or damage from severe storms and facilities may be necessary for intermittent de-
shifting foundations. livery to shuttling tankers. In each case, however,
-Elimination of navigation hazards. it is possible that employment of some subsea
completion, production, and maintenance features
-Additional operational options in such hazardous may enhance the system's economic appeal. It is
ice areas as Cook Inlet. difficult to predict which system will ultimately
prove most practical, but it is likely that several
different techniques will be employed.
In conclusion, future economical production in
deep water will depend on a choice among surface,
completely underwater, or some hybrid technol-
ogy. It is reasonable to assume that the industry
will continue in prototype technical work to:

-Make the best economical estimates of these
options.

-Take maximum advantage of deep water oppor-
tunities found by exploration.

-Select an option that can be used side by side
with its more familiar surface technology.

2. History

The first subsea wellheads were installed on gas
wells by divers on the shallow bottom of the Great
Lakes in 1959. The first oil well was completed in
i 1960 in the Gulf of Mexico in S5 feet of water.
Underwater wells in the Santa Barbara Channel
Figure 41. Two derrick barges installing section have been producing since 1964 in waters more
of fixed platform. Equipped with 500-ton ca-
pacity revolving cranes, barges are erecting a than 2SO feet deep. There are presently between
650-ton crude oil storage deck on permanent 50 to 100 subsea completions throughout the
ibilling and production platform in Gulf of
Mexico. (Brown and Root photo) world. They are still considered experimental in

VI-172

most cases. Limited subsea capability presently
exists to ocean depths of 600 feet.
Subsea wellhead equipment may be used when
directional wells drilled from a single, deepwater
platform cannot reach all parts of a reservoir. In
this case, satellite underwater completions could
be used. However, almost all existing underwater
completions are for wells producing directly to
shore without a production platform; several such
installations exist off the coasts of California and
Peru.

3. Characteristics of Subsea Production

The industry already is studying and developing
methods for sea-floor well completions, for pro-
duction and collection techniques, and for separa-
tion, treatment, and storage facilities. The partic-
ular choices made by the operator depend on the
size of the field, the location, depth, etc.

a. Underwater Christmas Tree The heart of the
well system is the underwater christmas tree-a Figure 42. Underwater christmas tree, installed
after drilling and completion operations, being
series of pipes and valves at the wellhead used to emplaced in GulfofMexico. (Shell Oil photo)
control the well during drilling and production
phases (Figure 42). It is installed on the subsea
landing base by a mobile rig during or after
drilling. Although most underwater trees are de-
signed for installation by remote control, divers
often must lend a hand. Recently an experimental
robot was built to perform limited operations on a
specially designed christmas tree.

b. Divers The use of divers is being extensively
investigated, and studies are under way to deter-
mine the usefulness of divers working with diver-
lockout submersibles. Divers for years have had
the capability to work at moderate depths, but Ile,
only recently they have extended their operations
considerably below 200 feet. Even so, diving at
great depths is considerably more costly than in
shallower water where decompression time is Figure 43 Diving bell and decompression
chamber. Using saturation diving techniques,
much less. divers can perform usefid work to depths of
The choice of whether divers should be an 600 feet. (Ocean Systems photo)
element in the system also affects the choice of a
specific technological system. Now that divers can In deeper continental shelf areas, a fixed
work at 600 feet or more, it is possible to choose platform can be erected to extend up to shallower
between diver-assisted completion methods, or depths - and hence be more readily accessible to
automated or remote control completion systems. divers and yet deep enough to escape the major
These choices also are available for subsea installa- effect of surface waves. Controls, instruments,
tion inspection and maintenance (Figure 43). power sources, etc. could be located on the

VI-173

platform to be tended by divers. Only that nonproducing well in which all normal operations
equipment absolutely needed at the wellhead were performed. Later, an ocean floor completion
would be located on the ocean floor. was made in 60 feet of water about one mile from
Saturated diving techniques with diver lockout an existing platform, and the tests were repeated.
and decompression chambers have been utilized by Dual flow lines were run to the platform to
the oil industry to the limit of diver capability. provide for remote production maintenance opera-
During tests in the summer of 1967, divers tions in this simulated deep-water satellite well.
performed functional tasks on -a simulated well- Four hydraulic control lines also Were run to the
head in 600 feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico, platform on'the surface for remote operation of
demonstrating man's ability to do useful work in the underwater christmas tree valves. A submarine
such depths. cable connected the tree with the production
Diver systems will require development of platform to transmit pressure and valve position
power units to augment divers' underwater phys- data.
ical capabilities. Subsea oil field hardware is Another important feature tested satisfactorily
massive; useful work by divers is limited by lack of was a remote flow line connector for independent
power,tools and equipment for direct application installation and removal of both the christmas tree
to I subsea .hardware. The utility of divers in and the flow lines. The flow lines and the tubing
offshore petroleum activities will continue:to be strings 'were two inches in diameter to permit the
marginal until underwater work systems are devel-: use of pump@-:down tools; the flowlines provided
loped. access to the well tubing. The technology @of
c Manned Submersibles The need to place sub_ remotely controlled tools demands much ingenu-
in .erged wellheads deeper than routine diving ity to insure reliabili'ty. Thus, sending a tool to its
properly intended location, locking it into place,
depths opens new opportunities for submersible
vehicles. Several one and two-man submersibles testing it to insure proper seating, performing a
have been designed to operate at depths in excess task, and retrieving the tool are an important feat.
After completion of the test well, all produc-
of 1,000 feet and could be considered for use in tion maintenance and well control operations were
future offshore oil fields. Many present submers- performed successftilly from the remote produc-
ible vehicles are unable to develop enough torque tion platform. The well produced at its full
in their mechanical arms to flange-up wellheads or allowable rate over an extended period and suc-
do other heavy work; however, their mechanical cessfully withstood several hurricanes with no
arms can operate small power tools and valves or damage whatsoever to the underwater christmas
make adjustments on instruments and controls. tree or the flow lines. Experience with the
Submersibles are of limited usefulness in strong pump-down tools indicated good overall reliability
currents. Future vehicles can be designed to
. of this.system for remote production maintenance
overcome most of today's limitations. . opera I6ons. This test demonstrated feasibility of
d. Diverless Remote Control Systems Many such a system and will permit- large oil fields on
studies and successful tests already have been the ocean, floor with only a few strategically
made on servicing underwater wells with remote placed platforms. A number of wells can be drilled
controlled televiewing robots employing through- within a radius of several miles, using the platform
the-flowline treatment tools, hydraulically con- as home base
trolled surface fines, and acoustically controlled Suitable power is needed to control ocean floor
val.ving@ systems powered by conventional and wellheads. An isotope unit to. generate power at
isotope energy sources. . the location may . be used or a battery pack
A recent report described an oc6n-floor well- designed for easy replacement by wireline methods
head completion and production maintenance
system. 13 -Tests were made with an onshore from a surface vessel. A power source combining
an isotope unit with batteries has been perfected
to operate electric motor driven valves. This
13 Rigg, A. M., T. W. Childers, C. B. Corley, Jr.: "A system has been installed, and has operated for
Subsea Completion System for Deep Water," presented at several months. This, however, fulfills compara-
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Symposium,
May 23-24, 1966. tively low power requirements only. An urgent

VI-174

need exists for a power unit in the intermediate f. Floating Production Station A floating pro-
range between the trickle chargers and the large duction station moored over a submerged platform
stationary units on land. or subsea wellhead could be used instead of a fixed
platform.
e. Acoustics Remote control and monitoring by
a physical link to the surface have been described. 4. Underwater Drilling and Storage
However, there are obvious advantages of having
no hard wire link, relying instead on a coded Some petroleum operators foresee a time
underwater acoustic link to command the subsea when drilling and collecting oil in water depths to
system to activate a particular valve mechanism. 3,000 feet or more will be common. Indeed,
An acoustic interrogator could be used to monitor recent reports suggest the possibility of petroleum
valve position, read pressure, and obtain other deposits on the continental margin in waters as
desired data. One acoustically controlled, isotope- deep as 15,000 feet. Not everyone in the industry
powered wellhead was installed recently in the agrees on the direction in which the required
Gulf of Mexico. technology will proceed. The large power require-.
Acoustic links also may find an important role ments of the drilling rigs (several thousand horse-
during the drilling operation itself in conjunction power) and the advances made in mobile rigs make
with blowout preventers used to control the the economics of underwater drilling controversial.
tremendous pressures in deep formations encoun- Some feel that total underwater drilling will not be
tered during drilling. Figure 44 shows an under- economically justified except for large, highly
water blowout preventer. I . productive fields.
Acoustics also have been used with bottom- The French have developed a subsurface coring
mounted transponders in water depths to 5,000 rig, remotely operated from a tender ship, which
feet to enable a drilling ship to pinpoint the possibly could be extended to deep coring. A
precise loc 'ation of a subsea wellhead when submarine drilling rig design of the late 1950's
returning to it for hole re-entry. proposed an automatic drilling rig mounted in a
submarine which would carry the necessary
drilling mud, drill pipe, casing, and supplies to drill
ful1scale wells. Aside from the formidable prob-
lems of generating power for such a rig, the overall
economics were so unfavorable that it was never
seriously considered. It is possible that future
coring r
igs could be controlled acoustically; how-
R
ever, it is more likely that some type of hydraulic-
me anical control wi I e emp oyed similar to
that used by the French rig.
Nevertheless, various ambitious conceptual de-
signs are being examined. At least one oil company
is studying the feasibility of housing both the
drilling equipment and crews in structures on the
ocean floor One concept envisions an entire
undersea community. The habitat, as described at
a recent offshore oil conference, would enable 50
men to live and work in depths to 1,000 feet for
extended periods.
The problem of oil storage arises when the
pipeline investment becomes too high. One solu-
to store the oil on or near the production
tion is
platform
and transport it to shore in barges later.
Figure 44. Underwater blowout preventer. In very shallow and well protected waters, barges
(Shell Oil photo) often provide both storage and transportation.

VI-175

Various portable tanks, similar to the submersible storms, fortunately the industry has not experi-
barge type of mobile rigs, have served as tem- enced a maximum intensity hurricane moving
porary oil reservoirs in depths to about 40 feet. If through a highly developed offshore area. Such a
production increases or new discoveries justify a storm will involve a combination of extremely
pipeline, these storage units then can be moved to high winds and low barometric pressure with slow
another location. In the relatively calm waters of storm progress causing tremendous wave forces
the Persian Gulf, a large tanker hulk was used to which will persist for several. hours, as with
store as much as 250,000 barrels of crude, and a Hurricane Carla. One can only speculate about the
360,000-barrel tanker was used to store oil off extent of damages such a storm could cause.
Nigeria. Transport tankers moved the oil from Problems involving environmental prediction
these storage tankers to the market. and modification, therefore, continue to be the
Subterranean nuclear blasts below the ocean prime category in which Federal Government
floor some day could carve out huge cavities to efforts could have a major benefit to industry.
store petroleum as it is extracted from the earth. Progress in hurricane research has been disap-
This might be far cheaper than storage methods pointingly slow; better predictions of path and
now in use. Under one plan, the explosive for a energy dissipation would be of great value. A
million-barrel cavity would be lowered through a reasonable goal would be to attain considerably
small diameter drilled hole 1,400 feet below the improved hurricane understanding within the next
ocean floor and detonated from the surface. The five years and limited hurricane modification
blast would create a cavity approximately 200 feet within 10 years. Improved accuracy of weather
wide and 600 feet high; all nuclear contaminants information, wave data and predictions, and ocean
would be sealed far underground, preventing their current measurements would be extremely useful.
escape into the atmosphere. Measuring wave heights during an actual hurricane
Summarizing, various oil companies anticipate is a promising subject for investigation. There is a
that many installations in deep or hazardous areas critical need for this data. It is extremely expen-
by 1980 will be on the bottom of the sea, not on sive to install wave measuring equipment at fixed
the surface. Drilling most likely will continue from locations and then to wait possibly for years for
the surface, but oil well operations and some the arrival of a large. hurricane at the particular
temporary facilities will be on the bottom. site. Seeking out a hurricane and taking wave
measurements from an airplane, for example,
would yield much more information on platform
storm damage criteria than years of monitoring
G. Government Role waves from a fixed platform.
1. Legal-Political Environment
3. Information and Technology Transfer
The Government should maintain a proper legal
and political environment to, assure the con- a.. From Industry The. petroleum industry has
tinuance of the necessary incentives as industry developed independently a technology for working
moves into the more speculative offshore areas. at sea. Many companies engage in cost-sharing
These incentives will encourage continuing devel- programs under unique arrangements encompass-
opment of the required exploitation technology. ing research and basic engineering on environ-
mental prediction, platform design, underwater,
2. Environmental and Hurri Icane Predictions completion, materials studies, welding techniques,
and other subjects. Cooperative work is being
Hurricane Betsy in 1965 churned a path performed among elements of the industry, uni-
through investments by the oil and gas industry versities, and Government. Much engineering
valued at $2 billion, causing damage exceeding knowhow evolved by the industry could be of
$100. million. In the. preceding year Hurricane 'great value to the Government. In addition, many
Hilda raged through an area involving $350 million companies continue to encourage the Government
in capital, causing over $100 million in damages. to make use of their platforms for immediate and
While Hurricanes Betsy and Hilda were large historical measurements.

VI-176

b. From Government While most Federal efforts locating a well site. The release of the Navy
in ocean technology were not intended to provide TRANSIT System is an excellent first step.
benefits to any particular industry, there have
been developments of particular value to the 6. Traffic Control
offshore oil industry. As the Nation accelerates its Development of marine traffic control methods
ocean programs and as the industry continues to
move -into deeper water, increased technological for congested waters should be accelerated. Better
knowhow will augment greatly oil company ef-@ delineation of shipping lanes would be an excellent
forts. Such Government efforts should hasten the first step.
day when the petroleum industry will engage
technically and economically in total or partial 7. Surveys
subsea operations. For example, the Government The petroleum industry makes a very strong
should encourage development of basic scientific distinction between broad regional and detailed
and engineering data and knowledge beyond the exploratory surveys. Detailed exploratory surveys
economic scope of an individual industry but should be left to private enterprise. In general, the
justified by multi-industry and Government needs. traditional guidelines established by the U.S. Geo-
Examples include meteorology, oceanograp S, logical Survey (USGS) on land are believed to
power sources, materials, and life support syste . represent an appropriate separation of,the proper
Each industry would further develop and app Government and industry responsibility in the sea.
the technology peculiar to its own business. Thus, it is felt that the USGS should step up its
reconnaissance mapping program of our Conti-
4. Technology Requirements for Major Oil Spills nental Shelf. The modest USGS program of
subbottorn mapping is also of value to the industry
The petroleum industry is concerned with and should be continued.
preventing and combating disasters such as the Environmental Science Services Administra-
Torrey Canyon grounding, and it has supported tion's (ESSA) bathymetric: charting Of our Conti-
coordinated efforts with the Government to solve nental Shelf also should Ibe continued, -with com-
such problems. In fact, the industry provided pletion of most of the shelf within two years. In
considerable information on the subject to the addition, ESSA should start now to make plans for
joint pollution study conducted for the President extending bathymetric chart coverage of the conti-
by the Departments of the Interior and Transpor- nental slope and rise.
tation.
Improved methods must be developed. to mini- H. Conclusions
mize.-the probability of major oil spills. to opti-
mize countermeasures, and to develop technolog- Free World production from offshore fields is
ical means to identify the parties responsible for about five million barrels of oil, per day, about 16
pollution. Joint efforts of the industry and the per cent of total land and offshore production. By
Federal and State governments must be acceler- 1980 this should climb to 20 million barrels per
ated. International restrictions against pumping day, about one third of the projected total Free
bilges and slush tanks into waters anywhere-in World production. The Far East and Africa are the
harbors or at sea-must be established and en- most rapid growth areas. The Middle East holds
forced. most of the Free World's offshore oil reserves and
provides about one-fourth of current offshore
5. Navigation and Positionig Systems production.
Offshore oil was first produced in 1894 in,
Many do not consider this subject to have the California; petroleum operations in the Gulf of
high priority of environmental forecasting. Never- Mexico began in 1936, and the first subsea well
theless, more emphasis must be placed on position- was completed in Lake Erie in 1959@ I' Today
ing accuracy 'and repeatability in the order of 50 production has been established more than 70
feet as far as 200 miles from shore. Such accura- miles from shore and in depths of 340 feet, and
cies are required when delineating boundaries and more than 50 subsea wells have been completed.

VI-177

333-091 0-69-16

Production pipelines have been laid successfully in Most remote control and monitoring tests have
340 feet of water. employed a physical link to the surface; however,
Drilling capability in the last 10 years has there are obvious advantages to having no physical
progressed from water depths of about 100 feet to link. An acoustic link has been used to command a
more than 600 feet. Leases have been granted by subsea system to supply electric current to operate
the Department of the Interior for petroleum ex- a particular valve, to monitor the position of a
ploration and production more than 100 miles off valve, and to obtain various data such as pressure.
U'.S. shores and in waters to 1,800 feet deep. About Acoustic links also are beginning to find an
100 core holes already have been drilled beyond important role during the drilling operation when
the U.S. Continental Shelves, some in waters nearly used in conjunction with blowout preventers.
5,000 feet deep. It is expected that in 1969 Acoustic bottom mounted transponders are being
production will be established in waters as deep as evaluated to enable a drilling ship to return to the
400 feet, and exploratory wells will be drilled in precise location of a subsea well head and as an aid
the Santa Barbara Channel in water depths ranging to re-enter a hole on the sea floor.
to 1,300 feet. The fact that the industry is buying leases in
The fact that leases already have been sold in ever deeper waters implies that the bidders expect
water exceeding 1,800 feet does not necessarily it will be economically and technically feasible to
mean that the industry now is prepared to buy produce in deep water. However, each field is
leases this deep in other world areas. Many different in water depth, reserves, size and nature
favorable factors pertaining to the Santa Barbara of the reservoir, closeness to shore, value of the
Channel more than compensated for the depths: product, production rate, and many other perti-
the prospective fields are close to land; the nent factors.
oceanographic and meteorological conditions are For collection, storage, or transportation a few
less severe than in such other locations as the Gulf miles offshore a simple short pipeline system
of Mexico; oil is in short supply in that area; and generally will suffice; in a distant sea, storage may
there are no allowable restrictions. have to be provided for intermittent delivery to
Underwater operation offers the following shuttling tankers. In either case, some subsea
potential advantages: completion, production, and storage features may
enhance the system's economic capability. In any
particular area it is likely that several different
-Extension of production capabilities to greater techniques will be employed.
depths than those for which fixed platforms are , Future economical production in deep water
economic Ial. will depend on the most favorable choice of
-Minimization of damage to platforms because of surface, completely underwater, or some hybrid
hurricanes, severe storms, and shifting founda- technology. The industry will continue to engage
tions. in prototype undersea operations in order to make
the best estimates of cost and benefit trade-offs
-Elimination of navigation hazards. and to take maximum advantage of deep water
-More flexibility in operating under ice. reserves.
In summary, various oil companies believe that
by 1980 an increasing number of installations will
Many studies and successful tests already,have be on the bottom of the sea, not on the surface. In
been made to service underwater wells with these areas drilling will continue to be conducted
remote controlled televiewing robots, with essentially from the surface, but oil well opera-
through-the-flowline maintenance and treatment tions and some temporary storage facilities will be
tools, with hydraulically cont 'rolled surface lines, on the bottom.
and with remote acoustically controlled valving
systems operating from conventional and isotope
Recommendations:
energy sources. The technology of remotely oper-
ated tools in itself has required ingenuity to insure The Government should maintain a proper legal
reliability. and political environment to support industry as it

VI-178

moves into the more speculative offshore areas. Detailed exploratory surveys should be left to
These incentives will encourage continued develop- private enterprise.
ment by industry of much of the required exploi- The ESSA bathymetric charting of our Conti-
tation technology, provided that the incentives are nental Shelf also should continue, adhering to its
advanced sufficiently ahead.of the need for the schedule of completing, most of the shelf within
technology. It must be clearly understood that a two years. In addition, ESSA should start now to
lag of five to 10 years exists from the ti 'me a large make plans for extending bathymetric chart cover-
field is discovered until volume production is age to the continental slope and rise.
achieved.
A mechanism should be established to ensure
optimum information'exchange between Govern- IV. OCEAN MINING
ment and the petroleum industry. This industry A. Introduction
has successfully developed a major technology on
its own for working at sea. Considerable engineer- 1. Interest in Ocean Minerals
ing experience accumulated within the industry
could be of great value to the Government. In The following are the primary reasons for the
addition, many oil companies continue to encour- development of a domestic ocean mining industry.
:age the Government to make use of their plat-
forms for realtime and historical measurements. a. Act of Congress Strong national impetus
The Federal Government'should take full advan- toward development of an ocean mining industry
tage of these opportunities. on the U.S. Continental Shelf is provided by t 'wo
The Government should seek a considerably objectives stated in the Marine Resources and
improved understanding of hurricanes within 5 Engineering Pevelopment Act of 1966: 14
years and capability for limited hurricane modifi-
cation within 10 years. The accelerated development of the resources of
Problems involving physical environmental pre- the marine environment.
diction and modification continue to be the prime The encouragement of private investment enter-
technological area in which Federal Government prise in exploration, technological development,
efforts could have a major impact on the industry. marine commerce,. and economic utilization of the
Progress in hurricane research has been disappoint- resources of the marine environment.
ingly slow. Two hurricanes in successive years,
1964-1965, caused over $200 million in damage to b. Income to Nation 'The Presidential Proclama-
the industry. Efforts to improve accuracy of tion of Se .pt. 28, 1945, and more recently the
weather information, wave data predictions, and 1958 Geneva International Conference on the Law
ocean current measurements would have a signifi- of the Sea, effectively added, with respect to
cant impact on offshore economics. natural resources, about 810,000 square miles to
Improved methods must be developed to mini- the area of the United States or approximately 25,
mize the probability of major oil spills, to opti- per cent of total U.S. dry-@and area. The Nation
mize countermeasures, and to develop technolog- should gain knowledge of the potential resources
ical means of identifying responsible polluters. of this tremendous area and should expect in-,
Contingency plans should be established to permit come from leases and royalties on the exploita-
immediate action to contain and clean up major tion of its wealth. Ultimately, the stimulation of a
on spins. new industry will result in expenditures for sala-
More emphasis must be placed on achieving ries, capital, and taxes, contributing greatly to the
positioning accuracy in the order of 50 feet at Nation's economy. This income.should exceed
distances as great as 200 miles from shore. many times any expenditure for Government
services to support this exploitation.
The U.S. Geological Survey should accelerate
reconnaissance mapping of our Shelf. The modest
USGS program of sub-bottom mapping is also of
value to the industry and should be continued. 14PUblic Law 89-454, Section 2(b).

