Columbia River estuary inventory of physical, biological and cultural characteristics

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

-.AA

Columbia
River
E stualy
Inv entory

4
'OLUIO@ RW:-- ESTU@@Y STIDY TA-@O;'@F

1/31/78/jc

CREST INVENTORY ERRATA SHEET

Acknowledgements, 2nd Pg., Paragraph 1

READS: Jan vanZander

SHOULD READ: Janet Zander

Pg. 306-9, Paragraph 3, Sentence 3 & 4

READS: From Jan-May, those from low salinity areas feed mainly on the
bottom dwelling amphipod Corophium sp. Those from higher
salinity areas feed on Corophium, Neomysis sp. (a shrimp-like
organism), and Chironomids ...

SHOULD READ: From January to May, those from high salinity areas feed
mainly on the bottom dwelling amphipod Corophium sp.
Those from lower salinity areas feed on Corophium, Neomysis
sp. (a shrimp-like organism),...

Pg. 306-10, Paragraph 2, Sentence 5

READS: Juveniles spend one year...

SHOULD READ: Naturally produced juveniles spend one year...

Pg. 306-14, Paragraph 0, Sentence 3

READS: Record low counts of summer...

SHOULD READ: Record low numbers of summer...

e2o

Your CREST Inventory as missing Figures 210-2, 210-3 and 210-4.
The Table of Contents for Section 210 indicates where the figures

should be inserted. An errata sheet has also been.enclosed.

1/31/78/jc

CREST INVENTORY ERRATA SHEET

Acknowledgements, 2nd Pg., Paragraph 1

READS: Jan vanZander

SHOULD READ: Janet Zander

Pg. 306-9, Paragraph 3, Sentence 3 & 4

READS: From Jan-May, those from low salinity areas feed mainly on the
bottom dwelling-amphipod Corophium s-p. Those from higher
salinity areas feed on Corophium, Neomysis sp. (a shrimp-like
organism), and Chironomids ...

SHOULD READ: From January to May, those from high salinity areas feed
mainly on the bottom dwelling amphipod Corophium. sp.
Those from lower salinity areas feed on Lorophium, !L,@omysis
sp. (a shrimp-like organism),...

Pg. 306-10, Paragraph 2, Sentence 5

READS: Juveniles spend one year...

SHOULD READ: Naturally produced juveniles spend one year...

Pg. 306-14, Paragraph 0, Sentence 3

READS: Record low counts of summer-

SHOULD READ: Record low numbers of summer...

r COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

INVENTORY

PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

EDITED BY

MARGARET H. SEAMAN

WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY

ROBERT E. BLANCHARD,
KURT D. BUCHANAN,
JAMES W. GOOD,
DAVID JAY
AND
GEORGE POTTER

PREPARED FOR

THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY STUDY TASKFORCE
f

The preparation of this report was financially
aided through grants from the Oregon Land Con-
servation and Development and the Washington
State Department of Ecology with funds obtained
from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini-
stration, and appropriated for Sections 305 and
306, respectively, of the Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972.

US
NOAA Cc CC'17=2nerce
Library

FOREWARD

This Inventory contains summaries of the physical, biological and

cultural characteristics of the Columbia River estuary area. It is

intended to be a primary resource for the development of the CREST Land

and Water Use Plan and contains information pertinent to the planning
process. It represents the first attempt to compile a document containing

summaries of known information about the Columbia River estuary.

The Inventory was originally conceived as a brief summary of

existing information about the estuary, but it has evolved into a lengthy
search for and review of available literature and data. Although a great
deal of effort has gone into the Inventory, there may be information that

has not been included.

while compiling the document, CREST has attempted to providea tool
that will be helpful to a wide range of users. As a result, it is recog-

nized that some may view the Inventory as too technical, while others may

perceive it as too general.
0 The subjects of the technical reports included in this Inventory
are listed in the Table of Contents. Each technical report has a more
r(
detailed Table of Contents, as well as a list of figures and tables

relating to it. M any of the figures and tables summarize the text, and
it is hoped they are useful for general reference and planning.
it is important for the reader to recognize that there are facets
of the estuary that have never been studied, and there are subjects that
@J
have been researched for only limited areas of the estuary. Much research
and analysis remain to be done to provide a total picture of the estuary
area and information regarding impacts of actions within the region.

US p
Librar3r
NOAA C-
C_'
i L Cju@_

CREST COUNCIL MEMBERS

Oregon Member Governments Washington Member Governments

City of Astoria Town of Ilwaco

Robert Chopping - Delegate Toby Beard - Delegate

Jean H. Hallaux - Alternate Patrick Schenk - Alternate

city of Warrenton City of Cathlamet

Roderick Gramson - Delegate William Anderson

Fred Andrus - Alternate
Port of Ilwaco

Town of Hammond Frank Heer - Delegate

Richard Carruthers Bob Petersen - Alternate

Port of Astoria Pacific County

Al Rissman Delegate Eldred Penttila - Delegate

Brook Robin Alternate Bill Crossman - Alternate'

Clatsop County Wahkiakum County

Orvo A. Nikula - Delegate Robert E. Torppa - Delegate

Don 0. Corkill - Alternate Leon Almer Alternate

US Department of Commerce
NOAA Coastal Services Center Library
2284 South Hobsen Avenue
Charleston, SC 29465-2413

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Inventory was compiled by the CREST staff. Mr. David Jay was
primarily responsible for the section on physical characteristics,
Mr. James W. Good for the section on biological characteristics and

Mr. Robert E. Blanchard for the section on cultural characteristics.

Mr. Kurt Buchanan prepared the section on Fishes. These staff members
gratefully acknowledge the assistance they received from estuary area

residents and state and federal agency personnel in the location and
review of material about specific places and subjects summarized in the

Inventory. The staff wishes to thank everyone who contributed to the
Inventory and particularly those individuals listed below:

Physical Characteristics

Stan Hamilton of the Oregon Division of State Lands provided the

tidal data shown in Figure 203-4.

R.C. Coykendall of the Washington Department of Natural Resources

provided information concerning ownership of tidelands and bedlands in

the State of Washington.
Terry Durkin of the National Marine Fisheries Service provided

information for Section 204.

Dan Silver and Ray Petersen of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Seattle, Washington, provided the data on municipal and industrial
waste discharges in the Columbia and Willamette Rivers for Section 205.3.

J.L. Glenn and D.W. Hubbell of the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver,

Colorado, provided unpublished sediment transport data for Tables 208-3

and 208-4.

J. Craeger and R. Sternberg of the University of Washington and

R. Moulton of the U.S. Army Engineers, Portland District provided infor-

mation on which Section 208.6 is based.

Don Leach of the Clatsop County Soil Conservation Service,
Bernie Rufener of the Pacific County Soil Conservation Service,
Rich Bainbridge of the Wahkiakum County Soil Conservation Service and

Mike Moore of the Cowlitz-Wahkiakum Governmental Conference provided

information for Section 210.

Walt Lindstrom, Bob Blanchard, Don Mathison and Jan vanZander did

the drafting for the entire physical section.

Biological Characteristics

Norman Kujala of Oregon Ocean Services, Inc., provided an extensive
backgroundreport and distribution maps of estuary fishes and invertebrates

which served as a basis for Sections 304, 305 and 306.

Terry Durkin and Sandy Lipovsky of the National Marine Fisheries
Service provided helpful reviews and basic information for text and maps.

John McKern-of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District
provided valuable material on shoreline vegetative habitats and wildlife.

Joe Welch of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jim Lauman and

Doug Taylor of the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife and Jack Howerton

of the Washington Department of Game provided reviews of wildlife sections.

Cultural Characteristics

.Bob Franklin of Ft. Stevens State Park in Oregon and Ral-h Jones of
Ft. Canby State Park in Washington provided assistance in the preparation

of Section 402.

Don Mathison of the Cowlitz-Wahkiakum Governmental Conference pro-

vided information for all the sections on cultural characteristics.

Finally, special appreciation is due Judy Crosby, Magdalena Cristobal
and Becky Nelson who typed the text and assisted in the preparation of

many figures and tables, and to Walt Lindstrom who drafted nearly all the

figures in the Inventory.

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

INVENTORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS*

Section

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
FRESHWATER RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
ESTUARINE CIRCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
NUTRIENTS, MIXING AND WATER QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
ESTUARY PHYSICAL CIRCULATION MODELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
SEDIMENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
TOPOGRAPHY, SOILS AND ASSOCIATED HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

ECOLOGICALCONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY , * , , * * , , * * * , , * * 301
TIDAL MARSHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
SHORELINE HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
PLANKTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
FISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

LAND AND WATER USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
RECREATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
SIGNIFICANT AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Detailed tables of contents are provided at the
beginning of each section.

INTRODUCTION

100 INTRODUCTION

100.1 PURPOSE AND USES OF THE INVENTORY

The purpose of the Columbia River Estuary Inventory of Physical,

Biological and Cultural Characteristics is to collect published and un-
published information about the estuary into a single document. The
Columbia River estuary and the surrounding region (Figure 100-1) have been
the subjects of numerous scientific research and planning studies in the
past. This information is published in various planning documents, books,
technical reports and scientific journal articles. Although this material

should be a basis for well-informed resource management decisions concerning

the estuary and its shorelines, much of it has not been available in a form

useful to decision-makers. This problem is particularly evident at the

local level, where the highly-trained technical staff needed to conduct

extensive literature reviews and interpret research results is not usually

available. Further, some of the data collected in recent years have never

been published, and subsequent studies have often begun without full know-

ledge of past efforts. The Inventory is a first step in attempting to

solve these problems.

The Inventory has several uses. First, the information is designed
to be a primary resource for development of the CREST Land and Water Use
Plan. The citizen committees developing plans for sub-areas of the estuary

use this information to help make objective, rational decisions to guide
future growth. Second, the Inventory is designed to provide technically,

trained individuals with summaries of information about the estuary

relating to their own and other fields. Third, the Inventory is designed
to help determine research needs and to guide future research efforts,

such as the Columbia River Estuary Special Study being coordinated by the

Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission. Fourth, current research pro-

jects should benefit from the Inventory information and from the reference

materials collected during its compilation.

100.2 CREST PLANNING PROGRAM

The Columbia River Estuary Study Taskforce (CREST) is a bi-state

organization of local governments that, in cooperation with state and

federal agencies, is developing a plan for the future use and management
of waters, wetlands and shorelands of the Columbia River estuary area.

The planning program is part of the Oregon and Washington Coastal Zone

Management Programs. For Washington portions of the study area, the
CREST planning program represents a first revision to Shoreline Management

Programs. In Oregon, the plan provides components for each jurisdiction's
local comprehensive plan; the components conform with state planning goals

and guidelines for estuarine resources and shoreland areas.

At the outset of its program, CREST established five general goals

to guide the development of a management program. These were:

GOAL 1: To improve, and diversify the economy of the area;
GOAL 2: To reconcile conflicting uses of estuarine resources;

GOAL 3: To protect and enhance natural resource values of the
estuary;
GOAL 4: To improve estuarine resource management through inter-
governmental communication and coordination at local,
state and federal levels; and

GOAL 5: To increase public understanding of the natural value.of
the estuary and its usefulness to man.

To accomplish these goals, the CREST work program was divided into
three areas including (1) an estuary information system, (2) an estuary.

management program and (3),current project coordination.
The information system is the foundation of the program and con-
sists of a library of materials relating to the estuary, the Inventory,
a research-needs proposal and various informational publications dealing
with permit systems, estuary research and the natural environme!.rit.
The CREST management program consists of an analysis of estuary
conflicts and problems, a description of the existing management regime,

regional policies, a land and water use plan and a process for future
coordination and management. The estuary-wide policies and the land and

water use plan are the heart of the program.
Current projec coordination has involved CREST in what is essen-
tially an interim estuary management role. Development projects and
research activities essential to the planning program are evaluated for
consistency with the goals and objectives of the organization.
A. CREST Regional Policies
CREST Regional Policies are defined as "specific courses or methods
of action to guide present and future decisions toward established CREST
goals." The goals are used to organize the policy subjects that relate

100-2

40' '55, 123* 3d 2e
COLUN
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NAUTICAL MILES
0 1 2 3 .......................

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STATUTE MILES
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25' 20, 12

to economic development, land and water use, intergovernmental cooperation
and public education. The policies serve as guidelines for developing the

land and water use plan and for decisions on specific projects proposed
for the estuary area. Particularly important are the policies relating
to dredging, filling, construction, diking and other activities in the

waters and wetlands of the estuary. The Inventory provides some of the
site-specific information necessary to carry out the policies.

B. Land and Water Use Plan

The land and water use plan provides for the specific allocation of

water, wetland and shoreland areas to different broad use or activity

categories. Development of such a plan involves the complex interaction

of many interests at the local, state and federal level. Plan develop-
ment requires a standardized classification system and a rational way to
apply it. CREST has developed such a system and planning process, and
the Inventory serves as the primary information resource for working

through the process.
To provide for more local involvement in the planning, the estuary
has been divided into seven distinct planning areas (Figure 100-2*). When

completed, the combined plans will be evaluated for consistency and to
ensure an estuary-wide balance of conservation and development.

100.3 INFORMATION GAPS AND RESEARCH NEEDS

Although much research has been conducted in the Columbia River

estuary by the National Marine Fisheries Service, the Corps of Engineers,

the U.S. Geological Survey, Oregon State University and the University of

Washington, there has never been a coordinated, comprehensive research

effort. Many published reports are narrow in scope and not very useful

for answering broad ecological questions about how the estuary functions

and the impacts of proposed developments.
Analysis of the information in this document does provide tentative

answers to some questions: there are however, other questions which can
only be answered by thorough and integrated physical, chemical, geological

and biological research. It is also extremely important that an integrated

research program first determine what questions need answers.

*While at press, units were combined, and five planning areas remain.
The units are: Youngs Bay-Astoria, Baker Bay, Lower River and Mouth/
Columbia River Islands, Wahkiakum County and Eastern Clatsop County.

100-3

The Columbia River Estuary Special Study is intended to fill the

need for a comprehensive-research program. Coordinated by the Pacific

Northwest River Basins Commission, this study will commence in 1978 and

is scheduled to last at least five years. The Special Study is expected
to provide information on.habitats, food chains, circulation, sediments,
engineering problems and human use.of the estuary. It is particularly

important that information from this study be provided to local decision-

makers in a form which is useful to them.

100-4

40' 35' 123' 30' 25'

MAN

..........
UNIT

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.... . ... ..
. ...... ....
77: LAND

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. .. . . . . . . .. .

----------------------- --------

NAUTICAL MILES
0 1 2 3
KILOMETERS %NWOM! li
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

STATUTE MILES
1 0 1 2 3 4

25' 20' 123

PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS

0 0 0

@2-, 1 ( a @ CLIMATE

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

. David Jay
Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

201 CLIMATE .................................................. 201-1
201.1 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION .................................. 201-1
201.2 COASTAL CURRENTS, UPWELLING AND THE
COLUMBIA RIVER PLUME ............................... I .... 201-4
201.3 REPRESENTATIVE CLIMATIC DATA ............................. 201-8
201.4 REFERENCES ............................................... 201-14

FIGURES

201-1 Northwest Winter Weather Patterns ........................ 201-2
201-2 Average Monthly Sea Level Pressure ....................... 201-3
201-3 The Upwelling and Downwelling
Circulations ........................................... 201-5
201-4 The Effects of Upwelling ......................... : ....... 201-7
201-5 Movement of Columbia River Effluent
Plume .................................................. 201-10
201-6 Monthly Average Wind Data, Astoria,
Oregon ................................................. 201-13

TABLES

201-1 Monthly Average Climatic Data, Astoria,
Oregon ................................................. 201-12

201 CLIMATE

Most aspects of life along the coasts of Oregon and Washington
are influenced by the North Pacific Ocean and its weather systems. The
ocean, through its influence on climate, river flow, estuarine circu-
lation and productivity and many other aspects of daily life in the
Northwest, makes possible a culture in which economic, social and
recreational activities are closely related to the natural resources of
the area. The purpose of this section, then, is to examine the North
Pacific weather, oceanic circulation, coastal current systems and up-
welling and their interactions with the Columbia River estuary and the

Coast.

201.1 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

The oceanic and atmospheric circulations are so closely related

that it is difficult to describe one in isolation from the other, but

let us begin with the typical winter and summer weather patterns.

Winter weather in the Northwest generally consists of a series of

atmospheric low pressure cells coming in from the ocean. These storms

bring moderate temperatures, abundant rain and strong winds from the

south or west (Figure 201-1a). The average pressure distribution for
February (Figure 201-2a) shows that these storm systems originate
in the Gulf of Alaska, where a prominent low, known as the Aleutian Low,

is found most of the winter. Note that winds around a low pressure cell
move in a counter-clockwise direction. The high pressure cell off

Baja California, known as the North Pacific High, is weak at this time

of year.

In contrast, the North Pacific High dominates the summer pressure

distribution(Figure 201-2b), bringing winds from the north and west,

moderate temperatures, little rain and frequent fog (Figure 201-1b).
Note that winds around a high pressure cell are in a clockwise

direction. Such weather predominates year round in Southern California,

as can be seen from the winter pressure distribution (Figure 201-2a).

It is important to realize that winter and summer weather

patterns may occur any time of year, and that the weather on any day
may be very different from the average situation for that month.

Figure 201-1

50
LOW (a) Winter

100) 2 C'G

12 5
13 2 -45
5.

46 52
M 43 60 Maximum temperature
0()9
1 6 4 Surface wind direction
6 36 41 Minimum temperature
Area of
Precipitation
0 100 200 kin
40 i I I I __1_1
0 100
Winds aloft (about 6,000 m)
Spceds in km per hour
HIC Isobars (in mb) -1--Ift-Front
130 125 120

.130 1.25 120

HtGH
a,

Typical winter (a) and
summer (b) weather patterns 77
45 98
in the Pacific Northwest. -96
Winter weather is charac- 61
terized by counter-clockwise
circulation around a low
87
pressure cell that brings
65
southerly winds and storms. U2 87 6 1
Summer weather is charac-
terized by clockwise circu- 57 1* 5';
lation around a high pressure
cell, that brings fair weather &
and northerly winds.
From: Loy et al., 1976 LOW lo

(b) surnmer
AMY 14, 3

201-2

Figure 201-2

50', AUGUST 50
/I,- N
FEBRUARY N
L

H
1/0
"-,1 o20 40" - 1025"11\ 40'
10-20- H
L /0/0'
ollo;\ L

H 30, 30,

5.ool

20, -20,
150 W 140" 130" 120, 1101,

(a) (b)

Average monthly atmospheric sea level pressure (in millibars) over
the eastern North Pacific Ocean and the western coast of North America
during February (a) and August (b). Winds are clockwise around a high
pressure cell and counter-clockwise around a low.

From: Reid et al., 1958
7@
L

201-3

While summer storms certainly do occur, they are less frequent and
generally less violent than winter storms. Typical summer weather
also occurs during the winter. In fact, the drought of 1976-1977

resulted from the persistence of a high pressure cell off the coast
during most of the winter.

201.2 COASTAL CURRENTS, UPWELLI14G AND THE COLUMBIA RIVER PLUME

The coastal winds play an extremely important role in driving

the coastal current system and the summer upwelling of cold, nutrient-
rich water that miENkes the continental shelf off Oregon and Washington
an important fishery zone.* Again, there are two basic patterns,

summer and winter. During the winter (usually November to March),

currents over the continental shelf off Oregon and Washington are
predominantly to the north, slightly onshore at the surface and some-
what offshore at the bottom (the downwelling circulation, Figure
201-3a). The northerly wind-driven surface current is known as the

Davidson Current. Its strength is greatest inshore and decreases in
an offshore direction. Strong fluctuations in this current accompany
storms; oceanic "weather" is just as variable as atmospheric weather.
Surface current speeds typically range from 20 to 80 cm/sec (0-4 to

1.6 knots).

Northward flow also occurs near the bottom along the continental
slope at the edge of the continental shelf at depths of 200 to 1000 m
(650 to 3300 ft). This slow (5 to 20 cm/sec; 0.1 to 0.4 knots) deep
flow persists throughout most of the year and is known as the
California Undercurrent. It brings water with salinity and temperature
characteristics of water of similar depths in the tropical Pacific
Ocean to the Northwest. This water, rich in nutrients, helps to
nourish the biological productivity as it is brought to the surface
during the upwelling process.
upwelling occurs primarily during the spring and summer (usually
April to October), though it may occur any time during the year when

*The continental shelf is the broad, generally flat region extending
from the coast to a depth of about 200 m (660 ft). The shelf is
between 16 to 70 km (10 to 44 miles) wide off Oregon and Washington.
At its seaward edge is the continental slope that descends to abyssal
depths and is incised by numerous canyons.

201-4

Figure 201-3 Contizientall. Shelf Circulation off Oregon and Washington
(a) Winter Downwelling Circulation Coast
KA &>@ K;ll /cN
\U Vy \<N Win ds VY

I e Vel
West < surface
Davidson & Current East
0 /Q1%
200 m GOO ft V-19 -
_07at
0
1200 f t

Undercurrent Continental Winds and Currents:
112\ Slope
500 M- 0 to the north
-1600 ft (into page)
0 to the south
(out of page)

(b) Summer UpwrAling Circulation

0 0 OWinds 0 0 0 Coast
level
surface
0 0(-O,@-- 0<@- 0 0<--O@-O(-O<-O@-O@
California Current 'IX East
we@it < 60c 0
0-@O-@O
2C)O ft 0

1200 ft 0 0
/ 0."@, 1 7
'@ t -F@7
500 /0
1800 ft.
Continental
Slopo

GO mil-s
1.00 kin
-u
rrent <
<
@c
t@"Itay
Co

C_nt
an? Slop -e-tal W6ndsta
e

(.j

tc
(c

201-5

typical summer wind and weather patterns occur. Upwelling (Figures
201-3b and 201-4),is the slow vertical movement (at speeds of perhaps
5 to 20 m/day; 16 to 65 ft/day) of nutrient rich water to the surface,
from depths of 100 to 500 m (330 to 1650 ft). It occurs in an irregular
and patchy manner from just outside the surf zone to about 15 miles -
offshore. Upwelling is strongest close to the coast and to the south

of p3@ominent capes. The appearance of a patch of cold upwelled water
generally stimulates intense biological productivity and often causes
coastal fog as warm, moisture-laden air is cooled. Upwelling is
extremely important in supplying nutrients to the estuary, as discussed

in Section 205. The upwelled water is cold (8 to 120C; 46 to 540F)
despite its tropical origin, because of the cold temperaturesIbelow the

surface layer in all the oceans of the world. While these cold waters
are biologically very productive, they are definitely not conducive to
swimming; water temperatures @1/ ng the Oregon coast differ little
summer to winter.

What causes upwelling? The detailed mechanisms are quite complex,

but simply stated, upwelling is caused by the offshore movement of
surface waters that accompanies the generally southward, wind-driven
summer currents (Figure 201-3b). The offshore movement of surface waters

results in a measurable lowering of sea level at the coast and a
compensating onshore and upward flow in the lower layers. This
compensating flow is the upwelling. The winds from the north and west

result in flow to the south and offshore, because of influence of the
earth's rotation. Because the earth rotates, any freely moving object

in the Northern Hemisphere has a tendency to be deflected slightly to
the right; this is known as the coriolis force. The coriolis force is
one of the basic determining factors in oceanic and atmospheric
circulation, accounting for the clockwise and counter-clockwise
rotation of winds around high and low pressure cells, respectively.

It also accounts for the slight onshore movement of surface currents
during the winter (Figure 201-3b) and is important in estuarine
circulation, air navigation and ballistics.
The southerly and westerly wind-driven surface currents
observed on the continental shelf during the summer are a part of the

201-6

100 -

50- coastal fog
w i n d

sea
level

50 -

100- Vertical scale
E exaggerated
150- 0,

200
I 00krn 50 krn coast

EFFECTS OF UPWELLING
(off Bi-ookings, Oregoii)

Figure 201-4

Upwelling occurs frequently along the coast during the summer and
results from the interaction of northerly winds and the rotation of
the earth.

From: Loy et al., 1976

201-7

.broad, southerly flow known as the California Current. Velocities are
typically less than 20 cm/sec (OA knots), but greater-velocities are
often associated with the narrow band of upwelling near the coast. The
California Current generally extends at least 500 miles offshore and is

part of the large-scale circulation of the Pacific Ocean. In some off-
shore regions, the California Current may extend to depths of 1000 M
(3300 ft). It is, however, underlain by the no.rthward-flowing California
Undercurrent along the continental slope (Figure 201-3b).
Another major influence on the circulation in the coastal region
off Oregon and Washington is the plume of relatively fresh water from
the Columbia River. The Columbia River is the second largest river in
North America, having an average discharge of about 268,000 cfs (see
Section 202 for more details). It provides an average of 77% of the
freshwater flow into the Pacific Ocean between San Francisco Bay and

the Straits of Juan De Fuca. Because of the low.flow of other coastal

streams during the late summer, the Columbia River normally provides
about 90% of the freshwater inflow into the area during that.period.
The percentage is about 60% in the winter, when the coastal streams are

in freshet.

The movement of the Columbia-River effluent plume is influenced
by the winds and the wind-driven surface currents. Thus, its position,
as traced by the area of surface water with low salinity, is highly
variable (Figure 201-5a and b). During the summer, the plume responds
to the northerly winds and upwelling circulation and spreads widely to
the south and offshore. It may cover hundreds of square miles (Figure
201-5a). Because of light winds, the effluent usually does not mix
down to depths greater than 70 m (130 ft). During the winter, the
downwelling circulation and strong southwesterly winds push the effluent
to the north and confine it to a narrow zone along the Washington coast

(Figure 201-5b).

201.3 REPRESENTATIVE CLIMATIC DATA

Climatic data covering the estuary area is important, because,
-among other things, it helps to establish a perspective on the natural
setting and it provides an indication of conditions or combinations of

201-8

conditions that are potentially hazardous, either directly or indirectly.

Typical of the Northwest Coastal Region,,the Columbia River estuary

climate is humid, temperate and characterized by cool and rainy winters.

Temperatures seldom rise above 85* F or fall below 200 F. Table 201-1

summarizes Astoria's monthly climatic data from 1940 to 1970; it provides
representative data for precipitation, temperature and cloud cover for the
estuary area. Most precipitation occurs from October through April, with
rainfall in excess of 0.10 inches an average of 200 days per year.
Climatic conditions vary somewhat from the coastal area to the eastern
part of the estuary, in that there is less precipitation and a somewhat

greater temperature range to the east.
Prevailing summer winds are from the north and northwest. During

the winter, prevailing coastal winds are from the southwest, south or

southeast, with storms coming primarily from the southwest. These
coastal winter winds are modified in the estuary, by heavier air that

moves down the Columbia River Gorge from colder interior regions.
Consequently, prevailing winds recorded at Astoria during the winter

months are generally from the east and southeast; average monthly wind

velocities and directions are shown in Figure 201-6.

Weather hazards may occasionally occur in the form of heavy rains,

high winds, freezing temperatures, fog or combinations of these;

problems related to these weather conditions should be kept in mind when

evaluating all aspects of the estuary.

201-9

Figure 201@5

Movement of the Columbia River Effluent Plume

132' 130' 128' 126' 12e

CA
U@s

405D,

48'
WASH.

GRA VS

WILLAPA
BAr

4e 32.5 ------

2
2

28/
29
1/33

28 1
44' ORE.

2 1
42' - CALIF.

132' 130' 128' 12e 12e

(a) surface salinities in 0/oo (parts per thousand) off Oregon and
Washington during (a) summer and (b) winter. Salinities of less than
32.5 0/oo are indicative of the Columbia River effluent plume.
(a) Northerly summer winds push the plume offshore and to the south.

From: Barnes et al., 1972

201-10

Figure 201-5

Movement of the Columbia River Effluent Plume

132' 130' 1?8' 126' 124'

CA A
U S

32.5- 32

1 31

30
480 48'
29 WASH.

28 V-

2T.
6R4Y5
'HARBOR
2@3
2 WIL L A PA

46' - 46'

44' ORE. 44'

420 42'
CALIF.

1320 130' 128' 126' 124'

(b) Winter downwelling circulation and southerly winds push the
plume onshore and to the north.

From: Barnes et al., 1972

201-11

TABLE 201-1

Monthly Average Climatic Data*
Astoria, Oregon

Precipitation Temperature Number of Days
.(Inches)' (OF.) Cloudy Heavy Fog

January 9.73 40.6 25 4
February 7.82 43.6 22 .3

March 6.62 44.4 23 2

April 4.61 47.8 22 .2
May 2.72 52.3 20 2

June 2.45 56.5 20 2

July 0.96 60.0 15 2
August 1.46 60.3 15 5
September 2.83 58.4 14 6

October 6.80 52.8 19 7

November 9. 78 46.5 22 4

December 10.57 42.8 25 4

Annual 66.34 50.5 242 43

From: Department of Commerce, 1975

Note: Maximum 24 hour rainfall of 4.32 inches was measured in
January, 1974.

*Based on data from 1940-1970.

201-12

Figure 201-6a,

Surface Wind Rose (Annual)
Astoria
From:. Richardson, and Associates, 1975

4 - 12 mph (speeds 3 mph or
less are shown
30 13 - 31 mph in center of
circle)
Scale

0 5 10
(% of Time)
Figure 201-6b
Monthly Average Wind Velocity
and Prevailing Direction*
From: Department of Commerce, 1975
E I ESEI SE WNWI NW NW INW SE ISE SE I SE IESE
10 9.4 1 1 1 1 9.1
@[email protected] 18.9 8.6 8.4 8.2 18.4 8.4
9 -7. 8 7. 3 7. 5 z
8

mph 5

2 *Based on data
from 1941 - 1976
1

0
i F M A M i i A S 0 N D

201-13

201.4 REFERENCES

A. Barnes, C.A., A.C. Duxbury, and B.A. Morse. 1972. "Circulation
on Selected Properties of The Columbia River Effluent at Sea."
IN Bioenvironmental Studies of the Columbia River Estuary of
Adjacent Ocean Regions. A.T. Pruter and D.L. Alverson, ed. pp.41-80.
A summary of a decade of research on the circulation off the
coasts of Oregon and Washington as it is affected by the river.
Quite readable.

B. Dodimead, A.J., F. Favorite, and J. Hirano. 1963. "Salmon of
the North Pacific Ocean, Part II: Review of the Oceanography of
the Sub Arctic Pacific Region." Internat. North Pac. Fish. Comm.
Bull. 195pp.

A detailed literature review covering the winds, temperature
and salinity structure, and currents of the North Pacific. Very
technical.

C. Loy, W.G., S. Allan, C.P. Patton, and R.D. Plank. 1976. Atlas
of Oregon. University of Oregon Books, Eugene, Oregon. 215pp.
An extremely interesting compendium of cultural, economic,
and environmental information about.Oregon. There are short
sections on geology and the coastal ocean. The graphics are
superb.

D. Meyers, Joseph D Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar R. Granger.
1973., A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon,
Phase' I, prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and
Board of County Commissioners by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.
Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing
development and survey of public attitudes and goals. Climatic
information includes narrative and graphic representation of
climatic data.

E. Reid, J.L., G.I. Roden, and J.G. Wyllie. 1958. "Studies of the
California Current System." IN Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest.
Prog. Report. 'Marine Res. Comm., Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game.
pp.27-56.
An excellent summary of the circulation of the Northeast
Pacific ocean. moderately readable.

F. Richardson Associates. 1975. Master Plan for the Columbia River
at the Mouth, Final Review Draft, prepared for the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Portland District.
Analysis of physical features of study area to determine the
best recreational and fish and wildlife uses of the project area.
Climatic data includes a narrative and graphic summary.

201-14

G. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1975. Local Climatological Data:
Annual Summary With Comparative Data, Astoria, Oregon, prepared
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environ-
mental Data Service.

Narrative climatological summary with meteorological data
for the current year and normals, means, and extremes.

201-15

0, 0 0

@
Fni FRESHWATER
2 L--j RESOURCES
I @@

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

FRESHWATER RESOURCES

James W. Good
David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

202 FRESHWATER RESOURCES .................................. 202-1
202.1 THE COLUMBIA RIVER .................................... 202-1
202.2 ESTUARY TRIBUTARIES ................................... 202-3
202.3 SHORT-TERM VARIABILITY OF FRESHWATER FLOW ............. 202-10
202.4 RIVER FLOW DURING THE WATER YEARS
1976 and 1977 ....................................... 202-14
202.5 REFERENCES ............................................ 202-17

FIGURES

202-1 Columbia River Basin .................................. 202-2
202-2 Discharge of Sub-Regions .............................. 202-7
202-3 Columbia River Annual Runoff at Mouth ................. 202-8
202-4 Estuary Tributary Drainage.Basins ..................... 202-9

TABLES

202-1 Monthly and Annual Mean Flow .......................... 202-4
202-2 Tributary Streams (Selected Flow Data) ................ 202-11
202-3 Daily Average Flow at the Mouth ....................... 202-13
202-4 Monthly and Annual Mean Flow 1976 and 1977 ............ 202-16

202 FRESHWATER RESOURCES

The Columbia River estuary has a great and variable freshwater
flow. Examination of the estuary's freshwater resources is important in
that the physical, biological and chemical processes are dramatically
affected by the flow level. River runoff at the mouth is characterized
by low flow from August to October, variable winter flow, with occasional
peaks due to winter storms, and a late spring runoff peak. There have been
exceptions to these generalities such as in 1977 (the lowest flow year
on record, when no springfreshet ever occurred because of a prolonged
winter drought and reservoir storage changeo-
The estuary receives its discharge from three primary sources: the
mainstem of the Columbia River, the Willamette River Basin, and the Lower
Columbia region, including the Lewis and Cowlitz Rivers in Washington.

The tributaries which drain directly into the estuary provide a small,
but regionally important fraction of total freshwater inflow.

202.1 THE COLUMBIA RIVER

The Columbia River is the largest river in western North America
(Figure 202-1). Climate, season and water storage behind dams greatly

affect flow levels in the Columbia River. For purposes of discussion, the

drainage basin can be divided by the Cascade Mountains into eastern and
western sub-basins .(Figure 202-1).

The western sub-basin, although it contains only about 8 percent
(21,000 square miles) of the total area (258,000 square miles) of the

Columbia River basin, accounts for about 24 percent of the total river
flow or three times the runoff per square mile provided by the eastern
sub-basin; this is primarily because of the mild, wet winters. The major

western tributaries (Willamette, Lewis and Cowlitz Rivers) have a flow

that is 5 to 10 times greater from December through March, than during

other months. Summers ar-a relatively dry in comparison.
The eastern portion of the drainage basin experiences cold
winters and hot, dry summers. The flow from the region is relatively low
during the fall and winter months; in late spring it increases significantly,

due to melting winter snow.

FIGURE 202-1
COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN

SCALE IN MILES

0 50 100 150
t

BRITISH COLUMBIA

CANADA

UNITED STATES

N
HI TON NA N

C#WLtrz A kj
A Co
z ---- IvAr
IT
it oLd

A
SAL.M*Ao,

A
it
A
A
A
A I HO
A
A

OREGON

Yo.
- - - - - - - - - - -
L
CALIFORNIA NEVADA UTAH

202-2

Flows at various points of the Columbia River are shown in Table

201-1 a, b & c. The flows measured at Vancouver represent the discharge
contributed by the eastern sub-basin (except for a few small drainages
such as the Sandy River), those at Longview include the discharge from
major western tributaries, and the flows at the mouth include the discharge
from the estuary tributaries. The data for the eastern and western sub-

basins are graphically displayed in Figure 202-2. Before completion of
eleven dams on the main stem, average maximum flow at the mouth was about

660,000 cfs in late spring, while average low flow was about 70,000 cfs in
late summer and fall. In the last ten years, eleven main stem dams and

approximately 120 tributary dams have provided a controlled river flow
ranging from 116,000 cfs (September, 1966) to 630,000 cfs (June 1972). In
contrast, the flow during the flood of June 1894 was close to 2,000,000

cfs for several days.

Monthly mean flows at the mouth, averaged over the period 1961 to

1975, ranged from 132,000 cfs for September to 494,900 cfs for June.
Averages and extremes are shown in Figure 202-3. Flow variability is
greatest in June and smallest in August and September. The yearly average
flow at the mouth was 268,500 cfs or about 194 million acre-feet per year.
The yearly average flows varied from 220,800 cfs (160 million acre-feet
per year; about 20% below average) to 348,300 cfs (250 million acre feet;
about 30% above average) during this period (Table 202-1a). Water year

1977 has been an extremely unusual year, with a prolonged winter drought.

Drought periods have struck the Pacific Northwest before, but 1977 seems

to have been the driest year in the last century (Section 202.4).

202.2 ESTUARY TRIBUTARIES

Although estuary tributaries contribute a small fraction of total
Columbia River runoff (approximately 3.5 percent or 9,000 cfs annual
average), these streams are. very important for fish habitat, as domestic

water supply sources and for their scenic and recreational value.
Drainage basins of the streams tributary to the estuary are shown
in Figure 202-4. Streams tributary to the estuary in Clatsop County include
the Skipanon River, Lewis and Clark River, Youngs River, John Day River,
Big Creek, Bear Creek, Hunt Creek, Gnat Creek-Blind Slough and Plympton
Creek. In Wahkiakum County, tributaries include the Grays River, the Deep
River, Skamokawa Creek, and Alder Creek. Pacific County tributaries include

the Wallacut and Chinook Rivers.

202-3

TABLE 202-la

t,Ij Monthly and Annual Mean Flow
In Cubic Feet Per Second

Columbia River at Mouth, Near Astoria, Oregon

Water
Year Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Annual

1961 112,000 236,000 164,000 175,000 410,000 323,000 260,000 488,000 673,000 255,000 146,000 110,000 279,000
1962 111,000 140,000 218,000 158,000 176,000 190,000 347,000. 428,000 505iOOO 27LOOO 180,000 116,000 237,000

1963 143,000 224,000 '229,000 136,000 278,000 184,000 298,000 409,000 471,000 284,000 160,000 121,000 244,000

1964 104,000 192,0M 147,000 261,000 158,000 171,000 224,000 401,000 724,000 400,000 190,000 126,000 258,000

1965 134,000 159,000 441,000 345,000 321,000 210,000 330,000 492,000 601,000 326,000 189,000 131,000 306,000
1966 131,400 153,800 175,100 284,400 186,600 248,500 233,400 302,100 375,000 290,200 160,700 116,300 220,1800

1967 125,400 175,300 264,800 286,600 250,200 214,800 206,700 284,200 610,600- 398,200- 173,900 127,400 259,000

1968 157,600 170,400 233,200 234,700 325,200 250,200 175,700 216,100 394,700 287,100 164,900 157,200 231,000

1969 184,200 268,600 312,800 337,500 269,800 254,600 416,800 478,100 397,800 281,600 148,200 123,300 290,500

1970 159,100 179,600 240,500 375,100 298,900 228,000 207,400- 304,900 379,300 209,800 145,300 131,600 238,800

1971 152,200 200,700 271,700 381,100 320,900 351,400 361,800 546,400 562,500 340,100 190,100 145,400 318,400

1972 157,500 218,400 332,800 354,200 346,200 555,500 402,900 472,100 630,400 344,500 209,200 161,100 348,300
1973@ 145,800 184,400 292,300 271,200 189,600 213,900 180,900 177,400 172,00.0 148,500 144,900 128,000 187,500
1974 137,400 297,100 391,400 479,900 389,400 368,700 416,400 432,400 552,900 359,900 196,800 149,900 346,700
1975 156,400 190,800 268,100 344,400 300,200 326,000 271 500 365,100 373,800 241,100 152,700 135,400 261,900
AVG. 140,700 199,300 265,400 294,900 281,300 272,600 288,800 386,500 494,900 295,800- 170,100 132,000 268.500,

TABLE 202-lb

Monthly and Annual Mean Flow
In Cubic Feel, Per Second

Colw-nbia R4ver
at Longview, Wasbington
Water
Year Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March Aoril May June July August Sept. Annual
1961 108,000 226,000 156,000 164,000 391,000 30G,000 253,000 501,000 6661000 244,000 144,000 108,000 271,030
1962 109,000 133,000 203,000 152,000 168,000 185,000 346,000 428,000 500,000 264,0100 176,000 11-0,000 232,000
1963 139,000 214,000 218,000 129,000 270,000 179,000 288,000 412,000 466,000 275,000 157,000 :20,000 2118,000
1964 101,000 180,000 149,000 243,000 150,000 161,000 221,000 410,000 725,000 388,000 186,000 125,000 252,000
1965 132,000 151,000 422,000 334,000 305,000 203,000 337,000 492,000 598,000 315,000 187,000 129,000 3GO,COO
1966 129,000 148,700 168,000 266,000 179,300 235,700 225,200 307,000 369,500 283,800 154,500 114,1100 214,600
1967 121,600 167,400 247,100 269,800 234,300 205,500 197,600 29.3,600 612,400 377,900 170,200 124,400 251,300
1968 150,700 166,100 220,500 221,800 307,100 240,200 169,100 223,200 3911500 278,100 162,000 151,700 223,100
1969 177,400 256,100 298,400 323,300 260,800 249,000 410,.800 473,100 392,600 271,900 144,700 123,100 282,voo
1970 154,100 173,800 230,400 355,200 284,600 219,200 202,200 312,400 371,800 204,100 144.400 129,800 232,12100
1971 147,200 194,700 253,700 356,900 308,800 339,300 350,600 556,000 554,000 328,000 186,300 140,600 309,400
1972 154,000 208,900 311,800 337,600 331,100 534,500 389,100 475,500 627,2oo 3 31,000 205,400 156,900 338,800
i973 147,100 176,300 275,400 261,500 185,300 205,600 178,300 175,600 167,400 149,000 144,200 123,500 182,600
1974 136,300 277,200 370,700 460,700 370,200 354,400 410,600 424,500 553,100 343,100 191,500 151,390 336,530

1975 156,000 181,800 252,300 325,200 288,700 317,900 265,600 364,100 369,3GO 231,800 150,900 134,400 253,100

AVG. 137,500 190,300 251,700 280,000 268,900 262,300 282,900 389,900 490,900 285,600 166,900 129,700 261,100

TABLE 202-1c

Monthly and Annual Mean Flow
In Cubic Feet Per Second

Columbia River

at Vancouver, Washington

Water
Year Oct. Nov,. Dec. Jan. Feb. V, a rch - Apri 1- - May_ June July - August Sept. Annual

1961 93,300 120,000 86,200 88,500 194,000 168,000 191,000 440,000 635,000 231,000 136,000 98,800 205,000

1962 91,500 86,500 90,200 85,000 112,000 109,000 266,000 368,000 467,000 250,000 165,000 104,000 133,000

1953 110,000 127,000 137,000 93,600 169,boo 128,000 187,000 338,000 444,000 260,000 148,000 111,000 188,000

1964 8E,500 98,000 82,700 91,500 79,100 93,200 168,000 361,000 670,000 365,000 173,00.0 114,000 198,000

1965 119,000 109,000 201,000 168,000 202,000 163,000 290,000 454,000 575,000 304,000 178,000 122,000 240,000

1966 112,600 113,600 122,000 135,500 131,300 146,600 169,700 268,500 346,100 268,300 143,800 102,200 171,600

1967 101,600 109,600 134,600 150,300 149,800 147,600 157,300 254,700 583,900 364,300 160,500 112,900 202,000

1968 117,300 121,300 148,000 139,900 181,600 182,200 133,200 199,000 364,600 266,400 144,600 131,100- 177,300

1969 126,600 149,100 158,700 193,900 182,800 198,400 362,800 419,700 352,400 248,500 129,500 103,200 219,000.

1970 121,600 130,800 241,500 194,400 166,500 165,100 162,200 272,000 354,500 192,000 132,400 113,000 178,700

1971 120,000 129,800 145,000 188,300 217,200 234,700 273,200 502,200 506,000 300,200 169,300 115,600 241,600

1972 121,800 141,200 166,200 184,300 217,000 364,000 312,200 411,600 582,500 310,300 189,200 134,500 261,200

1973 122,700 138,100 178,400 168,000 148,000 163,100 147,400 155,300 151,700 135,200 131,300 108,000 145,600

1974 114,400 142,900 199,200 290,200 262,200 246,600 324,900 371,300 493,200 314,300 177,600 136,800 255,800

1975 133,000 142,000 157,000 189,800 198,100 2D,500 222,000 320,600 340,200 211,400 136,300 114,400 199,900

AVG. 112,800 123,900 143,200 157,400 174,000 182i9OO 224,500 342,400 457,700 268,000 154,300 114,800 204,500

L_ L. L L L L
500,000
0

discharge at the mouth i I I

L - L .- L L - L L L L
400,000

discharge at
w 30o,ooo L L L Vancouver, Wa.
0

fflEffil
200,000 L L
of

>
Ir
100,000 OF

'A
0 N D J F M A M J i A S

MONTH
EASTERN REGION CONTRIBUTION FIGURE 202-2
y/M COLUMBIA RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN
WESTERN REGION CONTRIBUTION 1961-75

DISCHARGE OF EASTERLY AND
WESTERLY SUB-REGIONS

(SOURCE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DATA)

202-7

800,000

?OqOOo

600,000

500,000
'D

400,000

W 300,000

200,000 All
MINI
w
MR. /@

100,000
I
ON
N/01,

0 N D J F M A M J J A S Annual Ave.
MONTH

0 MONTHLY AVERAGE 1961-75 FIGURE 202-3

COLUMBIA RIVER
HIGH TO LOW MONTHLY RANGES 1961-75 ANNUAL RUNOFF AT THE MOUTH

(SOURCE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DATA)

202-8

WASHINGTON

M41 GRAYS(RIVER
acific c
Z7
N93SO118

WALLA LIT) R.
voooo
-oooloi--d SKAINn
RNfE i
-Y CREEN
lWc-3C
CHiNOr3
R.
-16400K JIM
CR
CR
CR(
GR
BAY
ALDER
CR.
COLUME31A RIVER P
-mmond
GNAT
CR.
-2@
Warrenton AStoria
p
A
C
HKU N T
@C R
F SKIPANDN R..
E;kAR
C R.
J

C
E CR
A BIG
N
CREEK

@j
0
OREGON ouimrs
RIVER
10
"0/
L @WAS H IN C
ja,

COLUMBIA RIVER
Is

TRIBUTARY ORAIP
CLARK \R.

miles

Table 202-2 prevents the flow rates of major estuary tributary

streams. While average flows appear sufficient for local needs,' seasonal

distribution creates severe problems. occasional serious flooding occurs

during winter storms, and the available flows in late summer and fall

often fail to meet consumer demands and established minimum flows for

aquatic life.
Water quality problems in estuary tributary streams result from
direct solar heating of streamwaters and point and non-pointpollutant
sources. The chief water quality problems are high turbidity, coliform
counts and temperature. Non-point sources include natural erosion, erosion
resulting from removal of vegetative cover (chiefly caused by logging and
road building activities), animal wastes, log storage, storm drainage from

urban areas and runoff from agricultural lands during heavy rains. There
are significant difficulties associated with regulation of non-point

sources, and they are a major problem. Additional localized problems stem
from point sources of pollution and include industrial wastes and raw
sewage dumped directly into estuary tributary streams. The Oregon Department
of Environmental Quality and the Washington Department of Ecology have
established strict standards for point sources such as sewageand industrial
outfalls. These standards are discussed in Water Quality Basin Plans and

are discussed in Section 205.

202.3 SHORT-TERM VARIABILITY OF FRESHWATER FLOW

Seasonal variations in freshwater flow play a major role in determin-

ing seasonal patterns of other physical, chemical and biological aspects of
the estuary. The monthly average flows shown in Tables 202-la, b and c hide
variations in flow on time scales of less than a month. The daily average

flow is more variable than the monthly average flow, and the hourly flow is
even more variable. Because plankton, some fish populations, conditions at

the bar, and the salinity patterns in the estuary respond to the weekly,

daily, and even hourly variability of freshwater flow, understanding of these
facets of the estuary requires knowledge of short-term variations. For this
reason, it is,important to examine gaging methods used to measure the daily

average flow.
- Freshwater flow can be directly measured either by recording flow

through the spillway of a dam or by use of current meters suspended in the

water. However, there are no dams on the Columbia below Bonneville Dam at

202-10

TABLE 202-2

SELECTED DATA
COLU14BIA RIVER ESTUARY TRIBUTARY STREAMS

(For Fish)
RECOMMENDED STREAMFLOWS CFS
DRAINAGE BASIN MEASUREMENT DISCHARGES, CFS Summer Low Winter High
STREAM (Square miles) LOCATION Min. Max. Average Minimum Optimum Minimum optimum__Notes/Remarks
Skipanon River 16 Mouth 1.6 585 49.5 None Established 1

Lewis and Clark River 62 Mouth 8.3 3,010 255 is 50 80 115 1.
Youngs River 122 Mouth 18.4 6,600 588 15 .82 138 190 1

Klaskanine River
North Fork NA Stream Mile 4.7 3.0 245 8 *31 70 86 2
South Fork NA Mouth 11.0 356 No data 10 44 80 100 3

Walluski River NA No data None Established

Bear Creek No data 3 10 is 26
Big Creek, @39 Stream Mile 2.9 21,0 538 No data 2.0 52 90 130 2
Gnat Creek 26 No data

Hunt Creek No data

Plympton Creek 4.85 No data No data 4 13 20 34

Wallacut River 5.7 No data

Chinook River 12.9 No data

Deep River No data

Grays River
South Fork above South Fork 17.0 8,900 341 4
West Fork above Grays River 0.1 4,770 127 4

Jim Crow Creek No data

skamokawa Creek No data

Elochoman River 65.8 Cathlamet 9.8 8,530 374 4
Mill Creek No data

1. OSU Ocean Engineering Program, 1975
0 2. OCC&DC, 1974
3. Oregon State Game Commission, 1972
4. Wahkiakum. County Water and Sewer Study, 1970

river mile (RM) 145, and current meter measurements are too expensive to

be made routinely.

Therefore, the estimates of average monthly Columbia River flow at
Vancouver, Longview, and the mouth prepared by.the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS), are based on measurements of the main stem at the Dalles Dam and

of some 25 tributaries at other dams below the Dalles. In addition, some

20% of the Columbia River Basin below the Dalles Dam is ungaged. Estimates

must be made for these areas based on precipitation records. Inflows of

ground water are not measured or estimated. The monthly averages, computed
in this way, are thought to be accurate within 2 or 3%.

Estimates of daily average flows in the tidal section.of the river

must be based on a more sophisticated method, because of the upstream flows

during part of the tidal cycle. This method involves installation of two
precision tide gages, some five to ten.miles apart on a relatively straight
section of river. A computer model calculates the flow from the slope of

the water's surface and the cross-sectional area of the channel, as

observed every 15 minutes. Current meter measurements must be used to

calibrate this kind of model, and the elevation difference between the zero

levels on the two tide gages must be known to an accuracy that is obtained
only by careful surveying. Furthermore, the computer model used is.not
strictly applicable to the lower reaches of the river, where the freshwater

is diluted by denser salt water. Nontheless, the USGS (Lutz, Hubbell, and

Stevens, 1975) has estimated daily average flows for the Columbia River at

Beaver Army Terminal (RM 53) and Astoria (RM 13).

The daily average flows at Astoria for March 1968 to June 1970 are

shown in Table 202-3. Several important conclusions can be drawn from it

and from the rest of the study:
First, the daily average flows are more variable than the mon thly
average flows; the range of the daily flows during this period was -7,400
to 630,000 cfs, while the range of monthly average flows for the same period

was only 123,000 to 478,000 cfs. Instantaneous flows as high as 2,250,000
cfs were observed during peak ebb flows. Manipulations of the amount of
water stored at main steam dams are an important sourceof daily variability.
Second, the variability of daily average flows at Astoria is greater
than that at Beaver Army Terminal because of the greater influence of the
tides and storm surges in the estuary. Negative average daily flows occur is
occasionally during storm tides (this point is discussed in detail in

202"12

TABLE 202-3

Daily Mean flow of the Columbia River at Astoria, Oregon
(in thousands of cubic feet per second)

1968 i969 1970
!&Y Mar. Apr. mdy June juiy Aug. Sept. Get. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Hay Julle July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
1 222 324 320 135 118 64.9 161 234 .1/292 1/245 193 293 416 499 457 216 150 114 137 143 190 388 168 114 172 381
2 260 340 312 90.7 58.0 66.3 172 236 16/283 1/255 177 359 439 1.10 460 187 116 126 116 106 160 302 132 105 172 408
3 236 357 292 85.0 58.7 108 227 244 1/258 1/253 190 369 444 : 93 421 136 112 164 70.9 71.5 147 327 185 161 152 513
4 206 --- 3,46 273 53.8 105 205 246 276 .1/266 1/260 220 422 449 485 390 117 95.8 124 23.0 164 206 329 1/185 226 217 518
5 --- 249 --- 316 261 56.6 150 193 250 340 1/296 _Y/285 229 504 421 179 352 137 91.8 68.5 82.9 130 217 330 T/211 95.4 .1/265 455

6 --- 195 --- 305 235 113 222 250 2" 379 1/336 304 278 424 386 444 323 99.7 70.2 29.8 183 136 246 310 168 193 1/266 480
7 --- 182 --- 297 242 210 250 239 232 318 1/414 258 2G2 309 351 1,08 316 101 56.3 L/91.0 186 156 228 346 268 224 248 445
8 --- 159 --- 315 265 262 242 205 195 362 422 228 284 337 318 1,02 311 70.3 57.1 L/154 286 177 205 288 250 251 276 446
9 224 151 ... 353 337 285 223 165 262 288 398 275 293 374 314 9 -00 281 99.1 121 201 284 197 223 252 210 254 257 446
10 207 15a 112 419 M 257 226 164 275 276 387 220 268 383 396 390 263 105 156 273 259 178 234 228 191 269 270 458

11 195 190 149 4 P 0 402 216 217 143 272 313 451 228 211 352 410 4 15 308 137 182 238 219 159 205 221 217 286 234 417
12 214 224 187 467 428 157 168 189 332 343 378 261 197 345 445 140 325 152 180 236 234 244 169 202 209 238 236 387
13 242 204 246 498 384 162 131 182 316 278 326 323 168 437 471 A48 300 234 223 186 210 243 140 222 1/208 188 219 353
14 274 198 272 504 378 160 149 138 262 260 287 357 175 441 528 474 308 232 208 164 161 262 276 160 T/178 177 199 314
15 269 235 234 490 359 133 142 199 2!5 225 330 342 173 460 534 501 322 230 154 135 164 226 279 92.9 f/127 114 153 284

i 5273 224 173 462 330 114 90.2 151 227 286 356 346 146 432 579 40 .1/309 223 125 151 170 194 286 L/186 1/181 159 216 232
17 273 177 179 449 299 75.9 67.2 98.0 239 272 413 232 24 7 450 549 477 1/286 186 82.5 139 168 174 259 L/297 T/igs 196 216 256
18 264 85.7 153 422 270 37.7 65.6 104 267 330 369 211 28(,, 473 558 437 1 263 181 67.5 118 114 170 298 L/364 Y/241 174 228 319
19 252 96.7 119 417 246 40.6 82.1 122 302 366 325 222 260 426 555 391 L/240 167 68.3 126 78.5 160 331 355 - 238 213 292 381
20 231 96.2 139 432 202 84.3 160 204 332 322 322 268 277 437 558 391 L/2 60 144 59.7 66.2 99.8 194 361 349 242 188 326 1416
21 212 92.2 134 390 188 91.3 211 229 278 M 311 278 332 456 540 339 .1/237 109 -3.2 1/39.0 200 256 430 353 254 216 360 444
22 146 47.1 195 395 198 135 238 279 332 262 322 203 292 380 522 260 L/ 194 50.4 -7.4 1 115 230 309 431 333 238 243 422 429
23 132 127 257 425 208 185 221 269 333 214 278 183 362 408 516 233 1/167 - 23.3 95.9 T/163 220 374 506 252 248 253 437 419
24 146 150 276 431 216 251 226 248 313 199 268 189 309 442 516 220 1/160 47.5 158 -
.11237 231 375 601 204 278 238 428 383
25 165 166 338 442 266 254 .1/186 270 302 215 229 170 261 417 466 220 11149 93i3 220 .1/214 217 381 630 240 226 245 4 3 55 317
26 238 --- 312 446 278 225 .1/186 220 221 203 226 183 230 400 463 220 82.0 165 228 .1/186 202 397 569 188 241 249 418 279
27 257 --- 330 443 254 215 .1/181 154 248 224 172 149 242 388 479 254 124 228 212 163 194 319 608 157 208 252 430 264
28 292 --- 379 411 243 243 147 69.2 202 259 205 149 221 395 446 310 184 -263 171 211 172 294 621 182 214 221 '393 247
29 326 --- 397 394 204 214 74.9 60.4 164 274 183 --- 212 399 450 386 258 224 150 167 151 281 508 ----- 188 176 404 235
30 276 --- 377 374 187 168 41.5 144 151 324 L/236 --- 228 401 491 440 290 190 142 169 169 251 491 ----- 168 158 401 247
31 215 --- 318 --- 151 149 ----- 130 --- .1/314 .1/220 --- 273 --- 483 --- 255 164 ----- 165 ----- 207 398 ----- 129 ----- 377 ---
W. ;.7-- -
--- --- ... 405 278 157 155 170 254 283 308 246 242 404 469 394 277 152 125 153 175 224 337 266 2D6 203 294 372
Fax:
0 326 260 397 504 428 285 250 279 333 319 451 357 362 SC4 579 510 460 263 228 273 286 397 630 388 278 286 435 518
Min:
132 47.1 112 297 151 37.7 41.5 60.4 151 199 172 149 146 293 318 220 82.0 23.3 -7.4 29.8 23.0 71.5 140 92.9 129 95.4 153 232

I/ Estimated.

From: Lutz, et al., 1975

Section 203.3B). Under these conditions there is a net movement of water

from the ocean into the estuary for a day, or even two days, accompanying
a storm surge. The extreme variability of flow in the estuary is one of

the reasons that the Columbia River bar is so hazardous. Both wave

conditions and the strength of ebb currents are only partially predictable.
Third, day-to-day flow variability of estuary tributary streams,
while important for fish migration and local water supply, is too small to

have a significant effect on flow at the mouth.
In summary, the monthly average flows routinely published by USGS

do not indcate the full extent of flow variability in the lower river and

estuary.

202.4 RIVER FLOW DURING THE WATER YEARS 1976 and 1977

Columbia River Flow data for the water years 1976 and 1977 (Septem-
1975 to September 1977) were not received in time to be incorporated
into Table 202-1. This information has been appended here, because
of the record low flow during water year 1977 (Table 202-4). The flow data
for water year 1977 are as yet provisional, but major changes in the final
figures are unlikely. The data were provided by M.E. Young of the U.S.

Geological Survey, Northwest Water Resource Data Center (Young, personal

communication).

The estimated monthly mean flow (Table 202-4a) at the mouth did not

exceed 200,000 cfs for any month from September 1976 to September 1977.
The highest monthly mean flow (about 180,000 cfs) occurring in January and
March, the lowest monthly mean flow in.July (104,600 cfs). The average
flow for the year was 155,000 cfs. Comparison of 1977 flow data with

historical flow data for the period 1928 to 1976 shows that record low
monthly mean flows occurred in April, June, July and August. In fact, 1977
was considerably drier than any other year on record. The previous low
flow year was 1931, when the mean and adjusted mean flow was 166,000 cfs.

The U.S. Geological Survey also calculates monthly average adjusted
flows. This is the flow that would have occurred in the absence of changes
in storage in dam reservoirs. These flows show the major influence exerted
by the dams on Columbia River flows. The average adjusted flow for the
year 1977 was 141,200 cfs (Table 202- 4b). That is, the dam reservoirs

202-14

TABLE 202-4a

Monthly and Annual Mean Flow
In Cubic Feet Per Second

Columbia River at Mouth, Near Astoria

Water
Year Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March . April _ May June July August Sept. Annual

1976 168,200 251,800 409,700 309,600 313,900 318,400 346,300 411,300 337,100 267,600 241,200 192,100 303,800

1977 174,200 170,100 174,300 180,200 165,700 180,500 150,800 178,100 155,800 104,600 105,400 120,200 155,000.

TABLE 202-4b

Monthly and Annual Adjusted Mean Flow
In Cubic Feet per Second

Water
Year Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. -March April May June July August Sept. -Annual

1977 102,500 95,620 99,370 85,870 101,100 128,700 183,900 273,700 284,900 133,900 110,300 94,590 141,200

Flow Data were provided by M.E. Young, US Geological Survey, (Young, personal communication)
Northwest Water Resources Data Center, Portland, Oregon
Data for 1976 are final; those for 1977 are provisional
Mean Flow are estimates of flows that would actually be observed at mouth, if a gage were in place.
Adjusted Mean Flows are those that would be observed in the absence of dams.

0
K)

were depleted at an average rate of nearly 14,000 cfs for the entire
year to meet the needs of irrigation projects, hydroelectric power and
migrating fish. Additional storage losses also occurred from evaporation.

Comparison of the monthly average and monthly average adjusted flows shows
that dam storage exerted a strong leveling effect on the flows (Table 202-

4bY. Monthly average flows ranged from 104,600 cfs to 180,500 cfs, while
the adjusted flows from 85,870 cfs to 284,900 cfs.
What were the consequences of the drought for river users? Fish

passage conditions for both adults and juveniles were extremely poor.
Unusually hot weather, together with the low flows, resulted in very high
stream temperatures in the river. Few downstream migrant juveniles would

have survived had some not been trucked or barged around the dams. It

was also necessary to release water in excess of power needs so that down-
stream migrants could escape the turbines. Electrical power use by

interruptible customers was cut. Some upstreams areas suffered severe
lowering of water levels, decreasing water quality and interfering with
navigation. Water levels in the lower river were not greatly affected,

but dredging needs were unusually low, because bedload sediment transport

was less than normal. Sufficient water reserves were available to avoid,

for one year, many consequences of the drought. The consequences of a

second year of drought would, however, be much more severe.

202-16

202.5 REFERENCES

A. Lutz, G.A., D.W. Hubbel and H.H. Stevens. 1975. Discharge and
Flow Distribution, Columbia River-Estuary. U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. p.31. 433pp.

A highly technical discussion of flow in the Lower Columbia
River. A mathematical model is used to calculate daily average
flows at Beaver Army Terminal (RM 53) and Astoria.(RM 13). Flow
patterns in the estuary are discussed.

B. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard and Oscar R. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase 1,
prepared for Clatsop County by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill,
Portland, Oregon.

Groundwater, major streams and watersheds, Pacific Ocean
influences, and the Columbia River discharge as it relates to
Clatsop County is described, along with other information.

C. Ocean Engineering Program. 1975. Physical Characteristics of
Youngs Bay Estuarine Environs.

Contains a readabie discussion of tides and currents in the
estuary and the various geodetic datum levels. Reports the results
of research on the tides and tidal currents, water quality and geology
of Youngs Bay and its tributaries.

D. Orem, Hollis M. 1968. Discharge in the Lower Columbia River
Basin, 1928-65. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 550.
Washington, D.C.
Estimates of monthly and annual mean discharge for five
ungaged sites in the lower Columbia River, including Columbia River at
the mouth, are presented for water years 1928-65.

E. Pacific County Regional Planning Council. 1974. Water Quality
Management Plan: Willapa Basin.
This publication describes the areas in Pacific County which
drain into the Columbia River estuary. Detailed information on
physical features, water quality and quantity, economy, population,
land use, etc. are included.

F. State of Oregon, Coastal Conservation and Development Commission.
1974. Freshwater Resources of the Ore5Lon Coastal Zone, prepared
for State Water Resource Board.

A resource inventory for use in developing a resource manage-
ment plan for the coastal zone. Identifies characteristics, uses,
needs and management considerations associated with the freshwatp-
resources.

202-17

G. State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. 1976. Pro-
posed Water Quality Management Plan North Coast-Lower Columbia
Ever Basin Volume 1: 46pp. Vol. 2: Appendices ; various
paginations.

These volumes describe cultural, economic, demographic, hydro-
logic, and water pollution conditions in the Lower Columbia drainage
basin of Oregon.

H. State of Oregon, Game Commission. 1972. Fish and Wildlife
Resources and Their Water Requirements. Salem, Oregon.
Environmental investigation data.

I. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1975. Environmental Impact Statement:
Columbia and Lower Willamette River Maintenance and Completion of
the 40-Foot Channel Downstream of Vancouver, Washington and Portland,
Oregon.
Hydrology of Nthe lower Columbia River region is detailed along
with other conditions pertinent to the project.

J. Wahkiakum County, Washington. 1970. Wahkiakum County Water and
Sewer Study, prepared by Harstad and Associates, Seattle, Washington.

This document describes environmental and cultural charac-
teristics of Wahkiakum County in support of development of water
and sewer plans.

K. Young, M.E., personal communication. Columbia River flow records
for the water years 1976 and 1977. U.S. Geological Survey, Northwest
Water Resources Data Center. Portland, Oregon.

202-18

0 0

Z Fon@ TIDES AND TIDAL
- %--@ a CURRENTS

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

203 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS ................................. 203-1
203.1 THE ORIGIN OF TIDAL PHENOMENA ............................ 203-1
A. The Astronomical Tides ................................... 203-1
B. Tidal Datum Levels ....................................... 203-3
C. Tidal Currents .......................................... 203-10
D. Standing and Progressive Wave Tides ...................... 203-10

203.2 THE TIDES IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER .......................... 203-11
A. Progressive Wave Characteristics ......................... 203-15
B. Standing Wave Characteristics ............................ 203-15
C. Tidal Characteristics of Youngs Bay..@ ................... 203-16
D. Tidal Characteristics of Other Bays ...................... 203-18

203.3 TIDAL CURRENTS AND CIRCULATION PATTERNS .................. 203-18
A. Mass Balance .............................................. 203-19
B. Tidal Prism and Storage of water in the Estuary .......... 203-21
C. Observed Tidal Currents .................................. 203-27
40 203.4 TIDAL DATUM LEVELS AND MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC LANDS ....... 203-31
A. Oregon ................................................... 203-31
B. Washington ............................................... 203-32
C. CREST .................................................... 203-33

203.5 REFERENCES ............................................... 203-34

FIGURES

203-1 The Generation of the Tides .............................. 203-2
203-2 Spring and Neap Tides .................................... 203-4
203-3 Rise and Fall Of a Mixed Tide ............................ 203-4
203-4 Tidal Elevations (Port of Astoria) ....................... 203-5
203-5 Pure Progressive and Standing Waves ...................... 203-12
203-6 A Standing Wave in an open Basin ......................... 203-13
203-7 Bathymetric Chart of the Estuary ......................... 203-16*
203-8 Tidal Height and River Flow at the Mouth ................. 203-17
203-9 Box Model of Estuary ..................................... 203-20
203-10 Flood and Ebb Tide in an Estuary - Box Model ............. 203-25
203-11 Daily Mean Discharge, May to September 1968 .............. 203-28
203-12 Surface Tidal Currents (Runoff 155,000cfs) ............. 203-28*
203-13 Bottom Tidal Currents (Runoff 155,000cfs) .............. 203-28*
203-14 Surface Tidal Currents (Runoff 380,000cfs) ............. 203-28*
203-15 Bottom Tidal Currents (Runoff 380,000cfs) .............. 203-28*
203-16 Surface Tidal Currents (Runoff 565,000cfs) ............. 203-28*
203-17 Bottom Tidal Currents (Runoff 565,000cfs) .............. 203-28*
203-18 Tidal Current Circulation (Youngs Bay) ................... 203-30

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONT.

TABLES Page No.

203-1 Definitions of Tidal Datum Levels ......................... 203-6
203-2 Tidal Elevations, Times and Ranges
(Lower Columbia River) ................................. 203-7
203-3 MLLW and 100 Year Flood Levels Relative to MSL
(Lower Columbia River) ................................. 203-14
203-4 Columbia River Tidal Prism ............................... 203-22

*Figure follows the page indicated.