VI-179

C. Potential Shortage of Metals It is to the developed-at least for the continental shelves.
Nation's interest to promote and encourage ocean However, unless a deposit large and rich enough to
exploitation not only to support population in offset the higher cost of underwater operations is
creases but to supplement dwindling land re- found, ocean mining development will continue to
sources. It has been predicted that total demand move rather slowly.
for metals between 1965 and the year 2000 will The mining industry on, the U.S. Continental
amount to more than the total metals consumed Shelf consists of little more than dredging non-
by all nations cumulatively until the present time. metallic deposits and sulfur extraction. The latter
Therefore, technology will have to be developed to is mined through a drill hole and is related to
obtain minerals from such new locations as the petroleum in its exploration and recovery tech-
ocean. Thus, companies mining sulfur and tin niques and problems. There are, however, success-
already are forced to look more to the sea. ful ocean mining operations in other parts of the
world where the legal and economic climate is
d. Dependence on Foreign Sources It is advisable more favorable and where the existence of sizable
for the United States to have alternate sources of deposits has been established.
supply so that in an emergency it will not be There is or has been exploration for gold off
overly dependent on foreign sources for critical Alaska (depth of 200 feet), phosphorite off North
metals. Carolina and California (to 600 feet), and manga-
nese and phosporite nodules and crusts on the
e. Industry Growth Mining companies are inter- Blake Plateau (depth of 2,400 to 3,600 feet) and
ested in the sea for various reasons. They must, at even greater depths, especially in the Pacific.
keep abreast of the technology of offshore extrac-
tion if for no ' other reason than to have a good 3. Types of Mineral Deposits
working knowledge of the competitive position of Ocean minerals can be divided broadly into two
those marine minerals that eventually might en- categories encompassing those minerals found on
hance or jeopardize their business. In addition, the bottom and those that might be found in the
they must be able to make rational decisions in sub-bottom (within bedrock), as shown in Figure
choosing between ocean and land resources for 45. Within one or the other category is a diversi-
investment in new production facilities. fied group of minerals such as copper, iron, gold,
manganese nodules, oyster shells, etc.
2. Present Activity Each involves variations in the exploration and
Not counting coal and iron presently mined recovery types of equipment required. Hence, the
from on-shore openings, about $200 million of industry's needs will be of a heterogeneous nature.
-wide directly Sea water column mining is discussed in Subsec-
mineral products is mined world
from the ocean floor annually. This includes sand, tion V, "Chemical Extraction".
gravel, oyster shell, sulfur, and tin and iron ores The principal operations involved in ocean
but does not includ6 minerals. extracted from the mineral exploitation follow: (1) exploration and
water column. If one excludes sand, gravel, oyster evaluation, (2) recovery, and (3) transportation
shells, and sulfur, the remaining ocean mining is and processing. These will be discussed below.
only about $50 million per year for tin and iron However, prior to this a brief description is given
15 of some of the basic technological differences
sands, heavy minerals, and diamonds.
. For the most part, the present market repre between hard mineral mining and the recovery of
sents unique local deposits that serve local mar_ oil and gas.
kets. The notable exceptions are tin and sulfur. It
is believed that once a substantially rich deposit is B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and Gas
found, technology to exploit it will be readily The geology controlling the Ioccurrence of oil
and gas commonly extends predictably offshore,
and the technology and techniques used to find
15 Barnes,- S., "Mining Marine Minerals," Machine De- and recover oil offshore have, for the most part,
sign, April 25, 1968, p. 26. been very. similar to those on land. Exploration

VI-1 80

Ocean Minerals

Sub-Bottom Bottom
(loosely consolidated)

Deep Ocean
F (basaltic rock Chemical
Continental Shelf which may con- precipitates
tain chromite, (manganese,
platinum, etc.) phosphorite
Biological nodules and
Sedimentary Igneous and crusts)
(oil, gas, metamorphic
sulfur, rocks contain@ Deep ocean
coal, ing v.ein and sediments
it-iron) massive deposits Detrital (red clay,
of non-ferrous (sand, oozes, etc.)
and precious gravel,
metals placers)

Figure 45. Categories of ocean minerals.

costs are high because the target (deposit) is a mineral discovery is made offshore the drill hole
concealed, but the industry has had long experi- cannot be utilized as a producing unit. At that
ence on land in searching for concealed targets. point, the explorer must decide whether to risk
Once an oil or gas target is discovered, the investing a large amount -of capital to delineate the
discovery hole can be converted into a producing deposit to determine its potential profitability.
well more readily than for hard minerals. More- The transition from discovery drill holes to an
over, because of highly developed geophysical and operating hard rock mine will require either
geological techniques used in locating oil and gas development of a very large open pit or the
reservoirs, the ratio of target discovery holes to penetration of the ore body by a vast underground
total exploration holes is high-on the order of one network of tunnels and excavations.
in five in the Gulf of Mexico (one in 13 country- Oil and mineral targets differ in relative size. Oil
wide, onshore and offshore). targets rnay be tens of miles across, while some
On the other hand, the hard mineral explorer is great metal deposits are tiny by comparison. For
faced with an entirely different set of problems example, one of the largest copper deposits in the
than the oil explorer. Most rich ore deposits that world is only about one square mile in horizontal
have sustained our Nation to the present time were area. This compares with an average of more than
exposed at the surface and discovered by surface three square miles for the more than 200 ofl
prospecting. Only in the last 15 to 20 years has the reservoirs that have been developed in offshore
mining industry seriously attempted to find de- Louisiana. Thus, the ability to discover deposits in
posits not indicated by surface characteristics. certain formations and structures appears to be
Techniques to discover concealed subsurface greater for oil than for hard minerals.
mineral deposits on land are less developed than Whereas a single test hole can indicate the oil
those for oil and gas. Offshore, virtually a whole and gas potential of a formation over a compara-
new technology to discover sub-bottom lode and tively large area, hard mineral exploration requires
bedded deposits will have to be devised. Further, if extensive close-spaced drilling to determine poten-

V1- 181

tial. In addition, such indirect measurements as bottom profiles, much more highly developed
pressure and electric logging may be very helpful devices and techniques will be needed.
in evaluating fluid (oil and gas) potential, but
direct measurements of recovered samples are 3. Geophysical
required in most cases to evaluate the amount and Geophysical survey methods used on land have
quality of mineral deposits.
Placer deposits and nodule deposits are easier to proved readily adaptable to the marine environ-
explore for than concealed sub-bottom bedrock ment-
deposits but still pose considerable difficulties. Magnetic anomalies discovered in marine sur-
Placer deposits may not extend across the shore veys can indicate the major rock types, faults, and
line, and in many cases, the beach separates other structural features below the ocean floor.
environments containing different kinds of mineral They also indicate the occurrence of magnetic
occurrences. ores. Marine magnetometers allow accurate meas-
A great many samples must be taken to define a urements while under way.
placer deposit. As with gold and diamonds, the The gravity survey also is useful in locating
best material is often in cracks and depressions in anomalies. Marine gravimeters have been devel-
the bedrock and is difficult or impossible to reach. oped recently for shipborne surveys and for use
Placer. or nodule mining in deep water requires near the sea floor. While the accuracy of a ship
relatively . expensive equipment, and operating mounted unit is an order of magnitude lower than
costs also are high, especially where sea state that of analogous sea floor equipment, more data
conditions are frequently unfavorable. can be provided in less time. Gravity data is useful
The ratio of ore discoveries to targets explored in broad reconnaissance studies for interpreting
may be as low as one in 1,000 onshore and may large subbottom structures. However, such data is
be even lower offshore. Exploration of the shelf best used together with the results of other
for hard mineral deposits will be very speculative geophysical data.
for the foreseeable future, and mineral explorers Seismic surveys indicate structure, stratifica-
will require strong incentives to apply their energy tion, and sediment thicknesses. In addition, sub-
and skill in an activity where good fortune will merged beaches, which may contain placer concen-
also be required. trations, may be indicated. Present sub-bottom
profiling techniques, however, cannot evaluate
C. Exploration and Evaluation mineral deposits. Sophisticated methods may be
able to provide much higher resolution informa-
L Types tion including acoustic velocities, densities, and
acoustic impedances, thereby helping to identify a
Mineral exploration in the ocean requires a particular material.
sequence of activities, many similar to those on Recently, electrical methods, such as measuring
land. These include bathymetric, geophysical, and resistivity characteristics of rocks, radiometric
geological surveys, followed by sample analysis. techniques, and heat flow methods h .ave been
suggested as additional tools for detecting anom-
2. Bathymetric alies.
Modern echo-sounders can, when used with For more efficient exploration, mathematical
shipboard recorders and underwater devices, deter- search models have been used in laying out grids
mine details of bottom relief to within one fathom for geophysical surveys, sampling, drilling, and
in deep water and even more precisely in shallow other exploration work." Efforts also have been
water. Bottom contours, representing such fea- made to apply computer techniques and mathema-
tures as submerged river channels (frequently a tical models to the probability of finding minerals
favorable location for placers), can be detected.
Interpretation of echogram characteristics also
helps to identify the type of sea bottom; i.e., rock,
United Nations Economic and Social Council, "Re-
sand, or mud. Although side-looking sonar repre- sources of the Sea, Part One: Mineral Resources of the
sents a start towards'more effective scanning of Sea Beyond the Continental Shelf," Feb. 19, 1968, p. 44.'

VI-182

in certain areas. Such approaches are as applicable Petroleum core drilling systems with steel bits
underwater as ashore. penetrate softer rock to 20,000 feet. Small dia-
meter diamond core drills have penetrated harder
4. Geological rock to about 14,000 feet, although most conven-
tional rigs are equipped to penetrate 4,000 or
Confirmation of the actual minerals present can 4,500 feet.
be accomplished only by sampling and subsequent
analysis. Methods of direct observation on-site are 5. Shipboard Integrated Survey Systems
limited in usefulness to such items as outcrops,
type of bottom (sand, mud, etc.), and nodules. Shipboard integrated geophysical systems have
Methods of direct observation include those by become available recently, including automatic
divers and observers in deep submersible vehicles. sensing and recording devices. These measure
Deep towed vehicles provide indirect continuous simultaneously many parameters from magnetom-
monitoring by television and by still and motion eter, gravimeter, echo sounder and seismic readings
picture photography. Observation supplemented with reference to a synchronous clock, navigation
by bottom sampling is the most likely method of fixes, and ship's course and speed. The data can be
evaluating occurrences of manganese nodules on produced in both analog and digital form, includ-
the sea floor by estimating area coverage, nodule ing recordings on magnetic tape, for computer
size, and shape. processing often while still underway.
Because of the overriding importance of coring,
major emphasis should be given to techniques for 6. Required Supporting Technology
taking more samples and deeper cores. Coring Aside from ships currently Used for mineral
provides samples for chemical and mineralogical survey work, the role of submersibles is beginning
analysis. to be appreciated. Newer versions will have
Much sampling today employs conventional greater depth and cruising range capabilities, per-
tools originally developed for oceanographic re- mitting them to survey and sample. As an ex-
search. Excluding core drilling systems, many ample, the Alvin has been used to recover sea floor
bottom sampling devices cannot probe deeper than specimens and perform geological studies in the
about 20 feet, although cores of up to 90 feet have West Indies and near Woods Hole.
been taken in very soft sediments. More recently, a An accurate navigation fix is critical in undersea
vibratory corer has been developed that can take.a prospecting, and as the search becomes more
100-foot core six inches in diameter. This has detailed, less error in positioning can be tolerated.
proven very useful in evaluating mineral concentra- The tolerable error also depends on the distribu-
tions on the shelf, tion of the mineral deposits. When distribution is
Commonly used sampling devices are: broad and uniform, positioning requirements for
exploitation are reduced, and at least initial
-Free fall grab sampler-useful for deep nodules- exploitation will be little concerned with precise
-Wireline dredge samplers-used since the Chal_ positioning. If distribution is patchy and concen-
lenger days; the disadvantage of dredging proce- trations are localized, precision positioning is
essential both for evaluating deposits and for
dures is the lack of knowledge concerning the exploiting them efficiently.
exact location of the sample.

-Free fall corers-cannot penetrate rock or gravel;
remote controlled rotary corers powered and D. Recovery
controlled from a mother ship, will enable obtain- 1. Dredging
ing short cores from rock.
-Jet lift corer-using water or air pumped down a Onshore placers and other various unconsoli-
pipe. dated deposits have been exploited commercially
for many years throughout the world. Underwater
-Vibratory corer-newest type developed. mining recovery can presently be accomplished for

VI-183

a number of ore deposits at depths of as much as
150 feet. Current recovery techniques include the
clarrishell dredge, the bucket-ladder dredge, and
dredges employing air-lift or suction hydraulic
systems.

a. Clamshell Dredge Clamshell or wireline
dredges use large grab buckets, clamshells, and
other digging and lifting tools lowered to the sea
floor on flexible steel cables. They have the
advantage of being adaptable to work in water
depths to 350 feet. Having flexible cables, they
also can be used in areas of high currents or wave Figure 46. Front view of bucket-ladder dredge
motions. The main disadvantages of this method Yuba No. 21 (C. M. Romanowitz photo)
are the cost of operations in deep water because of
the cycle time (which increases directly with water
depth) and uncertainty in continuity of successful
withdrawals. Clanishell dredgeshave been used in
Thailand to recover tin ore from depths of 90 to
130 feet.

b. Bucket-Ladder Dredge The bucket-ladder
dredge employs an endless chain of steel buckets
to dig into the bottom. The dredged material is
drawn continuously up the ladder and dumped.
The material is then fed to various screening and
concentrating devices. Bucket-ladder dredges have Figure 47. Rear view of bucket-ladder dredge
Rasep, shown mining to a depth of 100 feet
good digging capability, making them especially off island of Singkep, off Sumatra. (C M.
useful for placer mining, but are limited to water Romanowitz photo)
depths of about 150 feet. Because of the rigid
dredging ladder, this method is confined to pro-
tected waters or fair-weather operations. Several c. Hydraulic Dredge The hydraulic dredge uses
bucket-ladder dredges mined tin deposits in 1967 either air-lift or suction techniques. Using air-lift,
off Indonesia in 60 to 100 feet of water. air is injected into the bottom of a pipe which is
Bucket-ladder dredges were first used in the submerged more than half of its length in water. A
United States in the late 19th century. They have density differential is produced in the pipe, forcing
seen major service in inland waters. By digging the the column of air-water mixture to flow upward in
mineral deposit at the bow and depositing all the pipe. This flow creates a powerful suction at
barren materials (waste) at the stern, the dredge the bottom of the pipe, bringing up silt, sand, and
automatically advances to new reserves. gravel suspended in a large volume of water. The
Figure 46 shows a front view of the bucket- mechanism consists of two pipes which may be
ladder dredge, Yuba.No. 21. Still in operation on constructed on the site with limited shop facilities
the Yuba River, Cilifornia, mining placer gold, it is and which require only compressed air to operate.
one of the last gold mining dredges in operation in However, air-lifts are extremely inefficient when
the United States. With a mining depth capacity of operated without the assistance of water jets and
107 feet and 18 cubic foot capacity buckets, it has other devices. The depth at which airlifts can be
an excellent record of efficiency. used efficiently is a function of the cost of
Figure 47 is a rear view of the 14 cubic foot supplying compressed air at the depth of dredging.
bucket-ladder dredge, Rasep, shown mining to a With the suction dredge, a movable suction pipe
depth of 100 feet on the island of Singkep, off with a support ladder and a discharge line are
Sumatra. mounted on a floating hull. When digging in

VI-184

semi-consolidated sediments or soft to medium relative to the bottom mining area. The ore could
hard rocks, a cutter head (normally of the rotating be dredged and piped to the surface for loading
hollow bit type) usually is employed. The head is into ore barges for transportation to shore facili-
mounted on the lower end of the suction pipe to ties. The ore might be concentrated at sea to lessen
break up the ground and direct the flow of solids the amount of material that must be transported.
into the suction pipe. A similar system designed in Canada recom-
The suction dredge method is best suited for mends a light-weight medium (such as kerosene
recovery of large quantities of unconsolidated instead of airlift or suction) to actuate a very high
material. For example, this technique is used for velocity upward flow through the conduit, lifting
channel maintenance as well as mineral recovery. the heavy nodules faster than they can sink
Its Water depth- capability is up to 200 feet. through the stream.
Dredges using a rigid ladder are limited to pro- One of the more sophisticated ocean mining
tected waters or fair weather operation. approaches is a self-propelled bottom mobile
Recent improvements in size and capacity of mining system in which a suction dredge is
hydraulic suction dredges for engineering construc- mounted on a bottom mobile crawler or wheeled
tion work have caused renewed interest in their vehicle. The power required for mobility, naviga-
application for offshore mining. Preliminary de- tion, and dredging is supplied by cable. from the
signs have been made.to recover sea floor nodule mining control vessel at the surface. The product
deposits at depths greater than 4,000 feet by this must be lifted to the surface by supplementary
method. At such depths it probably will be equipment.
necessary to establish additional submerged pump- Deep ocean mining will require development
ing capacity. Hydraulic dredging will almost cer- and evaluation of many new types of equipment
tainly be applied in deep sea mining. heavily dependent on marine technology advances.
Examples include: (1) submarine crawlers and
2. Deep Ocean Mining bottom hovering vehicles to explore for and
recover deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally buoy-
The mining of deep.sea manganese nodules has ant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean floor,
attracted serious evaluation and interest. It has (4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity, low cost
been asserted that nodules constitute a renewable vertical transport systems, and (6) high capacity
resource, their estimated renewal rate exceeding equipment for horizontal transfer.
the present world rate of consumption for the Typical basic engineering needs of deep ocean
elements contained in them (chiefly copper, mining: (1) sufficient power to lift thousands of
nickel, cobalt, and manganese). tons of minerals from great depths, (@) ultra-high
However, this may not be of practical signifl- strength, corrosion-resistant hoist 'ing cables, (3)
cance because in the limited areas economic to long, flexible pipes for deep water 'that can
mine, the rate of renewal is not adequate to withstand the anticipated bending and shearing
sustain continuous mining. Technology for the stresses, and (4) the ability to provide three-phase
:economic exploitation of deep sea, nodules has not flow through long pipes. . Further, very high as-
yet been demonstrated. The problem is not only cending water velocities probably will be required
that of economic recovery but also of economi- to lift even small manganese nodules, requiring
cally separating the elements from the raw nod- larger manganese nodules to be broken into small
ules. pieces on the sea floor or retrieved differently.
Various design studies have been made on Other difficulties may be encountered where a
nodule recovery. One such method conceives of an solid crust of manganese or phosphorite covers the
air lift or suction dredge mounted on a wheeled sea floor.
vehicle or sled towed along the ocean floor by a
flexible pipeline secured to a surface vessel. T 'he 3. Sub-Bottom Mining
direction and speed of the mining device would be
controlled by the heading and speed of the surface Except for sulfur. (Frasch process) and coal and
ship. An underwater acoustic transponder system iron (tunnels from land) the task of extracting ores
would monitor the position of the mining device from, rocks beneath the continental shelf is an

VI-185

order of magnitude more difficult than dredging processing or enrichment of the ore generally will
.shelf depth, on-bottom deposits. Yet this type of not be necessary if storage facilities are adequate,
miningjustifies continuing attention. although desirable if transportation costs are high.
Present sub-bottom coal and iron mining opera- Transportation from the sea surface to land can be
tions extending out from land under the bottom by surface vessel or barge, by pumping slurry, or
involve only incidental marine problems, seepage liquid through a pipeline, or by conveyor belt.
the main concern. As mining progresses, the Floating or underwater storage tanks are possible,
horizontal distance from the surface entrance and transfer to transport ships or tankers can be
increases, accompanied by corresponding cost in- accomplished in the same manner as tankers are
creases. When the economic limit of such mining is loaded or discharged today.
reached or as deposits far from shore are dis- Mining operations conducted completely inde-
covered, mining through a sea floor entrance must pendent of land (as in the deep sea or remote
be considered. shallow banks) will result in entirely different
Although openings in the sea floor have been processing and transportation problems. Ore will
made for tunnels and dam foundation caissons, be loaded directly into barges, tankers, or ore
water depths at the sites rarely exceed 150 feet. transports. Immediate initial beneficiation or pro-
Opening the sea floor for a permanent shaft cessing may be necessary at sea to reduce weight
serviced from 'a surface platform or a submerged or bulk although this may require large processing
base presents formidable engineering problems and equipment on the dredging ship. If all operations
costs,- especially at depths beyond practical diving are conducted from a single vessel, this will further
limitations. Utimately such objectives may be reduce the amount of ore collected on each trip. If
accomplished with sea floor entrance and undersea multiple vessel operations are anticipated, one
transfer capabilities, much of which may result collecting and processing vessel could operate
from technology developments funded under mili- continuously while transport vessels shuttle to
tary programs. port.
The techniques to recover offshore sulfur are
similar to those for offshore oil production, 2. Attractiveness of Transportation at Sea
making use of fixed above-surface platforms in
shallow water. The platform supports drilling.rigs, The relative economy of transporting bulk
power plants, shops, warehouse, heliport and living materials at sea is an attractive economic charac-
quarters. The power plant heats the sea water used teristic of working at sea. High density cargoes can
to melt the sulfur, supplies the compressed air to be transported in bulk carriers, in large quantities,
lift the sulfur to the surface and provides the and at low unit costs. Thus, a high-grade deposit in
electric power to operate the rigs and other a remote location on land could be unprofitable
equipment. because of the costs required to construct roads
Wells are drilled directly from the platform into and community facilities for workmen. By con-
sulfur-bearing formations. Hot water is forced trast, an offshore deposit might be more feasible
through pipes into the formations to melt the economically. These considerations already have
sulfur, which is then lifted to the surface by influenced sand and gravel operations where trans-
compressed air. Molten sulfur must be maintained portation costs are high relative to product value.
at a temperature above 240 degrees Fahrenheit Mobility of recovery platforms at sea is another
during handling operations. attractive feature. Since dredging equipment is
limited to a few basic types, many systems may be
E. Processing and Transportation applicable to other operations. This might provide
an opportunity for flexibility for a company
1. Techniques mining certain minerals in the northern latitudes in
the summertime but forced to disband operations
@Problems of processing and transportation will due to winter weather. The mining ships could
be different for ores recovered from shallow water move to a warmer climate and mine a different
very, near to land compared to ores recovered in material. In addition@ economic fluctuations in the
deeper water remote from land bases. Immediate values of minerals being produced could make

VI-186

mining certain bottom deposits more attractive G. Government Role
than another. The present Government program to encourage
F. Forecast the development of an ocean mining industry
considers the vital need to provide information.for
Figure 48 represents an estimated forecast for sound economic evaluation of ocean mineral de-
economic ocean mining endeavors. To date ocean posits. Because of technical difficulty and high
mining has not attracted significant private capital cost, it is most logical that the Government should
for noteworthy domestic commercial operations. sponsor- the initial broad surveys. When sufficient
There is, however, sufficient international activity data are accumulated to warrant' further action,
to serve as a foundation for future domestic the emphasis should shift to assistance in develop-
commercial ventures. However, before any sizeable ing fundamental technology useful for exploita-
commercial ventures are attempted, much addi- tion. However, major hardware 'commitments
tional exploration of the ocean is required. There should be the responsibility of industry.
is not enough knowledge to motivate even the As far as the Department of the Interior is
boldest managements to commit the large sums concerned, the task of broad-scale location and
required for a deep ocean venture. The assurance delineation of mineral deposits is divided between
of attractive ocean bottom deposits is simply too the Geological Survey and the Bureau, of Mines.
meager for more than exploratory company com- The former is concerned principally with gcneral,
mitments. Stimulus would be added if geological characterization, while ' the. latter is
Government-sponsored bathymetric and geological concerned with techniques for resource evaluation
survey programs provided enough "information to and recovery technology.
enable managements to make confident decisions There has been recent increased emphasis in the
leading to serious ocean prospecting and subse- Bureau of Mines program for marine minerals
quent commitments to mining system hardware. because of immediate needs for new sources of

Figure 48
ESTIMATED OCEAN MINING TECHNOLOGY TIME TABLE'

Depth of Water (feet)

50 300 600 1,000

Underwater Photographic Reconnaissance
(analogous to aerial photographs) 1960 1964 1970 1975'
Submersible @for exploration
coring) . . . . . . . . . . . 1965 1967 1970 1970
Barge Dredge (ladder) . . . . . . . 1900 1970 -
Barge Dredge (suction) . . . . . . . 1930 1970 1980 11985
Stationary Mining Platform . . . . . 1960 1970 1975 i980
Mining Using Air Lift Device . . . . . 1960 1970 1975 1980
Mobile On-Bottom Mining Platform 1970 1972 1975 1980
Buoyant Submersible Platform . . . . - 1975 1980 1985
Solution Mining (Sulfur, Potash) . . . 1960 1980 1985 2000
Hardrock Mining (tunneling from land,
approximate dates) . . . . . . . 1900 1920 1950 1960
Shaft Mining . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1970 1980 2000
Underwater Open Pit Hardrock
Mining . . . . . . . . . . . 1968 1980 1990 2000
'Mining in this table refers to the recovery operation.
Source: Adapted from Pehrson, G. 0., "Mining Industry's Role in Development of Undersea Mining," MTS Transac-
tions, Exploiting the Ocean: 1966, p. 195.

VI-187

what are called heavy metals, represented most Determining the topography and physical charac-
importantly by gold. The program is handicapped ter of the sea floor... Some of the existing
-densit robes, under-
.by the sketchy nature of pertinent information geophysical tools such as y p
derived as a by-product of studies directed towards water cameras, and manned submersibles, will be
other aspects of oceanography. It also is restrained utilized and, with modification, doubtless can be
by the need for more advanced and more reliable made more useful for mineral deposit delineation.
tools and techniques for ocean bottom sampling. But the precision that will be required in making
A most urgent need is for research and develop- these determinations, and the necessary measure-
ment in delineating and evaluating marine mineral ment of additional properties such as particle size,
deposits. Most of the Bureau of Mines' present hardness, and strength make it inevitable that new
effort is concentrated on (1) data collection and tools will have to be developed...
analysis and (2) sampling equipment and methods. Research leading to efficient methods for breaking
in the former, liaison is being established to obtain
from the oceanographic community data on sea-bottom ores.. [However], the urgency of this
problem cannot be determined now. It is probable
known and potentially mineralized areas.
Development of equipment and techniques to that, for some time, attention will be directed
sample sea bottom mineral deposits will proceed principally to unconsolidated sediments....
much faster and more efficiently as a Government- [Mlaterials handling, or the gathering and trans-
industry partnership venture. Here, industry al- porting of minerals from the ocean floor. As with
ready. is a principal participant, and its involve- fragmentation, details of the research that must be
ment can be expected to increase. Figure 49 shows done will become clear as work progresses in the
the RIV Virginia City, a Bureau of Mines research exploration and delineation phases of the pro-
vessel. Once a naval ocean fleet tug, this vessel .has gram....
been completely refitted by the Bureau of Mines
Marine Minerals Technology Center for research Research on the problems of waste disposal. ...
-on marine mineral problems. U] nwise dumping of the tailings, if not carefully
planned, could quickly foul a mining operation.
Furthermore, the compatibility of a marine mining
operation with exploitation of the other resources
of the sea, particularly the food resources, will
depend principally on the effectiveness of the
tailings-disposal system.
2
Y
Ultimately, the bulk of the Bureau's research in
the marine minerals field should be concerned
iw@ with the technology and economics of production.
Now, however, the state-of-the-art and lack of
adequate knowledge of the resources make it
Figure 49. Bureau of Mines research vesse-I necessary that most of the effort be devoted to
R/V Virginia City, shown operating off coast acquiring information that will enable defining the
of Nome, Alaska. (Bureau of Mines photo) mining possibilities.