203 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

The tides are the source of much of the energy that drives the
physical circulation of the Columbia River estuary. This energy results
in the mixing of fresh and salt water, turbulence, and the regular up

and down stream movement of estuarine waters known as the flood and ebb

of the tide. The rise and fall of the tide ' the causes and effects of

these tidal fluctuations, and the associated tidal currents are discussed

in this section.

203.1 THE ORIGIN OF TIDAL PHENOMENA

A. The Astronomical Tides
: The tides result from complex gravitational interactions of the

sun, the moon, and the earth. Although some 380 interactions occur (and
each causes a different component of the tides), only about 20 are of
practical importance. The simplest explanation of the tides is that the
gravitational attraction of the moon (or sun), as it passes overhead,
causes a bulge in the surface of the water (Figure 203-1).

This bulge, both at the point directly beneath the moon and on
the opposite side of the earth, moves around the earth as the moon does
and is experienced as a high tide. Since there are two bulges, one on
each side of the earth, two high tides occur each lunar (or moon) day

(about 24 hours 50 minutes). That is, the lunar semi-diurnal (twice
daily) tidal component has & period of one half of a lunar day, or 12
hours and 25 minutes. There is also a diurnal tidal component having a

period of one lunar day. In a similar way, the rotation of the earth

around the sun results in diurnal and semi-diurnal tidal components,
with periods of one, and one-half solar (sun) days (24 and 12 hours),
respectively. There are a total of 10 semi-diurnal and 6 diurnal

components to the tides, each having a slightly different period.
Components with periods of about 28 days result from the rotation
of the moon around the earth (the phases of the moon) and the variation

in distance of the.moon from the earth.- Spring tides, those of greatest
range (distance between high and low water) occur when the moon is new or
full and when the moon is closest to the earth (Figure 203-2a).

Figure 203-1

The Generation of the Tides

Island

Solid Equilibrium Ocean
Earth with Moon Moon

Rotation
TOP VIEW

Equilibrium Ocean
without Moon

U_
Island ri on
'Tide Producing
Body
Equatorial Plane
Declination

SIDE VIEW

The gravitati'onal force of the moon (and the sun, also) causes
the distortion of the water's surface we know as the tides.
A'bulge (HW) appears directly underneath the moon and on the
opposite.side of the earth.

From: -McLellan, 1965

203-2

During the spring tides, the sun and moon are in line and their
gravitational forces act in the same direction. Neap tides, those of
smallest range, occur when the sun and moon are acting at right angles
to each other (Figure 203-2b). There is a solar yearly component
related to the declination of the sun, the angle between the earth's

axis and the earth's plane of rotation around the sun (Figure 203-1).

The sun's declination also causes the seasons.

The tidal forces and their periods are known from astronomy with
great precision. The response of any given part of the ocean to these
forces is mysterious and can only be predicted on the basis of
observations with a tide gage.. Every year the National Ocean Survey of
the Department of Commerce publishes "Tide Tables" and "Tidal Current

Tables" for most of the world. Those for the West Coast of the U.S. are

'listed in the references in Section 203.5. The relative strengths and
phases of the tidal components for various Oregon and Washington points
are given by Callaway (1971).

B. Tidal Datum Levels

In the Columbia River and on the open coast nearby, both diurnal
and semi-diurnal tidal components are important. The result is a mixed
tide. The rise and fall of a mixed tide as observed at a tide gage is
shown in Figure 203-3. Most of the important tidal datum levels are

defined in Figure 203-4 and Table 203-1, using Astoria Port Docks as an
example. The elevation of Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) is, by definition,
0.0 ft. The diurnal range is the difference between Mean Higher High
Water (MHHW) and MLLW. The mean range is the difference between Mean
High Water (MHW) and Mean Low Water (MLW). The Mean Tide Level (MTL) is
the average of MHW and MLW, and Mean Sea Level (local MSL) is the
average of all hourly observations at a given station. MSL, also known

as the Sea Level Datum of 1929 and the National Geodetic Vertical Datum

of 1929 (NGVD, 1929), is sea level at coastal stations not influenced
by river flow, is part of the first order leveling network and is used
by surveyors and engineers. The Columbia River Datum (CRD), the average
of low waters during a low flow period in 1911, is also sometimes used
for engineering purposes. Table 203-2 shows the mean and diurnal
ranges, MTL, NGVD, and MLLW relative to MSL for all available stations

203-3

Spring and Neap Tides

Figure 203-2a Figure 203-2b

New moon

Low High
waterl Earth water/ Earth

Quadrature
+
HigN Low
waterl wated,

Full moon

Springs Neaps

When the moon and sun act in'the same plane, the lunar and solar
tidal bulges combine to produce large amplitude spring tides. When
the lunar and solar tide bulges are 900 out of phase, their combined
effect produces smaller amplitude neap tides.

From: Duxbury, 1971

Figure 203-3 Rise and Fall of a Mixed Tide

--,resultant tide
semidaily
t 1 6

ime in hours
.124
Y_
fdaily
Tidal height tide

A diurnal and a semi-diurnal tide when combined produce a mixed tide

From: Gross, 1972

203-4

TIDAL El EVATIONS FOR ASTORIA PORT DOCKS

Tide
Staff

M.L.LW

-15-
Typical Dais Tide -14-
12- 12.0 Extreme High Tide
Hi he4 Hi4h --- LOCAL TIDE STATIONS---
10- 9.9 Highest Predicted Tide
9-
if X I -owe Hi2h .9 0
8- 8.00 Mean Higher High Water 0 cc ca 0
__P ffe-r U1 61 0
7.30 Mean High Water in
-7. 1A L. M
> 4) c C
1 A X TIDAL 4;0 z 3 2
ELEV. c"n 0 0 0 0
U. 3 _j cc >_ IL
5- 4.20 Mean Tide Level :
4- 3.02 Mean Sea Level MHHW 8.3 8.3 8.7 8.6 8.618.0 8.3
f igh !r L w 3- MWH 7.6 7.7 8,.0 8.0 7.9 7.3 7.6
W ter 2- 1.10 Mean Low Water MLW V.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1
_0_ 0.00 Mean Lower Low MLLWI0.010.01 0.0 1O.o.0_n'O.OrO .70
Water
-1.9 Lowest Predicted
-2- Tide
ower Lo -3- -3.0 Extreme Low* Tide
Water 24 hours -4-

0
Figure 2Q3-4
Aowei kLo@

A typical tidal height curve of the mixed type observed in the Coluvbia River, showing tidal datum
levels. Adapted from: Division of State Lands, 1973

TABLE 203-1

Definitions of.important Tidal Datum

0
UJ Extreme High Water (EHW) - The highest projected tide Mean Sea Level (MSL) - A datum based upon observations taken
that can occur. It is the sun of the highest predicted over a number of years at various tide stations along the
tide and the highest recorded storm surge. Such an west coast of the United States and Canada. It is officially
event would be expected to have a very long recurrence known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929, 1947 adj. and is the
interval. In some locations, the effect of rain induced most common datum used by engineers. MSL is the reference
freshet must also be taken under consideration. The for elevations on the U.S. Geological Survey Quandrangles.
extreme high tide level is used-by engineers for the design The difference between MSL and Local MSL reflects numerous
of harbor structures. factors ranging from the location of the tide staff within
an estuary to global weather patterns.
Highest Measured-Tide The highest tide actually observed
on the tide staff. Mean Low Water (MLW) - The average of all observed low tides.
The average is of both the lower low and the higher low
.Highest Predicted Tide Highest tide predicted by the Tide tides recorded each day over a specific time period. The
Tables... datum of MLW is the boundary between tideland and submerged
land in Oregon.
Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) - The-average height of the
;higher.high tides observ .ed over a specific time interval. Mean Lower Low Water (MLW) - The average height of the
,The intervals are related to the moon's many cycleswhich lower low tides observed over a specific time interval.
range from 28 days to 18.6 years. The time length chosen The datum, plane is used on Pacific coast nautical charts
depends upon the refinement required. The datum plane of to reference soundings.
MHHW is used on National Ocean Survey charts to reference
rocks awash and navigational clearances. Columbia River Datum (CRD) -The average of low water during
the low flow period in 1911, as defined by the Corps of
Mean High Water (MHW) - The average of all observed high En gineers. It is about 0.05 to 0.2 ft. below MLLW in the
tides. The average is of both higher high and of the estuary.
lower high tide recorded each day over a specific time
period. The datum of MHW is the boundary between upland Lowest Predicted Tide The lowest tide predicted by the
and tideland. Itis used on navigational charts to Tide Tables.
reference topographical features.
Lowest Measured tide The lowest tide actually observed
Mean Tide Land (MTL) - The average of MHW and MLW at a on the tide staff.
given station. MTL usually does not coincide with Local
MSL because the tide curve at most stations is not Extreme Low Water (ELW) - The lowest estimated tide that
perfectly symmetric. can occur. Used by navigational and harbor interests.
ELW is the boundary between tidelands and bedlands in
Local Mean Sea Level (Local MSL) - The average height of Washington.
the water surface for all stages of the tide at a
particular observation point. The level is usually deter- Data provided by Division of state Lands, 1973
mined from hourly height readings.

Table 203-2. Times of Slack, High and Low Water, Tidal Ranges and Elevations*

Time of Time Average Elevations Relative
Slack of Speed In to MLLW-
River Before Peak I Knots Ti we Tine Ranges Local NGVD
Location Mile Ebb Ebb Ebb FlooU of HW of LW Mean Diurnal MTL 1929
North Jetty 1.5 0.0- 5.91 5.6 7.5 4.00 3.80
Main Channel 2.0 .89 4.16 4.3 2.6
S' Channel off
@latsop Spit 5.0 1.23 4.0 3.5 1.8

N. Channel off
Clatsop Spit 5.0 1.81 4.58 4.2 3.6
Pt. Adams, Ore 7.0 +.31 6.30 6.4 8.3 4.40 3.51

N. Channel off
McGowan, Wa 9.0 .98 4.0 3.8 1.2

S. Channel off
Tansy Point 10.0 1.14 4.16 2.5 1.3

Port of
Astoria, Ore 13.0 +.60 6.88 6.2 8.0 4.20 3.02

Hungry Harbor,
Wa 15.0 +.80 6.78

S. Channel off
Astoria 16.0 2.11 5.07
Tongue Point 18.0 +.76 7.10 6.5 8.2 4.35 3.05

Harrington
Point, Wa 23.0 +1.08 7-80 6.1 7.7 3.96 2.56

*All times are in hours from HW at North Jetty
From:- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1959 and U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975

Table 203-2* Times of Slack, High and Low Water, Tidal Ranges and Elevations (Cont.)

Time of Time Average Elevations Relative
Slack of Speed In to MLLW
00 River Before Peak Knots Time Time Ranges Local @SL, 1947
Location Mile Ebb Ebb Ebb Flood -'of HW of LW Mean Diurnal MTL at JettieO,

Channel off
Harrington Pt. 23.5 5.5 1.7 1.0
Skamokawa, Wa 33.3 1.67 8.68 5.6 6.9 2.15

Channel off
Bradwood, Ore 39.0 7.08 2.4

Cathlamet, Wa 40.0 1.98 9.18 5.2 6.4
Wauna, Ore 42.0 2.01 9.25 5.2 6.3 1.76

Eagle Cliff.
Wa 50.8 2.45 9.95 4.5 5.5 1.32

Beaver Army
Terminal, Ore 53.3 4.3 5.2
Stella, Wa 55.2 2.75 10.43 4.0 4.9 .79

Off Longvi.ew 66.0 9.5 1.0
Longview, Wa 66.0 3.18 11.17 3.3 4 .0 .34
Kalama, Ore 72.5 3.63 11.85 2.6 3.2 -.29
St. Helens, Ore 86.0 4.25 12.67 2.0 2.5 89

Knappa -
Landing, Wa. -- 5.18 13.4 1.5 -2.0

Mouth of
Willamette 101.5 6.18 14.4 1.4 2.0 -1.40

From: U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers Map CL-03-116

Table 203-2 Times of Slack, High and Low Water, Tidal Ranges and Elevations (Cont.)

Time of Time Average Elevations Relative
Slack of Speed In to MLLW
River Before Peak Knots Time Time Ranges Local MSL, 1947
Location Mile Ebb Ebb Ebb Flood of HW of LW Mean Diurnal MTL at Jetties
Vancouver, Wa 105.5 6.48 14.57 1.3 1.8 -1.82
Ellsworth, Wa 112.0 6.92 14.98 1.0 1.4 -2.48
Washougal, Wa 123.0 0.5 0.9 -3.83

Warrendale,
Ore 141.0 0.4 0.6 -5.89
Youngs Bay: NGVD, 1929
PP&L Pier .52 6.70 6.7. 8.6 4.55 3.60
Youngs River 6.9 8.6 4.55

Lewis & Clark
Rive,r 6.9 8.7 4.55
Skipanon River
at Bridge .52 6.62 6.5 8.3 4.45

Cathlamet Bay:

Settlers Pt.,
Svensen, Ore 22.0 1.10 7.82 6.3 8.0 4.15 2.69
Baker Bay:
Fort Canby, Wa 6.0 7.8 4.10 3.12
Ilwaco, Wa .52 6.95 6.0 7.6 4.00 3.90
Chinook, Wa
0 .52 6.37 6.2 7.9 4.20
W

10
Times of HW and LW affected by rtmoff levels

in the Lower Columbia River. A more detailed discussion of datum levels

is given in OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs (1975). Datum levels for

additional points can be found in the "Tide Tables."

C. Tidal Currents

Accompanying the rise and fall of the tide are tidal currents.
on flood tide, water moves from the ocean into the estuary and from the

estuary upstream into the river. On ebb tide, currents move in a down-
stream direction. The tidal currents as observed at any point then, are
oscillatory, alternately ebbing and flooding. The strongest ebb currents

occur at the time of peak ebb, and the strongest flood currents occur at
the time of peak flood. Between ebb and flood, there is usually a brief
period of no current, or in some locations, slight and irregular currents.
This period is known as slack water. The relative strengths of flood

and ebb vary with position in the channel, the salinity.distribution, the
winds, and the freshwater runoff level. In the river upstream of the.
estuary (high runoff season) or of RM 70 (low runoff season), the tidal
currents are overwhelmed by the downstream river flow. Current speed

varies with the tidal stage, but flood currents never occur. Tidal
forces and river flow are two major factors governing currents in the
estuary and river. These currents are further discussed in Section 204
(Estuarine Circulation).

D. Standing and Progressive Wave Tides
The rise and fall of the tides, as observed at any point, result
from the movement of one or more tidal waves past the point of observation.

In most estuaries, there is one wave propagating upstream from the

ocean, while another reflected wave moves simultaneously downstream.

Even the Columbia River estuary is not large enough to have measurable
tides caused by the sun and the moon acting directly on the water of the
estuary. We must distinguish between progressive and standing waves.
In the case of the progressive wave, the reflected wave is so weak that
it is unimportant; the crest and trough of the wave (HW and LW) move
progressively upstream, so that HW and LW occur later at any point up-
stream from the mouth. The range of a progressive wave usually decreases
upstream, because the effects of friction; a constriction of the
channel may result in a local increase in range, however. For a purely

203-10

progressive wave, peak flood corresponds with HW and peak ebb with LW

(Figure 203-5a). Progressive waves are often found in long, narrow

channels (such as rivers).

A standing wave results when the reflected wave is as strong as

the wave moving upstream; that is, a standing wave results from the
addition of two progressives of the same period and height, but moving
in opposite directions. Standing waves are often found in bays. High
tide and slack water occur at the same time throughout the bay, when
the tidal prism of the bay is full. Low tide and slack water occur at
the same time throughout the bay, when the tidal prism of the bay is
empty (Figure 203-5b).
Normally, the smallest range is at the mouth of the bay, and the
range increases toward the head of the bay (Figure 203-6). If the
length of the bay is close to one-fourth of the wave length of the tidal

wave, a phenomenon called resonance occurs, and the tidal range increases

dramatically toward the head of the bay.

203.2 THE TIDES IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER

The head of the tide in the Columbia River is Bonneville Dam

(RM 145), but current reversals caused by the tides are observed only
to about RM 70, even under low river flow conditions. Under high river
flow conditions, current reversals caused by the tides are limited to

the estuary. Tables 203-2 and 203-3 show the important tidal datum

levels along the Columbia River. Since any river, even a tidal one,
runs downhill, the level of MLLW rises upstream relative to MSL (Table

203-3). Also shown in Table 203-3 is the 100-year flood level, relative
to MSL and local MLLW. The 100-year flood level rises dramatically,
upstream from the estuary. Tidal elevations in the estuary are less
severely affected by floods than those upstream, because the estuary is

much broader and has less resistance to flow. For any given change in

stage, much larger flows may be conveyed through the estuary than through
the upstream river sections. However, the estuary is much more

vulnerable to flooding caused by storm surges than the upriver areas.
The response of the Columbia River and its estuary to tidal currents
is determined by several factors, including the depth (bathymetry) of

203-11

0 N
P. Fh P. W.
W 12, rt to
(D (D
H 9 (D
to (D
m
H t.) v F1 Fa
0 0 Ur 0
0 -0
Pi 01 0 1
0 0) Lq
w 31
H H
PA t-I
(D m
lah 11

ED
P rt
rt, w
0
to N) rt 11
(D
H- C4
m co
MI
Ih t7'
.4D F-I
rt N
m M
(D ED En rt
t" . H .P.

F-I
M
rt

m 0 Fi-
H 0
0 0
0
0
0
P)
0 rt 0
0
rt w 0
Rr rt 9
0. to
0 T ID
X 6. rt rt
0 (D

11 0
M Tidal C u r;r t;- n@r- Tidal Height m Tidal Curren
rt to rt Speed,
Speed

A Standing Wave inan open Basin

Antinode

Node
\AX
Range of
_Cq U-1 I -ib r7i u m- oscillati n
water level

Depth
h- of
Water

estuary
Open sea \A Y\A Y@ '(\A \A

Figure 203-6
The fundamental standing wave in an open-ended basin has a node at the
basin's mouth. Maximum change in water level occurs at the antinode
at the head of the estuary. For resonance to occur, the basin's length
(L) must be 1/4 of the wave length of the tide.

From: Duxbury, 1971

203-13

Table 203-3
Elevations in feet of MLLW and 100-year flood level
for the Columbia River

Elev. of local 100-Yr. Flood
MLLW Relative Level Relative 100-Yr. Flood
to MSL Datum to MSL Datum at Level Relative
at the Jetties River Mile Location the Jetties 1947 to local MLLW

-3.80 0 South Jetty, Ore

-3.56 8.5 Fort Stevens, Ore 8.3 12.0
.-3.07 14.0 Astoria . Ore'' 8.35 11.4
-3.03 17.0 Tongue @oint, Ore 8.4 11.4

-2.61 24.0 Altoona, Wa 8.7 11.3

-2.43 26.0 Pillar Rock, Wa 9.1 11.4

-2.15 33.3 Skamokowa, Wa 9.5 11.7

-1.76 41.5 Wauna, Ore 10.6 12.4

-1.65 45.0 Westport, Ore 11.0 12.6
-1.32 51.0 Eagle Cliff, Wa 11.9 13.2

-0.79 56-.0 SteIla, Wa 13.2 14.0

-0.34 66.0 Longview, Wa 16.0 16.3

.-0.17 67.5 Rainier, Ore 16.5 16.7

+0.29 76.0 Kalama, Wa 19.0 18.7

+0.89 86.0 St. Helens, Ore 21.7 20.8

+1.40 101.5 Mouth of Willamette River 25.5 24.1

+1.82 106.5 Vancouver, Wa 26.7 24.9

+2.84 113.0 Fishers Landing, Wa 29.2 26.4
+3.83 123.0 Washougal, Wa 31.8 28.0

+5.61 136.0 Multnomah Falls, Ore 34.0 28.4

+5.89 142.0 Warrendale, Ore 35.3 29.4

+8.45 143.3 Bonneville Dam 40.8 32.3

From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Map CL-03-116

203-14

the estuary and river and the freshwater flow. The most fundamental
factor is the bathymetry (Figure 203-7). The bathymetry of the estuary
is extremely complex, with multiple channels and sloughs, many islands
and major bays. The riverine sections upstream from the estuary are
simpler, but multiple islands and channels are still present. Generally
speaking,'the estuary below Harrington Point is broad. There is an

abrupt narrowing between Harrington Point and Jim Crow Point, and the
system is basically a tidal river above Jim Crow Point. This pattern

determines the observed-tidal features; both standing and progressive

waves are important below Harrington Point, and the progressive wave
predominates above Harrington Point.
A. Progressive Wave Characteristics
Table 203-2 shows the times of slack before ebb, peak ebb, and

high and low water (all relative to the time of HW at the North Jetty),
and the mean and diurnal ranges for locations from the North Jetty to near

the Bonneville Dam. These data can be used to understand the nature of

the tides in the Columbia River and estuary. The times of HW, LW, and
peak ebb become progressively later upstream, as is to be expected from a
progressive wave tide. The crest of the tidal wave (HW) takes 6.92 hours
to travel from the North Jetty to Ellsworth, Wa. (RM 112). The trough of

the tidal wave MW) takes 9.07 hours to travel the same distance; this

is A difference of more than 2 hours. The travel speed of a long wave

in shallow water is controlled by the depth; the trough of the wave
travels upstream more slowly, because it is moving in shallower water than
the crest of the wave. Similar behavior can be seen as long waves

shorten, peak up, and break on an ocean beach. It appears that the crest

of a tidal wave takes about 9 hours to travel from the mouth to the dam

(RM 145). Thus, there is about 3/4 of a whole tidal wave in the river

at one time, since a new highwater appears at the mouth every 12 hours
and 25 minutes. The'decrease of the mean and diurnal tidal ranges
upstream from Tongue Point is also characteristic of a progressive wave

tide.

B. Standing Wave Characteristics
The tide in the Columbia River is not, however, a pure progressive

wave; it also exhibits standing wave characteristics. For example, the

203-15

diurnal range of the tide increases from 7.5 ft at the mouth. to 8. 3 ft
at Point Adams and 8.2 ft at Tongue Point. A somewhat greater
amplification takes place in Youngs Bay, where the range reaches 8.6
ft in the bay itself, and 8.7 in the Lewis and Clark River. This
amplification is characteristic of a standing wave tide.
Also characteristic of a standing wave tide is the simultaneous
occurrence of high tide and,slack before ebb throughout the estuary.
For a standing wave tide then, peak ebb and peak flood occur between the

times of high and low water. In fact, slack before ebb occurs about .9

to 1.3 hours after HW at the North Jetty, in the reach between the mouth
and Tongue Point. Were the tide a purely progressive wave, slack before

ebb would occur about 3 hours and 12 minutes after HW at the North Jetty.
The observed tide is thus, a combination of progressive and standing
waves, as is seen in Figure 203-8. This is only the first of many
instances where we will find that the Columbia River estuary is a
complicated system.

The available current data are much less complete than the tidal

height data, Furthermore, the current data listed in Table 203-3 are

for surface currents, at low river stages only. Under these conditions,

salinity intrusion in the estuary is maximized and the times of slack
water vary considerably with depth. The times of slack and peak flows
are much more affected by runoff levels than are the times of HW and LW.
With these limitations in mind, interpretation of the current data

suggests that the standing wave tide character is important up to about

Harrington Point. The incoming tidal wave apparently undergoes partial
reflection as it passes the abrupt narrowing of the river in the reach
between Harrington and Jim Crow Points. Upstream of Jim Crow Point, the

tidal wave is nearly a progressive wave.

C. Tidal Characteristics of Youngs Bay

Insufficient data are available to define the tides in the major
bays, except in Youngs Bay. The greatest diurnal ranges in the entire
estuary are observed in Youngs Bay: 8.6 feet at the Pacific Power and
Light pier in Astoria and in the Youngs River, and 8.7 feet in the Lewis
and Clark River.. The time of HW in Youngs Bay is very nearly the same
as in the adjacent river channels. Furthermore, HW occurs nearly

203-16

40' 35, 123* 3d 25'

COL

BAI

......................

............... . ... ... . ...... 18

30
............

%
. .. ... ...
---- -----------v------- -
T I

. ......... . RIV

. .........
SOURCE: NATIONAL OC

NATIONAL

. . . . .. .

. . . . . . . . . . .

.....................

..........-......... ....

----------------------
. ... ... . .. . ...... .... ....

..........

NAUTICAL MILES . ..... . .......
0 2

KILOMETERS
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

STATUTE MILES
0 1 2 4
215, 210,

Tidal Height and River Discharge at the Mouth

3.0 6
5
,00
rt 2.0 4

Ebb
0 rt
10
0
000,
3

P) 1.0 2 rY 0
(D 1 0 P-
@I 0
rt
0.0 0 tt
U) (D
rt,M
M Ct
1 .4
(D "
Z (D
1.0 2
0 P)
0 Flood rt
0
M 2.0 -4
W

-5

3.0 -6
0 2 6 1,0 15 14 16 1,8 20 22' 24

Time in hours from moon's transit.of 124th Meridian

- River Discharge

Tidal Elevation
Average Freshwater Flow = 200,000 cfs
0
Figure 203-8
River flow at the mouth and tidal height at Fort Stevens as a function of time over a diurnal
tidal cycle. Note the mixed tide and the departure from a symmetrical sine curve.

From: Herrman, 1970

simultaneously through the Youngs Bay system, close to time of slack
water. There is a delay of .06 to 1.5 hours in the time of LW; however,
there is no evidence of a progression up river in Youngs River or the
Lewis and Clark River of the times of HW or slack. The tide in Youngs
Bay is almost a pure standing wave. Since the times of HW and LW are

nearly the same in Youngs Bay as in the main river channel, the currents
in Youngs Bay must be out of phase with those of the main channel, to
produce the standing wave effect in the Bay. In fact, slack water occurs

about two hours earlier in the Bay than in the main channel. This is

only possible with a standing wave tide. A detailed discussion of the

tides and circulation of Youngs Bay is found in the Alumax Report (OSU
ocean Engineering Programs, 1975).

D. Tidal Characteristics of the Other Bays

The tides in Baker Bay appear to be similar to those in the North

Channel. A slight progressive effect is probably responsible for the
small decrease in range and the short delay in HW and LW at Ilwaco,
compared with Chinook and Fort Canby. A slight standing wave effect in

Cathlamet Bay is suggested by the increase in range at Settlers Point
(8 .0 feet) over Harrington Point (7.7 feet). No tidal data are available

for Grays Bay.

203.3 TIDAL CURRENTS AND CIRCULATION PATTERNS

The.complex circulation in the Columbia River estuary is caused

by a number of factors, the tides and the freshwater flow being the
most important. The freshwater flow (Section 201) results from the down-
ward slope of the river's surface and bed (water runs downhill), and it

causes seaward currents to predominate in the estuary. Even under low

river flow conditions, ebb lasts almost an hour longer than flood, at
the surface-in the estuary. The freshwater flow is the dominant

influence in the river upstream of the estuary, overwhelming all others.
Figure 203-8 shows the variation of river flow and tidal height
during a tidal cycle at the mouth under low runoff conditions (as
reproduced by the Corps of Engineers Model), which is discussed in
Section 207. While the influence of the tides causes the basic pattern
of reversing currents, the freshwater flow causes the ebb flow to exceed

203-18

the flood flow. Slack water does not occur at HW and LW as it should

for a standing wave tide, nor do the peak ebb and flood flows occur at
LW and HW as they should for a progressive wave tide. Thus, the tides
in the Columbia River estuary have characteristics of both standing and
progressive wave tides. The tides and the freshwater flowl then, are
the basic factors controlling the estuarine circulation.

Figure 203-8 does not show vertical and lateral current

variations. These variations result from the rotation of the earth, the

shape of the channel, and the distribution of salt in estuarine waters.

The mixing of relatively heavy salt water with relatively light river
water causes currents related to the resultant density distribution

(heavy water displaces light water). Wind driven currents, waves, and

storm surges are also important in the Columbia River estuary. These
phenomena are discussed in Section 204 on Estuarine Circulation.

A. Mass Balance

Figure 203-8 shows flood and ebb flows at the mouth of up to 1.8
and 2.2 million cfs respectively, during certain parts of the tidal
cycle. Flows on a spring tide are considerably larger, up to 2.55 and
3.4 million cfs, respec tively. We also know that upriver of the
estuary, the flow is always downstream, toward the mouth. How far

upstream current reversal occurs depends on the runoff level and the

strength of the tide, but the exact river mile is unimportant here.
For present purposes, we may think of the estuary as a box with two

openings, one at the ocean end and one at some point in the river [RM

50 to RM 70, depending on the runoff level, where the current is always
downstream (Figure 203-9)]. The object here is to relate the amount of
water in the box to the rate of inflow and outflow at the two openings,

that is, to establish the conservation of the mass of "principle of
continuity" as the oceanographer calls it. We may state the principle
as follows, "the change in volume of water in the box (estuary) is
equal to the difference between the rate of flow into the box and the
rate of flow out of the box," or in equation form:

Change in volume of water in box
(rate of flow into the box) - (rate of flow out of box).

203-19

Figure 203-9
BOX MODEL OF AN ESTUARY

river flow
Tidal flood, water surface
Exchange ebb

FLOOD TIDE river flow
water surface
flood
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
original level

Increase in Volume of Box Volume of River flow on flood + volume
of flood tide.

EBB TIDE river flow

ebb water surface

f i nai levei

Decrease in Volume of Box Volume of ebb flow volume of river flow
on ebb

Total volume change 0 = Volume-of river flood during tidal
cycle + flood flow volume - ebbflow volume

203-20

We have already chosen the box so that the flow at the river end is

always into the box. The flow at the ocean end is alternately into
(flood) and out of (ebb) the box (Figure 203-9). River water entering
the estuary must, of course, eventually leave the estuary and flow into

the ocean, as part of an outgoing (ebb) tide. The reason for the rise

and fall of the tide in the estuary is obvious; as more water comes into

estuary on flood tide, the average tide level of the estuary must rise.

As the estuary empties on ebb tide, the Average tide level of the estuary
must fall.* This is simply conservation of mass. Furthermore, the
total volume of the outgoing ebb tide must be equal to the sum of the

volume of the incoming flood tide and the volume of the river flow

during the tidal cycle, if the total amount of water in the estuary is
to be the same at the end of the tidal cycle as it was at the beginning.
To give some idea of the relative importance of river flow and
tidal exchange in the estuary, the tidal exchange at the mouth during
an ebb or flood ranges from about 0.4 to 1.45 million cfs (Table 203-4),

depending on the range of the tide, and averages about 0.64 million cfs.

The average freshwater flow ranges from 0.12 to 0.63 million cfs,
averaging about 0.27 million c fs. The average freshwater flow during a
tidal cycle (12.4 hours) may vary from essentially zero to 2.25 million

cfs, as a result of reservoir storage manipulations and other factors.
Tidal flows are thus more than twice as strong, on the average, than
the river flow, but the river flow is subject to wider variations and
almost overwhelms the tidal influence during the spring freshet.
B. The Tidal Prism and Storage of Water in the Estuary
According to the simple box model of the estuary presented in the
last portion, the volume change of the estuary during the tidal cycle

results from the inflow of river water and the ebb and flood of the

tidal currents at the mouth. The total inflow or outflow at the mouth

on an ebb or flood tide is known as the tidal prism. The tidal prism

is a fundamental concept in understanding the workings of any estuary.

*There is one pitfall here. Tidal levels do not change simultaneously
throughout the estuary (Table 203-3), thus the behavior of the tide at
any given point is not the same as the behavior of the total volume of
water in the estuary. Only for a standing wave tide are the two
identical. Thus, we have spoken here of the "average tide level." The
model used here is a very simple one. Other effects such as precipitation,
evaporation, and tributaries flowing into the estuary have been ignored
as insignificant. 203-21

TABLE 203-4

COLUMBIA RIVER TIDAL PRISM

FLOOD EBB

Average jAverage
Tidal Range Total Flow Flow Rate Tidal Range Total Flow flow Rate
at Ft. Stevens 104 acre 109 t1oz) at Ft. Stevens 104 a re 1 O@j 1OZ)
in ft. ft. ft3/tide f /sec in ft. ft/tide ft3/tide ft /sec

6.4 57.8 25.2 5.70 5.5 66.2 28.9 6.53
7.1 62.1 27.0 6.12 8.0 89.2 38.9 8.80
8.0 82.8 36.0 8.16 6.0 78.3 34.1 7.72
9.6 84.2 36.7 8.30 11.6 126.5 53.4 12.1
6.5* 61.6 26.85 6.01
8.0* 75.8 33.02 7.38

Except as otherwise noted, ill values taken from measurements made on U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers model, with 200,000 ft /sec freshwater flow.
From: Herrman; 1970

Values computed from nautical charts, assuming listed tidal range at Astoria.
From: Neal, 1965

The size of the tidal prism depends on several factors, the most important
being the range of the tide, the freshwater runoff level, the duration of
the flood or ebb, and the elevation of the HW or LW at the end of the flood

or ebb.

The tidal prism may be estimated by using nautical charts and
data contained in the Tide Tables (as in Neal, 1965) or calculated from

detailed observations of the ebb and flood currents at the mouth. Such

measurements have not been made for the Columbia River, but the Corps
of Engineers has calculated the tidal prism for flood and ebb tides and
varying tidal ranges, from observations made on their estuary model

(Table 203-4); the model is described in Section 207. As is evident in

Table 203-41, ebb tide volumes or tidal prisms are larger than flood tide
volumes for similar tidal ranges. The reason for this is explained in
Figure 203-9; the ebb tidal prism must be equal to the flood tidal
prism plus the river flow during the tidal cycle, if the volume of the
estuary is to remain the same. The tidal prism volume must then depend

on the level of freshwater runoff.

Another important source of tidal prism variation is the absolute

level of the HW or LW at the end of a flood or ebb; the higher the
absolute level, the greater the tidal prism for any given range. For
example, a flood tide that begins at 1.0 feet and ends at 9.0 feet will

have greater tidal prism than a flood tide beginning at 0.0 feet and

ending at 8.0 feet, even though the ranges are the same (all elevations

relative to MLLW). The reason for this phenomenon is the existence of

the extensive tidal flats in the Columbia River estuary. A higher

tide will inundate larger areas of the tidal flats, effectively
increasing the water surface area of the estuary. It is important that
estuarine tidal flats be preserved, not only for their intrinsic
biological value, but also to preserve the flushing capacity of an
estuary (see Section 206 for a detailed discussion). San Francisco Bay

is the classic example of an estuary that has lost a substantial
fraction of its tidal prism through the filling and diking of its
tidelands. The ability of San Francisco Bay to cleanse itself of wastes

has suffered as a result.

The tidal exchange in an estuary is at a maximum at the mouth and
decreases upriver, to the point where flood tide is no longer observed.

203-23

That is, the tidal currents become progressively weaker in the upstream
direction, until the riverine influence entirely dominates the tidal
influence. The situation is illustrated in another box model, slightly
more complicated than the first model (Figure 203-10a and b). Box 1

represents the ocean, boxes 2 and 3 represent the estuary, box 4

represents a section of river between approximately RM 50 and Bonneville

Dam, where tidal height variations occur, but flood currents are never

observed, and box 5 represents the upstream sections of the river.
On flood tide (Figure 203-10a), the tidal flow from the ocean
into the estuary (P1) in part, serves to raise the tide level in box 2
(the tidal prism P 2). Thus, the tidal flow into box 3 (F 2) is smaller
than F1 (Fl = F 2+ P2). Filling the tidal prism of box 3 (P 3) takes
the entire tidal flow from 2. As a result, there is no tidal flow from
box 3 into box 4 (F 3 =0). Nonetheless, the surface level of box 4 rises;
that is, the tidal wave propagates all the way to Bonneville Dam

(RM 145), the head of the tide, even though upstream tidal currents
extend only to-about RM 50 (RM 70 under low flow conditions). The
tides in this section of the river represent storage of inflowing river
water (R5), that will be discharged an the following ebb tide.
Figure 203-10b shows the situation on the following ebb tide.

The downstream flow from each box into the next box downstream, is

larger than the flow received from the box upstream, by the volume of
the tidal prism. For example, the flow E 1 from box 2 into box 1 (the
ocean) is bigger than the flow E 2 from box 3 into box 2, by the volume
of the tidal prism P 2 of box 2 (El = E 2 + P2 ). The river flow R 5
over Bonneville Dam remains the same. The relationships among the

various flood and ebb volumes are summarized in tabular form below each

figure. Note that the ebb flow out of each section exceeds the flood
flow into that section, by twice the river flow during a flood or ebb,
which is the river flow during an entire tidal cycle. Detailed information
on the tidal prism for Columbia River by nautical mile up to about RM 55,

is found in Neal (1965).*

*The River Mile (RM) labels used here and by the Corps of Engineers are
in statute miles (5280 ft). Nautical charts and some other sources use
nautical miles (6000 ft).

203-24

FLOOD AND EBB TIDES IN AWESTUARY BOX MODEL

Figure 203-10a
FLOOD TIDE
Box I Box 2 . Box 3 MW Bo x 4. Box 5
_P - - - - - - - - p2S - - - - - - - - - - - - P-1 P@_
LW
R5
FI F2 F3-0
river
estuary estuary ,@qef
Ocean Change In head of
Box Volume Inflow(s) - Outflow(s) tide
2 P2 FI - F2
F 0
P3 2
4 P4 R5 0
5 0

Fl> F2> F3

Figure 203-10b
EBB TIDE
Box I Box 2 Box 3 HW Box 4 Box 5
_PL - - - - - - - 152 - - - - - - -
LW
El E2 E 37

river
estuary estuary head of
Ocearf. Change In tide
Box lVolume Outflow(s) - Infl W(s)
2 P2 El - E2 Comparison of Flood--and Ebb Flows
0 E E
3 P3 2 3 El = F, + 2R5
E R
4 P4 3 5
5 0 E2 = F2 + 2R5
E3 = 21k5 (F3 0)
L
P-1
Fql qF2 F3-0@

E, E2

ry s.
0 @8rf @C@ange
x Vo Iume
p2
t 3

EI>E2>E3>"5

Closely related to the concept of the tidal prism is that of

storage of water in the estuary. The hypothetical tidal cycles with

which we have been dealing have ended with the water level in the
estuary at the same elevation at the end of the tidal cycle, as at the
beginning of the cycle. A 12.4 or 24.8 hour tidal cycle, normally,
however, ends with the water level higher or lower than at the beginning
of the cycle (Figure 203-8). The result is temporary storage of sea
and river water in the estuary or loss of water from the estuary to the
ocean. This storage or loss, in turn, requires increased or decreased

flow at the mouth.

How important is this effect? The surface area of the Columbia
River and estuary to the Clatsop County border is about 150 square miles
or 4.2 billion square feet. Thus, if the surface level of the estuary
undergoes a net rise of one foot during a semi-diurnal (12.4 hour) tidal

cycle, the storage of water in the estuary will be 4.2 billion cu ft.
This compares with the runoff during the tidal cycle of 12.2 billion cu ft,
assuming an average runoff of 269,000 cfs. If the estuary undergoes
a net rise of 3 feet during a-tidal cycle, then the net storage would
be 12.6 billion ft greater than the runoff during this period. There

would, under these circumstances, be no net runoff at the mouth of the

river during the 12.4 hour period. A diurnal inequality, the height
difference between successive highwaters or successive low waters, of

three feet or more, is not at all uncommon during certain times of the
month. Thus, successive ebb tides may vary greatly in strength. The

tide level over a 24.8 hour diurnal tidal cycle generally results in a

net change of no more than a foot.

There is an important exception to this rule however, and that
concerns storm surges and other tidal height changes related to weather
systems. A storm surge may result in a net upstream flow at the mouth
for several days at a time (under low runoff condition), raising the

water level in the estuary as much as four feet above normal levels. As
the tide levels fall following such a surge, very strong ebb tides will
be observed, contributing'to dangerous conditions over the bar.
There is also a regular, bimonthly cycle of storage of water in
the estuary, associated with spring and neap tides. Comparison (Figure

203-26

203-11) of daily mean discharges at Beaver Army Terminal (RM 53;
represen tative-of freshwater flow into the estuary) and Astoria (RM
14) shows clearly, this bimonthly storage pattern. When the flow at
Astoria exceeds that at RM 53, the estuary empties. When the flow RM

53 exceeds that at Astoria, the estuary fills. Thus, freshwater flows
through the estuary are far more variable than-is indicated by
examination of monthly average freshwater flow data (Section 202.3).
This variability must be considered in interpreting field data collected

in the estuary.

C. Observed Tidal Currents

The currents observed at any given point in the estuary are a

product of a variety of influences. The effects of freshwater flow and

the manifold influence of the tides have already been described. Other
important influences are the irregular shape of the bottom of the

.channels, the curvature of the banks of the river, the rotation of the

earth (the Coriolis effect), the winds, and the distribution of salt

water in the estuary. Generally speaking, we can expect the strongest
flows to follow the lines of the main channels. Irregularities in the
bottom of the channels result in random changes in velocity, known as
turbulence, and in a general decrease in flow speeds close to solid
boundaries. Channel curvature also exerts an important effect. Flow
is strongest to the outside of a curve. This is the familiar centrifugal
force that one feels when going around a.corner in an automobile. The

channel from the entrance to Clatsop Spit is concave to the south. The

strongest flow then, is on the outside (the north side), and there is a

tendency for flood flows to be stronger in the North Channel'than in the

South Channel. The channel from Tongue Point to Clatsop Spit is concave

to the north. Thus, ebb flows tend to be stronger, as a rule, in the

south channel.

Another influence that must be considered is the rotation of the

earth, the so-called "Coriolis force." There is a tendency for any

moving object in the Northern Hemisphere to turn slightly to the right.
This tendency must be considered in air navigation, weather forecasting,
and oceanography. The Coriolis force is most important in large, slow
flows, such as, weather systems and open-ocean currents. It is also

203-27

Figure 203-11
Daily Mean Discharges at Beaver Army Terminal and Astoria,
May to September 1968

600

EXPLANATION Z
160
Z 0 f tiff M ... in
0 0
2 0 New Moon
in Cr.
(C 500 - Astoria --14 tL
W
CL in
------ Beaver Army W
W
W ui
LL M
R -12
400 to
D
U.
0 10 U,
0 0
CA (n
0 Z
in 300 0
D 8 0
0

Z
Ili 11 - 6
200 r

<
<
V

4
Z Z
<100 <
W W
2
2

0 0
Mav June Juty August September

When the discharge is greater (less) at Astoria than at Beaver Army
Terminal, the volume of water in the estuary decreases (increases)., The
cycle of emptying and filling is correlated with the cycle of neap and
spring tides.

From: Lutz et al., 1975
0

203-28

. ......... .... ... . .
..........
........... r
.......... ... . ....

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

.................

3.0

goo

74
8.0

5.8 8.9
5.6

6.0 ... ................

Oft
am do
4.8
4
.8
. 8

IN .......
.. ........... ...............

.. ... ... ..

N ....... ..........
............... ...........
.................

... ... . ..

. . ... ....

0 R T H@ .......
......... .. .

NAUTICAL MILES Lm" E
71
0
STATUTE MILES
0 2
KILOMETERS
Uff-MAILIL
of -.7 77
0 2 3 4 A.: .. .. ..

..........
...........
. ........ .

7 7 7

...........

*4kb

.46
2.4

3.6

ago
No
............

............. ....
2.7 m
4-5----- 2.4 4.1
4.5

..........
-,3.7
3.6 ........
................
2.7 40M
We am do
0 2.7

N N,
.............
... ...........

...... ..........
..........
................. ... ....

NO TH

NAUTICAL MILES

STATUTE MILES
0 2
KILOMETERS
0
1 1 2 4

..........

............

... .........

.............

4.2

...........

GOP
so .........

8.0 6.8

..............
9.9
10.3
4.5

4.2 ..... ..

do
"--ftwa am aft do
3.4
"--soft

............
.. .... ......

..............

...........
................. ............
...............

N 0 R T @H .. .... .

NAUTICAL MILES
71

STATUTE MILES

KILOMETERS . . .....
[A m 0 Its
1 4

...........

.............

2.3

v
2.4

0 4.5

3.1
2.7
..................
4.2 27
.. ...........

11 0 dop
1.9

.. . .......

.........................

............... ...................
..............

N RTH

NAUTICAL MILES

STATUTE MILES RLAL m
0
KILOMETERS
HUMALMILIt
0 1 2 3 4 . . . . . . ..........

...............
.......... .....
............ . . ....

.............

..........

...................

4.0

doo
8 ............
ow
do GOP .......

10.4

-409
10.1 11.8 4.5
4.8

5.1

............

aft
dow am
N. 2 3.7 -00,
%--mmm

.. ........... ............

........... ..........
..................................

.... .. .... ...

ORTH
!0- \

NAUTICAL MILES LIM M m m
0
... ... ... ...
STATUTE MILES
0 2

URAJIMAIL
KILOMETERS
0 1 2 3 4

............. . .....

..........

4.0

Goo ..............

4.5 2.5

5, 4
56 2.6
.................

...... ?,2 2.3 ftft dop
oft-ftftb

..... .. .. . .
..... .. .. . .
.... .. .. . .

. ..... ..

'% ...............
.... ........

...............
.............................

......... ..

ORTH

NAUTICAL MILES
.... . . .. ..

0
STATUTE MILES Lit-ELIE m m
0
KILOMETERS

0
2 3
4

important in many wide shallow estuaries. The currents in the Columbia
River tend to be strong (up to 10 feet/sec), and the effects of the

Coriolis force are somewhat weaker than those of the'chahnel curvature

in the reaches near the mouth. Winds and storm surges also produce
strong currents, acting for brief periods of a few days or less, but no
quantitative data are available on these effects.

There are no tidal current charts available for the Columbia

River Estuary. The Corps of Engineers has published diagrams of surface
and bottom peak flood and ebb currents under different river flow
conditions, for 13 different locations in the estuary (Figures 203-12 to
203-17). These diagrams are based on short records and cannot be
regarded as authoritative, but better data are not available. The 13
stations are located on three cross-sections, one between the jetties,
one off Clatsop Spit, and one off Astoria. A detailed interpretation
of these figures is only possible with an understanding of estuarine

circulation, which is considered in Section 204.

A qualitative idea of the circulation in the estuary as a whole,
or for any sub-area of the estuary, may be obtained fr om the Corps of
Engineers scale model of the estuary. The flows in the model only
approximate those in the estuary, and the model cannot be used to deter-

mine detailed circulation patterns until it is further verified.
furthermore, certain important processes such as winds, pollutant
mixing and solar heating cannot be reproduced in the model. Particularly
in shallow areas, the winds may be the dominant influence in determining

the circulation.

The Oregon State University ALUMAX study team compiled from a
series of photographs of the flows in the model charts showing the
surface circulation at different stages of the tide in Youngs Bay for a
freshwater flow of 215,000 cfs (Figure 203-18). A different pattern

would result under different freshwater flow conditions, because the

circulation patterns are dependent upon the degree of salinity intrusion.
Youngs Bay is also subject to northwesterly and southwesterly winds that

strongly influence circulation patterns. It would be extremely

valuable to produce similar interpretive diagrams for surface and bottom

currents in other areas of the estuary, particularly for the other bays.

203-29

CIRCULATION PATTERNS, YOUNGS BAY, OREGON

FLOOD TIDE FLOOD TIDE
(I TO 2 HOURS AFTER LOW TIDE) (3 HOURS AFTER LOW TIDE)

P
1 curfents
C* c

stagnoti n area 'lagnallon are
4 % as
(low currents)
ASTORIA Ilk ASTORIA

x strong currents
weakN
)h@ cell (2- 3 f Os)
A)
stoor.atlon a a slogn tlDn areas
flow current I circulation cell
YOUNGS BAY YOUN .GS 1183

flood
rr rils

1/2 HOUR BEFORE HIGH TIDE EBB TIDE

COLUMBIA RIVER
Ilk weak .currents (-< 0.5 fps) Strong *bb,-0-,rvntk
-1k
I*.
Ilk
ZZ ilk
"rulot, low currentl
call
Va5 f ps) weak clrculol@@
ASTORIA k@S I I A' ASTORIA
f

stapat on area weak currents Stagnation area
(ebbing) (low currents)
YOUNGS 8 YOUNG'$ SAY

Figure 203-18
Tidal current patterns for Youngs Bayj as predicted by the Corps
of Engineers model.
From: OSU Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

203-30

203.4 TIDAL DATUM LEVELS AND MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC LANDS

Certain tidal datum levels are used by both Oregon and Washington

to define aquatic lands. Generally speaking, submerged lands (Oregon)
and bedlands (Washington) are those lands below the level of tidal
influence, and tidelands include the lands that are alternately covered
and uncovered by the tide. Because of the differences in definitions,
ownership, and management between the two states, it is necessary to

discuss the situation in each state separately.

A. Oregon

In Oregon, tidelands and submerged lands that are owned by the
state are managed by the Division of State Lands (DSL). Submerged lands

are defined in Oregon as being those lands below MLW, and submersible
lands or tidelands are defined as being those lands between MLW and MHW.
DSL has the authority to buy, sell, and trade submerged and submersible

lands, and extensive areas of Oregon's estuarine lands have been sold to

private interests. The questions of ownership of, and regulatory power
over these lands are quite complex and are currently disputed within the
Columbia River. Generally speaking, ownership of submerged or submersible

lands does not negate the public right of navigation in the overlying

water, nor does land ownership imply ownership of the resources in the
overlying waters. Ownership generally does imply the right of access,
and with suitable permits, the right to construct piers, etc. Dredging

and filling are subject to considerably stronger restraints. These
matters are examined in more detail in Clark (1974). Advisory committee

to the State Land Board (1972) lists relevant ORS sections.

Other tidal datum elevations are important in Oregon because of

the Land Conservation and Development Commission's (LCDC) Coastal Goals.

In Oregon, wetlands are defined as extending from Extreme Low Water (ELW)

to an upper limit defined by the extent of aquatic and semi-aquatic
vegetation. This vegetation generally extends somewhat above Mean
Higher High Water (MHHW). LCDC defines intertidal areas as being those

areas between Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) and MHHW. Tidal Marsh areas

are vegetated wetlands above Lower High Water and below the line of
non-aquatic vegetation. Shorelands are lands above MHHW.

203-31

B. Washington

In Washington, ownership and responsibility for management of
bedlands and tidelands for the greatest long-term public benefit are
vested in the Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Tidelands are
those lands above ELW but below MHW, with the exceptions noted below.

Upstream from Altoona, ELW is assumed to coincide with the Columbia
River Datum (CRD). CRD was established by the Corps of Engineers for
engineering purposes, as the average level of LW during a low-flow

period in 1911. It does not, in actual fact, coincide with ELW. Below

Altoona, ELW is assumed to be -3.0 feet on MLLW.

Washington distinguishes between first and second class tidelands.
First class tidelands are those within or in front of the corporate
limits of any city, and within one mile (along the shore) thereof on

either side and between the line of MHW and the inner harbor line, where

harbor lines have been established, and within two miles (along the shore)

of the corporate limits on either side and between MHW and ELW, where

harbor lines have not been established. First class tidelands may

include areas below ELW, depending on the location of the inner harbor

line. The inner harbor line is to be established in navigable waters.
First class tidelands cannot be sold, but they may be leased for periods

of up to 55 years. The harbor area is the area between the inner and

outer harbor lines; it is to be reserved for landings, wharves, streets
and other conveniences of navigation and commerce. The harbor area is

to be between 50 and 2000 feet wide. The state may not sell any part of

the harbor area, but it may lease areas for up to 30 years. The lands

beyond the outer harbor line may not be sold or leased.
Second class tidelands are those lands between ELW and MHW beyond

the harbor area, or more than two miles along the shore away from any
city. They may not be sold, but they may be leased for periods of up

to 55 years.
Although the Department of Natural Resources has sold some bed-
lands and tidelands in the Lower Columbia River, it is now prohibited
from doing so. Almost all of Washington's bedlands in the Columbia
River below the Astoria bridge have been leased to Washington Mineral

Products, a black sands mining concern. The company has not yet
attempted to do any.mining in the estuary.

203-32

C. CREST

Since the CREST program must apply to both states, some compro-
mise between the two aquatic land classification systems was needed.
CREST defines waters as the water and submerged lands below ELW; wet-
lands, as those lands and waters between ELW and the line of non-aquatic
vegetation (or MHHW, where a line of non-aquatic vegetation cannot be
defined), and shorelands as those lands above MHHW or the line of

non-aquatic vegetation and inside the CREST shoreland boundary. In
non-tidal sloughs and lakes, wetlands extend from -6 feet on Ordinary
Low Water to the line of non-aquatic vegetation. Ordinary Low Water is
defined in non-tidal waters as the line to which the water normally
recedes during the low-flow period of the year. The CREST shoreland area
generally encompasses all tideland soils and extends 200 feet inland

from MHHW, in areas where tidal soils are absent or less than 200 feet in

horizontal extent.

203-33

203.5 REFERENCES

A. General Discussions of Tidal Phenomena
1. Duxbury, A.D. 1971. The Earth and its Oceans. Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Ma. Chapter 17, pp.316-339.
2. Gross, M.G. 1972. Oceanography a View of the Ea rth Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Chapter 10, pp.267-294.
3. McLellan, H.J. 1975. Elements of Physical Oceanography.
Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. Chapter 15, pp.107-116.
These three introductory oceanography textbooks contain
general discussions of tidal phenomena and their causes, defini-
tions of commonly used terms and some helpful illustrations. The
most elementary discussion is contained in Gross, along with a
section concerning estuarine tides. The best definitions and the
most detailed discussion is contained in McLellan. Duxbury is
,intermediate in difficulty.

B. Tides and Currents in the Columbia River Estuary
1. Callaway, R.J. 1971. "Applications of Some Numerical Models to'
Pacific Northwest Estuaries." IN Proceedings:_1971 Technical Con-
ference on Estuaries of the Pacific Northwest. Circ. #42,
Engineering Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon.

Contains harmonic analysis of tides for Tongue Point and other
Northwest tide stations.

2. Herrmann, F.A. Jr. 1970. Tidal Prism Measurements at the Mouth
of the Columbia River. U.S. Amy Engineer Waterway Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Miss.

A study of current measurements made on the Corps of Engineers
scale model of the estuary to calculate the tidal exchange into and
out of the Columbia River under low runoff conditions. A lot of
measurements with little interpretation.

3. Lutz, G.A., Hubbell, D.W., and Stevens, H.H. Jr. 1975. Discharge
and Flow Distribution, Columbia River Estuary. Geological Survey
Professional Paper. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 433pp.

Tidal height observations and a limited number of current
measurements were used to calibrate a mathematical model to
calculate river flow on a daily basis at Beaver Army Terminal
(RM53) and Astoria (RM15). The accuracy of the calculated flows
is only fair, but the interpretation of the flow data and current
measurements elucidates several important features of the water
storage and circulation in the Columbia River Estuary. Flow pre-
dominance as a function of depth and lateral and longitudinal
position in the channel is discussed. This is a very technical
paper, not easily read by the layman.

203-34

4. Oregon State University, Ocean Engineering Programs. 1975. P@ysical
Characteristics of the Youngs Bay Estuarine Environs. School of
Engineering, Corvallis, Oregon.

Contains a readable discussion of tides and currents in the
estuary and the various geodetic datum levels. Reports the
results of research on the tides and tidal currents in Youngs Bay
and River, and in the Skipanon and Lewis and Clark Rivers.

5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1960. Current
Measurement Program Columbia River at Mouth Washington and Oregon
Interim Repor . Volume I to IV.
Volume I contains the text explaining the field program
and the plates in the other three volumes. Volume II contains the
plates showing velocity. Volume III contains the plates showing
direction. Volume IV contains plates showing salinity, tidal
height, flow predominance, surface and bottom peak ebb and flood,
currents, scour vs. shoal, and flow at the mouth. A large and
valuable collection of data with no interpretation. Several theses
and technical papers have been written using this data.

6. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Ocean Survey. 1975. Tide
Tables 1�76 West Coast of North and South America. 222pp.

7. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Ocean Survey. 1975. Tidal
Current Tables, 1976, Pacific Coast of North America and Asia.

These are the official volumes upon which all published tidal
predictions for the West Coast of the U.S. are based. Smaller
unofficial volumes for the Oregon and Washington Coasts and the
Columbia River are available locally. They contain daily predic-
tions of tidal heights, times, current speeds and directions, and
times of slacks for reference stations. The predictions for a
large number of other stations may be calculated from those of the
reference stations.

C. Tidelands and Submerged Lands
1. Advisory Committee to the State Land Board. 1972. Submerged and
Submersible Lands of Oregon. State of Oregon, Salem, Oregon. 165pp.
A compilation of ORS Sections, court cases and State Attorney
Generals' opinions relating to all aspects of state lands, including
submerged and submersible lands. Index.

2. Clark, C.D. 1974. Survey of Oregon's Water Laws. Water Resources
Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. pp.1-65.
Contains a discussion of the laws and court decisions per-
taining to submerged and submersible lands. The discussion is very
legalistic, but clear and well-organized.

203-35

3. .,Division of State Lands. 1973. Oregon Estuaries. State of Oregon,
Salem, Oregon. n.p.
An inventory of tidelands in Oregon estuaries. The section on
the Columbia River is not detailed enough to be of any practical use
but is good for general features. Contains excellent illustrations
that define the significance of various tidal datum levels.

203-36

!illy

ESTUARINE CIRCULATION

COLUMBIA RIVER

ESTUARINE CIRCULATION

David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page.No.

204 ESTUARINE CIRCULATION .................................. 204-1
204.1 GENERAL FEATURES OF ESTUARIES .......................... 204-1
A. Definitions ............................................ 204-1
B. Classification of Estuaries
by Geomor@)hology ..................................... 204-1
C. Classification of Estuaries
by Salinity Structure ................................ 204-2
1. Salt-Wedge Estuaries ............................... 204-3
2. Fjords ............................................. 204-3
3. Partially-Mixed Estuaries .......................... 204-6
4. Vertically Well-Mixed Estuaries .................... 204-8
5. Classification of the Columbia
River Estuary .................................... 204-10
D. Gravitational Circulation .............................. 204-10
204.2 SALINITY AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ...................... 204-15
A. Salinity and Current Distribution
Off Clatsop Spit ..................................... 204-18
B. The Longitudinal Current and Salinity
Distribution ......................................... 204-21
204.3 CIRCULATION AND SALINITY PATTERNS IN
YOUNGS BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES ....................... 204-25
204.4 SALT BALANCE AND SALT TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY ........................ 204-32
204.5 REFERENCES ............................................. 204-43

FIGURES

204-1 Seawater Density, as Determined by Salinity
and Temperature ...................................... 204-4
204-2 Salinity and Current Speed in a Salt-Wedge
Estuary ............................................... 204-4
204-3 Mixing in a Salt-Wedge Estuary .......................... 204-5
204-4 Mixing in a Fjord ...................................... 204-5
204-5 Salinity, Current Speed and Mixing
in a Partially-Mixed Estuary .......................... 204-7
204-6 Entrainment in a Partially-Mixed
Estuary .............................................. 204-9
204-7 Mixing in a Well-Mixed Estuary ......................... 204-9
204-8 Salinity Distribution at High Tide/
High Flow ............................................ 204-11
204-9 Salinity Distribution at Low Tide/
Low Flow ............................................. 204-11

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) Page No.

204-10 Pressure Differences Related to Water
Level and Density Differences ....................... 204-14
204-11 Vertical Profiles of Pressure Forces,
Velocity, and Salinity .............................. 204-16
2-04-12 Station Locations for 1959 Corps Study ................ 204-17
204-13 Salinity, Clatsop Spit-
Sand Island Reach (High Flow) ....................... 204-19
204-14 Salinity, Clatsop Spit-
Sand Island Reach (Low Flow) ........................ 204-19
204-15 Current Speed, Clatsop Spit-
Sand Island Reach (High Flow) ....................... 204-19
204-16 Current Speed, Clatsop Spit-
Sand Island Reach (Low Flow) ........................ 204-19
204-17 South Channel Salinity Variations
(Sept. 14, 1969) .................................... 204-22
204-18 Flow Predominance as a Function of
River Mile Under Low Flow Conditions ................ 204-24
204-19 Contours of Flow Predominance - North Channel ......... 204-26
204-20 Contours of Flow Predominance - South Channel ......... 204-27
204-21 OSU Water Quality Stations in Youngs Bay .............. 204-29
20.4"22 Monthly Average Flow Rates for Columbia River
and Youngs Bay Tributaries .......................... 204-31
204-23 Water Temperature Vs. River Mile, Youngs
Bay and River, June 5, 1974 ......................... 204-31
204-24 Salinity Vs. River Mile, Youngs Bay and
Tributaries', August 2, 1974 ......................... 204-31
204-25 Salinity Vs. River Mile, Youngs
Bay and Tributaries, October 16, 1974 ............... 204-37
204-26 Gravitational Salt Transport Under Low River
Flow Conditions ..................................... 204739
204-27 Gravitational Salt Transport Under High
River Flow Conditions ............................... 204-40

TABLES

204-1 Classification of Salinity Structure ................... 204-12
204-2 Typical Water Quality Values for:
(a) June 5, 1975 .......................................... 204-33
(b) August 2, 1974 ............... I ......................... 204734
(c) October 16, 1974 ...................................... 204-35
(d) January 30, 1975 ...................................... 204-36
204-3' Percent Contribution to Salt Transport
Balance, at Clatsop Spit - Sand Island
Cross-Section, Under Low and High Freshwater
Flow Conditions ..................................... 204-42

204 ESTUARINE CIRCULATION

204.1 GENERAL FEATURES OF ESTUARIES

A. Definitions

The classic definition of an estuary is provided by Cameron and
Pritchard: "An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which
has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is
measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage." [IN The
Sea, Vol II (M.N. Hill, ed)). We have defined the estuary, for planning
purposes, as extending to the east end of Puget island at river mile (RM)
46. In fact, the upstream limit of salt intrusion at the end of flood
tide, for the minimum regulated monthly average Columbia River flow of
about 120,000 cfs, is near Harrington Point (RM 23). Much lower daily
average flows occur (Section 202.3) and result in salinity intrusion at
least as far as Pillar Rock. It is doubtful, however, that salinity

intrusion ever reaches even the west end of Puget Island. In contrast,
the maximum regulated river flow of 600,000 cfs results in salinity intru-
sion, at the end of flood tide, only in the lower 10 miles of the estuary.

Salinity intrusion at the end of ebb tide during high river flow does not

reach RM 3.

The Columbia River is the second largest river in North America
and its estuary deviates from Pritchard's definition in that large sections
of it do not contain any salt water during much of the year. Nonetheless,

the sloughs and tidal marshes between Cathlamet Bay and Puget Island are
an integral part of the physical and biological system thought of as the
estuary. It is important to realize, however, that the salinity pattern

of the Columbia River estuary is not typical of most coastal plain-drowned-
river valley estuaries. Most such estuaries are more saline and have a
less variable salinity pattern. Because of the very strong freshwater flow,

much of the mixing that takes place inside most estuaries occurs outside

the mouth of the Columbia River, in the coastal ocean.
B. Classification of Estuaries by Geomorphology
Estuaries are classified in different ways. The simplest and most
intuitive system is based on geomorphology, that is, on geological form.
Geologically speaking, estuaries are a transition region between land and
sea. Sea level rises and falls relatively quickly over geological time.

Large quantities of sediment are brought down the river into the estuary
and other sediments are eroded from the open coast by wave action. Sediments

from both sources are deposited in the estuary. Thus, estuaries are rela-
tively transient phenomena, with a lifetime of few thousand years or less.

The Columbia River estuary is of the drowned-river-valley type.

During past ice ages, sea level was as much. as 600 feet below it s present

level. This allowed the'Columbia River to build a valley out across the

continental shelf. The extension of this valley down the continental slope

is known as the Astoria Canyon and was eroded during periods of lowered sea

level by sediments carried to the edge of the shelf, moving down the continen-
tal slope. As sea level rose to its present level, the former river channel

was flooded by seawater and began to fill with sediment. The present posi-

tion'of the estuary is a function of sea level. The river channel and

estuary of glacial tines are now covered by many feet of sediment. Other
northwest estuaries such as Puget Sound are of the fjord type, and they were
carved out by glacial action. San Francisco Bay, on the other hand, was

caused by movements of the San Andreas fault system. Many Gulf and East

Coast estuaries are of the bar-built type, and they have shallow lagoons

behind large sand spits or barrier beaches. Many drowned-river-valley

estuaries, including the Columbia River, also have sand spits at the entrance.

C. Classification of Estuaries by Salinity Structure.
The currents caused by the freshwater inflow and tidal action in

the Columb'ia River have been discussed in Section 202 and 203. Currents

in estuaries are also caused by the density distribution; that is, water of
lesser density is displaced by water of greater density.

The density of sea water is determined by,the salinity or the amount

of dissolved salts in grams per kilogram of water (or parts per thousand,

symbolized by */..), the temperature, the pressure, and the amount of

suspended sediment. The amount of suspended sediment is generally important

only near the bottom. The pressure can be ignored since the depth range

is small (from 0 to about 200 feet). Thus, we may think of the density as

determined by the salinity and temperature of the water (Figure 204-1).
Density increases as salinity increases and temperature decreases.

As a practical rule, the salinity is the predominant factor in determining
the density structure of most Pacific Northwest estuaries. In the Columbia

River estuary , temperature plays only a secondary role during most seasons.

204-2

Therefore, the salinity structure is the primary concern in this section.

In the freshwater reaches of the river, vertical temperature gradients are

the main cause of density differences, but the density differences are
small, compared to those caused by salinityintrusion in the lower part of
the estuary. Temperature differences are most important during the summer;
then, the sea water intruding into the estuary is cold because of upwelling,

and the freshwater is at its warmest (Section 206). Temperature is also

a very important determinant of biological activity. The strong wind,
wave and tidal mixing tends to destroy vertical density stratification
and has a strong influence over the circulation.

Because salinity is the major determinant of density, estuaries

are also classified by salinity structure. Most estuaries belong to one

of the following four types:

1. Salt-Wedge Estuaries

A river.with a large freshwater discharge and relatively little tidal
action, such as the Mississippi River, will form a "salt-wedge" estuary
(Figure 204-2). Salt water intrudes along the bottom, and the freshwater

flows out in the surface layer. The limited tidal action and the sharp
difference in flow speed between the top and bottom layer cause a certain

amount of mixing between the layers. Although salt water from the lower layer
mixes into the upper layer, very little freshwater from the upper layer mixes
down into the lower layer, as shown in Figure 204-3. This mixing, which is
inhibited by the density difference between the layers, is essentially a

one-way process.
This vertical mixing pattern is known as entrainmeht, and.is an
extremely important feature of the circulation of salt-wedge and partially-
mixed estuaries. The continual loss of water from the lower layer into the
upper layer necessitates landward flow in the salt wedge, to satisfy the
conservation of mass. The surface layer becomes increasingly brackish
toward the ocean, but the salinity difference between the layers is usually
at least 200/...

2. Fjords
Fjords have a salinity structure similar to that of the salt-wedge
estuary. The major differences are topographic. Fjords,tend to be long.
narrow, and very deep; by definition, they have a sill at the mouth (Figure
204-4). If the sill protrudes into the fresh, surface layer, then renewal
of the bottom salt water layer inside the sill is cut off almost completely.

.204-3

Figure 204-1

Seawater Density aS-Determined by
Temperature and'Salinity

CUYve 0
0 cf constant den5lit.y,
C 0
20

U N;

4--)

10 +

fract-m-ing Pc)iM-

0 to 20 30
solinity (%0)

From: Gross, 1972

Figure 204-2

Salinity and Current Speed
In a Salt-Wedge Estuary

occan rivcr

_j
veloc'
alt vve4e entij ry
s ai n i t Y

Variation in salinity and current speed with depth in a simple
salt-wedge estuary. The two layers are sharply defined by the
vertical gradients in temperature and salinity.