H. Conclusions
The recent Director of the Bureau of Mines,
W. R. Hibbard, has identified several key,prob- Ocean mining is a heterogeneous industry. It
lems, examples of which are: 17 can be divided broadlyinto minerals found on the
bottom and in the sub-bottom (within bedrock).
Despite intense interest in ocean mining, most
17Hibbard, W. R., "The Government's Program for recent activities have been conceptual and explora-
Encouraging the Development of a Marine Mining Indus- tory. In fact, not only is information on ocean
try," MTS Transactions, Exploiting the Ocean, 1966
202-203. 'pp' floor mineral deposits sparse, but the tools and

VI-188

techniques for sampling in sufficient quantity and Of various design studies 'made on nodule
quality require further development. During the recovery, all require making use of advanced
decade of 1970-1980 there will continue to be undersea technology. The problems of providing
many gaps in the required technology. The great- sufficient power to lift thousands of tons of
est current need is to characterize the geology of minerals from great depths; the need for ultra-
our Continental Shelf as it is critical to planning high-strength, corrosion resistant hoisting cables;
economic exploitation. It is anticipated that most the requirement to design long, flexible pipes or
major technical problems could be solved by the hoses for deep water that can withstand the ocean
recommended decade of aggressive technological current drag and the resulting bending and shear-
development during the 1970's. ing stresses; and the problem of three-phase-flow
Sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredging (local through such long pipes are typical of basic
enterprises oriented to local situations), and sulfur engineering problems.
extraction (related to petroleum in its recovery The task of extracting ores from rocks beneath
techniques and economic problems) essentially the continental shelf is an order of magnitude
comprise the 'mining industry on the U.S. Conti- more difficult than that of dredging shelf depth
nental'Shelf. There are, however, successful sea bottom deposits. Yet this type of mining justifies
mining operations in other parts of the world continuing attention. In contemplating sub-
where the legal, and economic climate is more bottom mining far from land, mining through a sea
favorable and where the existence of minable floor entrance must be considered. Ultimately,
deposits has been established. Nevertheless, there such objectives may be accomplished with sea
is or has been activity involved in exploring for floor entrance and undersea transfer capabilities,
gold off Alaska (depths of almost 200 feet), much of which may result from technology
phosphorite off North Carolina and California developments funded under military programs.
(depths of almost 600 feet), and manganese and The shaft required for mining production is
phosphorite nodules and crusts on the Blake Pla- much larger than a mining core drill hole or a
teau (depths of 2,400 to 3,600 feet) and at even petroleum production hole. Furthermore, to bring
greater depths, especially in the Pacific Ocean. a mine located by coring into production requires
Except for coal and iron, mined from tunnels the cutting of many thousands of feet and even
started on land and extending out under the miles of costly tunnels and underground excava-
tions radiating from the mine shaft. In addition,
seabed, there is essentially no sub-bottom mining the process of bringing up tons per day of solid
of solid minerals. Present mining concentrates on minerals requires very expensive hoisting equip-
bottom deposits that require dredging operations. ment.
Of dredges in current use, a modified air lift In conclusion, deep ocean mining will require
hydraulic dredge presently has the potential to development of many new types of equipment
operate to 1,000-foot depths; conceptual designs heavily dependent on marine technology advances.
have been made of suction dredges capable of Possible examples include: (1) submarine crawlers
recovering nodules at 4,000-foot depths. and bottom hovering vehi cles for exploration and
Mining deep sea manganese nodules has at- recovery of deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally
tracted serious evaluation and interest. However, buoyant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean
mining technology for economic exploitation of floor, (4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity,
deep sea nodules does not exist. The problem is low cost vertical transport systems, and (6).high
not only that of economic recovery but that of capacity equipment for horizontal transfer.
economically separating the elements from raw
nodules.
Small scale sampling of the deep sea floor to Recommendations:
locate mineral deposits and secure samples for Many mining spokesmen have indicated that indus-
specific labor'atory analyses only recently has been try will undertake the costs of detailed surveys and
conducted. Sampling of the deep sea floor still is development of mineral recovery technology. The
so time consuming that a discouragingly small Government's role should be to provide the
number of samples come from a day's work. following:

VI-189

-Proper legal-political-fiscal environment to per- -Provision of topographical and sub-bottom maps
mit the industry to develop on its own much of of our Continental Shelf overprinted with gravi-
the required recovery technology. metric, magnetic, bottom type, and other geo-
-Reconnaissance scale bathymetric, geophysical logical information.
and geological maps. -Provision of topographical maps and characteri-
-Technical services encompassing large-scale facili- zation of the deep ocean basins.
ties, technology transfer, and environmental moni- -Establishment of a mechanism to accumulate
toring and prediction. and disseminate technical data applicable to off-
shore mining problems, including Navy data, avail-
able to industry with as little restriction as
Identification of. basic engineering problems National security permits.
associated with exploration and exploitation and
development of tools and instrumentation re- -Establishment of improved systems for precise
quired for exploration should be undertaken location at the sea surface, mid-depth, and on the
jointly between the private sector and the Federal bottom.
Government in a properly coordinated program.
Specific technology. needs identified for Gov- V. CHEMICAL EXTRACTION
ernment support of the ocean mining industry am
as follows: A. Introduction

1. Elements in the Ocean
-Characterization of the geology of our Conti-
nental Shelf as a guide to further and more specific The total volume of the oceans is estimated to
delineation of mineral deposits in particular areas be 320 million cubic iniles." Although salinity of
by industry. the several seas varies somewhat, the average is
approximately 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts,
-Development of devices for rapid underwater equivalent to 165 million short tons per cubic
exploration for minerals. Examples include equip- mile. The world oceans, therefore, represent a
ment analogous to airborne magnetometer equip- storehouse of about 50 million billion tons of
ment employed for large-scale explorations on dissolved materials.
shore and devices for more rapid deposit sampling. Figure 50 fists a few of the more important
-Information on soil properties of continental dissolved elements. Some 77 elements, including
shelves and deep ocean bottoms in areas in which atmospheric gases, have been detected. It is quite
undersea mining operations may be undertaken or likely that all naturally occurring elements exist in
the ocean. The lack of detection of the trace
facilities constructed. This includes load-bearing components is"due to analytical limitations. As can
capacity, stability, possibility of submarine land- 'be seen from the table, the first eight elements
slides, etc. account for over 99 per ceht.'9 (-Oxygen and
-Provision of large facilities for simulating deep hydrogen elements are not included.)
ocean environments to develop, test, and calibrate
materials, instruments, and other devices. 2. Extent of Present Extraction

-Development of materials for cables having a. Overall Production The chemical industry
exceptional strength-to-weight ratios, high fatigue extracts various chemicals from the sea water
resistance, and the abflity@ to retain strength in column in commercial operations. The processes
seawater.
-Improvements in predicting, monitormig, and 18 Shigley, C. M., "Minerals ftom 'the Sea", Journal of
controlling major storms, earthquake waves, Metals, January 1951, p.,@.
and 19
McIlhermy, W. F., "Chemicals ftorn Sea Water,"
other environmental. hazards to vessels and struc- Proceedings of the Inter-American Conference on Mate-
tures. rials Technology, May 1968, p. 120.

VI-190

Figure 50 The mineral with the largest tonnage and the
PER CENT CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED greatest value is sodium chloride-common salt-
ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER' accounting for about 45 per cent of the total
value. The other four products include, in order of
Element Per cent of Total dollar value: magnesium metal, desalinated water,
Dissolved Elements bromine, and magnesium compounds. No materi-
Chlorine . . . . . . 58.3 als other than salt, water, bromine, magnesium, and
Sodium . . . . . . . 32.2 its compounds are extracted now in commercial
Magnesium . . . . . . 4.1 quantities from sea water. It is also of interest,
Sulfur . . . . . . . 2.7 looking at this table, to n@te the importance of sea
Calcium . . . . . . . 1.23 water as a source of magnesium metal and bro-
Potassium . . . . . . 1.17 mine. About two-thirds of these minerals are
Bromine . . . . . . 0.20 obtained from the ocean.
Carbon . . . . . . . 0.09 . Figure 52 indicates the analogous figures for
All others (about 70 production in the United StateS.2 ' The value of
different elements) Trace annual output of these minerals and desalinated
water is $135 million. Magnesium metal, magne-
Total . . . . . . 100.0 sium compounds, and bromine account for almost
Excludes oxygen and hydrogen. 90 per cent of the value of materials extracted in
the United States from salt water (today salt and
are well developed and economically competitive- desalinated water make up only a small portion of
This oceanic area of interest has probably received the value of products recovered from sea water in
much less attention by the public than is justified. the United States).
As can be seen from Figure 5 1, nearly $400 b. Salt The technique of obtaining common salt
million of chemicals or chemically related materi-
2 by means of solar evaporation is an ancient process
als are recovered from sea water each year. 0 This dating back to 2200 B.C. when it was first
includes desalinated water as well as the four types 22
of minerals listed in the table. recorded in Chinese writings. It was discovered
21 Information supplied by W. F. McIlhenny.
20 Ibid., p. 119. 22 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 3.

Figure 51
WORLD PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THAT CAN BE OBTAINED
FROM SEA WATER'

World Annual
Production (million tons) Per cent from Value from
From Sea Water Sea Water Sources
Chemical Total Sea Water ($ million)
Salt . . . . . . 118.6 34.6 2 29 173
Magnesium Metal . 0.17 0.113 65 75
Desalinated Water 241.0 142.0 59 51
Bromine . I. . . 0.15 0.104 67 45
Magnesium Compounds 11.42 0.692,3,4 6 41

Total . . . . 385

Estimated values for each commodity based on value s reported in 1965 Minerals Yearbook.
2Estimated, figures not available.
31ncludes magnesium from dolomitic lime.
4Includes sea salt-bittern.
Production
Che @tcal

VI-191

Figure 52
U.S. PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THAT CAN BE OBTAINED
FROM SEA WATER'
U.S. Annual Sea Water
Production. (million tons) Per cent Annual Value Per cent U.S.
From from from Sea s Value of
Chemical Total Sea Water Water Source Total World Value
Sea Water 1 ($ million)
Salt . . . . . . 35.0 1.42 4 .8 5
Magnesium Metal . 0.09 0.08 13 90 57 76
Desalinated Water 60.6 22.9 38 8 16
Bromine . . . . 0.14 0.0685 50 30 67
Magnesium
Compouncle 1.37 0.47 5 34 32 78

Total 135 35
_fhW. @[email protected].
2Includes solar sea salt and other solar salt.
3
4The only U.S. sea water magnesium facility is at Dow in Freeport (1965 figures).
Includes magnesium chloride which, in turn, is used for magnesium metal.
Includes sea salt-bittern.

quite early that salt helped prevent decay in many 1941, extracted from the Gulf of Mexico by the
foods. Present chemical usage for sodium com- Dow Chemical Company. The process was adapted
pounds is so extensive that salt is one of the and improved from a Dow Chemical metallic
primary raw materials upon which the chemical magnesium extraction plant near Midland, Michi-
industry rests. About two-thirds of the salt con- gan, using brine from inland wells. Some 65 per
sumed in the United States is by the chemical cent of the world's production comes from the
industry. Salt is produced from the ocean in only two magnesium metal plants that process sea
commercial quantities in about 60 countries. More water. These are the Texas Division of Dow
than 29 per cent of total world production is from Chemical at Freeport, Texas, and the facilities of
sea water. In the United States, the production Norsk Hydro-Elektrisk in Norway.
from sea water is centered in California and In order to furnish the needs of Dow plants and
accounts for only about four per cent of the U.S. the adjacent bromine plant of the Ethyl-Dow
grand total. Chemical Company, ahnost two million gallons per
minute of sea water are pumped, an amount equal
c. Magnesium Metal Magnesium is the third most to that pumped by all other process users of sea
abundant element found in sea water. Over 90 per water in the world combined Since this figure
cent of magnesium metal produced in the United includes water required for cooling, it may be said
States is obtained from sea water. It is estimated that the Dow plants pump approximately one
that a cubic mile of sea water contains roughly six cubic mile of sea water per year, equivalent to
million tons of magnesium. However, this is almost three billion gallons per day. This is
equivalent to about only one-sixth ounce per approximately equal to what would have been
gallon, worth about 0.4. cent.2 3 The first U.S. pumped by the Bolsa Island dual purpose power
magnesium metal from sea water was produced in and 150 mgd desalination facility had it been
approved and constructed.
23 Spangler', M. B., "A Case Study Report on the Demand for magnesium is high during wartime,
Extraction of Magnesium from Sea water," National as it is used extensively in airplane construction
"@@Proc

Planning Association Report to the National Council on and also is employed in incendiary bombs. Magne"-
Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Sept.
11,1967. slum is outstanding in its use as a sacrificial anode

VI-192

to protect metal surfaces against sea water corro- to be pumped as high a vertical distance as Dow's
sion, and as a widely used constituent of alumi- inland wells which are about 5,000 feet deep.
num alloys. That lower sea water concentrations represent
The factors involved in extracting magnesium no handicap was demonstrated by comparative
from sea water are somewhat different from those costs published after World War 11. The Velasco,
of bromine. 24 From an oceanographic or climatic Texas, plant built for the Federal Government
standpoint, location is not as critical. For example, bettered by nearly 30 per cent the lowest cost of
water temperature has little. effect on the magne- other Government plants using more concentrated
sium recovery process. More important is a loca- magnesium sources from inland brines.
tion favorable to the supply of raw materials and
power. The proximity of abundant natural gas, the d. Magnesium Compounds Magnesia (magnesium
fuel for Dow's electrical power generation, is oxide) is the principal product of the magnesium
paramount. The process also requires a cheap compounds industry. It is widely used as a basic
source@ of lime. For this, Dow purchases oyster refractory for metallurgical furnaces. A moderate
shells dredged inexpensively from nearby percentage of these compounds is still mined from
Galveston Bay (Figure 53). Another raw material, old geological basins in Ohio, Texas, and Michigan,
sulfur, also is produced in south Texas and needs with wells being drilled as deep as 5,000 to 6,000
to be shipped only a short distance. feet.
There are at present eight -plants in the United
States producing magnesium oxide and depending
on the ocean as a source of raw material. One
7_1
-salt
@YZ
plant produces these compounds from sea
bitterns, although such operations are expected to
25
V, i@ , "
stop soon.
As Figure 52 shows, the United States produces
78 per cent of the world-wide output of those
magnesium compounds extracted from the sea
water.

e. Bromine Of all the minerals extracted com-
mercially from sea water, bromine is the least
concentrated, about 65 parts per million.
All facilities directly processing sea water use a
modification of the blowing-out process developed
originally for use on underground brineS.2 6 In
-4i-M
1931 the process was modified to use sea water as
a raw material. The Ethyl-Dow facilities at Free-
port, Texas, have been operating since 1940. Large
Figure 53. Oyster shells from Galveston Bay sea water plants are also in operation in France,
serve as a cheap source of lime, required in the Sicily, and England.
magnesium extraction process. (Dow Chemical
photo) There are a few inland brines, as in Arkansas,
having very high concentrations of bromine ap-
proaching 5,000 ppm. Bromine also has concentra-
One aspect of extracting magnesium from sea tions approaching S,000 ppm in the Dead Sea.
water, vis-a-vis extraction from inland.brines, is of Inland brines are subject to depletion allowances,
special interest. The lower concentration of mag- but this is not true of sea water sources, as they
nesium in sea water requires more water to be are considered unlimited reserves.
pumped. However, since the Freeport plant is only
nine.feet above sea level, the water does not need 25 McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit., p. 123. A bittern may be
defined as a bitter solution remaining in saltmaking after
the salt has crystallized out of sea water or brine.
24 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 7. 2 6,bid., p.124.

VI-193
333-091 0-69-17

Though bromine exists in the ocean with a precipitation of magnesium hydroxide from sea
concentration only one-twentieth that of magne- water; oyster shell is used in Texas and dolomitic
sium, its price per pound is one-third less than limestone in Norway.
magnesium. This apparent anomaly is due to the In the Dow process in Texas, sea water is
fact that the bromine extraction process is much brought into the plant through a system of flumes
less costly in power, labor, and capital equipment. and intakes and then is screened and chlorinated
Favorable oceanographic and climatic condi- for control of biofouling (Figure 54). Either
tions are paramount in extracting bromine from calcined oyster shell or caustic soda from a
sea water. 27 The following requirements are neces- caustic-chlorine electrolytic cell is used to precipi-
sary: tate magnesium hydroxide. The precipitated

-High and constant salinity conveniently avail-
able.

-Source free from organic contamination and
undiluted by major fresh water rivers.
J
-Favorable circumstances to dispose of large
quantities of processed water without mixin@
Y with
unprocessed water.

-Location in a warm climate since bron-tine can be
removed at a greater rate from warm sea water.

-Location near economical raw material and
power. For example, in Freeport, chlorine, sulfur,
heated sea water (cooling water from other Dow
production facilities), and natural gas are in
Figure 54. Sea water intake for magnesium
relatively good supply. extraction. Incoming sea water passes through
q screen to prevent fish and debris from enter-
B. Present Techniques for Extraction 28 ing canal. (Dow Chemical photo)
Techniques for extracting salt and magnesium IT 1-25
compounds from sea water were mentioned on
previous pages. Almost 30 per cent of world salt
production is from sea water, chiefly by solar
evaporation in open ponds. While some magnesium
compounds also are produced in this way, most
are from a process similar to the first steps
employed in magnesium metal recovery. Being
more complex processes, the extraction f
0
magnesium metal and bromine is described below.

1. Magnesium Metal

The only two plants that extract magnesium i0o
metal from sea water (in Norway and Freeport,
Texas) employ electrolytic processes, although Figure 55. Outdoor settling tanks for magne-
each is different. However, both depend on initial sium extraction. Lime is slaked with water,
added to sea water, and pumped to outdoor
settling tanks. Soluble magnesium in sea water
reacts with lime to form insoluble magnesium
27 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 5. hydroxide, which settles to bottom and is re-
28 moved for further processing. (Dow Chemical
McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit, p. 123. photo)

V1- 194

hydroxide is settled in large ponds, collected,
filtered, and washed (Figure 55). The hydroxide is
neutralized with byproduct hydrochloric acid and
dried in fluo-solid, driers to produce a dry free-
flowing hydrous feed for the magnesium cells.
Electrolysis is conducted in large, bathtub-shaped, _7
electrolytic cells filled with a fused salt mixture
upon which the molten magnesium (liberated
during electrolysis) floats (Figure 56). The molten
magnesium is transferred in large crucibles for
casting metal ingots.

4:@

Figure 57. Ethyl-Dow bromine plant at Kure
Beach, North Carolina, as it appeared in 1940.
(Dow Chemical photo)

Figure 56. Electrolytic ceii for magnesium ex- added, and the reaction products are absorbed in
traction. Cells operate at about 700'C, using
greater than 100,000 amps of direct current. an aqueous acid solution. The acid solution is
Each cell rests in a brick-lined furnace. Magne- rechlorinated and steam-stripped to produce a high
sium chloride is fed to cell and electrolyzed to quality bromine which can be reacted with ethyl-
magnesium metal and chlorine. (Dow Chemical
photo) ene to produce ethylene dibromide.

C. Future Extraction of Other Chemicals
2. Bromine
1. Future Possibilities
All facilities directly processing sea water brines
use a modification of the blowing-out process Figure 58 shows the abundance of several
developed originally by Dr. Herbert H. Dow for critical elements contained in sea water. Magne-
underground brines. In about 1927 when it be- sium and bromine also are shown for comparison.
came apparent that additional production facilities Uranium is by far the most valuable element per
would be required, the process was modified to cubic mile. Bromine, the least concentrated of the
use sea water as a raw material. A plant was commercially produced elements, is over 30,000
constructed at Kure Beach, North Carolina, in times as plentiful as uranium and over 10 million
1933, was expanded several times, and operated times as plentiful as gold.
until 1946. Figure 57 shows the Kure Beach plant Several sequential operations are required to
as it appeared in 1940. The present Ethyl-Dow produce a chemical from a raw material like sea
bromine production facilities at Freeport, Texas, water. The desired element must be separated,
have been operating since 1940 and have been concentrated, and processed to a marketable qual-
enlarged several times. ity. Processes have been proposed or developed to
In the blowing-out process, incoming sea water recover almost 0 the dissolved elements. How-
is screened and acidified to pH 3.5. Chlorine is ever, when all costs are considered (e.g., handling
added to oxidize the bromide to bromine, which is the large volumes and the amortization and main-
stripped from the sea water by a countercurrent tenance of the necessary equipment), they cannot
stream of air. The bromine-laden vapor is led into be supported by the value of the chemicals
a baffled mixing chamber where sulfur dioxide is recovered.

VI-195

Figure 58 2. Long-Range Technology
ABUNDANCE OF SOME CRITICAL
ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER To obtain minute quantities of elements it is
Average necessary to modify the present philosophy of
Element Concentration processing 100 per cent of sea water, 96.5 per cent
Mg/Literl of which is water, to recover only very small
- amounts of chemicals. It may be preferable to
Presently produced: remove desired solids from the sea water'at sea and
Magnesium . . . . . . 1,350 then handle only the useable material.
Bromine . . . . . . 65 Present desalting methods concentrate * brines
Not Produced: by a ratio of about two to one. However,
Uranium . . . . . . 0.003 concentrations of up to three to one have been
Silver . . . . . . . 0.00004 reported feasible, and pretreatment processes such
Tin . . . . . . . . 0.0008 as ion exchange may allow concentration ratios as
Gold . . . . . . . . 0.000004 high as five to one. Future techniques may further
Zinc . . . . . . . . 0.01 increase the ability to concentrate brines. Im-
Titanium . . . . . . 0.001 proved extraction processes using concentrated
Note that 1 part per million equals 1.026 Mg/ Liter. brines (as may be available from desalting facili-
Source: Goldberg, E. D., "Minor Elements in Sea Water," ties) will permit more economical recovery of
Chemical Oceanography, vol. 1, J. P. Riley and G. Skirrow various chemicals.
(ed.), Academic Press, London, pp. 164-165. Extraction directly from the sea using natural
processes, another potential method of recovery,
will require considerable additional basic research
Most dissolved elements found in the ocean are into sea water chemistry, biology, and extraction
being recovered more economically from other processes. For example, iodine has been extracted
sources. Possibly the next material to be extracted commercially from certain seaweed that concen-
commercially from sea water will be uranium. The trates the element. Some marine organisms con-
English are reported to be experimenting with a centrate trace elements . in ratios as great as
uranium process, but prospects for its commercial 100,000 to 1, as with vanadium. Lead is concen-
29 trated as much as 20 million to I in certain fish
utilization are not known.
The economics of bromine versus magnesium bones.
extraction is a good illustration of why one should . Biological concentration suggests future tech-
not be too pessimistic about the commercial niques of recovering valuable trace elements by
possibilities of extracting less concentrated ele- learning which organisms can concentrate the
ments. Sea water contains only 65 ppm (parts per desired elem ents best, culturing them in sea water,
million) bron-dne versus 1,300 ppm magnesium. harvesting them, and extracting the elements, or
Yet bromine sells for about 25 cents per pound learning the processes and adapting them to
versus 35 cents for magnesium. The bromine industrial practice.
extraction process is less costly than the magne-
sium process because it requires only 2 process D. Conclusions
steps to extract and convert the bromine to a
salable form, whereas 10 steps are required for Extraction of magnesium compounds, magne-
magnesium metal. sium metal, bromine, and salt from sea water is
This indicates that other elements, even though highly successful. World-wide, salt is the most
less concentrated than bromine, may be produced important product. Almost 30 per cent of the
at lower costs per pound than bromine if the total world production of salt is from sea water.
technology can be developed along with the U.S. industry has been profitably extracting
required market. magnesium and bromine from sea water for over 25
years. About 90 per cent of all magnesium metal
and 50 per cent of all bromine production in the
29 Spangler, M. B., op. cit., p. 9. United States is derived from sea water.

VI-196

The concentration of magnesium in sea water is Techniques for concentrating brines from de-
1,300 parts per million. By contrast bromine is salting plants win improve the possibility of
only about 65 ppm, or one-twentieth that of by-product recovery. Hence the technology to
magnesium. Yet the cost per pound of extraction permit commercial utilization of these techniques
of bromine is one-third less than magnesium should be encouraged to allow recovery of chem-
despite the lower bromine concentration. These icals either now or projected to be in short supply.
lower total costs for bromine are due to fewer Examples include potassium compounds, uranium,
processing steps and to lower power, labor, and and boron.
capital equipment costs. Bromine is released di- I
rectly from sea water as an element while mag- V1. DESALINATION
nesium is not. Thus the experience with brornine
encourages a belief that, if the technology can be Sea water can be used for human consumption
developed, other elements with even lower concen- if its saline content is reduced from 35,000 parts
trations may be economically extracted from the per million (ppm) to 1,000 ppm or less. However,
sea. the U.S. Public Health Service has established
To obtain other elements from sea water, it will standards that good drinking water should not
be necessary to modify current extraction tech- contain more than 500 ppm. The term desalting
niques. For example, brines in desalting processes actually refers to more than just extraction of salt.
are reaching increasingly higher concentration It also encompasses removal of other impurities,
ratios. Eventually this may permit economical such as those found in brackish inland water and,
recovery of additional chemicals. pollutants, from waste water. Salt is one of the
Attention should be given to the possibility of most highly soluble pollutants, and any process
local concentrations in the ocean environment that designed to remove salt from water usually re-
may have future economic importance. For ex- moves other contaminants.
ample, gold concentrations in sea water have been In contrast with extraction of minerals from sea
as high as 60 milligrams per ton, compared to an water, desalination has received much attention by
average sea water gold content of 0.04 mg per ton. the public and the Federal Government, especially
More recently, attention has been focused on the through the establishment of the Office of Saline
hot spots at the bottom of the Red Sea ' where 'Water (OSW). Desalination is important because an
bodies of stagnant or semi-stagnant waters have adequate fresh water supply is essential for life-
been found to contain zinc, copper, and other for drinking, cooking, cleansing, diluting, irriga-
mineral constituents in concentrations ranging tion, industry, fish, wildlife, etc. Despite its
from 1,000 to 50,000 times normal. recognized importance, the total effort in desalting
Extraction of elements directly from the sea has been small compared to many other research
using natural processes is another potential and development programs.
method. Some marine organisms concentrate trace The Honorable Stewart Udall, Secretary of the
elements in ratios as high as 100,000 to 1, as with Interior, stated that: 30
vanadium. Lead is concentrated as much as 20 We are directing our efforts to the solution of two
million to I in certain fish bones. Biological separate problems simultaneously. A way must be
concentration suggests future techniques of re- found to supply the water needs of large metropol-
covering valuable trace elements. One could learn itan areas near the coast where conventional water
which organisms concentrate the desired elements i.s i.n short supply. Equally important, we need to
best, culture them in sea water, harvest them, an develop a process that will improve the quality of
extract the elements; or better yet, imitate the brackish and minerally charged waters for inland
biological technique and synthesize it industrially. communities at prices that will make this improve-
men t economically feasible.
Recommendations:
Further research and development on ion ex- 30Hearings befare the Senate Subcommittee on Irriga-
tion and Reclamation of the Committee on Interior and
change and biological techniques should aim at Insular Affairs, 89th Congress, First Session, on S. 24,
extracting elements with low concentration. May 1965, pp. 5, 9.