From: Gross, 1972

204-4

Figure 204-3
Mixing in a. Salt-Wedge Estuary

tresh water

xii ng
Water

Schematic representation of a simple salt-wedge estuary showing
the two-layered structure with a landward flow in the saline
subsurface layer and a seaward flow in the less-saline surface
layer.

From: Gross, 1972

Figure 204-4

Mixing in a Fjord

zone of
Ocea n vigorou5 mixing fiord
bracki5hwatcr

high
5dlinity
water
Sill

Schematic representation of circulation in a simple, fjord-like
estuary. Note sill that restricts circulation of the bottom
layer.

From: Gross, 1972

204-5

The oxygen in the bottom layer of such a fjord may be entirely used up by
decaying organic matter, and toxic hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) may buildup over
a period of years. On those rare occasions when the bottom water is dis-

placed by heavier sea water (during a large storm or very high tide..), the
ensuing vertical mixing of the H 2S may result in fish kills. However,
most fjords maintain enough bottom circulation to avoid such toxic

conditions.

3. Partially-Mixed Estuaries
An estuary with a smaller ratio of freshwater flow to tidal flow than
a salt-wedge estuary will usually fall into the partially-mixed or moderate-
ly-stratified category. Let us consider the circulation in such an estuary.
A partially-mixed estuary still has a landward flow of relatively salty
water at the bottom and seaward flow of relatively freshwater in the
surface la yer (the estuarine or gravitational circulation; see,section
204.1D), but.the layers are less sharply defined (Figure 204-5). The
changes (with depth) of salinity and velocity, are more gradual than in the
salt-wedge case, and the top to bottom salinity difference is generally less

than 201/oo. Vertical mixing, driven by tidal energy, is greatly enhanced
over the salt-wedge case, and even the surface water will be noticeably

saline.

Consider for an example, a case where the average salinity of the
surface layer at cross-section A of an estuary is 17.51/.., the average
salinity at cross section A of the bottom layer is 331/.. and the average
salinity of the ocean water is 350/... Since the salinity of pure river

water is nearly zero, the surface layer must consist on the average, of one

part ocean water and one part river water (Figure 204-6). The bottom layer,

is almost entirely (about 93%) ocean water. Ignoring the small amount of

freshwater that has been mixed down into the lower layers, the volume of

water flowing outto sea in the top layer at cross-section A is about twice

the freshwater flow. The compensating inflow in the bottom layer that

supplies the sea water in the surface layer must then be equal to river
flow. The salinity of both layers must increase downstream (though the
changes in the bottom layer are less than those in the top layer).

At cross-section B, closer to the ocean (Figure 204-6), the salinity
of the top layer is-30'/.(,,, and that of the bottom layer 340/,,. The sea-
ward flow in the top layer must then be about seven times the freshwater
flow and the upstream flow in the bottom layer about six times the fresh-

204-6

Figure 204-5a

Salinity and Current Speed
in a Partially-Mixed Estuary

CL
-C

pmrbimlly Valocity
txad es tud ry
rr%
Salinity

The variations in salinity and current speed in a partially-mixed
estuary. Verticalgradients in salinity and current are not abrupt.

From: Gross, 1972

Figure 204-5b

Mixing in a Partially-Mixed Estuary

t@7
rvesh water

ixinq
I t
%vatc.

Schematic representation of water movements in a partially-mixed
estuary. There is a net landward movement in the subsurface layers and
a seaward flow in the surface layer, although the difference between
the layers is not as pronounced as in the salt-wedge estuary.

From: Gross, 1972

204-7

water flow, since the surface layer is 6/7th sea water. The volume of
both the upstream flow in the bottom layer and the downstream flow in the
surface layer increases downstream toward the ocean. This is simply the
result of conservation of mass. The flow in the bottom layer decreases in
the upstream direction, as water from the bottom layer is entrained into
the upper layer (with very little water from the upper layer being mixed

down into the lower layer). The flow of the top layer increases as its

salinity increases toward the ocean because of the entrainment of water

from below.

.4. VbrticallyVell-Mixed Estuaries

An estuary will aproach a vertically well-mixed condition when the
ratio of tidal flow to river flow becomes large. Like the salt-wedge

estuary, the well-mixed estuary is somewhat of an-abstractio'n, and most

real estuaries fall in between, in the partially-mixed category. Practical-

ly speaking, an estuary where the surface to bottom salinity difference is
less than 1 or 2'/oo may be classified as vertically well-mixed. .
In a well-mixed estuary (shown in Figure 204-7), the salinity does

not vary with depth. The salinity does, however, increase toward the ocean.

Because of the absence of vertical salinity differences, there is no verti-

cal salt transport and no entrainment. The net flow (averaging out the

tidal fluctuations) is not, as one might expect, the same at all depths.

There are two reasons: first, the influence of bottom friction, and second,

the horizontal differences in salinity (and thus density). There remains a
tendency for a strong surface outflow, with a weaker outflow or no net flow
at depth. In the absence of net upstream flow.along the bottom, the question

naturally arises as to why the salt penetration may be observed several tidal
excursions from the mouth, even at the end of the ebb tide. The salt pene-

tration is related to the interactions between tidal currents, tidal heights

and salinity variations during a tidal cycle. Without tidal currents and the
resultant turbulent mixing, salt penetration would not occur at all in an
'estuary with a net downstream flow at all depths.
Vertically well-mixed estuaries may be further subdivided into those
that are uniform in the cross-channel direction (i.e laterally homogenous)

and those that are not. Laterally-homogenous estuaries are generally narrow
without the uneven bottom, shoals, marsh islands and bends in the channel
that are found in the Columbia River. In la rge bays, the coriolis force is
often important because, as the earth rotates, flowing water tends,to turn

204-8

Figure 204-6

Entrainment in a Partially-
Mixed Estuary

(p 35
P,
F_
5' 30 - - - - - - - - - -

tr.
%OLtAMIZ3 Of mixed
w,ith an o wtuma of fro-eh woIQr
Figure 204-6 Relationship between surface salinity
in an estuary and the relative amounts
of seawater (salinity 35%) and fresh
water (salinity 0%) involved in the
mixture.

From: Gross, 1972

Figure 204-7

mixing in a Well-Mixed Estuary

Salinity and velocity profiles
at Point A.

V
vaLOCAY
5%0
Cz
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

The variations in salinity and velocity in a well-mixed estuary.

From: Gross, 1972

204-9

slightly to the right. Thus, the flood flow is stronger on the right side
of a tidal river, and the ebb flow stronger on,the left side (looking up-
stream). Bends in the channel may reinforce or cancel the effect of the

coriolis force.

5. Classification of the Columbia River Estuary,'
One problem with the classification of estuaries by salinity struc-
ture is that a given estuary may be partially-mixed during one season and
vertically well-mixed or salt-wedge during another. It is also possible for
different cross-sections of an estuary to belong to different classes.

Again, nature is rarely simple. The Columbia River is a classic example of

this complexity. Under high flow conditions, the Columbia River tends to
be highly stratified, particularly upstream from the mouth, but it apparent-

ly does not become a salt-wedge because of the strong tidal mixing (Figure
204-8). The surface water at,the mouth usually remains slightly saline.
This su ,ggests a partially-mixed state, except at the.end of ebb during high
flow conditions, when salt penetration is found only along the bottom in the
lower 2 to 5 mi les of,the river. This is the closest approach to a true
salt wedge. Under low flow conditions, the estuary is partially-mixed, but

may approach a vertically-homogenous state near the mouth (Figure 204-9).

The salinity structure classification of the Columbia River estuary is

summarized in Table 204-1.

D. Gravitational Circulation

The question addressed here is the nature of the upstream bottom

currents that are so important in the circulation of an estuary. Consider

..the time.averaged circulation, averaged over a period long enough to remove

tidal fluctuations. As mentioned in Section 202, the currents generated by

the freshwater.flow result from the downward slope of the water's surface

toward theocean. Were no other forces at work in the estuary, aside from

this down-slope toward the ocean, then the time-averaged currents in the
estuary would be seaward at all depths, as they are in the river (ignoring

channel irregularities). The presence of a bottom saline layer and the

entrainment of the saline water into-the surface layer requires upstream

bottom currents. The force driving these upstream bottom currents results

from the.distribution of density (i.e salinity) in the estuary. The technical
name for this force is the pressure gradient force, or pressure difference

force.

204-10

0 */W

10 I/W

24 2001.

0 5 10 15 20
DISTANCE FROM THE MOUTH, nautical miles

Figure 204- 8 Longitudinal salinity distribution during high tide and
high river flow.

3016
18 25/oo
2091-
150/6
10 */W
5 1/6
3@ 36 01/.

0 5 10 15 20
DISTANCE FROM THE MOUTH, nautical miles

Figure 204-9 Longitudinal salinity distribution during high tide and
low river flow

From: Neal, 1972

204-11

Figure 204-1

Classification of the Salinity Structure of
Columbia River Estuary-

Low-River Flow High River Flow
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Salinity'/oo Salinityo/oo Salinityo/o- Salinity"/.O
(Ebb) (Flood) (Ebb) (Flood)

Near the Mouth

Surface Salinity 5.8 30.5 1.3 18.7
Bottom Salinity 20.0 32.5 5.9 30.3
Classification B D B B

Near Tongue Point

Surface Salinity Insufficient 6.3 0.0 0.0
Bottom Salinity data 15.9 0.0 20.0-
Classification B A

A = Salt-Wedge Estuary
B = Partially-Mixed Estuary
D = Well-Mixed Estuary (with cross-channel variations)

From: Neal, 1972

204-12

An intuitive understanding of the effects of surface slope and

density can be obtained in the following way. Consider an aquarium full
of water and divided down the middle by a partition with a hole at the
bottom through which water is free to flow (Figure 204-10a). As long as

the water level is the same on both sides, no water will flow through the

hole. If more water is poured into one side, water will flow through the
hole until the water level is again equal on both sides (Figures 204-10b).

The water flows through the hole because!@the pressure is greater on the
upstream side of the hole. The water will flow regardless of the depth of
hole in the water. Thus, the pressure is greater at all depths on the

upstream side. This example is analogous to the surface slope case, and

it is evident that a downsloping surface causes downstream movement of water
because, at any depth, the pressure is always greater on the upstream side

of any water parcel.
The case where the water is denser on one side of the partition than

the other is similar. Suppose that the fluid level is the same on both

sides of the partition, but that one side is filled with an oil . (heavier
than water), that does not mix with water (Figure 204-10c). The oil will
flow through the hole until the weight of fluid on each side of the partition

is the same, that is, until the pressure is the same on both sides of the
hole. The fluid level will actually stand higher on thewater side. The
result would be similar if the oil were replaced with salt water, but some
mixing would take place between the salt and freshwater (Figure 204-10d).
In this case, the pressure difference or pressure gradient between the two
sides of the partition is generated by the difference in density of the two
fluids. When the fluids come to rest, the pressure difference at the bottom
caused by the difference in density of the fluids will be just balanced
by the pressure difference at the bottom caused by the difference in height
of the water surface across the partition. There are two important points
to remember here. First, the fluid must be in motion so long as horizontal
pressure differences or gradients exist at any depth in the fluid. Second,
pressure differences or gradients may be generated either by the slope of
the water's surface or by the distribution of density in the body of water.
These pressure difference forces in part drive the circulation of

an estuary. Upstream from the estuary, the river surface has a downward
slope, which means the pressure is always greater on the upstream side of
any parcel of water, at any depth. Thus, the water tends to move downstream.

it 204-13

FIGURE 204-10
WATER MOTIONS CAUSED BY PRESSURE DIFFERENCES
RtLATED TO IIATER LEVEL DIFFERENCES AND DENSITY DIFFERENCES

A. Water level and density
same on. both s ides..
no pressure difference,
therefore no, motion..

B. Water level higher on-left
side, density same on both
sides - pressure greater
on left side, therefore
water flows from left to
right until state (A) is
reached.

Initial water water Final
State
State

VIZ11111=11111111A

-C. Anitial State: fluid level same on both sides, but oil is
denser, therefore pressure is greater on the left side and
oil flows to right side. In Final State right side is
higher, but oil is denser, therefore the pressure is the
same on both sides.

Initial s a I f resh s a I t fresh Final
t
..... .....
State wa t e r water
water State

D.@ The situation is the same as in (C) except that the salt and
fresh water have mixed somewhat.. (The diffprence in density
of fresh and ocean water of same temperature usually does not
exceed 3%.. Thus, the elevation difference has been exaggerated
for clarity.)

204-14 14

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

INVENTORY

PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

EDITED BY

MARGARET H. SEAMAN

WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY

ROBERT E. BLANCHARD,
KURT D. BUCHANAN,
JAMES W. GOOD,
DAVID JAY
AND
GEORGE POTTER

PREPARED FOR

THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY STUDY TASKFORCE

P.O. Box 175

Astoria, OR 97103

JUNE 1977

The preparatior-. of tkis reportwas financia@lly
aided through grants from the Oregon Land Con-
servation'and Development and the Washingtm-i
State Department of Ecology with funds obta 'ined
fromthe,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin i-
stration,and appropi@iated for Sections 305 and-
.306, respectively, of the Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972.

most heavily during August and September between Tongue Point and the mouth.

A few fall Chinook also enter the river in October and November. The

majority of both upriver and lower river fall Chinook are caught by the
ocean fishery (Chaney and Perry, 1976). The principal Chinook spawning

areas in the lower river are the following hatcheries: Big Creek, Klaskanine

River, Sea Resources (Chinook River), Grays River, and Elochoman River. The

principal lower river natural spawning streams are the Lewis and Clark River,
Bear Creek, South Fork Klaskanine River, and Plympton Creek (Kujala, 1976).

The overall outlook for the combined fall Chinook run is good (Chaney
and Perry, 1976). There is extensive natural and hatchery production in
tributaries below and immediately above Bonneville Dam. The outlook for
fish produced above the Bonneville pool is not good. Adult fall Chinook

counts at John Day, McNary, and Priest Rapids Dams were all below average
in 1975, while the number counted going over Ice Harbor Dam into the Snake

River was a record low. This reflects the virtual destruction of this once-

productive run by main stem Columbia and Snake River dams. These dams have
almost eliminated the once vast main stem river spawning habitat (Figure

306-2). Only about 50 miles of the Columbia River above Bonneville Dam has
not been impounded by dams. Chronic passage mortalities at main stem dams
threaten the remaining natural production in the upper basin. The rehabili-
tation of the upriver run currently has low priority due to their lack of
freshwater sport fishing value (Chaney and Perry, 1976).

4. Juvenile Chinook Migration, Food ahd Habitat Preferences
As juvenile Chinook salmon migrate to the sea, their food and habitat
requirements change. In the Hanford reach of the Columbia during spring
and early summer, juvenile Chinook feed mainly on Chironomidae (the family
name for midges) insects, caddisflies, and true bugs (Becker, 1973). In
the Prescott-Kalama reach, salmon averaging 100 mm long (4 in) are at the

peak of their migration in June and July; in addition, they feed largely

on insects (adults and larvae) in spring and fall, and mainly on the zoo-
plankter Daphnia during the summer (Craddock,-Blahm, and Parente, 1976).

In an unpublished study by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service,

C. Sims presents much of what is known on the migration and growth of
juvenile Chinook in the estuary. Downstream migration of all juvenile
Chinook at Jones Beach, Oregon (just upriver from Puget Island) occurs in
two peaks, an early one in late May and a much larger one in late July and

306-7

COLUMBIA BASIN ANADROMOUS SALMON AND STEELHEAD SPAWNING
HABITAT

PRESENT SPAWNING HABITAT
FIGURE 306-2. AREA BLOCKED BY DAMS

AREA NEVER AVAILABLE BECAUSE OF NATURAL
OBSTRUCTIONS

SOURCES: Environmental Protection Agency,1971.
Chaney and Perry,1976.

North

':,Zj
z
z
-7

Butte

Port

` /0//1
ealgIll

-7--

Eff

306-8

early August. Throughout Sims',1966-1972 study period, the pe .rcentage of

migrants that entered the estuary during May and June declined while the

percentage that entered in August increased significantly. Subyearling
fall Chinook, when migrating through the estuary, concentrate in shallow
near-shore areas and avoid deeper channels; yearling Chinook, primarily

spring and summer stock, are most abundant in offshore channel areas. These

yearlings concentrate within 3 m (10 ft) of the water surface.

Fall Chinook usually stay in freshwater only 60-90 days-after the

yolk sac is absorbed, whereas spring and summer juveniles stay in freshwater
for at least a year and consequently in the spring are usually 10-20 mm

(3/4 in) larger. Some fall Chinook may hold up their migration until they

are yearlings; they go out from February to May (Durkin, personal communi-
cation). As a result of tagging studies, Sims speculates that most fall

Chinook juveniles pass quickly through the estuary. Their average length,
70-80 mm (3 in), shows that the majority become smolts (the stage when
they are able to go to sea) before reaching the estuary. During the
study, some fishes captured at Clatsop Spit, Oregon (RM 5) passed through
the estuary from Jones Beach, Oregon (RM 72) in 6 days.
There is no published information on the migratory habits of juveniles

produced in the rivers and hatcheries in the vicinity of the estuary. The

U.S. National Marine Fisheries service is continuing research on migratory

habits of juvenile salmonids in the Columbia River estuary.
Resz.@arch on food habits and distribution of juvenile Chinook in the
lower estuary, almost exclusively in Youngs Bay, has been conducted mainly
by Oregon State University, and the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service.
Juvenile Chinook are present in Youngs Bay during most of the year (Higley
and Holton, 1975). From January to May, those from low salinity areas feed
mainly on the bottom-dwelling amphipod Corophium sp. Those from higher sali-
nity areas feed on Corophium, Neomysis sp. (a shrimp-like organism), and
Chironomids (larvae and adults of midge insects) from January to May; they
feed almost exclusively on Corophium from June through September. Durkin
(unpublished data) reports the results of a brief study of the Port of Astoria
proposed fill site in Youngs Bay. Large numbers of Chinook juveniles move
through the area in April, May, and June, and he speculates that there may

continue to be large numbers of.them until September or October. Lipovsky
(personal communication on unpublished or continuing work by the U.S. National

306-9

Marine Fisl"Ieries Service) states that most young salmon seem to feed on
smaller items like zooplankton during the summer in the middle and upper
estuary, then switch to insects and Corophium sp. in the fall and spring
months. In the lower estuary, the diet is mainly Corophium, supplemented by

insects and insect larvae in the fall.

B. Coho Salmon

Coho salmon, or silvers, are natives of the North Pacific Ocean and

are found from Baja California around the Pacific rim to Korea and northern

Japan. They are most abundant from Oregon to southeast Alaska (Hart, 1973).
Adults are distinguished by a white gumline and black spots on the back and

upper lobe of the tail. Coho produced in Columbia River hatcheries are

major contributors to ocean fisheries from California to the central
Washington coast (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1976). The popu-
lation of doho dwindled in the 1950's and increased tremendously in the.196-O's,
due to improved hatchery techniques and new fish food such as the Oregon Moist
Pellet developed at the Oregon State Seafood Lab in Astoria (Kujala, 1976).
This increased production boosted the ocean troll and sports catch and
opened new gillnet areas such as Youngs Bay (which had been closed for over
thirty years) and Grays Bay.

Coho adults, generally 3 years old and weighing 8-14 pounds, enter

the estuary in August, reach peak numbers in September and run until November;

the majority are destined for tributaries and hatcheries below Bonneville
Dam (Chaney and Perry, 1976). In the estuary, they behave much like fall
Chinook spending up-to 30 days in brackish water before moving upstream,

and are generally found in deeper channels of the river, Youngs Bay, and

Grays Bay (Kujala, 1976). The principal coho spawning areas in the estuary

region are the following hatcheries: Klaskanine River, Big Creek, Elochoman
River, Grays River, and Sea Resources (Chinook River). Their primary natural
spawning streams are Lewis and Clark River, Youngs River, Klaskanine River,
Bear Creek, Big Creek, Gnat Creek, Elochoman River, Grays River, and Chinook
River. Juveniles spend one year in freshwater feeding largely on terrestrial
insects, and are territorial. Their survival and well being is very depen-

dent on adequate summer stream flow and high water quality (Hart, 1973).
On their downstream migration, Sims (personal communication) finds that
yearling coho are most abundant in offshore river channel areas. At Jones

306-10

Beach, Oregon, these migrants average 110-130 mm (4-1/3 - 5 in). Durkin and

Lipovsky of the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (personal communica-
tion) report that almost all wild coho smolts have spent one year in fresh-

water; the greatest number out-migrate during the first two weeks of May.
Their diet in the lower estuary may be largely 2aE@)Rhium and insects. Little
else is known of the migration and feeding habits of juvenile coho salmon in

the Columbia River estuary.

C. Sockeye Salmon

Sockeye salmon, or blueback, are the smallest (average 4 lbs) of the
Pacific salmon entering the Columbia River (Kujala, 1976). They are found

from the Klamath River in California around the Pacific rim to Kamchatka

in Asia. Adult coho are distinguished from other salmon by their forked

tail and the fine black speckling on their blue back. Adults enter the
estuary in June, are most abundant in late June, and have gone upriver by

mid-July (Kujala, 1976). They are found throughout the estuary during the

run, but most travel very close to shore and in shallow water near sandbars
adjacent to the channel such as along the Sand Island jetties and along the
piers on the Astoria waterfront. These adults are almost exclusively

destined for Columbia River tributaries above Priest Rapids Dam (RM 395)
and suffer drastic adult mortality at the main stem dams (Chaney and Perry,
1976). Much of the upriver spawning habitat, in Washington and Idaho, is

eliminated or degraded due to these dams. Most juveniles spend one year in
a lake, and migrate seaward when they are 60-95 mm (2-3/8 - 3-3/4 in) and
lake temperature is 4-7*C (39-45*F) (Hart, 1973). Juveniles migrate in the
spring (Johnsen and Sims, 1973). They are found during May in the estuary

near the surface of deeper channels; the migration is nearly complete by
the end of May (Durkin, personal communication).
Because of their small size and lack of sport fishing value, sockeye
are not artificially propagated anywhere in the Columbia Basin, and the
outlook for run recovery is poor (Chaney and Perry, 1976). Because of
declining numbers, there has been no commercial season in the Columbia
River since 1972 (Kujala, 1976).

D. Chum Salmon

Chun salmon, often called dog salmon because of the hooked snout and

the canine-like front teeth of breeding males, are found from San Francisco

around the Pacific rim to Kamchatka in Asia (Carl, Clemens, and Lindsey,

306-11

1967). They arethe second most abundant salmon species throughout this
range (Chaney and Perry, 1976). Adults entering the estuary average four
years old and weigh 10-12 pounds. They are recognized by the absence of
large black spots, and all fins (except the dorsal fin) are black-tipped.
Spawning adults are brightly colored with red and yellow blotches along the
sides (Kujala, 1976). Adults migrate during November and December, follow
main river channels and are destined for lower river tributaries (Chaney and
Perry, 1976).

Chum salmon were once an important fishery in the river, but runs

have declined drastically (Kujala, 1976). The commercial catch is a few

hundred per year and the commercial season usually closes just when chum are

starting to enter the river. Their flesh is the lowest quality of the salmon

but it is marketable fresh, frozen, canned, or smoked. The decline in numbers

of chum is thought to be largely the result of subtle environmental changes
and degradation of spawning habitat by man's activities (Chaney and Perry,
1976). Competition with other juvenile salmonids may also be a factor.

There are now some chum enhancement programs in the lower river. Chum
eggs from Japan were-hatched, reared, and released at the Grays River Hatchery
for the first time in 1976. As the result of work by the Clatsop Economic
Development Committee salmon enhancement project, approximately 1.2 million
chum salmon from the Hoodsport Hatchery, Washington, were reared at the

Klaskanine Hatchery, Oregon, and released in April, 1977. This was made

possible by a special Oregon Governor's Grant and local voluntary help

(Kujala, personal communication).
Sea Resources, a non-profit organization in Chinook, Washington,
artificially propagates chum salmon at its hatchery on the Chinook River.

It is attempting to increase the run size and is having moderate success.

Chum salmon egg incubation boxes have been planted in many lower river tri-

butaries in an effort to establish or enhance chum salmon runs.

Little is known of the migration and food and habitat preferences of
juvenile chum in the Columbia River mainly because there are so few fish.
Chum fry from the Cowichan River of British Columbia feed heavily on chiro-

nomid insect larvae and cladoceran zooplankton and grow appreciably during
their brief freshwater stay (Sparrow, 1968). Fry migrate to sea when they
are about 37 mm (1-1/2 in) long their first spring, and none remain in
freshwater after July (Carl et al., 1967). Chum fry in the Nanaimo River

306-12

of BAtish Columbia migrate to sea from March to the end of May (Siebert,
Brown, Healy, Kask, and Naiman, 1977). In March, these fish stay in shallow

mudflat areas in the estuary an average of 13-18 days, but only 1.5 days in
May. From early March to late May the relative weight increase of these
fish is 4% per day, and their principal food is epibenthic and interstitial
harpacticoid copepods (in the Columbia River estuary this would probably be

Canuella).

National Marine Fisheries Service research results provide the few

facts known about Columbia River chum fry (Sims, unpublished). While still

in freshwater, fry eat mostly chironomid insect larvae and pupae, and cope-

pod and cladoceran zooplankton. Chum fry enter the estuary in early March,
stay in near shore areas, and go to sea by June. Their average length is

40-50 mm (2 in). Their diet in the brackish water at Point Ellice is the
two copepods Euryt and Canuella, the amphipod Corophium, varying

amounts of the amphipod Paraphoxus, and the mysid Neomysis. Epibenthic

invertebrates are the most important food of chum fry in the lower river.

Chum fry in Youngs Bay and off Hammond eat Corophium, and zooplankton

(Lipovsky, personal communication of unpublished NMFS research).

E. Steelhead Trout

Steelhead are sea-run rainbow troutfound from southern California
to the Aleutian Isiands (Hart, 1973). Adults average 6 to 12 pounds and
are distinguished from other salmonids by the elongated body, short blunt
head, many large black spots, white gumline, absence of red slash marks
under the jaw, and red cheeks and lateral band during spawning. Returning

adults have usually spent from 2 to 3 years as juveniles in freshwater and
2 to 3 years at sea (Hart, 1973), and some, mostly winter run, are able to

spawn again another year. Columbia River steelhead are either summer run

or winter run, and travel mainly in deep river channels or at times, near

shorelines.

Summer run steelhead enter the estuary from April through October,

with peak abundance from July to early September (Chaney and Perry, 1976).

Some are destined for tributaries just below Bonneville Dam, but most go
further upriver. The upriver run is composed of two segments; early smaller
fish are headed for tributaries throughout the mid and upper Columbia and

Snake River drainages; the larger, later fish are destined mainly for Idaho's
Clearwater River drainage. Traditionally, these fish have been very important

306-13

to both commercial and sports fishermen, but since 1974, summer steelhead

have been illegal to harvest commercially. Sports, and Indian net fisheries
still exist. Both segments of the upriver run are in serious trouble, mainly

due to the cumulative effects of main stem Columbia and Snake River dams.

Record low counts of summer steelhead in 1974 and 1975 entered both the Snake

River over Ice Harbor Dam and over Priest Rapids Dam into the upper Columbia.

Winter run steelhead enter the estuary in November, are most abundant
in January and February, and continue to run through March or April (Kujala,
1976). These fish are destined almost entirely for tributaries below

Bonneville Dam. Only winter steelhead spawn in estuary tributaries; natural
spawning occurs in the Lewis and Clark River, Youngs River, Klaskanine River,

Bear Creek, Big Creek, Gnat Creek, Grays River, Jim Crow Creek, and Elochoman

River. Winter steelhead are reared at the following hatcheries: Klaskanine

River, Big Creek, Gnat Creek, and Beaver Creek (on the Elochoman River).

Winter steelhead have been classified as game fish in Washington since 1933,
but were a commercial species in Oregon until 1969 (Chaney and Perry, 1976).

Sports fishermen are now the primary harvester$ of winter steelhead. The

winter runs are in good condition due to extensive natural reproduction and

large hatchery releases in lower Columbia River tributaries.

Little is known of the migrations, or food and habitat requirements

of juvenile steelhead in the Columbia River estuary. During their 1 to 4

year freshwater life, they are presumed to feed largely on stream-produced
insects and invertebrates. Migrating juvenile steelhead are found in the
upper estuary in April through June, near the surface in deeper channel
areas (Johnsen and Sims, 1973). At Jones Beach, Oregon, these migrants
average 170-200 mm (6-7/10 - 8 in), (Sims, personal communication). Their
diet during passage through the estuary is unknown.

F. Cutthroat Trout

Coastal cutthroat trout are found from northern California to Prince

William Sound in the Gulf of Alaska. Adults weigh from 1-1/2 to 4 pounds

(Hart, 1973). Adults are distinguished from other salmonids by a fairly

long sharp snout, presence of orange or red streak under each half of the
lower jaw, many small dark spots, and absence of a broad red lateral band.
They often stay within estuaries, move in and out with the tides and feed
heavily on young coho, stickleback, rockfish, sculpin, and flatfish (Carl
et al., 1967). In the Columbia River estuary region, cutthroat spawn in

306-14

small streams as 3 or 4 year olds from December-February, and are artifi-

cially propagated at the Beaver Creek Hatchery (on the Elochoman River).
Fry in British Columbia stay in the streams forvarying lengths of time,
feeding on crustaceans, aquatic and terrestrial insects, and sticklebacks.
In spring, they out-migrate with coho on which they feed heavily (Carl et al.,
1967). Juvenile cutthroat are found in the Columbia River estuary from April

through June near the surface in deeper channel areas (Johnsen and Sims,

1973); juveniles are found throughout the estuary only in several spring
months (Durkin, personal communication). The primary harvesting of adult

cutthroat trout is by sports fishermen.

G. White Sturgeon

White sturgeon are found primarily in fresh and brackish waters from
northern California to the Gulf of Alaska, and may live longer than 100 years

and weigh over 1500 pounds (Hart, 1973). Adults in the Fraser River mature

at about age 15 when they are 40 inches long. White sturgeon are gray above

and lighter below, have a short, broad snout with four barbels closer to the

tip of the snout than the mouth, and have rows of sharp bony plates instead

of scales. They are harvested in both commercial and sports fisheries for
their high quality flesh, and eggs from which caviar is made. Jordan and
Evermann (1923) stated that until 1888 they brought only 4-5@/pound dressed
and caviar was 25-35@/pound. At that time, salmon fishermen usually just

knocked them in the head and threw them away. A major fishery later developed

and the stocks were very depleted by 1902.

White sturgeon in the Fraser River, British Columbia, spawn in spring
and early summer at intervals of 4 to 11 years; young fish are found in

lower river sloughs (Hart, 1973). In the Sacramento River, large fish move

upstream in winter and spring and downstream in summer. Some sturgeon migra-

tions seem to be associated with the availability of spawning and spawned-out
eulachon (Columbia River smelt). In the fall of some years, there are large
numbers of sturgeon concurrent with large numbers of anchovy (Kujala, 1976).

Although sometimes taken in the ocean, the lower limit in the river is

usually from the Chinook Jetty to Hammond, Oregon. Upriver they are usually

found in main channels and deep holes (Figure 306-3). White sturgeon may be
taken throughout the year in the estuary, and measure from a few inches to

several feet.

306-15

The food of juveniles is reported to be insect larvae and mysids. Two
hundred mm (8 in.) juveniles from California eat amphipods and mysids (Hart,
1973). Juveniles from the Columbia River estuary eat mostly amphipods and

polychaete worms (Haertel and Osterberg, 1967). The adult diet includes
suckers, sculpin, stickleback, lamprey, young sturgeon, crayfish and molluscs.

H. Green Sturgeon

Green sturgeon are found in brackish and salt waters from southern

California around the Pacific rim to Taiwan, and may reach seven feet in length

and weigh 300 pounds. They are olive green on the back, have olive green

stripes on the belly, four barbels in a line closer to the mouth than to the

tip of the snout, a snout concave in profile, and rows of sharp bony plates
instead of scales (Hart, 1973). In the Columbia River, the green sturgeon
is usually found in deep brackish water downriver from the Astoria Bridge,
although at times of low river flow, it may be found upriver as far as Tongue
Point (Kujala, 1976), (Figure 306-3). T@iey are present in the lower estuary
year-round but are of little importance to either the commercial or sport
fisherman. Green sturgeon flesh is of much lower quality than white sturgeon,

but it is marketable smoked or kippered; there is no market for their caviar

(Kujala, 1976).

I. Starry Flounder

This flatfish is found from southern California around the Pacific rim

to Korea and is distinguished by rough skin and alternating dark and light

bands on the unpaired fins; both eyes are usually on the right side but may

be on the left side (Hart, 1973). They are found both in estuaries and the
ocean. According to Kujala (1976), starry flounder have been used primarily

as mink food, but they now are becoming more important as a human food fish.

River and ocean starry flounder is filleted, and fishermen receive between
7 to 10 cents/pound. Flounder are an incidental part of a salmon gillnetter's
catch. Daily catches of 500 to 1,000 pounds are not uncommon during the May
fishing season. Fishes less than 2-1/2 years old and commonly 2 to 3 pounds,
are most numerous in the shallow brackish water of the estuary such as
Desdemona Sands, Middle Channel between Tongue Point,and the Astoria Bridge,
and north. of Taylor Sands from the bridge to Grays Point (Figure 306-4). Ripe
adults are taken in the estuary although actual spawning probably occurs in
the ocean. No newly-hatched starry flounder larvae have been taken. Large
numbers of juveniles (0-1 year) are present in shallow estuary bays such as

306-16

40' 35, 123* 3o' 2V

WHITE

GENERAL

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NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS
0 2 3 4 5 6 7

STATUTE MILES
0 2 3 4

25' 20,

This is true in the estuary also, but an additional factor must be consider-
ed; that factor is the intrusion into the estuary of seawater, which has a
density greater than that of river water. At any depth, the salinity (and

thus density) is normally greater in the downstream direction. This is

true whether the estuary is a salt-wedge type, partially-mixed, or even well-
mixed (Figures 204-3, 5 or 7). Average bottom currents in estuaries are

usually upstream, or they are at least not as strongly downstream as the
surface currents. The upstream bottom currents result from the pressure

difference force associated with the salt water intrusion. Since the density
is greater on the downstream side of any water parcel, there is a pressure

difference force pushing the water in an upstream direction (Figure 205-11).

At the surface, the pressure difference force caused by the water surface

slope is greater than that caused by the density difference. Thus, the
surface currents (on the average) are downstream. At the bottom, the pres-

sure difference force caused by the salinity intrusion (this force increases

with depth), often is greater than that caused by the surface slope (this

force is the same at all depths), and the average bottom currents will then
be in an upstream direction (Figure 204-11). This pattern is known as

the gravitational or estuarine circulation and is present in all estuaries.
The effects of tidal currents, the winds and other forces must be super-
imposed upon this average picture to determine the actual currents at any

time.

204.2 SALINITY AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTION

The data base for most of the physical oceanographic studies of the
Columbia River estuary is the 1959 Corps of Engineers field study. Parame-
ters measured include temperature, salinity, current speed and direction,
and tidal height. Measurements were made over three nine-day periods in
May, June, and September under intermediate (380,000 cfs) high (560,000 cfs)
and low (160,000 cfs) flow conditions, respectively. These data and a small
amount of sediment data were published in 1960 in a four-volume report by
the Corps of Engineers called Interim Report on 1959 Current Measurement

Program Columbia River at Mouth Oregon and Washington. Much of the material,

used in this section is taken either directly from the Interim Report.or

from papers and theses based on this report. The station locations are

shown in Figure 204-12.

204-15

FIGURE 204-11
VERTICAL PROFILES OF PRESSURE FORCES, VELOCITY,.AND SALINITY IN A PARTICALLY-MIXED ESTUARY

Force due to slope of water's surface constant with depth
LEVEL SURFACE Forc.e due to horizontal salinity differences - increases with depth

WATER LEVEL

salinity as a function of depth RIVER FLOW

TO OCEAN

ESTUARY

BOTTOM

velocity as a function of depth

3
D
C
it D
B PL EMU
A C
-C
B

2
A

SWOON vow in

$hub

A Station Location

2 Range Location

0 Recording tide gage

Figure 204-12 Station Location for the 1959 Corps of Engineers Current and Salinity Study

0
From@ U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District, 1960

Using the abstractions of the salt-wedge, partially-mixed, and

well-mixed estuaries, and the circulation typical of such bodies, it is now
possible to examine the complexities of the circulation in the Columbia

River estuary.
A. Salinity and Current Distribution off Clatsop Spit
Figures 204-13 to 204716 show the salinity distribution and current
speed under high and low-runoff conditions, for the Clatsop Spit-Sand Island
Range (Range 2 in Figure 204-12). Salinities are shown for HW, LW and mean
over a tidal cycle, and currents are shown as means for flood and ebb tides,
and as a tidal cycle mean.
Consider first the low-runoff, current and salinity distribution for
flood tide (Figure 204-14a and 16a). The flood tide velocities at any depth
are greatest on the north,(right, looking downstream) side. Accordingly,
the high tide salinity at anydepth is greatest on the north side also.
The stronger flood on the north side probably results from both the greater
depth of the North Channel, and the fact that the North Channel is on the

"outside of the curve." These factors evidently outweigh the coriolis

force which tends to push the water toward the left (south) side.

The ebb tide velocity in the low-runoff case (Figure 204-16b) is

greatest at the,surface on the north side and in mid-stream at depth. The

lowest ebb velocities are found at the bottom of both channels and along
.the north side, hear the bottom. Accordingly, the salinity (Figure 204-14b)

is lowest near the surface and in the middle. There is however, a small

lens of relatively freshwater off Clatsop Spit. It appears that vertical
mixing is weaker in the South Channel, where currents are slower. Highest

salinities are found at the bottom of the two channels. In this case, the

coriolis force and channel curvature work together to produce the strong

surface ebb in the North Channel. The estuary is in a partially mixed

state on both flood and ebb.

The non-tidal, low-runoff, current and salinity patterns (Figures

204-14c and 16c) are average d over the entire tidal cycle. The average
currents are downstream (especially at the surface), except at the bottom

of the North Channel and along the north side. In a typical, partially-
mixed estuary, the net upstream bottom flow is expected to be stronger on
the right side (looking upstream), because of the coriolis-force. Evi__
dentl y, the channel curvature is more important here. The average sali-
nity increases with depth, and the lowest salinities are on the south side,

204-18

0 UTW WORY" @Ovr" NORTU Sourw I-AOQT"
5 2,0-2 Fig. 204-13

>30
10
High River
15 Sou North Discharge
Channel. Channel 558,000 cfs
20 (a) (b) (c)

Ok
5z
P4 5 20-25 Fig. 204-14

10
'>25 Low River
15 Discharge
169,000 cfs
20 L (d) (e) M
HIGH TIDE LDW TIDE. AV E P-MvE

Salinity in Clatsop Spit Sand Island section
under high and low discharge conditions.

0 SOUTH @40SZTH SOUITH woelr@A SOU'r" NO 'r
?_.o
5 - < 0.5 Fig. 204-15
>?..o
10 -
15 - High River
Discharge
2o L (a) .0-1 (b) (c) 558,000 cfs

D-0
5 Z-0-7-5
10 Fig. 204-16

15 Low River
(d) -04 (e) (f) Discharge
20 169,000 cfs
MEAN RMD MEAN EB8 NOW TI DAL-

Current-speed in knots, Clatsop Spit - Sand Island
section (positive nontidal current indicates seaward
flow) under high and low freshwater flow conditions.
The cross-section shown is seen from upstream looking
downstream. The depth is exaggerated for clarity.
From: Hansen, 1965
V
th
SChu@ @Vfbl

0-"5

0 CO
V
K720 0
0_@7_ 0- 7-'5
(e)

204-19

a feature common to the HW and LW distributions. There is little cross-

channel variation in the average distribution below the surface, however.
The high-runoff, salinity and current distributions (Figure 204-13
and i5) may now be compared to those for low-runoff conditions (Figures

204-14 and 16). Under high-runoff conditions, flood currents are much
stronger in the North Channel, with the maximum flow at mid-depth (Figure
264-15a), but the cross-channel salinity differences are rather weak
(Figure 204-13a). Near the bottom, the salinity is actually greater-on
the south side. The high and low-runoff flood current distributions',are

rather similar, and bottom-salinities are not greatly different in the

two cases.. There is much greater vertical salinity stratification in the
higb-@-ru n6ff case, however, and the estuary approaches a salt-wedge state,

except that the boundary between top and bottom layers remains rather

diffuse. Because of the strong tidal currents, the estuary never becomes

a true salt-wedge.
The high-runoff, ebb current pattern (Figure 204-15b) differs greatly
from that for low runoff (Figure 204-16b). The strongest ebb currents are

in the South Channel for the high-runoff case, rather than in the North

Channel; no salinity intrusion at all is-observed during most of the ebb
(Figure 204-13b). The governing factor in this case is probably the direct
connection of the South Channel to the main channel, upriver of the estuary.
The non-tidal, high-runoff current and salinity patterns (Figure 204-
13c and 15c) differ significantly from those for low-runoff (Figure 204-14c

and 16c). The most important difference is the absence of net upstream

bottom flow. The average flow is downstream everywhere, strongest at the

surface in the South Channel, and weakest in the North Channel. The absence

of net upstream bottom flow is unusual in partially-mixed estuaries, yet the

strong vertical salinity gradients in the average distribution are clearly

not those of a vertically well-mixed estuary. This suggests that the salt
transport mechanisms in the Columbia River estuary are not those typical

of a partially-mixed estuary .(Section 204.4). It is likely that a cross-

section clos er to the mouth would show a net upstream bottom flow. The high-

runoff, average salinity distribution (Figure 204-13c) appears somewhat

unusual in that lowest salinities are observed in the North Channel, while

the strongest ebb flow is found in the South Channel. The salinity at all

depths is much less than for the low-runoff case (Figure 204-14c), and cross-

channel salinity differences are prominent.

204-20

It has been suggested in several studies that the average flow in
the Columbia River estuary can be described in terms of a clockwise eddy,

with the inflow strongest in the North Channel and the outflow strongest

in the South Channel. This is most clearly evident in the high-flow case
in Figure 204-15. Other studies suggest that this pattern also varies with
the winds and with the monthly cycle of spring and neap tides; and it can-

not therefore be regarded as firmly established. If such a pattern does

exist, it has important implications for siting of sewer outfalls and

other waste discharges. These matters are discussed in Section,206 (Tidal

Flushing).
B. The Longitudinal Current and Salinity Distributions
The current and salinity patterns for other cross-sections could be

examined in detail, as were those for the Clatsop Spit section. Instead,
let us examine the distribution of current and salinity along the channel.

Two examples of the longitudinal salinity distribution at high tide are
shown in Figures 204-8 and 204-9. Note the great vertical differences in
salinity near the mouth in the high-runoff case (Figure 204-8). The

estuary is approaching a salt-wedge state. In the low runoff case (Figure
204-9), the estuary is vertically well-mixed near the mouth, but it is

partially mixed upstream.
Recent studies (Sternberg et al., at press) suggest that the salinity
distribution outside the mouth is markedly assymetric. There is a natural,
deep channel running north-northeast to south-southwest between buoys 4 and 6
and south of the navigational channel. Apparently, this channel is the major
source of saltwater intrusion to the estuary. The outflow of freshwater is
more evenly distributed and responds strongly to the winds. Currents off the
end of the South Jetty follow the orientation of the natural channel, and
during the period of measurement (June 1975), bottom currents were predom-

inantly into the estuary. This was not true of currents off the North Jetty
or near buoy #1. Unfortunately, these data have not been fully analyzed.

Variations in salinity during a tidal cycle are shown in (Figure

204-17). The greatest salinity intrusion near the mouth occurs within

one-half hour of the end of the flood tide (about 1600 hours). Slack water

occurs progressively later, upstream of the mouth. Thus, slack water and
the maximum salinity intrusion between Tongue Point-and Harrington Point

(RM 18 to 23) occur between 1600 and 1800 hours. The greatest salinity

204-21

0 CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS ('SALINITYI, IN PARTS PER THOUSAND
STAGE AT C
ABOVE COLUM
0

(D
ct

vi
Pi

En
0) rt,

V) ril 0
rt
0
I- ZI
5 >
>
0 <

rr ct
Z, zr
(D CD

rt
0

ct ol
0c:

(D
0
zP)
x
In H. 0
(D In
10 v = STAGE AT CR
ct0 o ABOVE COLU
(DM 3

tr rt,
m::r,
11M
I.,m
0
z
rt

variation occurs at mid-depth, between River Miles 10 and 14. Top and

bottom salinities are much less variable.

The salinity variations are intimately related to the variations
in current during the tidal cycle. Figure 204-17 should be compared to
Figure 204-18 that shows the flow predominance as a function of depth for
the South Channel for the same period. Flow predominance is defined as
the percentage of the total flow at any point that is downstream (toward
the ocean) during a tidal cycle.* A flow predominance of 50% indicates

that upstream and downstream currents are evenly balanced. The flow predom-
inance_@at RM 22.4 is about 80% downstream at all depths. There is little

vertical variation in flow predominance because salinity is zero at all
depths throughout the tidal cycle. The fact that about 80% of the flow
is in the downstream direction shows the importance of the freshwater flow;
the ebb currents are stronger and of longer duration than the flood

currents.

The flow predominance shows wide variation with depth at RM 10.7

and RM 12.4. The downstream flow predominance is 10% or less, near the

bottom, and between 70 and 80% near the surface. The top-to-bottom
salinity variation in this region is about 150/,0 during part of the tidal

cycle. Accordingly, bottom currents are upstream and surface currents
downstream (on the average). The flow at all depths is more strongly

downstream at RM 16.3 than at RM 13.9. The flow near RM 14 is complicated

by the cross-river flow in the old Astoria Ferry Channel, and it is not

surprising that the flow predominance profile.shows anomalies here.

The flow at mid-depth and near the bottom is evenly balanced between

flood and ebb (50% downstream flow predominance) near RM 17. This is an

area of zero net flow during a tidal cycle, and it is an area of sedimenta-
tion. The location of this null zone varies about between RM 5 (very high
runoff) and RM 21 (very low runoff). Because the null zone acts as a
sediment trap, the lower estuary has been rapidly filling in for the last
100 years (Section 208 has a detailed discussion of sedimentation problems).

*F-or the mathematically inclined: x (_ I V At)
Flow Predominance 10T'O x
Im ( IV @bO I&t + V flood At)
Where VEbb andVFlood are the observed ebb and flood velocities and A tthe
time interval between samples.

204-23

Flow Predominance Under Low-Flow Conditions

100

@4
4-)
EQ

50 50-7 - - - - - -
0
r I -t _25-
-- - - - - - - - - - -
Sept. 14, 1969
0 Daily mean discharge
4-11 208,000 ft'/s (5,890 m'/s)

-41"
@4

P4
20 21 22 23
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
COLUMBIA RIVER MILE
Figure 204-18

Flow predominance as a function of River Mile and percent of depth from
bottom under low@flow conditions (5% of depth is near bottom, 95% depth
is near surface).

From: Lutz et al., 1975

F1 ow predominance may also be shown as a function of depth and '
distance along the channel, by contours of equal flow predominance. Figure
204-19 shows flow predominance in the North Channel for three flow levels,
and Figure 204-20 provides the same information for the South Channel. The
location of the stations used in constructing these figures is shown in
Figure 204-12. The patterns are complex, but several major features are
evident. First, the currents are nearly 100% downstream at, and above,
Harrington Point, except under the lowest runoff conditions. Second, up-
stream flow predominance-is evident only at RM 5, and then only under the
lowest flow conditions. Third, the surface ebb flow predominance decreases

in a downrivpr direction between lines 5 and 3, but then increases again
between lines 3 and 1. Cross-channel flow in the old Astoria Ferry Channel
may have some distorting effect on the flow predominance at the stations on
line 3; however, most of the observed changes in flow predominance result

from changes in salinity structure. The flow level has the greatest effect

in the South Channel; the downstream flow predominance along the bottom of
the North Channel increases only slightly with increasing runoff. Strong

vertical differences in currents in the North Channel result from the tenden-

cy to form a salt-wedge. In contrast to conditions in the North Channel, the

downstream flow predominance increases at all depths in the South Channel,
with increasing runoff. Vertical salinity differences seem to have less

effect on the currents here. Flow predominance patterns are not only a func-
tion of runoff, they are also related to tidal range and winds. For example,
on'e possible reason for the low downstream flow predominance at station 3D
in the North Channel under low flow conditions, would be a strong westerly
wind. The causes of the differences in the low-runoff, flow predominance

patterns for the South Channel shown in Figures 204-17 and 20 are unknown.
Temperature data were routinely collected during the Corps of Engineers
1959 field study; however, the data have not been published. Temperature
data from other studies appears in Section 205.2

204.3 CIRCULATION AND SALINITY PATTERNS IN YOUNGS BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
The available information on circulation and salinity patterns in
Youngs Bay comes from the Alumax Report: Physical Characteristics of the
Youngs Bay Estuarine Environs, Ocean Engineering Programs, OSU, 1975.
Measurements of temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, fluoride, and
turbidity were taken at 23 stations in the bay and its tributaries (the

204-25

STATION
0 ic 2c 3D 4D 5B 6A 7B
01@ ooF

40-

60-

80
uj
Y)

100
0 0. (b)
:c
20

!2
trr
CP
0 gr
< 60 0 w
>60% N >
40

0
80

100
z
w
0
11) 0,
ui . --a-
20

40
70%
Go 0,

co
80
too /I J 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 .35 40 45 50 55
RIVER MILE

NORTH CHANNEL
FIGURE 204-19
c

HEE
k
FOE
7/.

From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District, 1960
0

STATION
0 is 2A 3A 4D 58 6A 7A
I 1@i

20
N,
40 6 -M
Vt x 1;9.

100
0 (b)

20
a. ON
w
o 40

T
< 60 ct w

100
z ui
w >
0 0
w
20 -

40 -

60
w ct
so z
N@
too 1%,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
RIVER MILE

IQ
0
SOUTH CHANNEL
FIGURE 204-20
a

From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1960.

Youngs, Lewis and Clark, and Skipanon Rivers) four times between June 1976
and January 197,6 (Figure 204-21). The following is a summary of the 0
information in the Alumax report.
The tides and the Columbia River freshwater flow play a major role

in the circulation in the Youngs Bay area, just as they do in the Columbia

River. There is an additional controlling'influence in Youngs Bay, however.

That influence,is the freshw ater flow of the tributaries to the Bay. These
tributaries are large enough to greatly influence the Bay, but they are
not large enough to exert a major influence on the Columbia River. The
salinity patterns in the.Columbia River estuary are largely the result of
the mixing of ocean water and freshwater coming down the main stem from
above the estuary (Section 204.2). The temperature and salinity patterns
in Youngs Bay result from the mixing of ocean water, main stem water and
water from the Youngs Bay tributaries. In studying the circulation of
Youngs Bay, consideration must not only be given to the seasonal variations

in flow of the main stem but also to those of the Youngs Bay tributaries.

The seasonal river flow patterns of the main stem and the Youngs

Bay tributaries.are compared in Figure 204--@22. The patterns are nearly
inverse to one another. The main stem shows a very strong peak in'the

spring and early summer (April to July) that is fed by the melting snowpack
and a weaker winter maximum. The Youngs Bay tributaries show, in contrast,
very low runoff from June to September.and a very strong winter maximum
(November to'April). The Alumax sampling program was designed to provide
coverage of these .seasonal flow variations. Samples were taken in June,

August and October 1974 and in January 1975. No samples were taken during

the spring, however. The geographic coverage of the data was good.

The June survey was taken during a period of very high Columbia River

runoff and fairly low tributary runoff. Accordingly, Youngs Bay and River
and the Lewis and Clark River contained only freshwater, mostly from the
Columbia River. Water temperature is shown as a function of River Mile in
Youngs Bay and River.in-Figure 204-23. The Columbia River water has a
temperature of about 14'C (87'F) and the Youngs River water temperature is

about ll*C (521F). The water in the Youngs River was Columbia River water

to RM 6, even at low tide. High levels of dissolved oxygen were found
throughout the Bay.
The Skipanon River showed slight salinity intrusion (0 - 3'/..) below
the dam, even though the Columbia River outside the mouth of the Skipanon

204-28

Figure 204-21
Water Quality Stations for the Oregon State University
Study of Youngs Bay

ASTORIA
BRIDGE
COLUMBIA RIVER

OIA 14
(RM 015) ASToRi`A.@@.
IRM 1.6) 16 15 12 HOUR CONTINUOUS
(Rl* 4 MONITORING
17 (RM 1.2)
(RM 2.2) YOUNG'S BAY
05
(RM 1.9) 10 -N-
19 RM
(RM 3 ROPOSED (RM 0.0) 2.6) 1/2
ALUMAX en-usiZa
PLANT 1 0 SCALE I MILE
IIf
20 (RM 4.8) (RM Ob ve
61 (RM 5.2)
10 14 23
Uj
Q WALLUSKI
'5 RIVER
0 U)
i 7 (RM 2.9)
w BINDER'S
SLDUGH

12 (R M 7.9)

CULLABY (RM 4.9)
LAKE

13 (RM 9.9) KLASKANINE
9 (RM ?5) RIVER

22
YOUNGS (RM 11.0)
RIVER

From: OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

204-29

was entirely fresh. The circulation in the-Skipanon is quite sluggish.
Evidently, the salinity intrusion had occurred during some previous tidal

cycle. Dissolved oxygen levels were not depressed, thus the water had

not been trapped for long. Typical water quality values for the Bay and

its tributaries in June are shown in Table 204-2a.

The August survey was taken during a period of moderate Columbia
River flow (300,000 cfs) and low tributary flow. The water in Youngs Bay

was found to be a mixture of Columbia River and sea water, with a little

tributary water upstream in the tributaries. Vertical salinity stratifi-

cation was found only at the. m6dth of the Bay, near the Columbia River.
The rest of the Bay was,-:found to..-be well-mixed. Figure 204-24a & b shows
the pattern of salinity'vs. River Mile for the Youngs and Lewis and Clark

Rivers. The salinity decreases.in the,upstream direction in the Lewis
and Clark River in the usual manner (Figure 204-24b). The Youngs River has a
maximum in salinity between RM 3 and RM 5. at both HW and LW (Figure 204-24a)
This maximum can only occur if-Youngs Bay fills from two-d-ifferent water
sources on flood tide. The most likel y explanation of the upstream maxi-
mum relates to the difference in the time' of the currents'in Youngs Bay
and the Columbia River. During the first'two hours of flood in Youngs

Bay, the Columbia River is ebbing, and increasingly freshwater pours into

Youngs Bay from the east. During the last four hours of flood in Youngs

Bay, the Columbia River is also flooding, and increasingly salty water

pours into Youngs Bay from the west. A continuous recording of conducti-
vity (i.e. salinity) and tidal height at the Youngs Bay Bridge supports

this interpretation.

Considerable salinity stratification was observed in the Lower
Skipanon River, and some salinity intrusion occurred upstream of'the tide

gate, indicating that the tide gate was not functioning properly. There

was one rather alarming feature observed in this study. The dissolved
oxygen level in the Lower Skipanon River was severely depressed (0.6 mg/

liter), about 1/10th of the level observed in Youngs Bay and upstream in
the Skipanon River. This value is not sufficient to sustain marine life.
-The Skipanon River evidently had reached its carrying capacity for organic
wastes, during the critical summer season. Future development in this area
will require careful consideration of the problem and possibly, reduction

of present loads. The most,likely sources of the existing problem are:
the decay of organic material, non-point discharges (marinas and surface

204-30

1000- COLU MBIA RIVER AT . MOUTH 15.0 YOUNGS BAY AND RIVER
143,
UT
U 800- 14.0
1974 flow rate
600- W 13.0 %% A.- high tide
X
uj 400- % %%
0 , %\ -4 12.0
low tide
200 - W
QL
15 year oveTag
flow.rate 11.0 -
I I W
Jon Mor may July Sept Noy Jon
1974 11975 10.011
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1400 - RIVERS ENTERING YOUNG'S BAY DISTANCE FROM MOUTH (MILES)
Fig. 204-23 water @emperature vs. River Mile,
1200 Youngs Bay and River, June 5, 1974.
Columbia River water has a tempera-
1000- Young's River ture 14*C (57*F) and Youngs River
at Mouth water, has a temperature of about
800- IVC (520F).

SALINITY vs. RIVER MILE
600-
YOUNG:S PAY AND RIVER
4.0 AUGUST 2, 1974
400 3.0 -
Lu
200
Lewis 8
Clark River 2.0
t - _0-0,
z
Jon Mor May July Sept Noy _j
<1.0
AVERAGE YEAR 0 'l-W
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
.Fig. 204-22 Month I y average f low rates DISTANCE FROM MOUTH (MILES)
for Columbia River and
Youngs Bay tributaries. Fig. 204-24a Salinity vs. River Mile, Youngs
The Columbia River has a Bay.and River, August 2, 1974.
very high flow peak in
June, and the Youngs Bay
tributaries .peak in December. SALINITY vs. RIVER MILE
LEWIS 8 CLARK RIVER
AUGUST 2, 1974

z
:3 tide
From: OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs, 4 -high
1975 U) low-
fife
0 2 4 6 8 10
DISTANCE FROM MOUTH (MILES)
Fig. 204-24b Salinity vs. River Mile, Lewis
Clark River, August 2, 1974.

Note the upstream maximum in salinity that
occurs in the Youngs River. This maximum
results from circulation patterns in Youngs
Bay. It is not apparent in the Lewis & Clark
River.
Alow tld.'@@
15 yeg, A-vmg.

204-31

runoff from industrial operations) and cannery wastes. Typical water
quality values for the Youngs Bay area are shown-in Table 204-2b.

The October survey was conducted during a period of minimum runoff

in both the Columbia River (120,000 cfs) and its tributaries (Youngs River,
about 12 cfs). Salt water intrusion was greatly increased over that
observed in August. The increased salinity intrusion resulted in consider-
able stratification on flood tide in Youngs Bay and its tributaries (Figure
204-25a & b). The salinity structure in the Skipan6n River approac hed a
salt-wedge state, with top-to-bottom. differences of about 200/,0 (Figure
204-25c). Both the Skipanon and the Youngs Rivers showed upstream salinity
maxima. The upstream maximum in the Youngs River was caused by phase
.differences between currents in the Bay and in the River, as explained above.

The maximum in the Skipanon River may have a similar cause, or it may be

due to storage of salt water in the Warrenton Boat Basin. Typical water

quality values for the Youngs Bay area are shown in Table 204-2c.

The January survey was conducted durinq.a period of moderate runoff
in the Columbia River (220,000 cfs) and high winter runoff in the tributary

streams. Youngs Bay and River were filled by a mixture of local freshwater,

Columbia River freshwater md sea water. Some vertical salinity differences

were observed on flood.tide, but the salinity never exceeded 5.4*/oo, even

on,the bottom. The Lewis and Clark.River was entirely fresh at all stages
of the tide. Local and Columbia River freshwater masses cannot be easily

differentiated on the basis of temperature, since both are in the range
of 4.5 to 50C (40-411F). They can, however, be distinguished on fluoride
levels, which are much higher in the Columbia River.
Consi@erable stratifidation and salinity values up to 10*/.o Iwere

observed in the Skipanon River.- Dissolved oxygen values were high at all

stations. Typical water quality values for the Youngs Bay area are shown

in Table 204-2d.

204.4 SALT BALANCE AND SALT TRANSPORT 14ECHANISMS IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER
ESTUARY

The amount of salt in an estuary will remain approximately the same
from one tidal cycle to the next, so long as there are no dramatic changes
in wind, freshwater runoff, or tidal range or height. Yet, the net flow
(average velocity) at any cross-section of the estuary is in a downstream
direction, as it must be, to allow the discharge of river w ater to the

ocean. The river water is noticeably diluted by sea water before it reaches

204-32

Table 204-2a: Typical Water Quality Values, June 5, 1974, Youngs Bay area

Station No. Temp. D.O. Fluoride Turbidity Salinity
Area in Fig. 204-21 .(0C) pH (mg/1) (ppm) (J.T.U.) r/0.)

Columbia River 3
(near Youngs Bay)
High Tide 14.2 7.4 10 17 0
Low Tide 14.2 7.2 10 - 15 0

Youngs Bay (RM2) 5
High Tide 14.0 7.3 10 .16 4 0
Low Tide 14.2 7.0 -9 .15 11 0

Youngs River (RM8) 12 (RM10)
High Tide 13.7 6.6 .03 5 0
Low Tide 11.0 6.5 9 .03 3 0

Lewis & Clark R. (RM5) 8 (RM7)
High Tide 12.0 6.5 10 .03 9 0
Low Tide 11.0 6.3 9 .03 8 0

Skipanon River (RM3) 19
High Tide - 6.2 7 - 6 0
Low Tide - 6.3 8 10 0

Alder Slough la
High Tide 14.1 7.3 10 10 0

From: OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

Table 204-2b: Typical Water Quality Values, August 2, 1974, Youngs Bay

Area Station No. Temp. D.O. Fluoride Turbidity Salinity
in Fig. 204-21 (OC) pH (mg/1) (ppm) (J.T.U.) (0/.0)

Columbia River
(near Youngs Bay 3
High Tide 15-20.2* 7.3 8 17 3.0-14.0*
L<)w Tide 20.5 7.2 9 22 1.2

Youngs Bay (RM2) 5 -
High Tide 21.0 7.0 9 - 17 1.6
Low Tide 20.8 7.1 8 .21 22 2.1

Youngs River (RM8) 12 (RM11)
High Tide' 23.0' 7.'0 9 15 1.0
Low Tide 22.0 7.1 a .06 60 0.6

Lewis & Clark R. (RM5) 8
High Tide (RM3) 6.5 7 - 16 0.3
Low Tide 20.6 6.6 7 .07 15 0

Skipanon River (RM3) 19
High Tide 6.5 6 16 0.1
Low Tide 6.5 6 15 0.1

*Stratified

From: OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

Table 204-2c: Typical Water Quality Values, October 16, 1974, Youngs Bay

Station No. Temp D.O. Fluoride Turbidity Salinity
Area in Fig. 204-21 (OC) pH (Mg/1) (ppm) (J.T.U.)

Columbia River 3
(Near Youngs Bay)
High Tide 13.0 7.7 5-8* .27-.60* 2-12* 8-22*
Low Tide 15.0 7.4 8 .20 4 1-20*

Youngs Bay (RM2) 5
High Tide 15.0 7.3 9 .22-.45* 4 4-10*
Low Tide 14.2 7.3 8 .27 20 5.3

Youngs River (RM8) 12
High Tide 15.0 7.0 9 .19 28 4.1
Low Tide 14.5 7.2 8 .20 30 4.2

Lewis & Clark (RM5) 8 (RM3)
High Tide 14.5 - 8 .11 - 3.4
Low Tide 14.0 7.5 8 .19 30 1.6

Skipanon River (RM3)+ 19 (RM5)
High Tide (RM1)= - 10 .39 - O.S
Low Tide 14.0 7.2 8 .34 7 0.14

Alder Slough la
High Tide 11.5-13.5* 7.4 8 .55 2 15.7

Eli *Stratified
=Surface
+Tide Gate at RM2.2 was not operating properly

From: OSU, Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

-Table 204-2d: Typical Water Quality Values, January 30, 1975, Youngs Bay area

ON Area Station No. Temp. D.O. Fluoride Turbidity Salinity
in Fig. 204-21 (OC) pH (mg/1) (ppm) (J.T.U.) (0/0.)

Columbia River 3
(near Youngs.Bay) -
High,Tid e 5.0 7.5 7 .14 20 3.1-9.5*
Low Tide 4.5 7.3 7 .10 25 0

Youngs Bay RM2) 5
..High Tide. 5.0 7.4 7 .10 24 1
Low Tide 4.5 7.5 8 .09 17 0

Youngs River (RM8) 12
High Tide 4.5- 6.8 8 .04 19 0
Low Tide 4.5 6.6 8 .04 10 0

Lewis & Clark.R. (RM5) 8
High Tide 4.5 6.6 8 .03 9 0
Low Tide 4.5 6.8 8 .03 7 0

Skipanon River (RM3) 19
High Tide 4.5 6.8 10 .05 10 0.1
Low Tide 4.5 6.4 10 .04 10 0

Alder Slough la
High Tide 4.5 7.6 8 .10 48 0.30

*Stratified

From: OSU, Ocean.Engineering Programs,-1975

24- YOUNGS BAY AND RIVER
SALINITY vs. RIVER MILE
OCTOBER 16, 1974 10- LEWIS AND CLARK RIVER
SALINITY vs. RIVER MILE
20-1 OCTOBER 16,1974

16
4 high lids

2
12 high tide
S"Plo^. 0 -
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
z DISTANCE FROM MXTH (MILES)
< Fig. 204-25b Lewi s Clark River, Salinity vs.
River Mile, October 16, 1974.

h; h Ide
rf pies
vi fi 0-
0 1 I\ I
4 6 12
DISTMCE FROM MWM (MILES)

SKIPANON RIVER-, SALINITY
Fig. 204-25a Salinity vs. River Mile, Youngs RIVER MILE
Bay and River, October 16, 1974. OCTOBER 16, 1974

24
High tide bottom samples
20 Low fide bottom tompks

8 Lowltids surface tempt"
<0 4
%, High tide surface samples

0
Figure 204-25a, b, c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
DISTANCE FROM MOUTH (MILES)

Fig. 204-25c Salinity vs. River Mile, Skipanon
River, October 16, 1974.

Salinity vs. River Mile in a)Youngs Bay and River, b) the Lewis & Clark
River, and c) the Skipanon River. Note the strong salinity stratification
In a) and c), approaching a saltwedge state, and the upstream salinity maxi-
mum in a) and c).
rh!&, h ii 'd :e
Pies
to. @iide-

204-37

the sea, and salt is therefore discharged to the sea, along with the

freshwater. This downstream movement of salt to the sea caused by.the net

freshwater flow must be balanced by one or more salt transport mechanisms
that move salt in an upstream direction. The gravitational or estuarine
circulation is just such a mechanism (Figure 204-26 and 27). In most es-

tuaries, the usptream. bottom flow of relatively saline water provides.
through entrainment (Figure 204-2), most of the salt that is discharged
along with the river water in the surface layer. The salt balance in such

an estuary is simple.

Salt transported downstream = Salt transported upstream, or
Salt transport by net'flow = Salt transport by estuarine circulation
(downstream) + other small terms
(upstream)

The balance in the Columbia River estuary is not so simple. major

variations in salt transport mechanisms are known to occur with different

runoff levels and may occur with different tidal ranges and wind conditions.
Recalling Figure 204-15c, the average currents during a tidal cycle under
high runoff condition s are downstream at all depths off Clatsop Spit. -The

estuarine circulation still exists, in that bottom ebb currents are weaker

and bottom salinities much greater, but the estuarine circulation is too

weak to balance,.the downstream salt transport by the mean flow.

What are the other important salt transport mechanisms in the

'Columbia River estuary? The important mechanisms are related to the

variations during a tidal cycle.of tidal height, (cross-sectionally averaged)
salinity and (cr6ss-sedtionally-averaged) velocity. At any cross-section

of the estuary, high tide occurs durihg the later part of flood tide, and

low tide occurs during the later part of ebb (Figure 204-26 and 27). Thus,
the average tidal height and cross-sectional area at any cr'oss-section is
greater during flood than ebb. Similarly, the average salinity at any
cross-section is greater on flood than ebb, and the salinity maximum occurs

about half an hour before slack water (the time difference depnds on the

runoff level). Thus, equptl current speeds on flood and ebb would result in
a net upstream movement of sait for two reasons: first, a greater volume

of water flows through the larger cross-sectional area on flood, and second,

the water flowing upstream on flood is saltier than that flowing downstream

on ebb. we know, of course, that the ebb currents are mu6h stronger than

flood currents,
so that the freshwater flow of the river may be discharged

204-38

Salt Transport Under Low River Flow Conditions

4 2
(a) CROSS SECTIONAL AREA (10 m
4.5

4.0

3.5

(b) CURRENT SPEED (m/s)

1.0

0
_FLOOD@
-1.0

30.0 (C) SALINITY O/oo

20.0

10.0

(d) SALT TRANSPORT BY 2GRAVITATIONAL
2.0 - CIRCULATION (kg/m s)

- EBB
0
-FLOOD
-2.0

-4..0

-9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12

LUNAR HOURS FROM FIRST HIGH WATER

Figure 204-26 Tidal variation of mean conditions at low river stage,
Clatsop Spit - Sand Island section.