VI-197

The Secretary went on to say: It is not always practical to attempt to assign a
reasonable market value to water. One thing is
The new program that has been devised to advance absolutely clear-there is no water as expensive as
desalting technology will change the character of no water.. The cost of water itself becomes less
the program . by placing greater emphasis on important when considered in the light of the
engineering problems and the development of economic impact of water rationing. Many indus-
hardware for prototype plants ranging up to .50 trial plants require great volumes of water for
million gallons per day. processing, and water use restrictions can cause
production cutbacks which diminish profits and
The increase in water use in the United States paychecks. But even more important than eco-
has been phenomenal. At the turn of the century, nomic consideration is the relationship of water
40 billion gallons per day (gpd) were used. By supply to human needs, especially the detrimental
1920 use had doubled; it doubled again by 1944 effects on health that can result from water
and still again by 1965. The use of water now is shortages. Inadequate supplies offresh water serve
estimated at 375 billion gpd. It has been predicted to compound pollution control problems. Without
that by the year 2000 our population will double, sufficient water for dilution of the effluents we
and within another 35 to 40 years it will double pour into our rivers and streams, they can become
again, but the problems involved in maintaining an so choked with pollutants as to lose their natural
adequate supply of water are compounded by the ability to regenerate the water to a usable condi-
fact that per capita demand is constantly tion. To alleviate this adverse situation, we suggest
increasing. that it is now time for saline water conversion
Thomas K. Sherwood, Professor of Chemical plants to be considered as a practical supplemental
Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of source offresh water supply.
Technology, testified in 1965 that: 31
The most significant water statistic.is the rate of A. History and Trends
"consumptive" use of water. This refers to water I Past Activities
withdrawn from streams, lakes, and aquifers, used
once, and then lost by evaporation or in other For many years desalination equipment was of
ways so as not to be available for reuse- The major interest @only to the maritime industry.
consumptive use of water within the continental For this use there were two principal 'criteria:
United States is not known accurately, but is reliability of operation and the space required for
evidently between 10 and 20 per cent of the total the equipment. Cost of conversion was a minor
ftesh water which might sometime be obtained consideration.
from natural sources by present technology. Not ' In 1952, the Congress, through the Saline Water
only are the demands increasing steadily, but Act of 1952 and by subsequent legislative amend-
water supplies vary enormously with time and ments, authorized the Secretary of the Interior
place, so to me this is a frightening figure. I am through the Office of Saline Water to conduct a
further convinced that desalination is one of the research and development program for new or
several practical approaches to the problem. Two- improved low-cost desalination processes. Primary
thirds of the population lives in the 25 states objective was to lower the cost of desalted water
which border on the oceans, and many of the so that desalination will be a feasible alternate
other 25 states have large supplies of brackish source of fresh water to meet future needs.
water. Generally, the U.S. Government program has been
conducted by supporting research and develop-
With respect to the importance of water, Mr. ment grants and awarding contracts to individuals,
Frank Di Luzio, former Assistant Secretary of universities, private research organizations, indus-
Interior, has stated that: 12 trial firms, and other government agencies.
Desalting processes were improved as they
31 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 212. advanced through laboratory and pilot plant stages
32,bid., p. 144. to prototype and operation. In 1958, Congress

VI-198

authorized $ 10 million for construction of several Figure 59 shows three separate groups: (1)
demonstration plants. Each plant was to utilize a world total, (2) world total built by the United
different promising desalting process. By recent States, and (3) total located in the United States,
legislation these plants are now designated as test including U.S. possessions and military bases.
beds for experimental operations. While there are only 28 sea water feed plants
During 1952 to 1967, public funds totaling located in the United States, there are almost 100
approximately $88 million were invested in efforts U.S.-built plants around the world, indicating that
to develop desalting processes and to lower U.S. investments are located mostly abroad. In
CoStS.3 3 fact, more than 50 per cent of all sea water
desalination plants throughout the world were
2. Current Status built by the United States. Figure 60 shows the
The present value of desalinated water from geographical distribution of desalting plants and
world-wide sea water plants is about $50 million a plant capacities as of Jan. 1, 1968.
year, accounting for about 15 per cent of the Government activities have been focused on the
world's total production of chemicals from sea operation of demonstration plants and special
water. By contrast,. the value of desalinated water processes as the key to economic desalting. Four
produced in the United States is about $8 million, plants in the continental United States have
representing only six per cent of the total chem- capacities of at least one million gallons per day
icals produced from sea water. (mgd); three are OSW demonstration plants. The
Figure 59 indicates there are over 150 land- largest, with a capacity of 2.6 mgd, became
based desalination plants throughout the world operational in 1967 in Key West, Florida.
using sea water. Actually there are more than 600 Overall, Government has recognized the follow-
plants, but as in the. United States, most are for ing examples of how desalting facilities can help
powerhouse boiler water production and operate meet water needs in the United States and the
on brackish or sliglitly saline water. world:
33 Letter to the panel from W. F. Savage, Assistant -To supplement an inadequate existing water
Director, Engineering and Development, OSW, Dec. 20, supply by furnishing water as in the and zones and
1967. supplementing existing sources to meet the de-

Figure 59
PRODUCTION CAPABILITY OF DESALINATED WATER, 1966
Number of Annual Capacity
Plants' Production (Million GPD)
Value (Willion)
All Feed Water Sources2
World Total . . . . . . . . 6693 158.6
Built by U.S ... . . . . . . . 3763 74.8
Located in U.S.4 289 40.9
Sea Water as Feed Source
World Total . . . . . . . . 153 51 94.1
Built by U.S . . . . . . . . . 87 24 45-.2
Located in U.S.4 . . . . . . . 28 8 15.1

All greater than 25,000 GPD.
2This includes plants which operate on brackish or slightly saline water.
3Approximate capital investment: $200 million, and $115 million respectively.
4Includes U.S. Territories and military bases.
Source: Unpublished information compiled by W.F. McIlhenny, based on Appendix E of the 1966 OSW Saline
Conversion Report.

VI-199

mands of rapidly growing major population cen- 3. Future
ters.
a. Near-Term Forecasts During the past 7 to 10
-To improve the quality of an existing supply by years, the growth rate of commercial facilities has
upgrading water where a supply is adequate but of been approximately 30 per cent per year. At this
substandard quality (mixing desalinated water rate it is estimated that the total commercial
with the natural supply), supplementing water in capability should be about one billion gallons per
inland or coastal areas where pumping ground day by 1978. With this capacity, the sale of
water has resulted in brackish or sea-water intru- desalinated water would exceed $250 million per
sion, and serving as one of several tools to convert year (based on 75 cents per thousand gallons),
polluted water into usable water. approximately five times the 1966 value. Total
investment in 1978 should approximate $1 billion
:3 4 (estimated at the rate of $1 per gallon per day).
Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in this regard, has stated Figure 61 shows construction starts of desalting
plants world-wide during 1967 by number and
It is anticipated that cost competitiveness with capacity.
water firom conventional sources will not always
constitute the first limiting factor to the utiliza- b. Role of Distillation Plants Future giant facili-
tion of saline water resources. Eventually, every ties obviously could alter greatly the figures given
major water utility may incorporate a desalting above. Although firm plans are difficult to pin
unit in its treatment plant. A water-quality con- down, a list of giant facilities being contemplated
scious population is likely to insist on higher-than- is shown in Figure 62. As presently foreseen they
minimum water-quality standards. will be based on the distillation principle.
To help delineate the role of future facilities
OSW has been conducting studies on the potential
usefulness and feasibility of desalting as a way of
34 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 146. drought-proofing northern New Jersey and New

Figure 60
WORLDWIDE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DESALTING PLANTS
AND-PLANT CAPACITY, IN OPERATION OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION
AS OF JAN. 1, 1968 - 25,000 GPD CAPACITY OR GREATER
Continent or Country Number of Total Plant
Plants Capacity (MGD)

1. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 39.6
2. U.S. Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 7.5
3. North America except U.S. and its Territories 8.4
4. Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 16.9
5. South America . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.7
6. Europe (Continental) . . . . . . . . . . . 77 26.3
7. England and Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 14.1
8. Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.9
9. Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.1
10. Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 50.1
11, Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 10.8
12. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics . . . . . . . 7 40.9

Grand Total . . . . . . . . . . . 627 222.3

Source: Information supplied by OSW.

VI-200

York City involving 100 to 300 mgd facilities. The c. Role of Membrane Processes It is predicted
metropolitan areas of eastern Pennsylvania, New that within the next 10 years numerous inland
Jersey, and New York City experience cyclic communities in the United States may.have to
drought during which the water supply is inade- shift to some new, more effective form of water
quate to meet demands. The study indicates that purification for their progressively more brackish
appropriately placed desalting plants in this size water supplies. Estimates indicate that over 3.5
range, integrated with the existing water system, million people in 1,150 U.S. inland communities
could provide the additional supply needed. have water supplies exceeding 1,000 ppm total
One of the most ambitious studies is that being dissolved salts; over 6,000 communities with a
.conducted jointly with Mexico under the auspices population of more than 40 million have waters
of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Water that do not meet the 500 ppm Public Health
requirements of portions of the states of Baja Service recommended water standard .35
California and Sonora in Mexico and of California
and Arizona, with needs for electrical power, are Dr. Donald F. Hornig, Director of the Office of
being projected through 1995. At present, parts of Science and Technology, in testimony before the
this area are irrigated with water from the Colo- Senate pointed oUt:31
rado River and from underground aquifers. It is One o If the complicating -features of research on
anticipated that the prospective dual-purpose, desalting brackish and waste waters is the wide
nuclear-powered electric generation and one bil- diversity in the chemical composition of these
lion gallons per day desalting plant will satisfy the waters. A process which is highly successful in one
-power needs as well as providing irrigation water application may encounter serious difficulties in
to irrigate the vast and region and to support others. That is not an insurmountable obstacle,
growing municipal and industrial needs. Additional
comments on the possibilities of desalination for 35 Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 24, June 13,
irrigati on are made in Subsection C, Projection of 1968, p. 2.
Water Costs. 36 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 3 1.

Figure 61
DESALTING CONSTRUCTION STARTS IN 1967
Continent or Country Number of Plants Plant Capacity
(MGD)

United States and Its Territories . 13 10.63
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0.20
Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7.50
Bermuda . ... . . . . . . . 1 0.10
St. Martin/French . . . . . . . 1 0.13
Honduras . . . . . . . . . . 1 0.17
Gibraltar . . . . . . . . . . 1 0.23
Europe (Continental) . . . . . . 7 14.10
England and Ireland . . . . . . . 3 1.24
Australia . . . . . . . . . . 1 .22
Middle East . . . . . . . . . 10 15.72
Ascension Island/British . . . . . 1 .03
Canary Islands/Spanish . . . 1 5.28
Asia . . . . 3 2.83

Grand Total . . . . . . . 45 58.38

Source: Information supplied by OSW.

VI-201

Figure 62
CONTEMPLATED NEW PLANT CONSTRUCTION FOR DESALTING
(Greater than 10 MGD)

Location Size (MGD) Owner Operation

Gulf of California 1,000.0 U.S.-Mexico
Israel-Jordan . . . . 1,000.0 Israel (public-private corp.)
Bolsa Island . . . . 150.0 Metropolitan Water
District of Southern
California (Cancelled)
Almeria . . . . . . 130.0 Spain 1970
Donbass Region . . . 130.0 U.S.S.R. -
Sidi Kreir . . . . . 100.0 U.A.R. 1970-1972
Athens . . . . . . 50.0 Pueblo Power Corp. -
Escombreras . . . . 26.0 Spain 1970
Kuwait . . . . . . 12.0 Kuwait 1970
Kuwait . . . . . . 10.8 Kuwait 1970

Source: Water Desalination Report Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan. 4,1968, p. 3.
but simply another variation that must be coped When we concentrate ocean water, for example,
with. about twice its natural level of salt concentration
we still do not have a brine that has great value as
The membrane processes may also prove useful in a source of by-product recovery. If our technology
processing waste water from industries and munici- continues to improve, that is, our ability to
palities for reuse. Some 60 billion gallons of such prevent scale formation, our ability to minimize
waste waters are produced daily. They contain corrosion, and we are able to go to higher
from a few hundred to perhaps 2,000 parts per concentration ratios, we will come to a point
million of salts. These waters because they are where by-products can be effectively recovered.
already at centers of use, may be reclaimed at
costs competitive with the cost of providing I think it must be kept in mind, however, that if
"new" water in many instances. we depend upon by-product recovery as a means
of making desalting plants economically valuable,
In the long run, it seems likely that membrane we are chasing an ever diminishing circle, because
processes can be developed to the point where with the chemicals from the brine we could
they will become the most efficient means of saturate a good portion of the earth with chem-
desalting sea water. This possibility is certainly not icals, and obviously they would. become less
practicable now, but the membrane research which valuable as supply overtakes demand
is currently aimed at small-scale plants is likely to
provide the technological base for future genera- it does have potential, but it is not a solution.
tions of large-scale plants. [I] n the west coast test center near San Diego we
d. Potential of By-Product Recovery A question have made an arrangement with a sea water salt
arises as to the potential value of solids removed as company to take our brine effluent, which is
byproducts from the concentrated brine in the concentrated by a factor of two, and somewhat
desalting process. Dr. Jack Hunter, Director of warmer than ocean temperature. In that operation
OSW, has answered this point in the followin we will determine whether there is economic
Way: 3 7 9 benefit to the production of sea salts.
We have also conducted some examination, and
37Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Water industry has on its own conducted additional
and Power Resources of the Committee on Interior and investigation of the economics of extraction of
Insular Affairs, 90th Congress, First Session, on S. 1101,
March 1967, p. 22. by-product chemicals.

VI-202

In general, where we now have concentration Figure 63
ratios of two, studies. indicate that we begin to CLASSIFICATION OF DESALTING
have economic potential if we reach concentration TECHNIQUES
ratios of about 5 to Z The principal chemicals in
which we are interested are phosphates, chlorine, Type Examples
bromine, sodium, and magnesium. Distillation
As a result of continued research in this area, it Submerged Tube Ships, Offshore
has been demonstrated that it is feasible to raise Platforms
concentration ratios to around four to five. Film
Climbing Film Submarines
e. Long-Range Estimates Long-range estimates
indicate that by the year 2000 world desalting Multiple Effect OSW Test Bed
production should be about 30 billion gpd com- Falling Film Freeport, Texas, 1961
pared to about 0.10 billion gpd today .3 8 This Example: Long 1 mgd
long-range forecast is significant in stating the Tube Vertical
unquestioned need for at least this much addi- Evaporation
tional fresh water above and beyond the natural (LTV)
supply. The 30 billion gpd capacity, while seem- Flash OSW Test Bed
ingly large, is about eight per cent of U.S. Single Effect San Diego, California,
domestic consumption today and presumably less Multiple Stage 1962
than one per cent of present world consumption. Flash (SEMS) 1 mgd (36 stages)
It is within our technical and financial abilities to Later transferred to
build and put into operation 30 billion gpd Guantanamo Bay
capacity by the year 2000. An overriding need for
water suggests that the long-range forecast is Combination of f i Im OSW Test Bed
perhaps conservative. and flash (Clair Engle),
Example: Multiple San Diego, California,
B. Techniquesof Desalination Effect-Multi-Stage 1967, 1 mgd
1. Classification Flash (MEMS)
Figure 63 shows a listing of various major Vapor Compression OSW Test Bed
techniques of desalination. The processes can be Roswell, New Mexico,
divided into four broad categories: distillation, 1963, 1 mgd
crystallization, membranes, and advanced pro- Crystallization
cesses in initial development. Director Vacuum Eilath, Israel, 1963
Freezing 240,000 gpd; OSW Pilot
2. Distillation Plant, North Carolina,
120,000 gpd
a. Multiple-Stage Flash Almost all large desalina-
tion units now in operation or under construction Secondary Refrig- OSW Pilot Plant, North
use multiple-stage flash distillation. Incoming sea erant Freezing Carolina, 15,000 gpd
water and recirculated brine are preheated by the
condensation of product water in a series of stages Hydrate OSW Pilot Plant
at consecutively higher temperatures. The heated North Carolina
sea water is elevated to the maximum operating
temperature by condensing steam from an external Membranes
source. The hot sea water is allowed to flash to Reverse Osmosis OSW Pilot Plants:
Colorado, New
38 Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan. 4, Mexico, 50,000 gpd
1968, p. 4. (Continued on following page)

VI-203

Electrodialysis OSW Test Bed Although somewhat costlier, the process has
Webster, South the following important advantages over the multi-
Dakota, 1962 stage flash concept:
250,000 gpd
-Less pumping power required.
Advanced Processes as OSW Mobile Pilot
Ion Exchange Plants -Less inherent temperature losses.
-Fewer stages or effects required.
vapor in a successive series of flash chambers, each
at a lower temperature and pressure. The flashed -The hottest brine is generally more dilute, an
vapor is condensed by the circulating sea water advantage in scale control.
and is collected. A final condenser, using addi- _A smaller volume of sea water handled.
tional cooling sea water, maintains the final
vacuum. 39 It is anticipated that this technique will be used
The advantages of this flash method are as with increasing frequency in the future.
follows:' 0
c. Multiple-Effect, Multiple-Stage Both multiple-
-It has been demonstrated satisfactorily in several stage flash and multiple-effect processes have
moderate-size plants throughout the world. certain advantages; some designers now are consid-
-The equipment configuration and process flow ering various combinations of the two. One is the
are relatively simple. multiple-effect, multiple-stage concept. In this
design, several stages of a conventional multistage
-Scale control by acid injection is within present plant are grouped into one effect to provide the
technology. heat input for another group of stages or effects.
Principal advantages are: (1) It approaches the
An OSW demonstration plant was built in San generally more efficient multiple-effect concept
Diego in 1962 rated at one million gallons per day. while retaining most of the structurally simple
It subsequently was transferred to the Guan- features of the multistage flash design, and (2) the
tanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba in 1964 and was brine concentration at the hot end of the plant
expanded by the Navy to produce 2.1 mgd; it still normally approximates that of sea water rather
:is operating on a day-@to-day basis to provide the than being the double concentrated sea water
total water requirements of the base. often used in multistage flash plants.
The Clair Engle OSW Demonstration Facility
b. Multiple-Effect, Falling-Film Multiple-effect, (Figure 64) completed in 1967 uses this technique.
falling-film distillation, sometimes referred to as
vertical tube evaporation, has been used success-
fully to produce fresh water from sea water in the
Office of Saline Water Test Facility at Freeport,
Texas. Sea water is evaporated from a thin film on
the interior periphery of an evaporator in a series
of effects. Heat released by the condensation of
vapor from a previous effect is used to vaporize
the water, and the condensed vapor is collected as
the plant product. A large distillation plant now
under construction in the Virgi use
n Islands will
multiple-effect, falling-film distillation.
39 Mcllhenny, W. F., "Chemicals from Sea Water, 11 Figure 64. San Diego saline water test facility,
Clair Engle Plant. The one-million-gallon-per-
Proceedings of the Inter-American Conference on Mate- day desalting plant tests advanced design multi-
rials Technology, May 1968, p. 125. effect, multi-stage flash distillation sea water
40 Porter, J. W., "Water Desalination by Distillation," conversion process. (Office ofSaline Water
Ocean Industry, Vol. 2, No. 8: 39-45, 39, August 1967. photo)

VI-204

While in operation only since August 1967, it erant process also is in operation at Wrightsville
41
already has achieved a performance ratio of 20 Beach.
pounds of product water for every pound of steam Freezing has a unique role to play in brackish
input, double the performance ratio of the plant and polluted water conversion in the salinity range
OSW operated in San Diego in 1962-1964. of 9,000 to 20,000 ppm, as well as in plant sizes
from one to 10 million gallons per day. Electro-
d. Vapor Compression Vapor compression distil- dialysis, although suitable for lower salinities, is
lation is very competitive in small portable plants. too expensive in the salinity range of 9,000 to
In addition, it has primary application to plant 20,000 ppm. And, because of the typical higher
systems where water, rather than a combination of concentration of scale-forming compounds in
power and water, is produced. It is also of interest brackish waters, evaporation or distillation proc-
for the following reasons: (1) It may be considered esses require expensive treatment to remove these
when only electrical energy is available, and (2) compounds. Freezing, because of low operating
unlike the multiple-effect and multistage flash temperatures, largely eliminates scale. In addition,
distillation processes, no large heat sink is re- it requires considerably less energy."
quired. This can be an advantage at inland sites. In view of these potentials, a mobile vacuum
The largest plant of this type is the OSW Test freezing pilot plant now is under construction and
Bed at Roswell, New Mexico, operating on brack- will be tested on a number of brackish waters to
ish well water, producing one million gallons per determine basic system economics.
day.
Multiple-stage flash can be combined with 4. Membranes
vapor compression or vertical tube evaporation to
better utilize thermal energy. Such combinations Membrane processes involve diffusion through a
have been termed hybrid processes, and work now semipermeable membrane. While still in the liquid
is under way on analytical investigations of such state, salt solution and water are separated. The
processes for a wide variety of water delivery rates. major types are electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
One such study considers an application whereby The electrodialysis process uses membranes with
the shaft power from a gas turbine will drive the electric current as the driving force. This process
vapor compressor,.and waste heat will be used to has reached commercial acceptance in brackish
preheat the water in a multiple-stage flash water applicable up to 5004000 gpd and salinities
41 up to 5,000 ppm. Modifications of this process are
system. being stu.,died to reduce capital costs which could
result in substantial reductions in the cost of
3. Crystallization water.
The major crystallization process is freezing, In the reverse osmosis process, pressure is the
involving separation of pure water solids (ice) from driving force. Pressure in excess of the osmotic
a salt solution. Crystallization also can occur pressure of the saline feed is applied to a special
through a process whereby a hydrate-forming membrane and water passes through.
material combines with water to form a solid. Of Both processes appear to be economical for
the two processes, vacuum freezing and secondary desalting brackish waters. However, efforts also are
refrigerant freezing, the former is more advanced. being directed toward development of membrane
The vacuum freezing test bed, which produces processes economical for desalting sea water.
over 100,000 gallons per day of fresh water at the Presently, the reverse osmosis process is in the
Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, has been run- pilot plant stage and is considered advanced
ning life tests to determine long-term maintenance technology for ultimate application in converting
and operating problems and system economics.
The first pilot plant utilizing the secondary refrig- 42 Text of presentation to the Marine Engineering and
Technology Panel by W. F. Savage, OSW, Nov. 16,1967,
41 Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Water p. 2.
and Power Resources of the Committee on Interior and Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by J. W. Pike,
Insular Affairs, 90th Congress, Second Session on S_ President of Struthers Scientific & International Corpora-
2912, February 1968, p. 24. tion, pp. 37-38.

VI-205

polluted water. Three modular designs are being installations around the world, according to Senate
46
tested at plant sizes ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 testimony in 1965. It was further stated that:
gpd. It is believed that this process will have
commercial application in sizes suitable for major
municipal and industrial use in the next two to
three years.
.-Au

a. Reverse Osmosis The unique membranes
utilized in the reverse osmosis process resist the IR,
passage of most dissolved contaminants. As a 1W
Wikii
result, the process promises to be useful in a
variety of applications. The rejection of ordinary
salinity, the major sea water contaminant, and of
hardness, scale and alkalinity factors predominant
in many brackish waters make its use obvious for
such purposes. Furthermore, the membranes hold Figure 65. Electrodialysis test bed at Webster,
back organic matter, including detergents, a major South Dakota. In operation since 196Z plant
converts brackish well water to 250,000 gal-
constituent of waste water. The membrane also lons of fresh water dady. (Office of Saline
rejects bacteria and virus so that the product is Water photo)
sterile. Mine drainage water also may be purified
by this process as well as water contaminated by Electrodialysis has the great virtue of being a
chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive simple process with high operating reliability. It is
44
agents. good for small towns in that the conscientious
One major problem in this technique is the personnel available in small towns can do the job
development of longer-life membranes. easily as shown in Buckeye and in Coalinga, Calif
Virtually all potential advantages of the reverse In Buckeye, the operator spends a good bit ofhis
osmosis process derive from its room temperature day with other duties, such as repairing cars and
operation. No intermediate formation of steam or trucks. Constant attention to the plant is not
ice is required which, for the distillation and needed and no attention is provided during the
freezing processes respectively, leads to the ex- two night shifts. Since it does not involve compli-
penditure of large quantities of energy. Reverse cated, high-pressure equipment, but electricity, the
osmosis, on the other hand, requires only pressuri- local utility can be called on for help when
zation energy, and the energy cost is relatively needed.
low. Furthermore, there is practically no scaling
and little corrosion resulting in low maintenance Furthermore, the only sure, longrange source of
costs; these advantages combine to promise an water for most communities will be water that is
extremely low total operation CoSt.4 5 reused. Water once used by a community has its
OSW has defined 10 types of brackish water mineral content increased by 300 to 400 parts per
typically found in the United States. It plans to million. Normal water treatment plants remove
develop data concerning the best process for the suspended and organic matter, but not the miner-
particular type of water. als. Mild salinity of this order of magnitude is ideal
for economic processing by electrodialysis.
b. Electrodialysis Figure 65 is a photograph of Although electrodialysis works well in Arizona
the OSW Test Bed at Webster, South Dakota. It is and South Dakota, it requires a substantial chem-
rated at 250,000 gpd and uses the electrodialysis ical engineering effort to learn how to pretreat
principle. Electrodialysis is currently in use at 125 these brackish waters so that the process operates
44 Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by Dr. B. efficiently. Thus, if iron manganese is present in
Keilin, Aerojet-General Corporation, p. 81. 46
45 Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by R. L.
Ibid., p. 81. Haden, Jr., President of Ionics, Inc., pp. 130-13 1.

VI-206

brackish water it would foul up the membrane total. Only about five per cent was for labor and
unless an adequate iron manganese removal filter general administrative expenses. The remainder
were inserted. comprised materials and electric power. Figure 66
OSW program for 1969 will test electrodialysis shows the proposed Bolsa Island dual nuclear
techniques on 10 types of brackish water typical power and desalting plant that was to be located
of those found in the U.S. west central area. near Los Angeles.
Recently the Bolsa Island plans were termi-
5. Advanced Processes in Initial Development nated by mutual agreement of all participants,
because escalating costs over the past three years
The quest for new processes has led to promis- made it uneconomical. However, the Office of
ing findings in the area of electrode demineralizers, Saline Water has indicated new plans are being
environmentally modulated ion absorption beds, prepared for an alternate dual purpose desalting-
new hydrate processes, electrogravitational separa- power plant having a comparable capacity at a
tion techniques, and the transport depletion and more favorable location.
electro-sorption processes. Recent developments A reduction in water costs is enabled by use of
indicate that ion exchange may be competitive as a dual purpose plants. During the 1965 hearings Mr.
means of desalting brackish water having less than Dusbabek stated :4 9
3,000 ppm.
When a sea water distillation plant is coupled with
C. Projection of Water Costs a steam powerplant, both plants benefit from the
Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in testimony before the more efficient use of heat. If all of the benefit is
Senate, stated :4 7 ascribed to the waterplant and, depending upon
the economic situation, we would expect a reduc-
The factors that influence the cost of water to a tion in water costs.
customer fall into two main areas: First, factors Such reduction in water costs has been estimated
that occur "within the skin" of the plant itself, re recently to be about 20 to 25 per .cent.
engineering optimization of such effects as heat mo
transfer rates, steam temperatures, chemistry of Figure 67 is a recent projection of desalting
feed water, scaling, corrosion, fuel cost, construc- costs made by OSW for a range of plant sizes. It is
tion costs, and many other factors. The second set based on distillation technology. Note that the
of factors are those outside the characteristics of Price per thousand gallons is expected to decrease
the desalination plant. These include the cost of to 50 cents for plants with capacities up to 10 mgd
money; the amount of water needed for a specific during the five years 1969 to 1973. Indications
area-that is, size of the plant; availability of a also are that during the same period, the larger
properly sized storage and distribution system; the dual-purpose plants, 50 to 150 mgd capacities,
geographical need for large blocks of power in the may produce water for 20 to 30 cents per
case of a dual-purpose plant. Much too often we thousand gallons. Such cost reductions would
concentrate on the first set of factors and ignore attract municipal and industrial users where water
the second is in short supply or of poor quality.
Beyond 1975 the cost of desalting in large size
Testimony from Mr, Mark Dusbabek of the plants may decrease sufficiently for such water to
Fluor Corporation, Ltd., during the same hearings be used for agricultural irrigation. However, these
emphasized several points in estimating costs for decreases hinge on technological innovation in
the Metropolitan Water District of Southern Cali- large scale desalting developments and on the
fornia (MWD); i.e., the Bolsa Island 150 mgd attainment of such low-cost heat sources as nu-
distillation plant." Cost for heat energy and clear breeder reactors.
capital amounted to about 70 per cent of the During the 1967 Senate hearings it was pointed
out that even at 22 cents per 1,000 gallons of
47 water (slightly more than $80 per acre-foot), this
Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 137.
48 ]bid., p. 123. 49 Ibid., p. 123.

VI-207

A,-

E-

Figure 66. Proposed Bolsa Island nuclear power and desalting plant near Los Angeles, once
scheduled for completion in the 1960's, would have been rated at 150 million gallons per day.
(Office of Saline Water photo)

00 providing additional incremental water for irriga-
tion, or perhaps better quality water for irrigation,
then I think we are much closer to economic
practicality than people think.

In a subsequent dialogue at the same hearing
between Senator Jordan of Idaho and Dr. Jack
Hunter, Director of the Office of Saline Water,
Senator Jordan pointed out that even at 16 cents
per 1,000 gallons ($50 per acre-foot), possibly
achievable with a billion gallon per day plant, this
is still not cheap enough for agricultural water.
However, conceivably at that cost it might,be used
10 once in several years as a supplemental supply of
irrigation w ater to save a citrus crop or a citrus
orchard.5 '
Mr. Hunter's reply indicated a subtle point: 52
1.65 19M 1975 1985 199.
Figure 67. Projection of sea water desalting
costs for a range of plant sizes. I would also again like to remind you that the high
quality water that we are speaking of has a value
is a long way from being applicable economically beyond much of the natural water available in, for
for irrigation. However, Mr. Di Luzio pointed example, the Southwest. . . For example, 10-cent
out: 5 0 desalted water might have equal value with 5-cent
natural water.
If you mean the cost of the present irrigation
water, Senator, the answer of course is, "Yes. " If
you would expand that statement to include 51 Ibid., p. 23.
so Senate Hearings, March 1967, op. cit., p. 11. 52 Ibid., p. 23.

VI-208

In certain locations following a drought it and chemical industries has shown an excellent
might take as much as seven years to replace a payoff record. Research of this kind is a form of
seriously damaged crop. This being so, it is cheaper gambling, but the odds are excellent.
in the long run, even now, to employ desalting
plants selectively for. this purpose (as is being done 2. Scientific Problems
with olive .trees in Cyprus). Desalination processes are limited by lack of
D. Desalination Problems fundamental knowledge. Typical questions to
which we have incomplete answers are:
1. General
-Why is the aqueous component so sensitive to
In testimony before the Senate Committee on heat and to voltage while salt is not?
Interior and Insular Affairs, Thomas K. Sherwood,
professor of chemical engineering at the Massachu- -Why does pressure affect water so much more
setts Institute of Technology, discussed the re- than salt?
search and engineering problems to be solved :5 3
-Why is it that some natural membranes can
The desalination program would appear to have desalinate?
two objectives-first, to do better with the proc-
- What takes place at and near the surfaces of
esses we have; and second, to discover and develop growt .ng i.ce crystals?
a new and much better process. The first will be
accomplished by engineering-by simpler design Thus, research in desalination must remain as an
concepts, inventions of process modifications, the important aspect of our national program.
use of cheaper materials of construction, and the
development of more efficient system compo- 3. Engineering Problems.
nents. To accomplish these things the engineers
will draw on the fmits of the basic research Although large desaftnation facilities have been
program devoted to materials, corrosion, scale, built (in the one to five mgd range) and much
properties of brines, and on the supply of data larger ones are being planned (in the 100 mgd
basic to the design of the heat and mass transfer range), almost all distillation plants built were
equipment which is involved. based on empirical designs relying mostly on art as
It is most important to do better with the a prime factor. Several plants did not meet
processes we now have, if only for the reason that capacity or economy requirements and in some
we may never find better ones. Even modest cost cases had to be scrapped. Occasionally, a different
reductions would justify the expenditure of a great distillation technique was substituted, without
deal of money for research and development. A much better results.
A major challenge to the Nation is the require-
cost reduction of only 10 cents per 1,000 gallons ment to build giant desalination' facilities (100 , to
would mean a saving of $73 million in the 20-year 200 mgd size) to augment water supplies for large
lifetime of a singlelOO-million-gallon-per-day population centers and as a possible forerunner to
plant. large agro-industrial complexes which may require
The second part of the desalination program 1,000 mgd sizes. To supply such large water
encompasses the basic research which would lead capacities may require full-scale model testing of
to a really cheap process. Scientists, engineers, and critical parts to improve present reliability levels.
inventors must be intrigued, stimulated, and sup- A typical engineering problem in distillation
ported. New ideas must be tested and promising facilities is given to illustrate this point. The
leads pursued. It is a matter of faith that some- problem involves guaranteeing the proper rate of
thing enormously important will come of this, but heat transfer for a fixed performance ratio at a
research on similar problems in the petrochemical 54 Hearings before the Committee on Interior and
Insular Affairs, U.S. Senate, 90th Congress, First Session,
53 on Scientific Programs in the Department of the Interior,
Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., pp. 212-213. May 18, 1967, pp. 80-82.

VI-209

given top operating temperature. To increase plant The least understood of the various compo-
capacity from 1 to 10 mgd, the heat transfer nents in the overall heat transfer coefficient is the
surface area must be increased tenfold to maintain fouling factor, a strong function of the system's
the same heat transfer rate (assuming a linear cleanliness and the degree of deaeration and
extrapolation). decarbonation of the feed sea water. A research
Going to 50 or 100 mgd would then require program is needed to isolate the fouling factor
still further size increases. It is clear this would experimentally and to study its dependence on
result in undue requirements for plant size and system variables.
corresponding increases mi material costs. In other C. Scale Control Formation of calcium carbon-
words, how can a plant be scaled up so its new size ate, magnesium hydroxide, and calcium sulfate
need not be increased in direct proportion to its scales is a major problem in sea water distillation.
new capacity. Formation of the first two compounds can be
Many substantial technical factors other than. prevented by injecting acid into the circulating
heat transfer rates must be considered, such as brine stream and through subsequent deaeration.
scale control and construction materials. They are However, this does not prevent calcium sulfate
discussed in greater detail below. deposition.
a. Materials of Construction The single most The accepted scale control technique in multi-
important capital cost item in a multistage flash stage flash distillation is to inject about 120 ppm
distillation system is the condenser tubing (as of sulfuric acid into the sea water feed followed by
much as 20 to 36 per cent of cost). The condenser deaeration. Calcium sulfate scaling is prevented
tubing's longevity is, of course, very important, simply by operating. the plant at temperatures and
and much more must be learned about the concentrations at which the solubility product of
materials exposed to hot concentrated brine. calcium sulfate is not exceeded.
The diversity of opinion regarding tube material The addition of sulfuric acid normally adds
is demonstrated by a recent group of conceptual about three to four cents per 1,000 gallons to
designs requested by the Office of Saline Water. water. Accordingly,.it might be economical to
Three contractors specified titanium, three chose manufacture sulfuric acid at the plant site, partic-
aluminum-brass, four selected 90-10 copper-nickel, ualarly in the case of very large plants.
and two chose 70-30 copper-nickel, while three 4. Brine Disposal
used some combination of these materials. The
70-30 copper-nickel has had somewhat longer Disposal costs of the brine from desalination
exposure to hot brine in actual operations than the processes must be considered; they may be as
90-10 combination. However, the latter indicates a much as one-third of desalting expense for inland
higher life expectancy, which could result in lower sites. It may be necessary to dispose of the brine in
overall costs. The 150 mgd Bolsa Island facility man-made evaporation ponds. Membranes have
would have required about 15,000 miles of been developed to curb pond leakage and prevent
copper-nickel tubing. contarninating aquifers or other underground
water sources.
b. Heat Transfer Rates Basic heat transfer in a Concerning sea disposal, primary effort will be
multistage flash plant is from condensing steam to determine the ecological and other effects of
through a tube wall to the circulating brine. An contaminants resulting from the plants themselves:
increase in the heat transfer coefficients would copper from heat exchanger* tubes; iron from
reduce the tubing area and result in reduced costs. wat-er boxes, evaporator shells, and piping; and
Resistances to heat flow from condensing steam trace elements from several sources.5 5
to circulating brine are found in the brine's film
resistance, tube wall resistance, outside or, con- S. Inland Brackish Water Resources
densing steam film resistance, and in a fouling
factor that includes the resistance due to scale or Although unlimited sea water exists, many
areas where additional fresh water supplies are
dirt on the tube or to non-condensable gases in the
system. Senate Hearings, February 1968, op. cit., p. 24.'

VI-210

needed are too far inland for sea water desahna- We propose to maintain a balanced program. This
tion to be feasible. One alternative is inland is what we keep repeating over and over again. We
brackish water-but, at present, knowledge of are not going to sacrifice reasonable expenditure
these resources is very limited. Because the feasi- of funds in these other areas which are also the
bility of inland desalination will depend greatly responsibility of the Office merely to put on a
upon improved information as to availability and spectacular.
characteristics of inland brackish water resources,
the need for regional and individual project studies The desired role of the private sector as seen by
and inventories is immediate. OSW was expressed by Mr. Di Luzio during the
A start has been made to determine these 1967 Senate hearings :5 8
inventories (OSW with the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey), but this program should be accelerated and The private sector is involved in our cycle of
expanded. development from the beginning. Most of our pilot
plants and most of our programs are proposed by
6. Computers the private sector. In many cases, private firms
have designed pilot plants. OSW can carry this
The diversity of world-wide economic condi- technology up through the largest practical units
tions necessitates consideration of many different to demonstrate, one, its technological capability to
costs for steam, power, interest, insurance, and tax produce water; and two, the economics of the
rates (the last as they apply for Government or production of water. Industry will take over as
private customers). A tabulation of variables will soon as we have demonstrated this technology to
yield about 80,000 different cases, requiring a our satisfaction, and to the satisfaction of the
computer to establish a suggested optimum design customer-which, if you will consider for a mo-
for each case. Such a program for multistage flash ment will be government bodies of various kinds.
and vertical tube evaporator types of distillation is Aese plants are not being bought by private
.presently under way by OSW. individuals, they are being purchased by villages,
E. Government- Industry Roles towns, states, and federal agencies. We think that
putting money into carrying this technology to the
The U.S. Government's future role will con- absolute proof of the economic feasibility of the
tinue to be one of encouraging increased use of process and the design of the hardware is the better
science and technology to lower water costs. way of spending our money, and as soon as we
Nearing completion in San Diego is a very impor- prove that, industry takes it from that point on.
tant facility for the OSW engineering development
program, a module of a 50 million gpd multistage F. Conclusions
flash distillation plant. Several of these modules 1. Background
would make up a full-size plant. This provides an
economical method of confirming the essential The term desalting generally refers to obtaining
process and structural designs required for the usable water by removing salt from sea water.
efficient and economical design, construction, and Perhaps equally as important, it also encompasses
operation of very large desalting plants. The removal of such other impurities as those found in
experimental module will produce about 2.5 mil- inland brackish water and pollutants from waste
lion gpd, using pumps, evaporators, and other water.
components sized to 50 million gpd production.' 6 The U.S. Government has been in a substantial
Mr. Di Luzio has stated that OSW intends to expansion phase of its desalting program, with
increase its activity in brackish water areas and increasing emphasis on engineering development
take a hard engineering look at the potential of through module and prototype plant construction.
desalting acid mine waters. This would comple- The program recognizes the needs in the United
ment the effort on large plants:" States and the world community, which include
56 Ibid., p. 7-8. supplementing an inadequate water supply and
57 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p.146. 58 Senate Hearings, March 1967, op. cit., pp. 9-10.

VI-211

improving the quality of existing water. These full-scale model testing of critical parts to improve
needs stem from the rapid depletion of available reliability levels. Engineering problems include
natural sources of water, severity varying with heat transfer rates, suitable materials (materials
specific locality. In addition, the quality of exist- presently constitute up to 20-30 per cent of total
ing water is being degraded in - many places. capital cost), and scale control techniques. As an
Desahnation techniques applied to sewage treat- example, long period operating experience with
ment and brackish water represents a powerful several types of materials is needed urgently, under
tool for meeting these needs. varying conditions of temperature, oxygen con-
tent, brine concentration, and flow velocity.
2. Technology Status and Problems
3. Outlook
Desalination processes can be divided into four
broad categories: distillation, crystallization, mem- Desalination is in an embryonic stage with a
branes, and advanced processes in initial develop- very optimistic future. Many ideas are being
ment. Four operating plants in the continental advanced to bring costs down, some either about
United States have capacities of at least one to be or already in practice. These include dual
million gallons per day; all use the distillation plants for simultaneous electricity generation and
technique. Three are OSW demonstration plants. desalting, the use of waste heat from incinerator
Indeed, the distillation technique, in a very ad- plants, the ability to concentrate the brines suffi-
vanced state of development, is being used widely ciently to extract useful chemicals economically,
and will be the basis for all very large plants (50 to and the use of chemically pretreating brackish
100 mgd) in the near future. water. Finally, low-cost, small desalination plants
Nevertheless, no single technique is best for all for islands and hotels appear to be a promising
kinds of water. While distillation will produce source as soon as improved technology permits
fresh water from any kind of water, it may not be costs and reliability to improve.
economical. It should not be used to desalt water
with 9,000 parts per million or less. At present, Recommendations:
numerous small communities use electrodialysis on The OSW research and development program
available inland brackish water supplies. Yet even should continue to be directed toward solution of
electrodialysis cannot process all kinds of brackish two problems:
water, nor can reverse osmosis, the newer mem-
brane technique being developed. This is because -Development of technology to supply large-scale
there are certain kinds of contarrdnants in water as regional water needs, including those of metropol-
silicates, calcium, and iron which will foul the itan areas near the coast, utilizing such tools as
membranes very quickly. dual-purpose power plant-sea water conversion
The freezing process, operating at low tempera- complexes. As a long-range consideration, efforts
tures, is not fouled by contaminants in certain should be continued on technology requirements
kinds of brackish water. For all the processes to meet agricultural water needs.
mentioned for brackish water, pretreating may be
an important key, rather than attempting to design -Development of processes to make use of brack-
a plant to treat all kinds of water. ish water supplies adjacent.to inland communities
While the reverse osmosis membrane process is and to purify waste water from industries and
in the pilot stage, the technique is being consid- municipalities for reuse.
ered as an advanced technology to be used
ultimately in converting of polluted water to fresh. Greater emphasis should be placed on solving
I A major challenge to the Nation is the capa- engineering problems in those processes now tech-
bility to build giant desalination facilities (100-200 nically feasible in order to maximize plant relia-
mgd) to augment water supplies for large popula- bility, lengthen plant life, and minimize water
tion centers and as a forerunner to large agro- costs. Development of hardware for prototype
industrial complexes producing 1,000 mgd. Sup- plants ranging up to 50 rnillion. gpd and more
plying such large water capacities might require should be pursued.

VI-212

The OSW desalination program should continue discharges located seaward to minimize thermal
to encompass basic research on the newer mem- effects. The second category encompasses genera-
brane processes for use with brackish and waste tion of electric power from the energy of ocean
waters. tides, waves, currents, thermal gradients, and
OSW's prime mission should continue to be geothermal sources.
advancing desalting technology, not supplying Energy devices of lesser magnitude carried into
water. The final step in developing new or im- the undersea environment to supply power for
proved processes should be based on two major submersibles, habitats, etc., are discussed in Chap-
approaches, both in 6ooperation with private ter 5, Subsection IB, Power Sources.
industry:
-OSW sponsorship in constructing and operating A. Power Generation in the Ocean Environment
prototype or demonstration plants. 1. Current Situation

-0SW participation with water supply a
,gencies in a. Nuclear Power Station Concept The concept
constructing and operating such plants. of huge nuclear electric generating stations built
on the ocean floor or on artifical islands provides a
Thus State, municipal, and private water supply possible alternative to the use of increasingly rare
agencies would have an opportunity to utilize new land sites. In addition, it represents the possibility
desalting technology in a first-of-a-kind plant of the system's effects being utilized to ecological
wherein the risk is shared through Government advantage rather than creating a thermal pollution
financial support. problem in rivers and estuaries.
To permit reduced water costs, the OSW The role of nuclear power systems in the sea's
program should direct engineering efforts on heat exploration and exploitation is as certain as man's
transfer rates, steam temperatures, feed water ability to develop the technology, equipment,
chemistry, scaling, and corrosion. Emphasis also plans, and support operations to delve into the
should be given such other factors as the cost of environment-and his determination to do so. In
money, amount of water needed for the specific fact, nuclear energy already is playing a role of
area, geographical need for large blocks of power growing importance in oceanic activities in the
in the case of a dual-purpose plant, and availability form of electric power from nuclear land sources
of properly sized storage and distribution systems. supplied to various locations by undersea transmis-
sion cables and of propulsion systems for sub-
marines and surface ships.
VII. POWER GENERATION Although conversion of nuclear energy. to elec-
tricity is relatively new, the growth and acceptance
Major power generating concepts to exploit the of nuclear electric power over the past few years is
ocean's potentials fall in two categories: (1) those spectacular. While total world electric power con-
which employ the advantages of the sea environ- sumption is increasing steadily, installation of nu-
ment and (2) those which derive power from the clear sources is growing much faster. In 1960, for
various forms of abundant energy found in the sea. example, about one-tenth of one per cent of total
The first category includes power plants (conven- electric power was derived from nuclear sources.
tional and nuclear) installed on the ocean floor, on In 1967, nuclear capacity was one per cent of total
artificial islands, or possibly on large stable surface electric power. But the real period of explosive
or subsurface" platforms moored off the coast. growth, based on projections of current orders,
This category also would include power plants will occur between now and 1980. Nuclear capa-
built on shore with their cooling water intakes and city will grow to an estimated 12.5 per cent by
1974 and about 30 per cent by 1980. Most recent
59 Where the water is deeper than 200 feet, a neutrally estimates are 50 to 100 per cent higher than
buoyant subsurface platform moored at a 150 to 200 foot orecast three to four years ago. The effect of this
depth would be advantageous, being easily accessible, demand for nuclear plant construction is a six to
clear of surface traffic, and beyond the effects of waves
and winds. eight year backlog of orders.

VI-213

Larger individual plant capacity, increased c. Plant Design Two basic' designs were exam-
greatly from earlier years, makes nuclear electric ined, both dependent on the not-so-obvious fact
power more economically competitive. Nuclear that nuclear reactors do not need air to operate.
fuel costs are lower than fossil fuel costs in a The first design places the reactor with the heat
growing number of locations. The equipment to exchangers on the ocean floor. The power-
generate electricity is very expensive, whether producing turbines and generators are above the
conventional or nuclear. Planners for undersea water surface, resting on a platform with founda-
operations also will have to take such factors as tions in the sea bottom. A vertical pipe carries the
size, distance from shore, and weather conditions superheated steam from the reactor to the tur-
into account when considering the costs of their bines.
projects. The second design calls for both the reactor and
electrical system on the sea floor. While the
reactor can operate in a liquid environment, the
b. Studies Several studies have been made by turbines and generators require a gaseous envelope
industry and government to determine the phys- to function properly. Hence, a caisson must be
-ical and economic feasibility of placing a nuclear built around the power-producing unit. If the gas
reactor with its power generating plant on the U.S. pressure inside is the same as the hydrostatic
Continental Shelf. One such study made by the pressure outside, the structure need support only
University of California, Davis Campus, described, the pressure difference between the top and the
as an example, advantages and disadvantages of bottom of the caisson or pressure vessel, allowing a
such a system in the New York area. shell structure of considerable cost saving.
The first consideration was reactor safety. The A platform with foundations on the sea floor
radiation shield usually found on dry land reactors must be built for the first design, in which the
would be replaced by the water surrounding the generating station is above the surface. At depths
pressure vessel. To be safe, a minimum of about of 150 to 300 feet, it is possible to build this
100 feet of water between the top of the vessel structure using modern offshore oil platform
and the surface had been set; this put the bottom technology.
on which the reactor is placed at about 150 feet. A compact system of turbines and generators
The additional 50 feet of water overburden would will be arranged on the platform located immedi-
act to reduce the spread of radioactive debris in ately above the reactor so the platform legs can
the unlikely event of an accident involving the support the steam-carrying pipes. The turbines and
core. generators are of conventional design, requiring a
The oceanographic characteristics of the sea minimum of maintenance. The steam cycle is
south and southeast of Long Island were very closed, the steam of lower temperature and pres-
important from a viewpoint of currents as well as sure returning to a condenser located on the sea
climatic conditions. floor. Having concentric pipes, carrying the hot
More important for their potential to damage steam upward within the innermost pipe, reduces
underwater structures are the large number of heat losses to the sea.
storms and hurricanes in this area. However, when In the second design, the turbine-generator
a storm has reached as far north as New York, it system is installed underwater beside the reactor,
has usually diminished substantially in intensity. eliminating the platform. The gaseous environment
Except for the largest storms, little disturbance is in a caisson allows personnel to enter regularly to
produced at depths greater than 200 feet. operate the system, to perform maintenance, and
Interference with the maritime and fishing to respond to accidents. They can stay indefi-
industries was considered. The reactor must not nitely, inconvenienced only by the prescribed
impede existing shipping lanes, and the fishing decompression cycle when returning to the Sur-
industry must not be affected by contamination of face. Alternatively, the entire plant may be oper-
fish near the reactor. Further, system design plans ated by remote control, personnel entering only
have provided for a possible nuclear accident or occasionally for regular maintenance or in case of
explosion. accident.