The cross-sectional area of channel (a) the current.speed (b) and
salinity averaged over the cross-sectional area (c) all vary with tidal
height. The salt transport by the gravitational circulation (d) is in
the upstream direction on the average, and most strongly so under low
flow conditions.

From: Hansen, 1965

204-39

SALT TRANSPORT UNDER HIGH.RIVER FLOW CONDITIONS

(o) CROSS SECTION (10 4 M2

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

(b)CURRENT (m /s)

2.0

1.0

-1.0

.30.0

200

10'0

0 0 -40

(d) Ud S d (kg /M 2 5)

3.0
0

-3.0

-6.0
-9.0

0 6 12 18 24

LUNAR HOURS

Figure 204-27: Tidal variation of mean conditions at high river flow, Clatsop-
Sand Island section. (a) the cross sectional area of the channel,
(b) the current speed and (c) the salinity all vary wilth tidal
height. The salt transport by the gravitational circulation (d)
is in the upstream direction on the average, but less so then in
the low flow case.

From: Hughes, 1968

204-40

to the sea. Despite the stronger ebb currents, the above mechanisms,

which we will combine under the name: "transport by tidal cycle varia-

tions," accounts for a significant amount of the upstream salt transport.
The salt transport balance for the Columbia River estuary under high and

low-runoff conditions is summarized in Table 204-3. These figures are
based on data from only a few days and do not represent average conditions.

Wide variations are possible.

More recent research on other estuaries has suggested that cross-

channel variations in currents and salinity of the sort covered in Section
204.2 are.also important in transporting salt. For example, net upstream

flow in-the estuary under low river-flow conditions is concentrated along

the north side of the estuary, as well as the bottom of the North Channel

(Figure 204-16c). Thus, there is transport by the lateral circulation,

as well transport by gravitational (or vertical) circulation. And since
cross-channel variations in salinity and current occur during flood and
ebb that are not evident in the tidal cycle averages, lateral variations
during the tidal cycle contribute another term. These lateral variations
in the net flow and in the flow during a tidal cycle are not broken out of
the: gravitational circulation and tidal cycle variation terms in Table-204-3.
Furthermore, different cross-sections of the estuary show differences in
salinity structure along the length of the estuary (Section 204.28). The

salt transport is different from that in most estuaries that have been

studies in detail, and further research is needed. This research is im-

portant because sedimentation in the estuary and its navigational channel is

closely related to salinity intrusion.

204-41

Table 204-3

Percent Contribution to the Salt Transport Balance at the Clatsop Spit-
Sand Island Cross-section Under Low and High Fresh-Water Flow Conditions

Transport Downstream Salt Transport Upstream Salt

Net Flow + Other* = Gravitational + Tidal Cycle + Other* Transport
Circulation Variations Mechanisms

96.8% 3.2% = 16.5% + 72.7% + 10.8% High Freshwater
Flow

91.6% 8.4% = 47.5% + 40.8% + 11.7% Low Freshwa ter
Flow

This table is compiled from calculations for Clatsop Spit cross-section by
D.V. Hansen, 1965 and F.W. Hughes, 1968. Both papers are based on data
collected on Range 2 during the Corps of Engineers 1959 field study
(Figure 204-12)

"Other" transport processes include turbulent transport and transport
arising from vertical shear resulting from bottom friction. Also in the
"other" category is the (unknown) change from one tidal cycle to the next
in the amount of salt stored in the estuary.

204-42

204.5 REFERENCES

A. Cameron, W.M. and D.W. Pritchard. 1968. "Estuaries." IN In the
Sea. Vol. II. (M.N. Hill, ed.). John Wiley & Sons, New York,
New York. pp.306-324.
An oceanographer's introduction to estuaries by one of the
foremost estuarine oceanographers (Pritchard). Useful for the
reader with some scientific background.

B. Duxbury, A.C. The Earth and It's Oceans. 1971. Addison-Wesley,
Menlo Park, California. pp.235-247.

An introductory oceanography textbook with a short discussion
of estuaries readable by the layman.

C. Dyer, K.R. 1973. Estuaries: A Physical Introduction. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, New York. 140pp.

The most comprehensive discussion of the physical oceanography
of estuaries, drawing examples from all over the world. Included.
is a short description of the Columbia River estuary. The use of
mathematics is intense--not for the layman.

D. Gross, M.G. 1972. Oceanography, A View of the Earth. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. pp.293-326.
An excellent introduction to estuaries for the layman. Very
readable, with many illustrations and examples.

E. Hansen, D.V. 1965. "Currents and Mixing in the Columbia River
Estuary." Trans. Joint Conf. Ocean Science and Ocean Engineering.
pp.943-955.

An extremely technical discussion of the salt balance and
mixing processes in the Columbia River under low runoff conditions.
The data used are taken from the Corps of Engineers' 1959 field
study. One of the most sophisticated studies of the Columbia River
yet attempted.

F. Hughes, P. W. 1968. ."Salt Flux and Mixing Processes in the Columbia
River Estuary During High Discharge." M.S. Thesis, University of
Washington.

IAn extremely technical discussion of the salt balance and
mixing processes in the Columbia River under high discharge conditions.
The data used are taken from the Corps of Engineers'-1959 field
study. Not readable by the layman.

G. Lauff, G.H. (ed.). 1967. Estuaries. Publication No. 83. American
Academy for the Advancement of Science, New York, New York.
. The proceeding of a major conference on estuaries. All aspects
are covered: geology, physics, biology, fisheries, chemistry, etc.
Some papers are very readable, other obscure. An excellent general
reference.

204-43

H. Lutz, G.A. and H.H. Stevens, Jr. 1975. Discharge and Flow
Distribution, Columbia River Estuary. Geological Survey Professional
Paper, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 443pp.
Tidal height observations and a limited number of current
measurements were used to calibrate a mathematical model that calcu-
lates river flow on a daily basis at Beaver Army Terminal (RM53) and
Astoria (RM15). The accuracy of the calculated flows is only fair,
but the interpretation of the flow data and current measurements
elucidates several important features of the water storage and circu-
lation in the Columbia River estuary. Flow predominance as a function
of depth and lateral and longitudinal position in the channel is
discussed. This is a very technical paper, not easily read by the
layman.

I. McClennan, J.H. 1965. Elements of Physical Oceanography. Pergamon
Press, New York, New York. pp.143-146.
A short introduction to estuaries with good definitions and a
few equations.

J. Neal, V.T. 1972. "Physical Aspects of the Columbia River and Its
Estuary." IN The Columbia River Estuary and Adjacent Ocean Water
Bicenvironmental Studies. (A.T. Pruter and D.L. Alverson, ed.)

A moderately technical introduction to the Columbia River, with
a lengthy discussion of the author's work on flushing times.

K. Oregon State University, Ocean Engineering Programs. 1975. Physical
Characteristics of the Youngs Bay Estuarine Environs. School of
Engineering, Corvallis, Oregon.

Contains a readable discussion of tides and currents in the
estuary and the various geodetic datum levels. Reports the results
of research on the tides and tidal currents, water quality and
geology of Youngs Bay and its tributaries.

L. Simmons, H.B. 1971. "The Potential of Physical Models to
Investigate Estuarine Water Quality Problems." IN Proceedings:
1971 Technical Conference on Estuaries of the Pacif717c Northwest'.
(J.N. Noth and L.S. Slotta, ed.). pp.4-28.

A readable discussion of some results from the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers physical models of the Columbia River and other estuaries.
Some of the figures are incorrectly labelled.

M. Sternberg, R.W., J.G. Creager, W. Glassley, J. Johnson. At press.
Aquatic Disposal Field Investigations Columbia River Disposal
Site, Oregon. Environmental Effects Laboratory. U.S. Army
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station. Vicksburg, Mississippi.
A lengthy and technical study of the effects of dredge spoil
disposal at sea in sites B and G off the mouth of the Columbia
River. Sediment texture, minerology and transport, and currents
in the area are discussed. Material deposited in Sites B and G
appear to be quite stable.

204-44

N. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1960. Current
Measurement Program Columbia River at Mouth Washington and Oregon
Interim Report. Volume I to IV.
Volume I contains the text explaining the field program and the
plates in the other three volumes. Volume II contains the plates
showing velocity. Volume III contains the plates showing direction.
volume IV contains plates showing salinity, tidal height, flow pre-
dominance, surface and bottom peak ebb and flood, currents, scour vs.
shoal, and flow at the mouth. A large and valuable collection of
data with no interpretation. Several theses and technical papers
have been written using this data.

204-45

0 0

`0@01 NUTRIENTS, MIXING AND
L -j s WATER QUALITY

COLUMBIA RIVER.

ESTUARINE NUTRIENTS, MIXING AND
WATER QUALITY

David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

205 ESTUARINE NUTRIENTS, MIXING AND
WATER QUALITY ........................................... 205-1
205.1 CHEMICAL BUDGETS OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER .................... 205-1
A. Sources of Variability in the
Chemical Budget ......................................... 205-2
B. Limiting Factors in Primary_Productivity .................. 205-6
C. Nutrient Ratios and Limiting Factors ...................... 205-7
205.2 MIXING OF WATER MASSES AND THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
OF NUTRIENTS AND PARTICULATE MATTER ..................... 205-10
A. Water Mass Analysis ....................................... 205-11
B. Mixing Processes at the mouth of the
Columbia River .......................................... 205-14
C. Nutrient Distribution, Transport and
Utilization ............................................. 205-15
D. The Cycling of Particulate Organic Matter ................. 205-20
205.3 WATER QUALITY ............................................. 205-21
A. Water Quality Management in Oregon and
Washington .............................................. 205-23
B. Municipal and Industrial Waste in the
Columbia River .......................................... 205-27
205.4 REFERENCES ................................................ 205-37

FIGURES

205-1 The Seasonal Variation of Chemical Parameters
in the Estuary ................................... ....... 205-3
205-2 Temperature-Salinity Diagrams, June 1965 .................. 205-12
205-3 Nutrient Concentrations as a Function of
Temperature and Salinity ................................ 205-13
205-4 Physical Processes, Circulation and Salinity
Distribution During Summer .............................. 205-16
205-5 Nitrate Distribution and Supply Mechanisms ................ 205-16
205-6 Processes Affecting the Concentration of
Nitrate ................................................. 205-18
205-7 Plankton Distribution and Productivity .................... 205-19
205-8 The Cycling of Particulate Organic Matter ................. 205-22

TABLES

205-1 Monthly Chemical Input From the Columbia River
to the Pacific Ocean .................................... 205-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd) Page No.

TABLES

205-2 Observed Nutrient Ratios of Columbia
River Water ........................................... 205-9
205-3 Water Uses to be Protected in Oregon
and Washington ........................................ 205-25
205-4 Water Quality Standards for Oregon and
Washington ............................................ 205-26
205-5 Municipal and Industrial Waste Loadings
for the Columbia'River Estuary ........................ 205-28
205-6 Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings
for the Columbia River Below Richland ................. 205-30
205-7 Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings
for the Willamette River and Tributaries .............. 205-32
205-8 Summary of Industrial and Municipal Waste
Loadings .............................................. 205-34

205 ESTUARINE NUTRIENT, MIXING AND WATER QUALITY

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the physical, biological,
chemical and cultural processes governing the concentrations of nutrients,
dissolved oxygen, suspended particulate matter and pollutants in the

Columbia River, its estuary and the adjacent ocean waters. As the largest

river in western North America, the Columbia River is a major supplier

of both water and nutrients to the North Pacific Ocean (Section 205.1).

At the same time, the ocean is a major supplier of nutrients to the

estuary through the mechanism of upwelling. The seasonal and spatial

distribution of nutrients in the river and adjacent ocean areas is a

complicated matter influenced by a number of physical, biological and

chemical processes. The mixing of river and ocean water masses and the

associated biological productivity and nutrients distributions are

discussed in Section 205.2. The input of pollutants and their effects on

water quality are considered in Section 205.3.

205.1 CHEMICAL BUDGETS OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER-

.The Columbia River supplies an average of about 269,000 cfs of

water to the Pacific ocean (Section 202). This is about 8,500,000,000,000
cf/year. This immense volume carries with it large quantities of such
important dissolved nutrients as nitrate (and other nitrogen compounds),
phosphate, silicate, and carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen (DO), large
quantities of organic, particulate matter that also enter the marine

food chain and pollutants such as radioactive wastes, industrial wastes

and sewage. As discussed in Section 201, the Columbia River effluent

plume spreads out over a wide area of the North Pacific Ocean; it hugs

the Coast of Washington (winter) or moves offshore and to the south

(summer), depending on the prevailing winds. The Columbia River water
also influences such properties as the temperature, salinity and pH

(acid-base balance) of offshore waters.

To determine the amounts of dissolved nutrients and other

dissolved substances supplied to estuarine and ocean waters, we must

construct budgets; the budgets reflect the amount of each substance
enterinq the estuary during each month of the year. These budgets

suggest how much of each nutrient is available to support biological
productivity. In addition to the material transported down.the river
into the estuary and then into-the ocean, large quanitities of

dissolved nutrients are supplied to the estuary from the ocean,
particularly during upwelling-periods (Section 201). The actual

amount of nutrients contributed to the estuary by this mechanism is not

known; it is probably as important biologically as the nutrient input

from the river. Estimates in this section account only for the
dissolved substances transported into the estuary from the river.

P. K. Park and other researchers from Oregon State University

have calculated nutrient budgets for the years 1966 and 1967, based on
data collected at Clatskanie (RM 55) and in the estuary. The results
for the two locations are similar, so only the data from the estuary

are presented here. Since many of the samples collected in the estuary
consisted of a mixture of ocean and river water (as determined by
salinity), it was necessary to extrapolate to zero salinity, to deter-

mine the concentration of the various substances in the river water

(Pigure 205-1). The transport of nutrients and other dissolved

su bstances from the river to the ocean is shown in Table 205-1. The

units used in Table 205-1 are standard chemical units (in most cases,

the mole) to facilitate comparison of the uptake of various nutrients

by phytoplankton. The right hand column gives an average yearly transport
(in tons) for the two years.

A. Sources of Variability in the Chemical Budget

The transport of a dissolved substance is the product of the

river flow rate and the concentration of the substance. The seasonal

and year-to-year variations in freshwater flow are discussed in Section

202. High flows are usually observed during the spring snow melt and

during an occasional winter storm. Low flows are normally observed

during the late summer and fall. The concentration of a given substance
in the Columbia River depends on at least five factors: 1) variation in
river flow; 2) percentage of the river flow coming from each tributary;
3) variations in biological activity; 4) variations in pollutant loads
(e.g. sewage, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, runoff from forest

lands) and 5) variations in air-sea interactions.

205-2

Figure 205-1

The Seasonal Variation of Chemical Parameters
in the Estuary

20-

10-
LU

1.0 --
60.5-

30 -
ZL
C@, 20 -
Z 10 -

2E 200 -
ZL

@D 100-

7.8--
M
a 7.6
7.4
1.5
1.0
ar
Q
E 0.5--

2 1.5-
< E i.o -
01
@o 0 0.5---
U

E L)

100 - ------
0 ZR 80L
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
1966 1967

There is a strong seasonal variation of temperature and chemical parameters
in the Columbia River estuary at zero salinity. Nutrients such as phosphate,
nitrate and silicate are depleted during the summer, as it the dissolved
oxygen.

From: Park et al., 1972

205-3

TABLE 205-1

MONTHLY CHEMICAL INPUT FROM THE COLUMBIA RIVER INTO THE NORTHEASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN

Average
Annual for two
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.' Budget years in
million
tons/year

6
Phosphate, 10 moles
1966 19.3 13.1 19.3 12.0 9.4 9.8 8.6 3.1 3.2 4.7 10.3 7.2 119 0.01
1967 6 11.7 12.2 9.5 6.9 8.0 11.4 4.6 1.3 0.9 3.7 6.3 7.2 84
Nitrate, 16 moles
1966 548 319 521 265 47 14 11 6 18 84 200 420 2450 0.18
1967 517 519 398 145 65 170 93 20 14 116 A4 477 2800
9
Silicate, 10 moles
1966 5.32 3.19 4.56 3.51 3.88 3.07 1.51 0.74 0.70 1.36 2.19 3.15 33.2 3.60
1967 9 4.04 4.00 3.34 2.63 3.63 6.02 2.84 0.81 0.69 1.61 2.34 3.15 35.1
Alkalinity, 10 eq*
1966 21.3 14.4 21.6 17.4 21.9 26.5 21.9 12.9 11.0 12.8 15.0 12.8 210 11.30
1967 9 16.9 16.2 15.4 16.4 22.9 38.2 30.3 14.7 11.8 14.3 13.5 15.6 226
Tota CO 21 moles
1966 18.7 14.0 22.3 16.6 21.2 27.1 24.1 13.9 11.0 12.5 15.0 12.8 209 10.90
1967 9 17.9 16.2 15.9 16.5 22.0 41.1 30.9 14.4 12.2 15.3 14.5 16.4 233
Oxygen, 10 1ters
1966 166 104 156 140 188 220 163 75 56 60 88 120 1540 2.80
1967 152 139 - 129 119 164 318 210 79 56 76 91 122 1660

Alkalinity is the net negative charge per unit mass of water that reacts with the H+ ion. It is expressed in, equivalents
(moles of negative charge).

From: Park et al, 1972.

There are strong variations from tribu tary to tributary in the kind
and quantity of dissolved materials introduced. These variations result
from: natural differences (e.g. soil type, amount of suspended sediment
carried); differences in the uses of land (agriculture, timber harvest,

urban, etc.); and the introduction of pollutants.
The strongest, and for our purposes, the most significant source of
seasonal variation in nutrients and DO is biological activity in the river
and estuary. Phytoplankton (small algae growing in and moving with the
water) and fixed plants such as marsh grasses, take up nitrogen, phosphate
and carbon dioxide; some phytoplankton also take up silicate. DO is given
off during the photosynthetic process. The phytoplankton are eaten by

zooplankton (small animals growing in and usually moving with the water), or

they decay in the water or on the bottom; decopposition consumes DO. The
zooplankton excrete both particulate and dissolved organic matter. The flush-
ing of the estuary is sufficiently rapid that much of the zooplankton, phyto-
plankton and other particulate organic matter is swept out to sea before it

can be decomposed, oxidized to the form of nutrients and reutilized by the
phytoplankton. These cycles exhibit strong seasonal variability (Section 304;

Plankton).

The concentration of the dissolved gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen
is also affected by air-water interactions and the temperature of the water.
Higher salinities and temperatures decrease the solubility of both carbon

dioxide and Do. Carbon dioxide is below saturation levels in the Columbia

River, however, and the concentration varies only by about 20% during the year
(Figure 205-1).

In contrast, DO shows a strong seasonal cycle (Figure 205-1). The

water is supersaturated with DO during the spring, because of the intense
primary productivity. DO levels fall during late summer, because of the

reduced dilution of waste under low flow conditions, because of the large
amount of organic matter in the river to be oxidized, because of the reduced

solubility of DO in the warmer, saltier water, and because the warmer water

increases the rate at which material is oxidized. Thus, the estuary and
the river have much less capacity to assimilate man's wastes during the
late-summer, low-f low period than during the rest of the year. Regulation

205-5

of freshwater flow in the Columbia River by the many dams has served
to increase the summer minimum flows. An increase in consumptive water
use., however, would-reduce summer minimum flows, at least in dry years.
Water diversion from the river is therefore, a major water quality'issue.
It is likely that the total year-to-year variability in the
dissolved nutrient budget is somewhat larger than year-to-year

.variability in freshwater flow (Section 202)i but smaller than the

year-to-year variability in sediment transport (Section 208). Firm

conclusions cannot be drawn from two years' data, however.
B. Limiting Factors in Primary Productivity

Biological productivity is one of the major causes of the

variability of the nutrient and DO distributions. The use of nutrients
and production of DO by phytoplankton during ph@tosynthesis, and the
consumption of Do and release of nutrients during decomposition are

the most important processes. The rate of primary productivity (as

..the photosynthetic process is known) in the estuary is governed by a
number of factors: available sunlight, turbidity (the amount of particulate,
matter in the water), temperature, salinity, nutrient concentrations, the
concentrations of phytoplankton in the estuary, the rate of river flow,
and the tidal range.

.To summarize material discussed in Section 304, primary production
is low during the winter, and large quantities of nutrients flow out

to sea without ever being incorporated into the estuary food chain.
.It is likely that the major limiting factor during this period is lack
of light. The Columbia River is sufficiently turbid during most of the
year to limit phytoplankton growth to the surface layer. The coming
of spring, with longer days, more sun and higher water temperatures, is
almost always accompanied by a dramatic increase in numbers of

phytoplankton. During much of the summer, the vital nutrients,
nitrate and phosphate, are reduced by primary productivity to almost
undetectable levels in the river upstream from the estuary (Figure 205-1).

During this period, the phytoplankton population in the estuary is
essentially an extension of the upstream, riverine population. The

major sources of nitrogen and phosphate in the estuary are the

205-6

decomposition of Organic matter in the water column and the transport
of nutrients from the ocean. Freshwater.species do not grow well in

the brackish water containing nutrients from the ocean, and the salt

water species are confined to the salt-wedge along the bottom, where

light intensities are low. Therefore, primary productivity in most

of the estuary is low. The water temperature exerts an important

influence over the plankton species present.

The tidal currents and the freshwater flow through the estuary
also exert a strong influence on primary productivity. The rate of

primary productivity is proportional to the population of living

phytoplankton cells. If the river flow or tidal action is too strong,
the plankton will be carried out to sea so quickly that it will be

impossible for a large population to establish itself in the estuary;

primary production will remain low. This phenomenon is also observed
in Puget Sound. A sudden decrease in river flow during the summer
may result in a dramatic increase in populations and primarv productivity.

In summary, most of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the estuary
during the spring and summer is tied up in particulate organic matter
(zoo -and phytoplankton). This particulate organic matter is not
included in the chemical budget of dissolved substances (Table 205-1).

Most of this organic material is, nonetheless, carried out to sea and

enters the marine food chain just as surely as would the equivalent

amount of dissolved nutrients.

C. Nutrient Ratios and Limiting Factors

It has been suggested that lack of nutrients is the major factor

limiting primary production during the summer in the Columbia River

estuary. Table 205-1 shows substantial depletion of silicate and

phosphate, and almost total depletion of nitrate during the summer
months. In contrast, carbon dioxide levels vary by only 20% during
the year, and the levels do not appear to be depleted during the
summer. To determine which nutrient or nutrients are limiting, it
is necessary to know the relative amounts of nutrients used during
primary production. Nutrient utilization ratios must be compared to
the nutrient ratios observed in the water column, to determine which

nutrient is actually in shortest supply.

205-7

All the important freshwater species and most of the important

marine species of phytoplankton in the estuary are diatoms. These
phytoplankton have a casing known as a "test" made of silicate. Thus,

they use large quantities of silicate. Nutrient utilization ratios
vary, depending on the species of phytoplankton, the health of the cells,

and the nutrient ratios in the water column. That is, most phytoplankton

compensate to some degree when a particular nutrient is in short supply.

Therefore, exact nutrient utilization ratios cannot be given, but a

reasonable range of values for the C:Si:N:P ratios for diatoms is:

C Si N P

40-125 11-42 12-18 1

That is, for each atom of phosphorous (P) incorporated in the form of
phosphate, 12 to 18 atoms of nitrogen (N) in the form of nitrate,
nitrite, ammonia or organic nitrogen, 11 to 42 atoms of silicon (Si)
in the form of silicate, and 40 to 125 atoms of carbon (C) as carbon

dioxide or organic carbon will be incorporated during primary production.
Observed nutrient uptake ratios for plankton off the coast of Oregon
and Washington fall within this range. Decay of the phytoplankton

returns nutrients to the water in the same ratio, though different
nutrients are regenerated at different rates. In particular, the
decay of organic nitrogen is considerably slower than that of organic

phosphate.
The nutrient utilization ratios must be compared to the observed
nutrient ratios in the estuary. It is clear from Table 205-2 that
carbon dioxide and silicate were always present in great excess over
nitrate and phosphate. It also appears that nitrate was the limiting
factor in the summer of 1966, while nitrate and phosphate were more

closely in balance during the summer of 1967. These results must be
interpreted with caution for two reasons. First, the actual nutrient
utilization ratios are not definitely known. Second, recent research
suggests that phytoplankton prefer to use sources of nitrogen (nitrite,
ammonia, urea, other organic nitrogen compounds) other than nitrate.
These other forms of nitrogen are available only as decay products of
organic material in the water (or as pollutants introduced by.man),

205-8

TABLE 205-2

Observed Nutrient Ratios of Columbia River Water
at Zero Salinity for the Years 1966 and 1967

Carbon Dioxide Silicate Nitrate Phosphate
1966 1967 1966 1967 1966 1967

Jan. 968 1532 280 350 28 44 1

Feb. 1067 1319 240 330 24 42 1

Mar. 1153 1687 240 350 27 42 1

Apr. 1385 2400 290 380 31 21 1
May 2250 2757 410 450 5 8 1

Jun. 2771 3592 310 530 1 15 1

Jul. 2800 6667 180 610 1 20 1

Aug. 4518 11000 240 620 2 15 1

Sep. 3486 13300 220 750 6 15 1

Oct. 2646 4167 290 440 18 32 1

Nov. 1460 2290 210 370 20 42 1

Dec. 1770 2290 440 440 58 67 1

Yearly 1760 2773 280 420 20 33 1
Average

From: Park et al., 1972

205-9

and nitrate is normally available in much higher concentrations, except

under conditions of nutrient limitation.

It is also known that the regeneration of phosphate by decay of
organic matter is faster than the regeneration of nitrogen compounds.
It is probably safe to conclude, on the basis of the data in Table 205-2

and on experience in other coastal areas, that nitrogen is the limiting
nutrient in the Columbia River estuary and the adjacent ocean waters.

Silicate and carbon dioxide are both available in excess in the

river. As a result, the C:P and Si:P ratios increase during the summer,

because only about 20% of the carbon dioxide and 60 to 75% of the
silicate is utilized in primary production. In contrast, as much as
90% of the phosphate and 99% of the nitrate is used to support primary

production in the transition zone, just outside of the mouth of the
estuary. Carbon dioxide is present in excess throughout the surface

layers of the world ocean. The carbon dioxide does, however, play an

important role in governing the acid-base balance of both the river and

the ocean.

205.2 MIXING OF WATER MASSES AND THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS
AND PARTICULATE MATTER

Salinity is used as a tracer of the complex mixing processes that

occur at the mouth of the estuary (Section 204). Salinity is a
conservative property; that is, it changes only through the mixing of

water masses. Below the surface, temperature is also a conservative

property; however, solar heating and air-water exchange of heat make

temperature a non-conservative property at the surface. Therefore, it

must be used cautiously as a,tracer of the mixing of water masses. The
properties of major concern in this chapter, the nutrients, DO and
particulate organic matter are all strongly non-conservative. Other
factors besides mixing that affect these properties are discussed in
Section 205.1. By comparing the distributions of the non-conservative
properties with those of the conservative properties, it is possible
to learn about the conservative mixing processes and the non-conservative

biological processes.
Mixing processes that occur between river and ocean water during
the summer have been studied in some detail by T. J. Conomos, M. G.
Gross, and other oceanographers from the University of Washington.

205-10

A. Water Mass Analysis
The first step in such an analysis is to identify the water masses
involved in the mixing processes. A water mass is simply water with
certain rather narrowly defined salinity and temperature characteristics.

If the water masses are properly defined, then the temperature and

salinity characteristics of all the water in an area can be defined in

terms of mixtures of a small number of parent water masses. It is, of

course, necessary to explain the source of each water mass and the forces

causing it to mix with the other masses.
Water masses are usually identified using temperature-salinity (T-S)
diagrams such as Figure 205-2a and b. Temperature is shown on
the vertical axis and salinity on the horizontal axis. Any sample of

water may be located on such a diagram, according to its temperature and
salinity. Depths are also indicated in Figure 205-2a. As shown in
Figures 205-2b and 205-3, the temperature and salinity properties of
the waters at the mouth of the Columbia River can be explained in terms

of three water masses: River Water (RW), Surface Ocean Water (SOW), and

Sub-Surface Ocean Water (SSOW). The three water masses occupy the

three extreme positions of the observed T-S distribution. All mixtures

of the various water masses must have properties between these extremes.

For example, the average values of the temperature and salinity in the
SOW during June 1965 were about 31.8*/,,,, and 13* C. The averages for
the SSOW at that time were 33.6'/,. and 7.6' C, respectively. A mixture
of equal volumes of SOW and SSOW would have a salinity of about 32.7*/,,.
and a temperature of 10.3* C; each property would be midway between the
extremes. It is a general rule that mixing between water masses proceeds
along a straight line on a T-S diagram. That is, as SOW is diluted by
larger and larger amounts of SSOW, its properties will approach those
of SSOW along a line drawn on the T-S diagram between the positions of

SOW and SSOW.

The properties and locations of the three water masses during
June, 1965 are in Figures 205-2, 205-3, 205-4. RW had a salinity of
less than 1*/.,, and a temperature that varied during the summer from
about 15 to 190 C. RW was low in phosphate and nitrate although it
probably contained some available nitrogen in other forms (Figure 205-3).

205-11

Figure 205-2

Temperature Salinity Diagrams

June 1965

RW
15
............ ..

13 ........ sow
Water depths

11 0 (surface)
-7-7 3M
River-mouth-
(a) 9m- threshold depth
rn 13-15 m
U 7 30 rn SSOW
o

cc
D
F-

RW
15- Entra men
ixIing Wind rnixiU A? - sow
13- 'k
ntrainment ------- 61
o

(b)

7 SSOW

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
SALINITY, 0/.

Spatial distributions.of water types (a) and major physical
processes affecting water parcels (b) as functions of temperature
and salinity, June 1965 survey.

From: Conomos et al., 1972

205-12

Figure 205-3

Nutrient Concentrations as a Function
of Temperature and Salinity

RW 15W.2LO.31
0�0
13 5-9 <1 sow

10-19
(a)

9 20-29
7 @130 SSOW
30� 2

RW 15 1.08 O.i7

13 0.5-1.0 <0.6 sow
Ld 1.0-1.5

(b)
1.5-2.0
Ui
CL 9 1.0
LU
1.5- .
7 >2.0 SSOW
F 243+ 0.21

RW 15 128 12'
100 9 � 2
13 75-100 25-50 sow
50-75 <25
(c) 11

9
7 > 25 SSOW
48 � 4

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
FALINITY, O/oo

Nitrate (a), phosphate (b), and silicate (c) concentrations in
microgram atoms per liter as functions of temperature and salinity,
June 1965 survey. The concentration gradients coupled with the
configurations of contour boundaries indicate the' direction of nutrient
supply.
From: Conomos et al., 1972
0

@j 30

@
9� @2
>2 5

205-13

It was also the major 'source of silicate in the nearshore,area off
the Columbia River. Its DO content was high during high flow periods
but declined during the late-summer, low-flow period.

SOW was also warm (12.7 to 13.7* C in June), and it had a
salinity in the range of 31'.7 and 31.85 O/oo (Figure 205-3). SOW was

generally found more than 15 km (9 mi) offshore in a shallow surface
layer (less than 15 m or 50 ft deep). It was very low in nutrients
but supersaturated with DO, because of intense primary production.

SOW is amixture of river and ocean water that has been at the surface

long enough to have its nutrients depleted. The study summarized here
did not reach far enough to sea to obtain SOW entirely uncontaminated

by RW. The rule of the thumb commonly used by oceanographers is that
any water in this area with a salinity of less than 32.5 O/oo is part

of the Columbia River plume. This plume may extend several hundred
miles out to sea during the summer (Section 201). The sampling in this

study was concentrated within 60 km (36 mi) of the coast.

SSOW was the coldest (less than 80 C) and saltiest (more than

33.4 Voo) water in the study area. SSOW moved into the nearshore area

from the deeper waters of the continental shelf and slope (perhaps as

deep as 500 m or 1600 ft), because of the wind-driven coastal

upwelling process (Section 201). This water had been below the surface
for long periods of time (as long as several hundred years). Much
organic matter had decomposed in the SSOW, and consequently, observed

nutrient levels were high and DO levels low. Silicate values were not

as high as in the river, however.

Underlying the SOW and above the SSOW, there was a transition lay-
er with intermediate.properties, which was a mixture of SSOW and SOW.

B. Mixing Processes at the Mouth of the Columbia River

The basic mixing processes occurring in the area are shown
schematically in Figure 205-4. Mixing takes place in two stages. In
the first stage, RW mixes with SSOW (and to some extent with SOW) in
the.estuary. The SSOW has reached its position along the bottom,
close to the shore, because of the wind-driven coastal upwelling that
prevails during most of the spring and summer, and because of entrain-
ment of ocean waters into the Columbia River effluent plume. The

205-14

entrainment* of SSOW into the surface RW is driven by the tidal and

river currents. This form of upwelling is extremely important in
providing nutrients to the lower estuary and mouth area during the
summer. As pointed out in Section 205.1, almost all the phosphates

and nitrates in the river are used up before the water reaches the

estuary, thus, the SSOW is the major source of nutrients (except silicate)

for the estuary during the summer.

The second-stage mixing takes place primarily within a transition
zone between estuarine and oceanic conditions that extends about -20 km
(12 mi) from the mouth of the river (Figure 205-5). The SSOW that-

has been brought near the surface by the wind and river induced upwelling

is entrained into the surface layer formed by the first-stage mixing; this

further increases the salinity, phosphate and nitrate content of the

mixture. Lateral mixing with SOW also occurs during this stage.