VI-214

d. Construction To build either plant, large sediments, making excavation relatively inexpen-
sections must be preassembled on shore. Modules sive.
weighing up to 1,000 tons would be transplanted Embedded reactor design was studied recently
on barges, sunk in place, and assembled under- by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the
water by methods similar to those developed for Bechtel Corporation. They proposed an artificial
veWcular tunnel construction. island one-half mile from shore in which a caisson-
enclosed reactor is embedded to a depth of 130
e. Storm Threat There are no technological or feet. Total costs estimated by adding cost of
physical impossibilities in constructing a plant building an artificial island and the enclosing
having its generating equipment on the surface. caisson plus the cost of a conventional plant
However, the frequency of storms on the Atlantic ashore appear unsatisfactory.
Coast cannot be ignored, and provision must be A plant built for the ocean bottom is similar
made to evacuate and secure the station before except that the compact and efficient high temper-
large storms. The surface structure and equipment ature gaseous reactor is placed in an excavation at
is subject to the full force of the storm. The a depth of 150 to 200 feet. (The excavation could
structure could be made sturdy to withstand a be made by nuclear explosion like those of Atomic
500-year storm 6 0 but this is not economically Energy Commission Plowshare projects.) No cais-
feasible. son would be required, and water and sea floor
The plant having generating equipment on the sediments would serve as the radiation shield. The
ocean floor is protected from storms, as the largest turbine-generator system on the sea bottom at 50
storms would produce only minor disturbances at to 60 feet would be filled with air at ambient
150 to 200 foot depths. However, transporting pressure. At this depth, decompression is minimal,
manpower to and from the sea floor station, simplifying maintenance problems.
performing maintenance on the large turbines and
generators, and providing personnel quarters and h. Costs A rough cost comparison with an
subsistence would increase operating costs. onshore site can be formulated, although this is
not possible if an onshore site is not available. The
L Transmission Extra-high voltage cables in oil- first major savings are in land cost and construc-
filled pipes could be laid on the ocean floor to a tion of the radiation shield.
distribution net ashore or to undersea sites. How- Large units (500 to 1,000 tons) of the sub-
ever, the maximum length of cable would be about merged nuclear power plant would be built on
20 miles due to power losses; relay stations for shore, floated to the site, and sunk in place,
longer distances add considerably to the cost and making the cost of the turbine-generator equip-
difficulties. Both designs require a site at 200 feet; ment the same as for an onshore plant. The cost of
the mean distance of such sites from the U.S. excavation on the U.S. Atlantic Shelf could be less
Atlantic Coast is 50 miles. A 50-mile line with two than building a suitable island to support the
relays could be a very costly venture-an excessive plant. The other large item of expense is the
amount for power transmission. structure containing the turbine-generator system.

g. Embedded and On-Bottom Plants On the
Atlantic Coast or Gulf Coast distance between the 2. Future Needs
power plant and the shore must be reduced. Five
miles from the Atlantic Coast the depth averages With the continued need of nuclear power
about 60 feet. The reactor could be placed at the plant, to supply economical power, offshore sub-
required depth by embedding in the ocean floor. A merged plants must be given serious consideration.
hole 100 feet deep in the sea floor would provide a The foregoing example of a submerged nuclear
total depth of 160 feet. The sea floor of the U.S. power plant illustrates the feasibility of such a
Atlantic Continental Shelf is basically alluvial project. Added advantages which improve eco-
non-dc considerations are use of the ocean as a heat
60 A 500-year storm is the most severe storm statisti- sink, improving ecological situations, and avoiding
cally predicted to occur in such a period. thermal pollution problems ashore. An artist's

VI-215

concept of a submerged nuclear power plant is Power Project was not economically feasible under
shown in Figure 68. present conditions. However, the lJC said that the
------- --------- combination of the Passamaquoddy Tidal Power
Project with incremental capacity at Rauben
r Rapids on the Upper St. John appeared feasible. In
May 1961, the Secretary of the Interior was
X@
requested by the President to review and evaluate,
the report.
In December 1961, the Passamaquoddy Upper
_7% d
St. John Study Committee of the Department of
Interior had a load-and-resources study made in
the New
Brunswick, Canada-New England areas
(Figure 70). Its study clearly indicated that the
Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project would be
feasible if developed as a peakdng power plant sized
for 11000 megawatts instead of 300 megawatts as
studied in the IJC report. This is consistent with
Figure 68. Artist's concept of submerged nu-
clear power plant. (Westinghouse photo) current practices in the electric utility industry
that tends increasingly to use large thermal con-
ventional nuclear electric generating units to meet
B. Power from Ocean Energy the base load and to use conventional and
pumped-storage hydroelectric power to meet peak
1. Tidal Power demands. The study concluded that the project
was economically feasible (benefit-cost or B/C
a. Current Status The concept of harnessing tides ratio of 1.27/1.0) and should be initiated.
as a -commercial source of electrical power has
been studied by several countries in close proxim- In order to validate the recommendations, a
ity to large tidal channels, specifically in France, review of power values used in the Department of
Australia, Siberia, Canada, and the United States. the Interior report was made by the Federal Power
One example dramatizing feasibility of such a Commission at the request of the Bureau of the
project is the International Passamaquoddy Tidal Budget. Due to the then-lower power values
Power Project (Figure 69) between Maine and New published, the benefit-cost (B/C) ratio dropped
Brunswick. from 1.27/1 to 0.89/1. As a result, further action
on the project was stopped.
(1.) Passamaquoddy An eminent American engi-
neer, Dexter P. Cooper, proposed a plant in 1919 (2.) Other Tidal Developments The only actual
to harness the high tides in the Passamaquoddy development for tidal electric power under full-
area. Electric power was to be generated by scale construction is the LaRance Tidal Project in
building dams and sluiceways in the openings into France, the largest such project in the world. It has
the Bay of Fundy and a powerhouse between an initial power installation of 240 megawatts in
Passamaquoddy @Bay and Cobscook Bay. The 24 turbine sets, and could have an ultimate
proposal lay dormant until 1956 when the Inter- installation of 320 megawatts. It represents the
national Passamaquoddy Engineering Board was continued effort of French engineers over a
appointed jointly by Canada and the United 20-ye-ar period to harness the tides at San Malo
States. The board detern-dried that a tidal power where ideal conditions exist-a narrow estuary
project could be built and operated in the Passa- with a tidal range of IN meters (about 44 feet).
maquoddy area and that a two-pool arrangement The LaRance Tidal Project is operated for peaking
was best suited for the site and water conditions of capacity or energy. Since the units are reversible,
Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays. (Figure 69.) the project is designed to take maximum advan-
In April 196l'the International Joint Commis- tage of the flood and ebb tides to supply power to
sion (IJC) declared that the Passamaquoddy Tidal the French electric system.

VI-216

Figure 70
PEAK ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND ESTIMATES FOR 1960,1970, and 19801

1960 1970 1980
Peak Peak Peak Re- Require-
Demand Demand Demand serves ments
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

UNITED STATES
Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 920 1,390 167 1,557
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, -
Rhode Island, Connecticut . . . . 5,820 9,740 15,170 1,820 16,990
Upper New York State . . . . 4,900 8,800 12,900 1,548 14,448

CANADA

New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . 227 520 1,190 178 1,368
Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . 258 610 1,460 219 1,679

TOTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,780 20,590 32,110 3,932 36,042

Obtained from the Federal Power Commission and the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission. Peak loads are
expected to occur in December.
Source: Department of the Interior, The International Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project and Saint John River,
United States and Canada, Load and Resources Study, Report to Passamaquoddy-Saint John River Study Committee
(Washington: Department of the interior, 1961), p. 2.

b. Future Needs The U.S. electric power indus- 2. Other Ocean Power
try needs economical peak capacity to satisfy
future demands. In the New England area, the a. Current Status Several concepts have been
Passamaquoddy project, if economically feasible, suggested to harness natural ocean energy of
could- contribute to peak power needs. Re- waves, currents, thermal gradients, and geothermal
evaluation of this project should be made, con- sites. The best known devices to harness ocean
sidering recreational values. Techniques developed energy on a small scale have been in use for
by the Atomic Energy Commission in Project years-bell buoys and whistle buoys, simple mech-
Plowshare to reduce dam construction costs also anisms that convert ocean wave energy to sound
should be evaluated. energy. A few other small test projects have been
Recreational aspects of the Passamaquoddy conducted, but no significant technical break-
Tidal development-Passamaquoddy Bay and throughs have been accomplished.
Cobscook Bay, where the Passamaquoddy Tidal Ocean waves, generated mostly by winds,
Power Project would be located-offer a panorama possess tremendous kinetic energy. A four-foot
of water and scenic views complemented by the wave striking the coast every 10 seconds expends
Fundy Isles of Campobello, Deer Island, and more than 35,000 horsepower per mile of coast-
Grand Manan. line, but only an extremely small fraction is
The power project itself would be the principal useable. In an attempt to harness such energy on
attraction to tourists. Operation of this engineer- the Algerian coast, waves are funneled through a
ing marvel would feature the rise and fall of the V-shaped concrete structure into a reservoir. Water
tides, the impounding of water in two natural flowing from the reservoir operates a turbine to
pools, navigation locks for unrestricted movement generate power.
of boats,. emptying and filling gates, and power Temperature differences between surface and
transmission. deeper waters are a potential source of energy.

VI-217
333-091 0-69-18

N E W B R U N S W I C K

St.George

M.g

PASSAMAQUODDY
V,
SLAnd S

BAY,

IF G
HIGH POO L P r,
*4

PENDLEYON
PASSAGE

0 C E AN BAY
DEER ISLAND
0 @OF
'A
POTENTIAL FUNDY"
SECOND E 0
POWER 9
%
IF G WATAM
POWERHOUSE
COBSCOO -BAY FIRST 10 FO FILLING GATES
POWE Eastper 1@ EMPTYING' GATES
PLANT
@t-_ LO C A
A,
L,OW POOI

iNTERNATIO441. JOINT COMMISSION
Lubet PASSAMAQUODDY TIDAL POWER SURVEY
TIDAL POWER PROJECT
SELECTED PLAN
GENERAL ARRANCEMENT
QUO (MODIFIED BY DEPARTMENT OF THE @4TERIIBR),
J, N\ July 1963

Figure 69. Source., Department of the Interior, The International Passamaquoddy Tidal Power
Project and Upper Saint John River Hydroelectric Power Development, Report to President, 1963.

VI-218

However, practical utilization is not likely to be nation to do so. It is technically feasible to design
competitive except where thermal gradients are and build an underwater nuclear reactor plant. The
large and near the consumer. One power 'plant cost effectiveness of such a system depends on
applying this principle near Abidjan in West Africa many factors-site, distance from land, depth of
has been under development for several years but water, local use, and consideration of such advan-
is not yet in operation. tages as thermal effect for ecological benefits and
safety to the populace.
b. Future Needs Power generation from waves,
currents, thermal gradients, geothenrial sites, and Recommendations-
other ocean sources offer potential. Continuing Proceed with a program to construct and operate
effort should be applie d to improve our capability as a National Project an Experimental Continental
to exploit these potential power sources. Shelf Submerged Nuclear Power Plant in the
ocean.
C. Conclusions Periodically evaluate the feasibility of a tidal
power project, particularly in the New England
A tidal power plant is technically feasible under area. The funding of this project, if proven
special geographical conditions to meet peaking economically acceptable, should be by private
powe .r requirements. The New England Passama- capital- The Federal Government should assist in
quoddy Bay area offers the most logical U.S. site such areas as navigation, safety,. and recreation.
for such a propo- sed project. Implement a continuing study proj ect to moni-
The role of nuclear power systems in the @or'progress, and seek technical and economical
exploration and exploitation of the sea is as means to generate large amounts of power from
certain as man's ability to develop the technology tides, waves, currents, thermal gradients, ocean
to utilize the ocean environment-and his determi- floor geothermal wells,'and other ocean sources.

VI-219

Commercial recovery of bromine from seawater, 1933; magnesium from seawater, 1941
Introduction of nylon purse seine, 1956-58 ,
First 1 million gal. per day clesalting plant, Freeport, Tex., 1961
First city to use seawater for water supply (2.6 MGD), Key West, Fla., 1967
0 U.S. Government approval of FPC, 1967 Sea Level
0............................................................................ ..............................

20 First workable scuba, James, 1825
33 CONSHELF 1, 1 wk., Sept. 1962
36 CONSHELF 11, 1 mo., June 1963
50 First oil well offshore, bevond siqht of land, La., 1948

85 CONSHELF 1, 5-hr. work day, Sept. 1962
90 - CONSHELF 11, 1 wk., June 1963
100 - 100 "Aqualung," Cousteau & Gagnan, 1942 (approx. 100')

165 CONSHELF 11, work camp, June 1963
192 Sealab 1, 10 days, July 1964
200 First at-sea saturation dive, Stenuit, 1 day, Sept. 1962
200 - 205 Sealab 11, 45 days, Aug.-Sept. 1965
220 Scuba dive, Dumas, Oct. 1943
243 Squalus recovery, 1939
250 Oil production-California 1961
300 - 285 Oil production-Gulf of Mexico, 1966
328 CONSHELF 111, 22 days, Sept. 1965
340 Oil production-Gulf of Mexico, 1967
400 - Co' 432 open sea saturation, Stenuit & Lindbergh, 48 hrs., June 1964
560 525 Oil well repair, 25 min., Sept. 1964
0, ;@
600 - '(51 1P, 630 Exploratory oil well-Gulf of Mexico, 1965
0 T Diver lockout from Deep Diver, May 1968
!,3. 700
0
;1- 835 Navy lab.saturation with excursion to 1,100', Feb. 1968
1000 - 1,000 _Open sea bounce dive, Keller, 1962
Lu Navy/Duke labsaturation, Dec. 1968
uj 'o
LL 1,300 Exploratory oil well-Santa Barbara channel, 1968
1 1tP.
i:t V96
a- 019
Lu
2000 - 2000'
2,500 H-bomb recovery, April 1966
0 3,028 "Bathysphere," Beebe & Barton, 1934

4,000 Deepstar 4000-500th dive, Nov. 1968
0
0
0-
5000 - '@P
01- P 6,000 Alvin, April 1965

8,310 Deepquest, Feb. 1968
8,400 Trieste recovery of portion of
Thresher, June 1963
10,000- 10,000' 12,000 Scorpion located, 1968
13,287 FtVRS-3, 1954

,-65,
.20,000 01116@6110 il)s 20,000'
-11'ee /
36,000 Deep Trenches 35,800' Deepest
dive by man,
2% of Bottom Are Trieste, 1960
a/

Landmarks in the D evelopment of Ocean Technology
13,2t

VI-220

Chapter 7 National Projects for Marine and Undersea Development

A series of National Projects in the 1970's is 1. RELATIONSHIP OF NATIONAL PROJECTS
recommended to help assess and develop the most TO THE DEVELOPMENT CYCLE
economical methods for this Nation to advance
into the oceans and to provide a springboard for It is suggested that the Ten-Year Program of
continuing developments in the period 1980 to Undersea Development can achieve technological
2WO. The United States can and should be the progress more rapidly by integrating fundamental
unquestioned world leader in ocean technology technology development with a series of national
well before the turn of the century. facilities, programs, and projects generically called
Extensive new benefits from the oceans will National Projects. National Projects will help
require hard work, and not all will be immediately advance fundamental technology, broadening the
apparent. Unfortunately, today, most marine oper- base for better future utilization of the ocean
ations are restrained by tradition and outmoded environment. Accomplishment of these projects
technology. A bold, challenging, and carefully will give incentive and support to numerous
planned marine engineering and technology pro- subsystem and component developments. The
gram is essential to the national goal of establish- knowledge, experience, and confidence gained win
ing the capability for exploring, occupying, utiliz- enable the design, construction, and operation of
ing and managing the oceans. The series of many operational systems. These will produce
National Projects will assist materially in develop- manifold expected benefits-economic, social,
ing the capability to reap the ocean's potential political, scientific, and military.
benefits and to establish a foundation for future The sequence of steps in Figure I suggests that
national growth. numerous interchanges and feedbacks will

NATIONAL PROJECTS

Fundamental Technology Subsyst rn and Component Development

Fected Benefits Operational`Z4sterns

Figure 1. Simplified nwrine technology depelopment cycle.

VI-221

strengthen the entire cycle. Subsystem and compo- D. Operational Systems
nent developments will make possible new opera- Operational systems will be built by the inter-
tional systems. Expected benefits have been a ested group and operated to achieve expected
primary concern in selecting these particular
National Projects. It is difficult to foresee and benefits. For example, a commercial firm might
define all the expected benefits; some endeavors establish a large scale shrimp raising operation for
will yield substantially greater benefits than origi- profit, based on advances in technology resulting
nally anticipated. History proves that new and from the national fisheries and aquaculture pro-
unexpected applications will evolve as technology gram.
expands. E. Expected Benefits

A. Fundamental Technology Expected benefits from each National Project
are highlighted in each project description. These
The encouragement and advancement of funda- benefits will accrue in many areas, including
mental technology is mandatory to provide the economic, social, political, scientific, and military.
knowledge base for expanded and improved ocean
operations. Upon this planners and engineers can 11. DESCRIPTION OF NATIONAL PROJECTS
make decisions on future programs and projects. The essence of each suggested National Project
In many cases this improved fundamental tech- is outlined on the following pages, together with a
nology will be directly applied to or further pictorial representation of the more significant
developed through the mechanism of National elements. The projects are described in some detail
Projects. but considerable additional studies and.trade-offs
must be conducted before a given project is
B. National Projects considered firm. It is expected that the advisory
committee recommended by the panel will review
National Projects is the generic name used to projects prior to initiation to recommend their
identify projects, facilities, and programs large in goals and sponsoring agency. National Projects
scale and best accomplished by a unified and have the following characteristics:
concentrated effort. Proper planning and execu-
tion of these projects often will facilitate applica- -Scope sufficient to engender widespread usage
tion of fundamental technology initially to sub- and support by many sectors of the economy.
systems and components and later to operational -Established in anticipation of future national
systems. Several projects have been selected for needs.
consideration which span the field of technology.
More details on these projects can be found in the -Challenging for a spectrum of technology and
latter part of this chapter. disciplines.
C. Subsystem and Component Development -Conservative enough to assure success.
New subsystems, component developments, -Capable of providing education and training.
and pilot developments will be undertaken by -Generally in need of major U.S. Government
government, industry, and the academic commu- participation.
nity. These tasks may be performed at a facility
provided by a National Project or by application These National Projects have been developed,
of information and experience originating from a reviewed, and evaluated with emphasis on, the
project. Results will supply information, experi- ultimate expected benefits, avoiding projects that
ence, skills, and confidence applicable to opera- would be mere spectacular performances. The
tional systems. The responsibility and cost of a primary orientation of some projects is industrial,
task will be borne by the interested group or while others are directed more toward military,
mission agency. scientific, and regional needs.

VI-222

Several projects include the need for facilities extensive investigations to understand the environ-
which the Federal Government will establish and ment, develop less expensive equipment, or im-
continue to operate in close coordination with prove procedures for undersea operations.
industrial and acadernic communities. Where suit- It is anticipated that industrial groups would
able facilities already exist, the project will utilize initiate projects that essentially are commercial
them to advance ocean technology and engineer- operations, to be assisted by the Federal Govern-
ing. ,All National Project facilities will be available ment in ways appropriate to the particular project.
to interested parties on a cost-reimbursement Expected primary and secondary beneficiaries of
basis, affording an econonfical means to conduct various projects are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
LIST OF NATIONAL PROJECTS

Beneficiaries
(P-Primary S-Secondary)
National Projects Industry Federal Regions Science.
Government

National Undersea Facilities
1. Fixed continental
shelf laboratory S P S S
2. Portable continental
shelf laboratories P S S S
3. Mobile undersea
support laboratory S P S
4. Seamount station S P S
5. Deep ocean stations P S
National Marine Programs
6. Pilot buoy network S P S S
7. Great Lakes resto-
ration program S S P S
8. Resource assay equip-
ment development program P S
9. Coastal engineering and
ecological studies program S P S
10. Fisheries and aquacu I- ,
ture program P S S
National Marine Projects
11. Experimental conti-
nental shelf submerged
nuclear plant P S
12. Large stable ocean
platform S S P
13. Long-endurance explora-
tion submersibles with
20,000-foot capability S S P
14. Prototype regional pollu-
tion collection, treat-
ment, and processing system P S P
15. Prototype harbor develop-
ment project S P

VI-223

1. FIXED CONTINENTAL SHELF LABORATORY
The U.S. capability to perform useful tasks in the sea is limited by sea keeping capabilities of surface
support vehicles. In an area of such high work concentration as an offshore oil field an economic and
effective support facility, in the 200- to 2,000-foot depth range would be fixed on the bottom.
The design of the Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory suggested by the panel should include one
atmosphere living and working quarters complemented by specially configured sections which can be
pressurized to support divers performing long endurance saturation dives. An exit and entrance lock for
easy access to the undersea work area and the pressure complex for comfortable decompression are
needed. Logistic support for crews of 15 to 150 men will be supplied from shore, surface umbilicals, or
submerged power sources. Additional support can be achieved via support submersibles with a mating
capability.
A diver is uniquely suited to perform routine maintenance and repair functions necessary in offshore
oil fields and to support mining, fisheries, and undersea test ranges. The laboratory will provide in an
economical and timely manner the large amount of underwater operating time needed to evaluate
undersea concepts. In addition, much beneficial technology will be gained for the future development of
manned undersea military stations.

2. PORTABLE CONTINENTAL SHELF LABORATORIES
Exploration and resource development of the total continental shelf dictate the need for several
Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories for manned habitation to 2,000-foot depths. Similar in many
ways to the fixed station, a portable laboratory allows the utilization of a broad ocean area with a rela-
tively small number of portable habitats. With the ability to deballast and be towed to another location,
these laboratories, capable of supporting from 5 to 75 men, will provide comfortable one atmosphere
living. Divers will be able to operate from and decompress in the pressurized section.
The three laboratories proposed will be funded initially by the U.S. Government. Government
agencies, private industry, and scientific institutions will be able to utilize the facilities on a cost
reimbursement basis for scientific tasks or resource development. The flexibility of the portable concept
for resource exploration and development provides access to all continental shelves. Military use could
include training, logistics, and technology development as well as quick reaction monitoring in areas
requiring intense surveillance.

NATIONAL PROJECTS

1. Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory
2. Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Survey equipment Fish survey methods
Decompression techniques Fish attraction methods
Helium speech unscrambler Artificial upwelling
Coastal ecology Foundation techniques
Soil mechanics Geophysical sampling methods
Group interactions Submerged submersible support
Diver suits and tools Pilot underwater fuel storage
Toxic materials Submerged oil well completion methods
Navigation and positioning In-bottom tunneling and lock construction
Power sources Mating of transfer vehicle to habitat
Corrosion and fouling prevention Mid-depth pipeline support
Underwater viewing Local resource surveys
Anchoring and mooring devices Experimental dredging techniques
Data handling Underwater maintenance techniques
Environmental considerations Underwater logistic support

VI-224

Operational Systems Expected Benefits

Economic Economic
Bottom based fishing system Fishing
- Attraction devices - Reduced harvesting costs
- Pumping to surface - Selective harvest
- On-site processing - Conservation
- Artificial upwelling - Market demand
- Improved quality of catch
Bottom based oil production system
- Drilling Petroleum and Minerals
- Completion - Lower off shore costs
-Crude treatment - Increased reserves
-Storage
Coastal activities
Ocean pipeline - Improved dredging
- Fresh water - Undersea construction industry
- Petroleum - Larger bulk carriers
- Chemicals - Freedom of terminal location
- Slurry - Feasible ocean pipelines
- Generally lower offshore costs for
Continental shelf mine services and activities
- Completely in bottom
- Peel im i nary. prc?cessi ng

Deep water (100-500 feet) dredge
social

- Dredging for channels minimized
- Greater recreation potential
- Reduced thermal pollution problem
- Reduced urban congestion
- Technology for coastal management

Economic-Social Political-Economic

Undersea petroleum tank farm - Food from the sea programs
- Protected access for U.S. industry to
Off shore bulk terminal shelf resources
- Increased raw material reserves
Nuclear station on shelf - Better international bargaining position
-Electricity on shelf definition
-Fresh water
-Safety

Scientific Scientific
Ocean monitoring station - Scientists in the environment
-Currents regardless of diving qualification
- Pollution - Data
-Nutrients More reliable
-Fish populations More easily collected

Military
Undersea command and control system Military
Improved undersea capability
Stronger industrial and manpower base
Concealment and hardness

VI-225

L-7

Figure 3. Fbced continental shelf laboratory.

'N4

Figure 4. Diver adjusting tow line on sea plow
used to bury undersea cables below ocean floor.
P@esence of man on the continental shelf is
necessary for conduct of many operations.
Divers will also be useful in resource recovery
operations, which will become increasingly im-
portant as terrestrial sources are depleted.
(American Telephone & Telegraph photo)
O'R

VI-226

k4i.

0
9@ -

Masbrzz- -v@

Figure 5. Portable continental shelf laboratory.

-----------

Figure 6. School of grunt with background
of staghorn coral. These fish are edible but
are not commercially fished; they may have
potential as food supply. A portable labora-
tory would allow a detailed study of the
species. (Photo by Bates W. Littlehales, (D
National Geographic Society)

VI-227

4@"
TWI,

Figure 7. Mobile undersea support laboratory.

Figure 8. School of migrating tuna. Following and
studying fish during migrations are necessary to
understand and improve fishery yields. (Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries photo)

VI-228

3. MOBILE UNDERSEA SUPPORT LABORATORY

The hostile interaction of the ocean surface with the air is the major limiting factor to effective ocean
support activities. A specially configured nuclear submersible vehicle capable of operating in the
1,000-foot depth range will be of great value in eliminating this difficulty for a wide variety of underseas
tasks.
The Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory will possess long endurance and a high degree of mobility
and maneuverability necessary for support and work missions. As a submerged support ship, it can
carry submersibles to mate with Fixed and Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories, seamount
stations, and other deeper ocean habitations for the purposes of effecting routine logistics, crew
rotation, and emergency support.A broad suit of operational instrumentation, manipulators, lights, and
observation ports, plus a diver lock-out capability will permit observing fish population densities,
resource exploration and development, salvage tasks, and insurance investigations.
Much beneficial technology from the construction of this submersible win be applicable to possible
future naval and commercial undersea capabilities. It will serve as an ideal test bed for instrumentation
and equipment development.

NATIONAL PROJECT

3. Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Survey equipments Fish population surveys in selected areas
Navigation Mineral surveys in selected areas
Anchoring and mooring Study of deep scattering layer
Environmental data acquisition Upwelling using waste heat from reactor
plus lation patterns in selected areas for
Most of the advanced fundarn I teehjxolegTder-- migration
velopments associated with theflixe"rid-Portable ollu n dispersal
Continental Shelf Laborato#6,
, , . tith the added data Use of su irsit s as part of an integrated fishing
and experience gained froffi moving from one marine system
environment to a /utine basis. Submerged saIv e preparation
Selected drilling fo oil\
Broad ocean data co action completely submerged
7 and using submersi6l@ft
ad Benefits oper#tfonal@_V"S_
Scientific I
Whenever the o server is remote from the area
under examin4ionj the question arises as to the
meaning and volic[hy of the samples and measure-
ments taken. T@husl this mobile undersea labora-
tory will provide ttfollowing'advantages:
I f__@
Physical Oceano rao y Bottom based fishing system,
Continental shelf min:e
Raise confidence ctor in oceanographic measure-
ments since by u of bmersibles associated with Bottom based oil fiel
the mobile laboratky o can actually view the
instruments working In general, the ;ile system developments and
benefits will be si I o those listed under the Fixed
Geological Ocean .ography\ and Portable C%5@ntiThtal Shelf Laboratories, the
Can Ole
take selective sarr s an hereby provide main differe6ce bptng that this mobile laboratory will
provid_a@Mforrnotiion in selected areas which pertain
%
A
m i!
lUft "di
o'" _
_b
sub Mb es a
tem
e
e, @ed.@l
%00

ctor inoc ear
P@bmersi b es
can actu,

m
'sa @
ples an
a more effective means to ob =ne@de ate.
--to-tZ reso e (oil, gas, ore,,Iish) of interest.
Biological Oceanography
At present, conventionally b_8
data is in doubt because of the difficulty of knowing
what samples are actually being taken.

VI-229

4. SEAMOUNT STATION

A natural evolution and extension of the Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory will be a Searnount
Station permanently fixed on a submerged seamount at a depth less than 2,000 feet. The station,
capable of supporting a crew of from 10 to 50 men for long periods, will receive power from a nearby
nuclear reactor.
Because of its size and cost, it is anticipated that the Seamount Station will be funded by the U.S.
Government and will be available to other Federal agencies, universities and private industry. Located
on a seamount such as the Cobb off the State of Washington, it can serve as a traffic and weather
monitoring station. It also will provide an ideal station for taking geophysical data and the operational
testing of broad ocean surveillance and data collection systems.
Many tasks and experiments would be programmed for the Seamount Station. One task of
considerable interest is the establishment of a secondary station tunneled into the bedrock below to
provide additional living space and work area. The tunneled area could provide lock-out facilities for
both divers and submerged vehicles. Experience gained in tunneling will provide technology of value to
subsea petroleum and mineral production.

NATIONAL PROJECT

4. Searnount Station

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Open ocean
- Fish surveys
- Attraction techniques
Group interactions - Upwelling
Long range communications Diver installed transducers
Information handling --t-we-laying and protection
an
Environmental data acquisitio SfQ19 and bmarine tracking
Soil mechanics Geoph@tica
'1@aaivity measurements
p1=Us/1'L1 Data transmis@ion
e of f aTental technology listed Nuclear plant at@@ pport deeper stations
Continuaric a 4ep h to su
under Fixed and Potiabi Continental Shelf Labora- on\
tories Tsunami measure t
Submerged tunnell
//7 s\
pe -
Ex ct@d Benefits Operatiiornaf@'_'
sy'stems
Legal and Political, Ocean weather statio
I mp rove k nbwl'f ge and confidence for inter- Ocean surveillance st
national negot' tio s on legal status of seamounts Command and control station
r
Scientific .I Undersea broad ocean support site
- Tsunamii\vvar@ing system
- Mid ocean tide measurements
- In situ laboratory
Militarv X I L ersea capability
- Generally impfQve und
- Extended sea 0ower\\
- Improved broa&"ansu rvei I lance
- Broadened ocean 0'rt independent
of surface
to

mer
I i n\9

7 in
_ aepenaent

VI-230

-7

Figure 9. Seamount station.

040S

Figure 10. Tsunamis generated by submarine
earthquakes or slides may strike with disas-
trous effect over thousands of miles, severely
damaging and tossing boats and even ships
hundreds of feet inland A seamoun t station
could provide valuable input to a tsunami
warning system. (ESSA photo)

VI-231

j
4W,

Figure 11. Deep ocean station.

Figure 12. Manganese nodules on ocean floor.
Recovery of metal-rich nodules will require
deep ocean accessfor mining operations. Dis-
tance between reference marks on line is about
one yard. (Bureau of Mines photo)

VI-232

5. DEEP OCEAN STATIONS

Utilizing the technology and techniques developed for shallower facilities, Deep Ocean Stations will be
established on the continental slope, on the midocean ridge, and in the deep ocean up to 20,000 feet.
Continental slope and midocean ridge stations will be in depths of about 8,000 feet and will be
autonomous facilities supported by their own nuclear power plants. Accommodating crews of from 10
to 50 men at one atmosphere and supported by deep diving submersibles, these stations will be located
in unique geographical areas. The deeper 20,000-foot depth station will serve to advance fundamental
technology for understanding and utilizing the deep ocean.
These stations should be made available to the scientific community and private industry to pursue
scientific or resource development programs. These stations will serve to increase the Nation's fund of
basic knowledge while evaluating the economic and military significance of deep ocean systems. As an
example, deep ocean stations will be required if we are to develop techniques for deep ocean petroleum
production and the mining operations for copper and nickel nodules abundant in certain areas of the
deep ocean.

NATIONAL PROJECT

5. Deep Ocean Stations
-Continental Slope
-Midocean Ridge
-Abyssal Depths

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Small group interactions Open ocean surveys with submersible vehicles
operated from station
Materials and structures Work tasks with submersibles
nsducer placement
Construction techniques
a ing and protection
Buoys and moorings hic sampling
Ship and su tracking techniques
High pressure sealing t W as
Geophysical ac easurements
Buoyancy control Logistic support t M es
- Personnel exch
- Supplies
- External main an

Acoustic measureme ents and effect of
different depths
peted Benefit. Operatioi Systems

Legal and Polit ocean surveillance station
Improvelkno A-4 and confidence for inter-
national negotia s@on legal status of continental Deep undersea broad o pport site
slope, ocean ridge*;a- abyssal depths Command and contr ion

Scien tific

In situ laboratory
M

Military
Deep broad ocean undersea supporfir-

Improve understanding of tactical ad a a
of three-dimensional naval operations

VI-233

6. PILOT BUOY NETWORK

An ever increasing demand for oceanographic data and global weather prediction information has
accompanied the increased use of the ocean. A network of data-gathering buoys will provide information
required to utilize more fully the sea and understand and predict the influences of the oceans on global
climate and weather.
The Pilot Buoy Network program is the logical next step in the development of a world-wide system.
Included in this program will be development of buoys to support sensors and withstand sea forces, a
buoy service ship including a handling system to launch and implant buoys, and a sensor suit requiring
minimum maintenance and repair. Techniques and developments in the areas of deep ocean anchoring,
improved instrumentation, system reliability, and data transmission will be undertaken.
Meaningful engineering information for maritime, oceanographic, fishing, and resource development
industries will be generated. In addition, the engineering developments generated in the pilot program
will provide technology which can be applied to other national ocean programs.
The Pilot Buoy Network will be tied into existing data centers maintained by military, space, airline,
and maritime groups. This effort will complement other national programs for rapid taking, sorting,
evaluating, disseminating, and storing data to assure safer and more economical operations on land as
well as at sea.

NATIONAL PROJECT

6. Pilot Buoy Netwo rk

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Long life power systems Buoy handling and maintenance

Corrosion resistant materials ar ous anchoring concepts

Anchoring and mooring devic didate
ents
Environmental data acqui getechniques
Data ssion techniques
Information handlin Materia

Buoy spacing
E44@ Benefits Operatio

Scientific

Acquisition of that will improve weather Complete system o buoys
prediction
-Al
World buoy system
Acquisition of tific data to increase greatly
knowledge oceans and the Special purpose buo stems for selected areas
atmosphere of interest

Economic- ilita

Provides aluable navigation aid

-Political K,
Social

Provides a program satisfy eeds of many
Federal agencies

The world buoy system will establish a
for international cooperation

VI-234

Figure 13. Pilot buoy network.

;-Z

Figure 14. Above, hurricane winds battering
the Florida shore. Below, storm damage to a
shore residence. Improved weather forecasting
and storm warning on land or sea require data
gathered simultaneously from hundreds of
locations on the world's oceans. (Upper photo
by Otis Im boden, Q National Geographic
Society; lower photo by B. Anthony Stewart,
0 National Geographic Society)

W!,

VI-235

Figure 15. Great Lakes restoratio&

Figure 16. Down Ohio's Cuyahoga River glide
-like masses of detergent suds carrying
iceberg
large quantities of nutrients to overly enriched,
severely polluted Lake Erie. (Photo by Alfred
Eisenstaedt, Life Magazine (D Time Inc.)

A-
Nor

77 77
V

54 -

77@,A,

VI-236

7. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION PROGRAM

Increasing populations, industrialization, and pollution have created within the 20th.century a decline
in fresh water resources. The fresh water resources of the Great Lakes and major rivers inust be
protected and controlled. The establishment of the Great Lakes Restoration Program will provide the
knowledge and technology necessary to reverse the disastrous trends of declining natural fresh water
resources. Pollution can be controlled through new abatement technology coupled with effective
legislation. These steps are necessary before a fresh water restoration program can be implemented.
Emphasis will be placed on basic ecological understanding of the Great Lakes. Possible restorative
actions might include algae removal, restocking, the introduction of various forms of beneficial plant and
animal fife, and artificial destratification.
Considerations must be made of the beneficial and detrimental effects of increased population centers
and their basic social needs. A complete cost-benefit analysis will be a logical first step. Techniques
successful in the Great Lakes will be applicable to other fresh water resources.

NATIONAL PROJECT

7. Great Lakes Restoration Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Pollution measurement Aeration techniques

Light transmission Outfall design

Air and oxygen solubility seo a itives

Fresh water ecology a ixing techniques

I r uctiGp o @ious forms of plant and animal
life
E ect of blo@@in\g ff nlight

Use of artificial botto tings

Use of thermal heat for p III

Filtering of inlet

Harvesting algae

E\ d Benefits Operati I ystems
@ec@
Economic All out program to lion /p the Great Lakes
Develop a whole n@ I d try of fresh water renovation Reservoirs and art' We akes for urban areas
7
Protect and enhance coa I operty values Control stati $to mbat unfavorable effects on
Social f sh la s
Provide additional fresh wa er are4ks ralea nough for Indu ' s to accomplish clean-up tasks, e.g.
recreation e ation of water
7@,A.
Artificial bottoms
Provide satisfaction that pollution I
s not a necessa Circulation
__Q f ddi

ge We ixing

t
t.
of
n od.,-,.%.
ff @@@n I ig h
0 ti
f @
r 0

/n.a fi, Yal
tio Is to
L,:sh w , lak,
a P@

t
;ati,

rV_
result of civilization and that the trend can be - Surface covers
reversed - Algae removal
- Destratification

VI-237

8. RESOURCE ASSAY EQUIPMENTD.EVELOPMENT PROGRAM

Before any meaningful national program to utilize the world's oceans can be effectively implemented,
precise surveys of the ocean must be conducted. Utilizing every resource which can be brought to bear
upon the problem, the United States must begin immediately to survey accurately the continental
shelves and deep ocean and measure and sample anomalies of interest.
The Resource Assay Equipment Development Program is a cornerstone for exploration, utilization,
management, and development of ocean' resources for commercial, scientific, and military programs. It is
considered that this program will provide the basic broad scale resource information necessary for
industry to plan and evaluate commercial operations realistically.

NATIONAL PROJECT

8. Resource Assay Equipment Development Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component.Development

Survey techniques Evaluate a variety of platforms
- Magnetic - Surface ships
- Acoustic - Submarines
- Gravimetric - Airplanes
- Towed and untethered - owe devices
ethered vehicles
Testing techniques
Evaluate se' 's r particular applications
Environmental considera oil
G
as
Navigation and positi Metals
Fish
Underwater viewi Aquifers

Data handling Evaluate sample extraction,eqvipments

Soil mechanics

E;--p-a4.d Benefits Operational Systems

Economic

d ake decisions con-
Provide data for in m U.S. continental shej urce assay
cerning exploitationpf *.Frn resources followed by s of slope, rise, and
deep ocean ,

Military

Provide data to assess status and availability of
T d
7
"7r"cu'a
Is

ifei-s

k A

critical raw materials

VI-238

A
A

Figure 17. Resource assay equipment develop-
ment.

Figure 18. ECHO soundings allow accurate depth
measurements from a transitory ship. Greatareas 0
of little known ocean bottom and the need to
evaluate resource potentials require yet more
sophisticated and advanced rapid survey equip-
ment and systems. (Coast and Geodetic Survey
photo)

VI-239

@,-" @W'
Z''
Figure 19. Coastal engineering
and ecological studie& @11N@ wror-

OR,
, 4'r,"VI

Figure 20. Storm wapes'damage to valuable beach front Assateague Island, Maryland, erosion
Of barrier beach, left, May 25,1961, tight, March 24,1962. (Coast and Geodetic Survey photos)

"clam
LN
".1 w""Olik
AP

W@
X@

VI-240

9. COASTAL ENGINEERING AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES PROGRAM

The persistent natural and man-induced coastal process, considered in light of requirements of a
growing population for living and recreational areas along the coasts, dictates that coastal zones be well
understood and carefully managed. Requirements for increased use of coastal lanes for transportation,
mining, fishing, and waste disposal complicate this multiple-use situation.
Systems solutions must be sought. Particularly, the national program to develop valuable waterfront
must concern itself with the possible disastrous effects of coastal development on the ecology of
marshes, rivers, estuaries, and the near ocean. This area includes the spawning grounds of the majority
of the ocean's living resource. Its natural balances are fragile and can be disastrously disarranged by
seemingly minute adjustments of marine ecology. Changes in water quality can make waters aesthetically
undesirable and unsafe for recreation.
The Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program stands as a major requirement for maxin-dzing
the benefits and utilization of coastal areas.

NATIONAL PROJECT

9. Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Power sources and machinery Outfall design
Materials Large scale mixing techniques
Tools Introduction of various forms of plant and animal life

Coastal engineering ects and U e of waste heat

Biomedicine 'Cal- ives
call-
hemLcall
Underwater viewing Applied coas eering
- Beach cre 4.0
Environmental conside', - Beach repla
Data handling s
Aeration technique

Coastal ecology

Soil mechanics d diment transport

Modeling techni u,
- Mathem
- HVdrauli
- Ecologic
E4*pipd Benefits Operation-N"'ns
Economic
Develop an entireIV h clustry of coastal and All-out program to cl U.S. estuaries and
estuarine water ren n
coastlines
Protect and enhance coa a pertyvalues
Stations for cc ter quality control
Social
Provide additional coastal areas c-, an or New in,,- r water quality renovatiop
recreation
alteration
Provide satisfaction that pollution is not a nece
result of civi I ization and that the trend can be
reversed

VI-241

10. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE PROGRAM

. The pl@enomenal expansion of world population has challenged the ability to produce and distribute
protein vitally needed for nutrition and health. A national program utilizing the combined resources of
science and engineering to increase the quantity and quality of marine life is a necessity.
Some knowledge has been gained in increasing marine population growth and shortening the life cycle
of marine organisms in controlled experiments. The continuation of this effort requires the compilation
of information on species' behavior and the development of scientifically based resource management
schemes. In addition, harvesting and processing technology in combination with distribution systems
must be developed, with regard to both natural marine populations and controlled aquacultural projects.
Available resources such as waste heat, chemical additives, and natural nutrients can be coupled with
predator control, species control and selection, and improved processing and distribution techniques to
derive from the ocean increased amounts of protein rich foods.

NATIONAL PROJECT

10. Fisheries and Aquaculture Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Fence effectiveness Feeding rates
Air screen
Chemical Harvesting methods
Nets
tives
Acoustic

Ecological engineering use o
- Environmental co
- Predator contr Small fish prot ethods
- Metabolic
Special feeding pri rvest

Selective breeding
;4-
Larva control

@i4ected Benerfits Operational Systems

Economic Fish farms for high-val _,ecies
The developme ot' n entirely new marine food - Lobster
industry - Clams
- Oysters
- Salmon
More stable 3nd reli to& rce of selected marine
products - Scallops
- Shrim
Better quality control Cr
finfish

s for low-cost protein

Mullet
Milk fish
Mussels

Farms for commercially usefu I algae

VI-242

N4@-p xn --s;,

N'.

-04.

Figure 21. Fisheries and aquaculture.

Figure 22. The world's growing food problems call for active
fisheries and aquaculture programs to help meet nutritional de-
mands of an expanding world population. (Photo by Terence
Spencer, Life Magazine (D Time Inc.)

VI-243

Figure 23. Experimental continental shelf sub
merged nuclear plant.

.7a

iFo

9".

Figure 24. A thickly populated coastal area The
increasing scarcity of Large, unpopulated areas
suitable for nuclear power stations will require
construction of plants in the sea. (Port of New
York Authority photo)

@e t4@"'

VI-244

11. EXPERIMENTAL CONTINEN[TAL SHELF SUBMERGED NUCLEAR PLANT

Generation of @arge quantities of power will be -required for the development of the resources of the
continental shelves. In addition, expanding population and industry require increasingly large amounts
of economical electrical power. The intensive development of coastal regions for living, recreational, and
commercial purposes greatly limit the availability of large tracts of land needed for nuclear power
generation facilities.
Shallow submerged areas where adequate cooling capacity is available provide ideal near shore
locations for the establishment of submerged nuclear facilities. The development of an Experimental
Continental Shelf Submerged Nuclear Plant will prove the feasibility and cost effectiveness of placing
future large power generating stations in close proximity to major urban areas.
Other benefits expected to be derived from this experimental facility are support for subsea oil and
minerals production, aquaculture and continental shelf laboratories. Power generation for deeper ocean
tasks will evolve logically from the technology developed in this program.

NATIONAL PROJECT

11. Experimental Continental Shelf Submerged Nuclear Plant

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Soil mechanics Comparison of operation at one atmosphere versus
ambient pressure
Underwater construction methods
Use of waste heat for useful applications:
Upwelling
Handling heavy loads at sea Warming swimming area
Materials Melting harbor ice
quaculture
Combi desalting plant with nuclear plant
Exp@@ed*enef its '@'"Y'altk-nal Systems
Economic-Social Large municipal s;ta@ion P to 500 megawatts)
located at sea pro ld@i
Technical soluti n t, the thermal pollution problem - Power 19
that presen y t reatens many rivers and estuaries - Fresh er
and will W'ilh ti e threaten coastal waters - Warm t to assl
Source of po:er qnd fresh water close to source of Aqu ult
demand Ice r oval
Recreation
Availability o wa@ a heat to improve other activities Modest size (2,000 to 10,000 kilowatts) underwater
Re'crea power source to sup exploitation of shelf
Ion
Harbor @7 r moval resources
- Oil and Gas/
Release valuab e ine r more people-oriented - Mining
uses - Fishi@ng
- Survei n ation

Economic-Military
ress vulnerable system for P r ge ion and
fresh water

Power for future commercial and military
undersea operations
@de
F,a
ti nt the
eate
yt r t wate@r
h ti @eh we "t'"I'm
't
ac it
em
@-a' noerfor more @Pop'ie em:eci
-or

y
'st f p r ge
em _on and

VI-245

12. LARGE STABLE OCEAN PLATFORM

Scientific investigations and resource exploration in remote ocean areas will benefit greatly from a
multipurpose Large Stable Ocean Platform. The utilization of semi-submersible drilling platforms by the
petroleum industry has proved that this all-weather concept is technically sound and economically
acceptable.
Self-propelled, relatively insensitive to adverse sea conditions, and large enough to support the heavy
equipment necessary for deep ocean work, the Large Stable Ocean Platform will provide a highly flexible
multipurpose island which can remain on station in the open ocean for long periods of time.
Similar platforms located for resource recovery or military considerations, could also provide at-sea
bases for weather monitoring, aircraft traffic monitoring and control, and surface and subsurface vessel
replenishment. By virtue of its great size, stability, storage capacity, and long endurance station keeping
capability, the Large Stable Ocean Platform will be a mid-ocean facility of great military, commercial,
and scientific significance.

NATIONAL PROJECT

12. Large Stable Ocean Platform

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Fabrication techniques Deep ocean drilling

Wave motion dynamics Support a wide range of oceanographic investigations
in broad ocean areas
Mobile breakwaters theory
Resource surveys
Damage stability criteria Oil and gas
inerals
Concrete construction

Larg deep 0, eavy lifts

Y
E x p a n e f i t s Op\.1'at. ",I Systems
41

Social Off sh re airport
Move activities a4;,orom the coastline 0
ff sh:re city
Scientific
Mid ocean basing SV for he military
Provides valua$le me base platform for scientific
)@ _1 - Obt on
investigatic r's broad ocean areas
- Surveillance
Military - Logistic support
- Airfield
Provides knowl6 as to the usefulness of a mobile
ocean basing,,-- em. it would allow support of
operations in ar corners of the world without Fishing system with. t a facility to:
mak i ng the! c ment necessary when most
logistic suppo ovided from the land P o e
Provi a
Store U until pick-up by ship
Economic
Provides inexpensive to ort for as-yet Mining sy w top side facility to:
undefined ocean resour ing systems
P- ss ore
rovide power
Store product until picked up by ship

VI-246

A@ -7

Figure 25. Large stable ocean platform

Figure 26. Turbulent sea surface. Hazardous con-
ditions of working on the ocean surface will necessi.
tate development of large stable ocean platforms.
(Photo by Ellsworth Boyd)

VI-247

13. LONG-ENDURANCE EXPLORATION SUBMERSIBLES WITH 20,000-FOOT CAPABILITY

Effective utilization and management of the deep ocean must be based on thorough knowledge of the
environment. The 20,000-foot depth capability provides access to 98 per cent of the total ocean. bottom
area. Many military, scientific, and industrial programs could benefit from an ability to do useful work
for long periods in the deep ocean.
There is no substitute for human involvement in a remote environment. A long endurance capability
must be developed to operate effectively at great ocean depths.
Since the commercial value of the deep ocean areas is as yet undefined, the U.S. Government should
assume responsibility for the initial development of these submersibles. Technology created in this pro-
gram will have far reaching benefits not only in submersible technology. but also -in almost all other areas
of undersea exploration and usage.
Based on experience and expertise developed to date, the Long-Endurance Exploration Submersible
can be started immediately. The utilization of this submersible will benefit many ocean programs and
will be especially important to support subsea laboratories and stations.

NATIONAL PROJECT

13. Long-Endurance Exploration Submersibles
with 20,000-Foot Capability

Fundamental Technology SubsVstem and Component Development

Power sources and machinery Deep ocean resource surveys

Materials Acoustic propagation

su rv
Test facilities
surveys

rume
Navigation and positionin "j, E q u i p m`e hi %6-64' nt evaluation

Vehicle tools Navigational e noI

Communications

Underwater vie

Environmental 61 iderations

Buoyancy ma to- s

ted Benefits Operational Systems

Political Deep ocean station (cle 20,000feet)
Improved knowl confidence for international
0
negotiations status of deep ocean basins Military m esto

Scientific
Short term (f e1w days measurements Long t entific investigations
Military Su 16 traffic control
Improved understanding o it dvantages of
truly three-dimensional n Q e@ions

Economic
Improved technology available for a variety
yet-to-be-cletermined tasks

VI-248

Figure 27. Bottom of Romanche Trench at a depth
of approximately 24, 000 feet. Note tiny fish or
shrimp, four or five can be spotted by their shadows
on the bottom. A long-endurance exploration sub-
mersible with 20, 000-foot capability will help
uncover the many mysteries of deep ocean areas.
(Photo by Harold E. Edgerton)

N,
0.

Figure 28. Long-endurance exploration submersible
with 20, 000-foot capability.

M-
Mu
0-

VI-249
333-091 0-69-19

14. PROTOTYPE REGIONAL POLLUTION COLLECTION, TREATMENT, AND PROCESSING
SYSTEM

To date, one of the penalties of increased population and industrial centers has been intensified
pollution of rivers, estuaries, and bays. At the same time, requirements for fresh water and recreational
areas have been increasing. The construction of a Prototype Regional Pollution Collection, Treatment,
and Processing System will serve as an important step in a long range program to stem the disastrous
effects of pollution while providing additional fresh water and other usable products.
It is well within existing technical capability to design and construct this type of system. Conversion
of former waste products into usable products may wen serve to offset the costs of the system for
municipalities or public utilities.
The disposal of untreated or partially treated pollutants into fresh and salt water areas greatly reduces
their utility. As populations increase and available land areas diminish, space requirements for urban
pollution treatment systems will become more critical. Immediate implementation of this program is of
real importance to the national interest.

NATIONAL PROJECT

14. Prototype Regional Pollution Collection, Treatment,
and Processing System

Fundamental Technology SubsVstem and Component Development

Basic treatment technology Development of useful and marketable products

Contaminant measurement devices Rational division between primary industry treatment
and that performed by regional system
Coastal ecology --------------
,7 Fu
--777'7!, 72"In
Environmental considerations '.1 A@'

-ering
Coastal engine
. /A
Ex /-@')dnefit.
Pao" @i@nal Systems

Social-Economic Regional pollution c on. treatment and
Opening of man stal areas closed because of processing systems-'-
excessive po n

A technology tot-- ill save presently unpolluted
areas from a pollution

Reuse of mater at are presently discarded.
This is of in ng economic importance as
raw material as become more expensive
to extract

Creation of a new po equipment industry F
T
0:

Improved health and enjoyrn sent
and future generations

VI-250

Y-

Ile

Figure 29. Prototype regional pollution collection,
treatment, and processing system.

Aq
F

Figure 30. Typical urban water pollution. Growing
industry and increasing population burden local
waste treatment plants, making it necesswy as well
as economical to construct regional pollution col-
lection, treatment, and processing systems.
@k
(FWPCA photo) 14 -H

VI-251

-7-777

Figure 31. Arototype harbor development project.

411

41
'777 7@

Figure 32. A crowded, degenerated water-
fron t area. Ne w su pertan kers with deep
drafts and container ships with require-
ments for new cargo handling systems will
compel construction of new offshore har- D-
borfacilities, releasingformer waterfront
lands for urban development. (Portof
New York Authority photo)

VI-252

15. PROTOTYPE HARBOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

Growing international trade requires larger ships and more efficient handling systems. Antiquated
port -facilities severely limit the application of improved ship designs. New harbors and handling systems
must be developed and existing facilities improved. Private industry, stimulated by funds from various
levels of government, should take the lead in harbor development programs. -
A Prototype Harbor Development Project will serve as a model program upon which to create new and
improved techniques for cargo handling and storage, all-weather navigational aids, ship handling
concepts, fast and accurate record keeping, and data processing facilities. Additional benefits which win
derive from -the prototype harbor project will include new underwater construction techniques, -
increased knowledge of soil mechanics (of particular importance in the areas of anchoring and mooring),
and sediment stabilization technology. In addition, consideration will be given to the very important
problems relating to labor, urban population, pollution, and the economic impact on business.

NATIONAL PROJECT

15. Prototype Harbor Development Project

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Soil mechanics Methods of moving various dry cargoes by:
Underwater construction Pipeline
Conveyor
Coastal engineering Barge

Environmental data acquis'. Ir Uncle ro tachment methods

Anchoring and moor'- ces Off shore bul e

Various mobile bre ers

Underwater navigatio as

_;j
Benefits Operati-na s
M

Social-Econo Large, deep-draft dry bulk carriers

Minimize dr and associated harmful effects
Entire new port comp4ms remote from present
cities which have n7s m effect on coastline
Increased free rr,@ f port location
A technology t a ,--a11,1 s design of future systems Offshore bulk termi al's
V.-l-
to minimize co e conf I icts

Construction and oper considerably more
cost effective ships

More coastal areas available for ot
commercial and industrial uses

VI-253

Appendix A Acknowledgments

Many persons and organizations were contacted by panel members and staff during the preparation of
this report. Following are the names of those individuals who contributed through interviews, con-
ferences, submission of written materials, and review of report drafts.' Every effort has been made to
make this list inclusive and the panel apologizes for any inadvertent omissions. Although the report
reflects these contributions, the recommendations are those of this panel, arrived at after study of all
materials and comments.

Name Organization Name Organization
Abel, Robert B . .......... NSF-Sca Grant Program Coene, G.T. (R) ......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Allen, Robert C. . .U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory Compton, Frank .... North American Rockwell Corp.
Anderson, Richard ........ Battelle Memorial Institute Corel], Roger ............. The Oceanic Foundation
Andrews, Dan ........ Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Corley, C.B., Jr . ....... Humble Oil and Refining Co.
Arata ., Winfield ................ AIAA-Northrop Cotter, Edward ....... Delaware River Port Authority
Arnold, H.A. (R) ............. National Council on Coyle, Arthur J . ......... Battelle Memorial Institute
Marine Resources and Engineering Development Craven, John P. (C) ............. Navy Department
Aron, William (R) .......... Smithsonian Institution Cristen, Robert E. . U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory
Austin, Carl ............... Naval Weapons Center Culpepper, William B . ...... U.S. Navy Mine Defense
Bagnell, Fred (R) ........ Westinghouse Electric Corp. Laboratory
Bankston, G.C . ................... Shell Oil Co. Dalton, George F. MTS-General Electric Company
Barker, Samuel B . ........... University of Alabama Damskey, L.R . .................. Bechtel Corp.
Bascom, Willard (R) . Ocean Science and Engineering Inc. Davidson, W.H. . ..Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Corp.
Bates, Charles ........... Coast Guard Headquarters Davis, Berkley (R) ........ General Electric Company
Bavier, Robert N . ........ Yachting Publishing Corp. Davis, James ....... Wilmington (North Carolina) Port
Beek, Earl ........ Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Authority
Bennett, J. E . ....... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Dean, Gordon (R) ............... Bureau of Mines
Beranek, Leo (R) ........ Bolt, Beranek and Newman Dishman, MX . ................... Shell Oil Co.
Bermas, S . ...... Columbia Gas Systems Service Corp. Doig, Keith (R) ................... Shell Oil Co.
Bernstein, Harold (R) ....... DSSP-Navy Department Donaldson, Lauren .......... University of Washington
Beving, Lcdr. D.U .......... Naval Material Command Donner, Hugh ................... Marcona Corp.
Blake, F. Gilman ........ Chevron Research Company Duffy, Ben King ............. National Council on
Blanford, Russel. Staff, House Armed Services Committee Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Boatwright, V.T . ..... General D ynamics -Electric Boat Dunsmore, Herbert J . ............ U.S. Steel, Lorain
Boller, Capt. Jack W. USN (R) ...... Navy Department Eckles, Howard (R) ....... Department of the Interior
Bolton, G.H . .... Columbia Gas Systems Service Corp. Ela, D.K . ............. Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Booda, Larry ............... Undersea Technology Eliason, J. (R) ................. Battelle Northwest
Borop, Capt. J.D.W., USN .... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Elliot, Francis E. (R) ...... General Electric Company
Laboratory Ephraim, Frank G . ........ Maritime Administration
Boyd, Walter K . ......... Battelle Memorial Institute Evans, W. ........... Naval Undersea Warfare Center
Brauer, Ralph ........ Wrightsville Marine Bio-Medical Feil, George ................. Corps of Engineers
Laboratory Feldman, Samuel .......... DSSP-Navy Department
Breckenridge, R.A . ......... Naval Civil Engineering Flack, Newton D . .............. Cleveland Electric
Laboratory Illumination Company
Breslin, John .......... AIAA-Davidson Laboratory Fortenberry, LP ...... Tennessee Gas Transmission Co.
Britain, K.E . ............ Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co- Foster, William C. (R) ........... Ralston Purina Co.
Brown, G. Edwin (R) ... Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. Fries, Robert ............ Battelle Memorial Institute
Bugg, Sterling ..... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Frosch, Robert (R) .............. Navy Department
Burk, Creighton (R) ................ Mobil Oil Co. Full, Ray .................. Kishman Fish Company
Burkhardt, William . .Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Fulling, Roger (R) ... E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.
Bussmann, Charles ........... Undersea Technology Garrison, M.E . ......... Office of the Oceanographer
Cain, Stanley ............ Department of the Interior GascoiWne, Earl ................ Cedar Point, Inc.
Caldwell, Joseph ....... Coastal Engineering Research Gaul, oy D . .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Center-Corps of Engineers Germcraad, Donald ..... AIAA-Lockheed Missiles and
Carpenter, Cdr. M. Scott, USN . DSSP-Navy Department Space Company
Carsey, J. Benjamin ........ American Association of Geyer, Leo ............. AIAA-Grurnman Aircraft
Petroleum Geologists Engineering Co.
Carsola, Alfred ........... Lockheed California Co. Gillenwaters, T.R . ............. State of California
Cestone, Joseph ........... DSSP-Navy Department Gilman, Roger H . ...... Port of New York Authority
Chapman, Wilbert M. (R) ..... Van Camp Sea Food Co. Glasgow, James S . ........ Battelle Memorial Institute
Clark, Allen F . ............ Philadelphia Port Corp. Glass, Cdr. C.J., USCG ..... Coast Guard Headquarters
Clark, John ........ Lorain County Regional, Planning Gluntz, Marvin ......... Society of Naval Architects
Commission
Clark, Robert ................... Hayden, Stone
Clay, E.J ....................... Hahn and Clay (C), Consultant, denotes persons who provided broad
Clotworthy, John H . .......... Oceans General, Inc. policy guidance . and review; (R), Reviewer, denotes
Cloyd, Marshall P . ........... Brown and Root, Inc. persons who reviewed portions of panel report
Coates, L.D. (R) .......... Lockheed California Co. preliminary drafts.

VI-254

Name Organization Name Organization
Goehring, RAdm. Robert W. USCG ...... Coast Guard Koch, Robert 0 . ....... Texas Gas Transmission Corp.
Headquarters Konecci, Eugene .............. University of Texas
Gonnella, A.M . ................ Boeing Company Kozmetsky, George ............ University of Texas
Goodfellow, RAdm. A Scott USN ............ Naval Kraft, WW .... American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Material Command Krenzke,,Martin .... Naval Ship R&D Center, Carderock
Goodman, M.W . ........ Westinghouse Electric Corp. Kretschmer, T . .... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Goodwin, Harold L. (R) ..... NSF-Sea Grant Program Kruger, Frederick C. (R) ........ Stanford University
Gordon, William (R) .......... Bureau of Commercial Kuebler, Wolf .............. Northrup, Corporation
Fisheries Kumm, W.H . .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Gosser, Stuart ................. Cedar Point, Inc. Kylstra, Johannes ................ Duke University
Gould, Gerald .... Naval Underwater Weapons Research LaCerda, John ........ Florida Commission on Marine
and Engineering Station, Newport Sciences and Technology
Gould, Howard ........... American Association of LaQue, Francis L. (C) ....... International Nickel Co.
Petroleum Geologists Larson, Howard ............ Outboard Marine Corp.
Grosvenor, Gilbert ............ National Geographic Latham, William C . ........... National Geographic
Hahn, Welford G . ...... Saline Water Research Station LeDoux, John C . ........ Flow Corp. Nuclear Division
Halstead, Bruce W . ....... MTS-World Life Research Leigh, F. Donald .................. Shell Oil Co.
Institute LeMaire, Ivor P . ...... Naval Undersea Warfare Center
Hansen, Whitney ..... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Lesser, Robert ............ Lockheed California Co.
Harlan, William .......... Battelle Memorial Institute Lill, Gordon ......... MTS-Lockheed California Co.
Harvey, D. B . .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp. Link, Edwin A . .............. Ocean Systems, Inc.
Haydon,John ........ Oceanographic Commission of Litchfield, John H . ....... Battelle Memorial Institute
Washington Longfelder, J.H . ............... Boeing Company
Hayes, Earl .................... Bureau of Mines Lowe, B. James (R) ...... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Hedgepeth, Charles (R) ......... Ocean Systems, Inc. Lowe, Capt. G.H. USN ....... Navy Undersea Warfare
Heindemarm, T.E . .............. Boeing Company Center
Heinemann, E.H ............ General Dynamics, Inc. Lowry, Frank W . ................... L.M.B., Inc.
Heroy, William ................. Teledyne Corp. Lubinski, Arthur ...... Pan American Petroleum Corp.
Heuter, T.F . ................... Honeywell, Inc. Lubnow, Harold A . ........ U.S. Navy Mine Defense
Hodgman, Capt. J., USCG . . . Coast Guard Headquarters Laboratory
Hogge, Ernest A. ........ U.S. Navy Mine Defense Lundell, Ernest ...... AIAA-General Dynamics Corp.
Laboratory Luskin, H.T . ............... American Institute of
Holden, Donald ......... Society of Naval Architects Aeronautics and Astronautics
Holm, Carl H. (R) .... North American Rockwell Corp. Lynch, Capt. Edward, USN ........ Navy Department
Horton, Thomas F . ........... Oceans General, Inc. Lynch, John F . ................ Sea-Land Service
Howe, Richard J. (R) ..... Humble Oil & Refining Co. Lyons, Carl J . ........... Battelle Memorial Institute
Howley, Lee C . .... Cleveland Electric Illumination Co. MacCutcheon, Edward M . .... SNAME -Environmental
Hull, Seabrook .............. Ocean Science News Science Services Administration
Hunter, J.A. (R) ............ Office of Saline Water Macovsky, Morris S. (C) Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Huth, J.H . .......... Naval Ship Systems Command Mariott, Frank F . ....... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Irwin, John R . .......... Battelle Memorial Institute Markel, Arthur L . ............ Reynolds Submarine
Jackson, Charles B .......... MTS-San Diego Section Services Corp.
Jackson, Capt. L.L., USN ..... Atlantic Undersea Test Martin, George (R) .... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.
and Evaluation Center Martin, William R . .......... MTS-San Diego Section.
Jamieson, William M . ...... Battelle Memorial Institute Maxwell, Arthur ........ Woods Hole Oceanographic
Jasper, Norman H .......... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Institute
Laboratory McAnneny, A.W ............... Trunkline Gas Co.
Jenkins, Capt. Walter USCG ........... Coast Guard McDonald, Capt. C.A.K. USN (R) .... Navy Department
Headquarters McGinnis, Joseph ............. Ocean Systems, Inc.
Jentzsch, Richard A . ....... Lorain County Regional McHugh, J.L . ....... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Planning Commission McIlhenny, W.F. (R) ............ Dow Chemical Co.
Jones, Douglas ............. Office of Congressman McIntosch, Billy ......... McDonnell Douglas Corp.
Alton Lennon McLean, Noel B . ............... Edo Corporation
Jordan, Arthur ........ Cape Fear Technical Institute McLean, William (C) .... Naval Undersea Warfare Center
Jordan, Samuel ......... Westinghouse Electric Corp. McNitt, RAdm. R.W. USN ....... Navy Post-Graduate
Jorgenson, John H. (R) ........... National Security School, Monterey
Industrial Association Meloy, Thomas P . ..................... Melpar
Kane, Eneas D . ......... Chevron Research Company Mero, John L ............... Ocean Resources, Inc.
Kapland, Mitchell (R) Trident Engineering Associates, Inc. Meyers, Kenneth .......... Maritime Administration
Kavanaugh, Thomas . . National Academy of Engineering Miller, William 0 . ....... Lockheed Shipbuilding and
Keach, Cdr. Donald L. USN .......... Naval Material .Construction Co.
Command Minor, L.E . ............... Brown and Root, Inc.
Keim, Russell (R) .... National Academy of Engineering Moore, Donald (R) ..... Naval Undersea Warfare Center
Keller, Karl ....... Naval Ship R&D Center, Annapolis Moothart, K . ......... U.S. Navy Underwater Sound
Kelty, Kenneth .............. General Electric Co. Laboratory
Kennedy, A ................... Boeing Company Mourad, George A. MTS-Battelle Memorial Institute
Kies, Joseph A . ......... Naval Research Laboratory Mueller, Joan ................... Life Magazine
Kildow, Alfred G . ........... American Institute of Munk, Walter .... Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Aeronautics and Astronautics Murphy, RAdm. Charles P. USCG ......... SNAME-
Killgore, A.B . .............. Brown and Root, Inc. Coast Guard Headquarters
Kimball, Keith ............... General Electric Co. Myers, H.E . ......... Mobile Chamber of Commerce
Kinne,lvan L . .......... Battelle Memorial Institute Nakatsuka, Lawrence ......... Office of Senator Fong
Kirk, Will W . ............ International Nickel Co. Nash, Harold .......... U.S. Navy Underwater Sound
Kirkbride, Chalmer G. (C) ............. Sun Oil Co. Laboratory

VI-255

Name Organization- Name Organization

Nelson, J . .......... Naval Undersea Warfare Center Schuerger, Richard G. ........... Cleveland Electric
Nelson, Thomas W . ............. Gulf Publishing Co. Illuminating Co.
Niblock, Robert W . ............. Oceanology Week. Schuh, Niles ..... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory
Nicholson, Capt. William H. USN ........ DSSP-Navy Sezack, Stanley ..... Naval Applied Science Laboratory
Department Shaw, Frederick G . ..... Port of New York Authority
Odom, William T. (R) ....... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Shaw,John .............. International Nickel Co.
Laboratory Shaw, Milton ........... Atomic Energy Commission
Olson, V.A . ........... Society of Naval Architects -Sheets, Herman ..... SNAME-Electric Boat Company
Orlofsky, S. (R) ............. Columbia Gas System Shigley, C. Monroe (R) .......... Dow Chemical Co.
Service Corp. Shumaker, Larry ..... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.
Osborne, J . ......... Department of Transportation Shykind, Edwin B. (R) ......... National Council on
Osri, Stanley M . ...... American Institute of Chemical Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Engineers Siebenhausen, C.H. (R) .............. Shell Oil Co.
Owen, Lynn W., Jr . ........ U.S. Navy Mine Defense Sieder, E. (R) .............. Office of Saline Water
Laboratory Simons, Manley ......... Marine Technology Society
Paden,John ............ Department of the Interior Simons, Merton (R) .......... Phillips Petroleum Co.
Page, Rye B ........... Greater Wilmington Chamber Singer, S. Fred . . ;........ Department of the Interior
of Commerce Singleton, Leon ............... Gulf Publishing Co.
Pahnstrom, William ..... National Georgraphic Society Small, Fred ............ Office of the Oceanographer
Parker, John M . .......... American Association of Smeder, RAdm. O.R. USCG ........... Coast Guard
Petroleum Geologists Headquarters
Parkinson, John B . ..... AIAA-National Aeronautics Smith, Blakely .................. Houston, Texas
and Space Administration Smith, Cdr. Frank USN ........... Atlantic Undersea
Paszyc, Alex ...... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Test and Evaluation Center
Penberthy, Larry ........... Penberthy Electromelt Smith, H.J. (R) ...... LockheedMissiles and Space Co.
Peterson, Stanley S . .......... U.S. Navy Underwater Smith, Ray J . ..... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Sound Laboratory Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN ...... Navy Department
Petrie, Benjamin R . ........ Naval Material Command Sorenson, James E . ....... Battelle Memorial Institute
Podolhy, William ......... United Aircraft Corporation Sorkin, George ....... Naval Ship Systems Command
Pomponio, Albert ...... Port of New York Authority Sorrell, Samuel ............... Gulf Publishing Co.
Porier, Ruber H . ......... Battelle Memorial- Institute Spadone, Daniel (R) ........ DSSP-Navy Department
Porkolab, Alfred ............. Lorain County, Ohio Sparks, William L . ....... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Prior, W.W . ................. Trunkline Gas Co. Speakman, Edwin A. . . . Department of Transportation
Pruitt, M.E . ................. Dow Chemical Co. Spiess, Fred ..... Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Pruter, Al (R) ....... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Spodak, William .......... DSSP-Navy Department
Quick, Stanley S. (R) ..... Westinghouse Electric Corp. Steele, Harry ............. Water Resources Council
Rawls, John .......... University of South Alabama Stephan, Edward (C) ............ Ocean Systems, Inc.
Ray, C.T ..................... Boeing Company Stephen, Charles R . ....... Florida Atlantic University
Raynor, Albert C . ...... Coastal Engineering Research Stout, Ernest ........ AIAA-Lockheed California Co.
Center-Corps of Engineers Stover, Lloyd A . ............. University of Miami
Rechnitzer, Andrew (R) ..... North American Rockwell Stowers, H.L . ......... Texas Gas Transmission Corp.
Rice, RAdm. J.E., USN ...... ASNE-Naval Electronics Strobel, Joseph J. (R) ......... Office of Saline Water
Systems Command Styles, Fred ......... Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Rich, G.E . ......... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Sullivan, E. Kemper ........ Maritime Administration
Richards, Ralph A. . . . . Alabama Fisheries Association Sutton, Sheldon S . ...... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Richter, Cdr. T. USN ........ Bureau of Medicine and Swain, James C . ......... Battelle Memorial Institute
Surgery Swift, Ward (R) ............... Battelle Northwest
Rickover, VAdm. H.G. USN ......... Atomic Energy Swigum, George ........... Naval Material Command
Commission Taggert, Robert ........ SNAME-Robert Taggert Inc.
Robb, J.E. (R) ................ Bechtel Corporation Talkington, Howard R ........ Naval Undersea Warfare
Robinson, Charles W . .............. Marcoria Corp. Center
Rockwell, Julius ......... Department of the Interior Tate, Robert H . ..... Greater Wilmington Chamber of
Rogers, Hon. Paul G . ....... House of Representatives Commerce
Romano, Frank ....... Naval Ship Systems Command Teague, Dorwin .............. Dorwin Teague, Inc.
Rorholm, Niels .......... University of Rhode Island Thomas, Bertram D . ...... Battelle Memorial Institute
Rowley, Louis N. ........... American Society of Thompson, Floyd L . ......... American Institute of
Mechanical Engineers Aeronautics and Astronautics
Russell, J.S . .................. Boeing Company Tibby, Richard B. University of Southern California
Rylands, R. N ............ B.F. Goodrich, Avon Lake Touhill, C. Joseph (R) ........... Battelle Northwest
Saunders, Capt. E.M., USN ......... Naval Facilities Treadwell, Capt. T.K., USN . Naval Oceanographic Office
Engineering Command Tuthill, Arthur (R) ......... International Nickel Co.
Saunders, Capt. L.N., Jr. USN .......... Naval Civil Vaeth, Gordon (R) ..... Environmental Science Services
Engineering Laboratory Administration
Savage, G.H ........... University of New Hampshire Valerio, Gerald A . ............ Annapolis, Maryland
Savage, William ............. Office of Saline Water Van Antwerpen, F;H ............ American Institute
Saville, Thornkike ...... Coastal Engineering Research of Chemical Engineers
Center-Corps of-Engineers Vetter, Richard C . ..... National Academy of Sciences
Sawyer, George ............... Battelle Northwest Vidal, Numa .............. Ohio Edison Company
Shaefer, George V. . MTS-Naval Oceanographic Office Vine, Allyn ...... Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Schafersman, Dale ......... Natural Gas Pipeline Co. Vyhnalek, Henry J. . Cleveland Electric Illumination Co.
of America Wakelin, James H., Jr. (C) ..... Ryan Aeronautical Co.
Scheel, Alvin J . ................ U.S. Steel, Lorain Waters, RAdm. O.D., USN ......... Navy Department
Schmidt, Howard R. Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Wedin, John (R) ... Staff, Senate Commerce Committee

VI-256

Name Organization Name Organization

Weinberger, Leon ......... Department of the Interior Williams, William H ......... U.S. Navy Mine Defense
Weir, Carl L .............. Maritime Administration Laboratory
Weisnet, Donald ......... Naval Oceanographic Office Williamson, William R. (R) ..... American Machine and
Weiss, A.M . ............. Natural Gas Pipeline Co. Foundry Co.
Welling, C.G . ....... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Wolff, Capt. Paul USN ...... Fleet Numerical Weather
Wenzel, James G. . . . Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Facility
Wheaton, Elmer P. (C) Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Wolff, Richard ................ Garcia Corporation
Whiddon, Frederick ..... University of South Alabama Wood, L.A . .................. Boeing Company
Wieskopf, Al ......... Mobile Chamber of Commerce Woodbury, Brig. Gen. H.G. USA .... Corps of Engineers
Wilcox, R. Howard ..... Naval Undersea Warfare Center Wooldridge, Dan E . ......... Ohio Edison Company

VI-257

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1969 0-333-091

AP14

I V

O@A
a)

7,
co@

00
co K;

LTI

L
to