Outside of the transition area, entrainment ceases to be a major
factor in the vertical mixing. Wind-driven mixing is the dominant factor

in the oceanic area. Winds are seldom strong enough during the summer to
cause strong vertical mixing across the halocline (vertical salinity and

density gradient) below the Columbia River plume. The plume, therefore,

retains its identity as it spreads out to the south and west. The nutrients

from first and second-stage mixing are quickly consumed, and they are not
replaced because of the inhibited vertical mixing. The outer part of the

plume is, therefore, an area of relatively low productivity.

During periods of high flow, the first and second stage mixing
processes are displaced further out to the sea, and even the first stage
mixing occurs mostly outside the estuary.

C. Nutrient Distribution, Transport and Utilization

Phosphate and nitrate are reduced to extremely low levels in the
RW before it reaches the estuary. The silicate is depleted, but not
exhausted. Silicate concentrations in the RW still considerably exceed
those in the SOW and SSOW, though the SSOW acts as a secondary source
of silicate. To a much lesser extent, the RW acts as a secondary source

*Entrainment has been discussed in detail in Section 204.1 C and D; it is
the process whereby relatively-fresh river water flows over denser, more
saline ocean water and is progressively diluted by saltwater from below.
Very little freshwater mixes down into the salty, bottom layer.
0

205-15

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA

4E HORIZONTAL ADVECTION S - 15 T* 20'.
SL -1-77-771-1
tl)W@SALINITY EFFLUENT PLUME RIVER WATER
@UTIFACE OCEANIC WATER"' (PROGRESSIVE VERTICAL AND LATERAL MIXINGI S
S 31 7 TO 31 9. 0111UAFUIE MIXIIGI
I TO 11
tWHNO NUXIN. Z/ OF EFFLOENr HALOUCLINE:-@,4.-..@
,,;r 7,177 -,gr/777777 /1777
UENTRAINMENTI

(VERTICAL MIXING)

TRANSITION LAYER

32.5/.----

RIVER-INOIJCFO UPWELIING
;:;-e
@SUBSOTUFACF UC[AINICWATFA
-7.- S 334-16

3 3. 8.1 7--

Figure 205-4

Physical processes, circulation, and salinity distribution during
summer.

From: Conomos et al., 1972

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA

EIFtUENT PIUME MIXINU STITH INCREASES AND
:JECRtASES C04LENTRA110N@ PHOTOSYNTHETIC
.C'.VITY DECREASES LUNLE@TPAFIONS
SL - ------- - ------
VERTICAL MIXING
@ESTICAJ ANO LATERAL MIMING INCREASES CONCfNIRATUONS RIVER WATER
DECREASE'; CONCENTRATIONS 41E 0 09 alomillte,
I
DEPLETED DURINU SUMMER
BY PHO10SYNTHETIC ACTIVITY
SURFACE OCEANIC WATER 8-4SF 5" AND BY DILUTION
I@q _, !. I" OF EFF LUENT HALOCLINE
ILD OUR
T @ T@NG SUMMER ... .......
,IT L ACTIVITY
0 YN

I -STAGE MIXING IN
EIRST
STUARINE AREA
S1 ow SUPPLY BY VERTICAL FLU'
SECOND STAGE MIXING IN
32.5".- TRANSITION AREA

SUBSORFACE OCEANIC WATER
.. 10 , , "',
PRINLIPAL RES1141CUR AND
S,.ppI,[R G,R,NG SUMMER

Figure 205-5

Nitrate distribution and.supply mechanisms during summer. The
primary source of nitrate is the Sub@-Sutface Ocean Water (SSOW). The
I" IAN WA

ANO
S M. ER

River Water (RW) and the Surface Ocean Water (SOW) are both depleted
in nitrate during the summer.

From: Conomos et al., 1972

205-16

of phosphate. The behavior of silicate then, is somewhat different from

that of the phosphate and nitrate. The behavior and distribution of
nitrate is of concern, because nitrogen is the limiting nutrient. It

must be remembered, howeverl that other forms of nitrogen are also
utilized by phytoplankton (Section 205.1B). The seasonal variability

and spatial distribution of phosphate is- similar to that of nitrate.

A simple model of the nitrate supply and transport near the mouth

of the Columbia River is shown in Figure 205-5 and 205-6. The first-

stage mixing between RW and SSOW in the estuarine area increases both
the salinity and nitrate content. If this mixing is sufficiently

rapid, and if there is any time delay between the appearance of

nutrients in the surface layers and the onset of increased productivity,

then the concentration of nitrate in the waters at the mouth of the

estuary will be much larger than in the upper estuary and river.

The second-stage mixing will continue to increase salinity and

nitrate values, so long as the mixed RW and SSOW in the plume overlay

SSOW or transition water. Once the plume is sufficiently far out to

sea that it overlays SOW depleted of all nutrients, the plume will

continue to gain salinity but begin to lose nitrate by vertical mixing.

During the second stage mixing process, the plume will be depleted by

intense primary productivity until its nitrate content is no higher than

that of the SOW. The rate of primary production in the nutrient-

depleted areas of the plume will then be controlled by the rate of

recycling of nitrogen compounds by decay. The nitrogen will be recycled

before it is oxidized to nitrate. Thus, a parcel of water leaving the
estuary will first be enriched in nitrate or phosphate by vertical mixing

and then depleted by primary production and mixing (both vertical and

horizontal).

The resulting nutrient distribution shows a sharp peak at the

mouth of the estuary or within a distance of 20 km (12 mi) in the

seaward direction (Figure 205-6). The area just outside the mouth then,

is an area of especially high productivity. The highest concentration
of chlorophyll a (the photosynthetic pigment found in algae) and the

highest rate of plankton growth are found there (Figure 205-7a and 7b).

It is no surprise that the Dungeness Crab fishery is also concentrated

in this area. The mixing zone outside the mouth is one of the most

205-17

Figure 205-6

Processes Affecting the Concentration of Nitrate

[N' SSOW] Primary
t Production
N'] I

ENTRAINMENTAND
LATERAL MIXING I ESTUARINE
IMIXING N'Rw
FROM
FN'sow WIND MIXING I BELOW
OCEANIC TRANSITION ESTUARINE RIVER
AREA I AREA AREA 1AREA

DISTANCE SEAWARD
@TIME ELAPSED

The concentration of nitrate in a parcel of water (indicated by
[N]) first increases and then decreases as the parcel moves from the
river (right) through the transition zone (center) and out to the open
ocean (left). The physical and biological processes acting on the [N]
are indicated.

From: Conomos et al., 1972
Pr-@
0 @ion
EN @ND
NTRA NM
L MIX
ATERA ING
I ESTUARINE
IM IXING
I ROM
BE LOW
I

205-18

Figure 205-7 (a)
Phytoplankton and zooplankton Distribution. and Production

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA

SL
PHYTOPLANKTON DECREASE TRANSITION AREA IS FRESHWATER PHYTOPLANKTON
"IO11ANK11- DECREASE SEAWARD
SEAWARD
ICKC T. ION FRESHWATER PHYTOFLANKTDN
IN A,
LOW STANDING STOCKS AUX@'mum MAINLY DIATOMS
OF PHYT OPLANATON WITH OF
MAXIMUM AT ID- TO 15 M DEPT" EFFLUENT HALOCILINE mIx URE WITH MAR .INE FORMS

...... RICH MAR E,
ZOOPLANATON GENERALLY IN PHYTOPL KT NBLO s
SUl" At ICL INI 'A ... ...
ARE SENTIN 'G@EA IN,
SAL TV
WATER
- - - - - - - - - - ZOGPLANKTON RE STRUCTED
------ 32-516 TO SU8HAjOCLINi WATER
NEAR RIVER MOUTH

Note: The location of maximum population of phytoplankton seaward of the
mouth of the estuary.

From: Conomos et al., 1972

Figure 205-7 (b)
The Rate of Primary Productivity (Production of Phytoplankton)

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA
PROGUCTID APPARENTLY
LIMIT ED By NITRATE
A`,D I-BITED By "G.,

SL
s clI,`II, 11 cl@31h'
HOT MEASURED RIVER WA EA
M
OT EASURED
I EFFLUENT
@ALOCLI

3 gC!.'%

PRODUCTION APPARENTLY LIMITED By LIGHT 2D Mg c' M3 IN,

------ 32.5 %

DATA ABSTRACTED FROM 0.8 331, AUG 12 24 1963
11 alucT I'll, "'
CHLOROPHYLL A @;/.'

Note: The location of maximum productivity seaward of the mouth of the
estuary.

From: Conomos et al., 1972

205-19

productive areas of the entire Oregon and Washington continental shelf.
These factors must be taken into consideration in planning navigational

improvements and dredged material disposal at sea..

The silicate distribution is somewhat different from the nitrate

and phosphate distributions. -The RW is the major silicate source and
all mixing processes, as well as primary productivity, tend to deplete the

silicate concentration. On the other hand, silicate is relatively

abundant and is apparently never completely used up; it is not generally

the limiting nutrient.
Some nutrient data collected by Haertel, Osterberg and others
from Oregon State University show peak nutrient.concentrations in

the late summer inside the estuary, in association with the salt-wedge.
The OSU data do not extend below about Rm 51 and the U of W data
discussed in the preceeding paragraphs did not always extend upstream

of the mouth. In some instances, the U of W data did show a double
nutrient maximum, with one peak at, or outside of the mouth, and another
in the lower estuary. Haertel and Osterberg hypothesize that the
nutrient peak inside the estuary is associated with the "null zone"

(Section 208). This area of little net horizontal movement occurs near

the upstream limit of salinity intrusion. Colloidal material tends to

aggregate in the salt-wedge, and the resulting fine particulate matter
tends to settle out in the null zone. The null zone moves up and down.
river between approximately RM 5 and RM 20, depending upon freshwater
flow and tidal range. Dead and decaying phytoplankton and zooplankton

make up part of the particulate matter concentrated in the null zone.

The decay of this material results in a decrease in the concentration

of DO. The null zone is probably also an area of enhanced productivity;

such is the case in many other estuaries.

D. The Cycling of Particulate Organic Matter

Conomos and Gross of the U of W have also studied the composition,
transport, production and decay of particulate matter in the area in

and adjacent to the Columbia River estuary during the summer. The
Columbia River transports large quantities of suspended material. About
85 to 95% of this material is inorganic sediment'and is not of concern
here (see Section 208). The remaining 5 to 15% of the material is
particulate organic matter and consi sts mainly of phytoplankton and

205-20

detritus; a small portion of it is zooplankton. The cycling of particulate
organic matter is intimately related to the cycling of nutrients. Nitrogen,
phosphorus and silicate that is not in dissolved form is tied up in
particulate organic matter. This particulate material eventually oxidizes
to the form of dissolved nutrients and again cycles through the system.
The processes affecting the concentration of particulate organic
matter are shown in Figure 205-8a and 8b. The area of the most intense
primary production is in the transition zone just outside of the estuary.
Large quantities of organic particulates in the form of freshwater
phytoplankton are carried into the area by the river flow. As a parcel of
water moves out to sea, the particulate organic matter (as a percentage of
th total particulate matter) incragQg Thin ra,uI4g b,54,b Reom AmA
Drimrv Droauotlul;v 1R OAS --A
inorunio PaFIsias_ Tx tric]
aec-roases Pr-m tile tinsitiga av gutaral anaM5 aecrase rogultg frnm
mixing with less turid ocean water magsns, zooplankton grazing and the
settling out of detritus and phytoplankton.

205.3 WATER QUALITY
There are over 300 known municipal and industrial facilities that

discharge wastes directly into the Columbia River and its tributaries below
Bonneville Dam; few of these are in the estuary itself. A much larger number

of industries discharge into sewer systems that eventually discharge into the
Columbia River system. Most of the larger municipal systems listed below

treat industrial wastes. Dischargers are concentrated along the Columbia
River between Longview and Washougal and in the Willamette River Valley.
It is not yet possible to determine the percentage of municipal and industrial

wastes in the chemical budgets of Section 205.1. Furthermore, it is likely
that non-point sources of pollution (wastes not entering the water through

an outfall pipe or channel) such as agriculture and forestry runoff, are more
important than the point source with regard to Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD), turbidity, biocides and some other pollutants. Nonetheless, manage-
ment of point sources is extremely important for several reasons, including:
(1) human wastes are a major s6urce of dangerous bacteria and viruses; -
(2) point sources, because they discharge at a definite location, may cause
severe localized overloading of the river; (3) certain industrial
wastes may be the only source of some highly toxic substances, and (4)

205-21

Figure 205-8
The Cycling of Particulate Organic Matter

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA
HORIZONTAL ADVECTIO- SINKING RATES

CoNCENIRATIONS DECREASE AND COMPOSITION CHANGES SEAWARD

SL
FRESHWATER PHYTOPLANKION DECREASE FRESHWATER AND MARINE RIVER WATER
ZOOPLANKTDN GRAZING KEEP
SM P.YTUPLANKTON
Att STANDING STOCK IOW
F R E SHWA T E R
SMAL"VIEFUDUCIMN DUE 10 PHYTOPLANATON
SI DIN RTICAi DIFFU510N
G OF
BAS@ /// / '"X"@
I IF THATIE UPWARD PRODUCTION FFL ' 'I
MA XIMUM FOUND IMM(OIAI[ky UEN7 'HALOCLI
REID FIRST OLYECTIBLF PRESENCE E
OF GREAT -111
NOR
/P YT NK F 177
8100' S BECAUSE OF UPINtLEED
L@l AFINE PHYTOPL1111D. BLOOM IN
LA KTON BELOW EFFLUENT EsTuIRY AN. ARE ALSO APPARENTLY
/@CAL PELLETS Z'A`LCCL@1N'1. GRAZE ON SUBHALOCLINE
Z GPLANKTOF.FE TRANSPORTED L"D.ARO FRO.
AND MISCELtANEGUS OETRITUS Bi DONS BUT CANNOT KEEP UP WITH TRANSITION AREA
PREDOMINATE Fo.Uc TI oll
------ 32.596

100 LEGEND
WICt-- PATHS Of NITRATE
I"Y;,IILAIIIIN, MAI:MUM
CBS VED .@clk scop 'ALI'

Figure 205-8 (a)

OCEANIC AND TRANSITION AREAS ESTUARINE AREA RIVER AREA

UBIUUITOUS WOOD FIBERS DECREASE SEAWARD
RIVE BORNE WOOD FIBERS
TE XTItE FIBERS AND
R:@I.ITUS 111111111FI@A ARE)
OF EIFI, 'E, UNIDENTIFIED MATTER
11 TO V,NG ACTION

UjINITUS FEE At PiLiE
CEII FRAGIHINTSI 1AAGfI f
D S1.1c,to To sUB.-II)
Rj1h 'IF W.11H .1D Also
'IItIVIS OF REASES UPWARD L
6 10 I-FG -CIIQH
- - - - - -32.5 */ - - - - - - - -C-It 61T. IUUPLANKTON
.........

Figure 205-8 (b)
Concentrations, paths and processes of formation and dispersion of
suspended organic material: a) living fraction, b) detkitus.

From: Conomos and Gross, 1972
205-22

control of point sources may make the crucial difference between overloading
the system with waste and not overloading the system. It should also be
recognized that some discharges are actually beneficial to the living systems

in the river.

Long-term water quality improvement requires a non-point source
control program and is one of the five major water quality problems in the

Lower Columbia River. The others are gas super-saturation caused by numerous

main-stream dams, tributary stream siltation, high summer stream temperatures

and over-allocation of flows in the tributaries and main stem. Gas super-

saturation causes downstream migrant juvenile fish to die of "the bends."
Gas super-saturation is not a problem in the estuary area, however. Tribu-
tary stream siltation results from some forestry and agricultural practices,
urban run-off and natural erosion. It is primarily a non-point source
problem. High stream temperatures result both from point source discharges

and from the heating of water in dam storage pools.

Over-allocation of stream flow is neither a point nor a non-point

source problem; it is caused by removal of water from the stream rather than

addition of pollutants. Reduced stream flow reduces the amount of wastes

that can be assimilated and usually increases stream temperatures. As
mentioned in Section 202.2, the normal summer stream flow in some river and

estuary tributaries is less than the water rights to the water, so that

simultaneous exercise of existing water rights could completely dry up a

stream. Over-allocation of main stem water was not a problem until the re-

cord low-flow year of 1977, when there was not enough water to meet the needs
of agriculture, hydroelectric power and fisheries. Compromise was necessary
on all sides. Over-allocation may be a problem again, if major increases

in irrigation occur, or if any water is sold outside the basin.
A. Water Quality Management in Oregon and Washington
Disposal of wastes is one of the benefits provided to man by a large

river system; it has also been greatly abused. It is a national goal to end

the discharge of pollutants to the nation's waters by 1985, and to maintain
the receiving water quality necessary to serve all other recognized beneficial
uses. These and other basic requirements for water quality management are set

forth in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL-92-

500), administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington

and Oregon have both established water quality programs to comply with the
EPA requirements. The Washington program is authorized by RCW 90.48.

205-23

and administered by the Department of Ecology (DOE). The Oregon program
is authorized by ORS Chapter 468 and administered by the Department of
Environmental Quality (DEQ). Under the requirements of PL 92-500, all
point source dischargers must obtain a National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System NPbES) permit that spec .ifies the amounts and concent-
rations of pollutants that may be released by the industry in the interim
period before 1985. These permits are granted and administered by DOE and
DEQ; both Washington and Oregon administer most aspects of their water

quality programs by agreement with EPA.
section 303(e) of PL'92-500 requires that each state have a

continuing planning process to meet the requirements of the act. Both
states have prepared Water Quality Management Plans that list, basin by

basin, water quality problems, facilities, needs and dischargers. The
basins below Bonneville Dam that are of primary interest with regard to
water quality in the estuary include the: Willapa; Cowlitz-Wahkiakum, Lewis
and Middle Columbia River (in part) Basins (encompassing Water Resource

Inventory Areas WRIA 24 to 28) in Washington and the North Coast-Lower
Columbia River, Willamette River and Sandy River Basins in Oregon. Basins

above Bonneville Dam and below the Hanford Nuclear Reservation are of

somewhat lesser importance. Bas in Management Plans and data provided by
EPA (Siler,.Unpublished) provide the basis for the summary of industrial and
municipal dischargers below.
The water quality standards in both Oregon and Washington are set

so that certain beneficial or characteristic uses may be maintained. Since

the uses vary with the body of water, so do the standards. The Washington

and Oregon uses for the Lower Columbia River and its tributaries are shown

in Table 205-3. Washington classified its waters using a system ranging

from Class AA (best) to class C (worst). The Columbia River and most of

its tributaries are considered to be class A. The upper reaches of the Grays
River are class AA. The uses to be protected are similar in the two states,
with a few exceptions: log storage and rafting, and the spawning and rearing
of warm' water game fish are-not protected in. Oregon. The water quality
standards are also generally similar, though there are many differences in

details (Table 205-4). The most significant differences are the standards
for dissolved chemical substances in Oregon. It should be realized,however,
that additional effluent limits for individual industries are published by
EPA. These limits are set according to the technology used in a plant, the

205-24

TABLE 205-3

WATER USES TO BE PROTECTED IN OREGON AND WASHINGTON

Oregon. - North Coast/Lower Columbia River Basin

Beneficial Uses Estuary and All Other
to be Protected Adjacent Marine Columbia River Streams and
Waters Tributaries Thereto

Public Domestic Water Supply x
Private Domestic Water Supply x x
Industrial Water Supply x x x
Irrigation x x
Livestock Watering x x
Anadromous Fish Passage x x x
Salmonid Fish Rearing x x x
Salmonid Fish Spawning x x x
Resident Fish & Aquatic Life x x x
Wildlife and Hunting x x x
Fishing x x x
Boating x x x
Water Contact Recreation x x x
Aesthetic Quality x x x
Hydro Power
Commercial Navigation x x
From: State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality, 1976
Characteristic Uses Washington Watercourse Classification
to be Protected AA and A

FISHERIES
Salmonid
Migration F M
Rearing F M
Spawning F
Warm Water Game Fish
Rearing F
Spawning F
Other Food Fish F M
Shellfish M
WILDLIFE F M
RECREATION
Water Contact F M
Boating and Fishing F M
Environmental Aesthetics F M
WATER SUPPLY
Domestic F
Industrial F M
Agricul4nural F
MY19AT19N r 24
LOG STORAGE AND RAFTING F M
RV15.pjo-powrik P
P and M indicate that the particular use is
to be protected in fresh or salt waters, respectively.
From: State of Washington, Department of Ecology, 1975

205-25

Table 2os-4

Water Quality Standards for Oregon and Washington Portions
0 of the Columbia River Estuary and Tributaries
U1
Columbia River Estuarine Waters Freshwaters
Washington
Oregon
Parameter Class A Class AA
Dissolved oxygen 90% saturation 6mg/1 90% saturation; 8 mg/l fresh 9.5 mg/l fresh
95% in spawning areas 6 MCI 1 marine 7.0 mg/l marine
Temperature T>66*F: No increase No significant Same as Col. Riv. ex- Water temperature shall not Water shall not exceed 60*F (fresh)
T<68.5F: 0.5*F in- increase above cept 58*, 57.5* and exceed 65*F (fresh) or 610F or 55*F (marine) due to measureable
crease due to all natural. 56*, respectively (marine) due to measurable (0.50F) effect of discharge.
discharges T<66*F: (0.5*F) effects of discharge Greater increases allowed at lower
2.OoF increase Greater increases allowed at temperature.
lower temperature I
Turbidity (Jackson) 10% increase over background conditions, exceptions may be 5 JTU over natural background
Turbidity Units, JTU) granted
pH (log of hydrogen 6.5 to 8.5 o 8.5 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5 (fresh) 7.0 to 8.5 (marine)
ion concentration
Fccal Caliform (MPN) 1000 per 100 ml (average), and no 240 per 100 ml, and 240 (average), no more than 50 (fresh) or 70 (salt) average,
more than 20% of samples may exceed no more than 20% of 20% samples exceeding 1000 with no more than 20% exceeding 230
this value samples shall exceed per 100 ml in freshwater per 100 M1
I this value
Total dissolved Liberation of dissolved gases in sufficient quantities to 110% of saturation
gases cause objectionable odors or to deleterious to fish life or
or other uses is prohibited, Otherwise, 105%,of saturation.
Radioactive material Not to exceed maximum permissible concentrations for Less thaT those that might affect public health, the natural aqua-
drinking water tic environment, or any water use (same for other toxic materials)
Aesthetic valves Shall not be offensive to the human senses of sight, taste, shall not be impaired by the presence of materials or their
smell or touch, be deleterious to fish or other aquatic effects, excluding those of natural origin, which offend the
life, affect the potability of drinking water or the pala- senses of sight, smell, touch or taste.
bility of fish or shellfish
Other prohibited Development of fungi or other growths having deleterious
conditions effects. 'Formation of deleterious bottom or sludge deposits.
Discoloration, oily sleek, floating solids, or coating of
aquatic life
Dissolved chemical Columbia River Concentration Concentration
substances Substance Mg/1 Substance Mg/l
As 0.01 Fe 0.1
Ba 1.0 Pb 0.05
Bo 0.5 Mn 0.05
Cd 0.003 Phenols 0.001
Cr 0.02 Total Dis-
Cu 0.005 solved
solids 500.
CN 0.005 Zn 0.01
F 1.0 (applies only to freshwater)
Dissolved chemical Freshwater streams and tributaries: Same except total
@substances dissolved solids 100 mg/l
When the natural conditions exceed any of the above stand-
ards, the natural water quality is the standard.
From: State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality, 1976
State of Washington, Department of Ecology, 1975
0

age of the plant, and the amount of production. overall limits are also
set, and the standards vary according to whether the discharges goes
directly into the river or whether,it is first treated by a sewage plant.

It is not possible in this Inventory to set out the many standards for

the different industries on the Lower Columbia River.

Oregon and Washington have also designated the Columbia River and

its tributaries according to the factor or factors limiting water quality.

Oregon has designated the Lower Columbia River and its Oregon tributaries

as Water-Quality limited. This implies that water quality standards
cannot be met, even if best practical treatment is achieved by all point
sources, because of non-point source violations (turbidity, coliform bacteria
counts and temperature). These violations result from natural variations in
stream flow and temperature as well as human activity, primarily agriculture
and logging. Washington, in contrast, classifies the Lower Columbia as
Water-Quality--Point-Source Gas limited, suggesting that gas supersaturation
caused by dams is the limiting factor in water quality. Gas supersaturation
is not a problem in the estuary area.

B. Municipal and Industrial Waste in the Columbia River

The major dischargers to the estuary are municipal sewage treatment
plants (STP's), seafood processors, fish hatcheries and other miscellaneous

industries, including the Crown Zellerbach pulp and paper mill in Wauna

and BioProducts in Warrenton (Table 205-5). While different industries and
municipalities introduce into the water a wide variety of wastes ranging
from sewage to exotic chemicals, it is customary to show the relative im-
portance of different discharges according to the Suspended Solids and
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) released (both measured in lbs/day). The
BOD i,5 the amount of oxygen that will be consumed in 5 days incubation of
the waste at 200 C. These two measures were developed in the early days of
sanitary engineering and are, in reality, very crude. They indicate the

total amount of suspended material released and the potential for removal of

oxygen from the water, respectively. They do not give any indication of
the presence of such substances as heavy metals, pesticides and other

organics that may be harmful in minute concentrations.

Table 205-5 suggests that the Crown Zellerbach Plant at Wauna is
responsible for about 20% of the point source BOD and 35% of the point source
Suspended Solids released into the estuary, while the fish processors

205-27

Table 205-5

Municipal and Industrial Waste Loadings for
the Columbia River Estuary/

Flow BOD Suspended Solids
Source MGD lbs/day lbs/day
Municipal sTpis:
Astoria 3.3 (1000) (2100)
Tongue Pt. Job Corps Center (0-5) 125 125
Olney Elementary School ND* 0.3 0.3
Warrenton (0.6) 250' 300 -
Shoreline Sanitation District (0.05) 12 12
Cathlamet (0.05) (2.4) (7)
Ilwaco ND* ND ND
Ft. Canby State Park ND ND ND
Sub-totals 6 @@2,000 3, 000
Fish Processing Plants" Oil & Grease
Bumble Bee Seafoods lbs/day
Hawthorne Plant (0.975) ND (3898) (2,956)
Ocean Foods (0.3) ND (2620) (1,774)
Astoria Seafoods (0.45) ND (665) (18)
Bumble Bee Seafoods (1.79) (3,240) (1,240) (308)
Elmore Plant
Barbey Packing (.92) (5,153) (1,162) (274)
New England Fish Co. (0-1) ND (941) (659)
Pacific Shrimp (0.4) ND 4,330 3,363
.Alaska Packers (0.75) (3210) (3779) (2540)
Chinook Packing Co. (0.07) ND ND ND
Ilwaco Fish Co. ND ND 8,000 5,146
Kasko, Inc. ND ND ND ND
Sub-totals (6) 20,000 (32, 000) ;Z:@(20,000)

Fish Hatcheries:
Grays River 8.3 417 ND 4
Big Creek ND ND 3,340
Beaver Creek 11.0 642 2632
Gnat Creek ND ND 2,500
.Elokomin 8.4 493 ND
K-laskanine ND ND 2,200
Sub-totals - 4000 - (18,000)

Miscellaneous::
Crown zellerbach, Wauna Plant 74 5,995 21,816

BioProducts, Inc. (0.527) - -
Sub-total 74.5 @@5,T95_ 22,000

TOTAL 100 3.2, 000 ;Z-,65,000

Data taken from State of Oregon, DEQ, 1975 and State'of Washington, DOE, 1975 and Siler, D.,
Unpublished.
parentheses indicate maximum quantities set by NPDES permit and not observed quantities
ND indicates no data
Standards to take effect in mid 1977 will reduce the BOD and Suspended solids produced by
the Fish Processing Industry.
Summer loads only; winter loads are about 50% of figures listed.

205-28

are responsible for 50% of the Suspended Solids, about 60% of the BOD,

and most of the Oil and Grease. The fish hatcheries contribute about 28%

of the Suspended Solids load. The municipal wastes are not an important
source of either BOD or Suspended Solids. These figures over-estimate the
importance of the fish processors and fish hatcheries, in that the values

used are upper limits set by the NPDES permits. Fish processing is sea-
sonal and the actual discharges are probably less through much of the
year; the fish hatcheries operate at less than 50% of the above levels 9
months per year. Flows are also much lower during the dry season in the
municipal STP's, because of the absence of the storm flow. Only the
figures for the Crown Zellerbach plant are based on actual year-around
operations. It should be noted however, that this plant has reduced its
output of BOD by nearly 90% (to reach the present level of 6000 lb/day)
by installing new waste treatment facilities.

The estuary is affected not only by wastes released directly into

the estuary, but also those released upstream. The major municipal and

industrial discharges into the Columbia River below Hanford and into the

entire Willamette River Basin are shown in Tables 205-6 and 7. Many small
dischargers (e.g. fish hatcheries and small sewage treatment plants) have

been omitted from both tables. These tables were prepared from computer
outputs provided by the EPA (Siler, unpublished). It must be emphasized
that the computer files on which Tables 205-5, 205-6, and 205-7 are based
contain some erroneous material. Considerable editing and interpretation
has been required; errors are possible. The estuary is primarily affected
by dicharges released downstream from Bonneville Dam; however, major
industrial facilities have been included up to and including the Hanford
Nuclear Reservation. No municipal or canning waste discharges above
Bonneville are included in Table 205-6 because these wastes probably have
no effect on the river below Bonneville Dam.

Tables 205-6 and 205-7 present in considerable detail the BOD and

Suspended Solids loadings for the Lower Columbia River and tributaries.
This material is summarized in Table 205-8. The total BOD and Suspended

Solids loadings are both about 373,000 lb/day. About 66% of the BOD Load
(246,000 lb/day) and 43% of the Suspended Solids load (160,000 lb/day)
are provided by the municipal and industrial dischargers between Longview

and Camas.

205-29

Table 205-6

Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings for the Columbia River and T
During the Period l/l/76 to 8/31/77 (Major Dischargers Only) Pribtitarics

(a) Municipal Summary
FL40W BOD * Suspended Solids Other Important
FACILITY LOCATION RIVER MILE MGD %T)d LB/Da % %T Pollutant Released
------------- -------- ---------- ---- -------- ------ L----- ------- --------------------

Oregon:
Astoria STP Astoria 13.7 3.2 (1000) 3.0 0.4 (2100) 7.5 0.9 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Gresham STP Gresham 117.5 4.7 896 2.7 0.3 886 3.2 0.4 Bacteria; viruses
Multnomah Cty-Inverness STP Portland 113.5 1.2 (500) 1.5 0.2 (500) 1.8 0.2 Bacteria; viruses
Columbia Blvd STP Portland 105.5 76.2 14,200 42.2 5.1 16,530 58.8 7.1 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
metals
St. Helens ST? St. Helens Primarily Boise Cascade Pulp Mill effluent - See Industrial Waste Section
Oregon Sub-totals 16,600 49.3 5.9 20,000 71.2 8.6

'Nashington:
Clark Co. STP Vancouver 106.5 0.2 (500) 1.5 0.2 (500) 1.8 0.2 Bacteria; viruses
Cowlitz Co. DPW STP Longview 66.0 4.5 1,109 3.3 0.4 957 3.4 0.4 Bacteria; viruses
Longview Primary STP longview 68.1 4.2 5,i63 15.4 1.9 2,077 7.4 0.9 Bacteria; viruses
Columbia Slcpe STP Vancouver 106.5 (4.0) (1000) 3.0 0.4 (1000) 3.6 0.4 Bacteria; viruses
Westside ST? Vancouver 106.5 7.0 9,263 27.5 3.3 3,570 12.1 1.5 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Was'nington Sub-totals 77,000 50.7 -Z-.1 8,100 28.8 3.5
Municipal Subtotals 33,600 100.0 12.0 28,100 100.0 12.1
Numerous minor discharges have been omitted. All sewage plants above Bonneville dam have been omitted since thorough aeration is accomplished at each
dam spillway. Subtotals and totals have been rounded off to three significant figures.
BOD is the Biochemical Oxygen Demand after incubation at 20*C for 5 days.
it % H is the % of the total Municipal discharge@;
% I is the % of the total Industrial discharge
% T is the % of total discharges

All data provided by D. Siler, Environmental Protection A ency, Surveillance and Analysis Division, Seattle, We. (Siler, Unpublished), in the formof
Re accuracy of the reported data is highly variable.
computer summaries of reports provided by dischargers. T

Table 205-6 (Continued)

Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings for the Columbia River Below Richland
During the Period l/l/76 to 8/31/77 (Major Dischargers Only) 7'

(b) Municipal Summary

FLOW BOD Suspended Solids Other Important

Oregcn;
St. Helens STP (Boise Cascade) St. Helens 86.0 32.1 10,330 4.2 3.7 20,607 10.0 8.8 Bacteria; viruses; heat; PH
Crown Zellerbach Pulp Mill Wauna 41.2' 42.7 5,995 2.4 2.1 21,816 10.6 9.4 Zn; PH
Kaiser Gypsum Co. St. Helens 86.7 0.4 678 0.3 0.2 531 0.3 0.2 Heat
Martin Marietta Alum. The Dalles 189.0 17.0 1 0.0 0.0 723 0.4 0.3 Flouride; heat; PH; oil A grease
PGE Trojan Plant Rainier 72.8 41.4 0 0.0 0.0 8,950 4.4 3.8 Heat, PH; radioactive materials
Reichhold Chemicals, Inc. St. Helens 82.0 14.2 - - - - - - Total N; NHV PH
Reynolds Metal, Co. Troutdale 120.3 3.7 37 0.0 0.0 284 0.1 0.1 Flouride
Oregon Subtotals 17,000 6.9 6.1 52,900 25.8 22.7

Washington:
Alcoa, Inc. Vancouver 103.0 4.8 - - - 579 0.3 0.3 Heat; flouride
Boise Cascade Corp Vancouver 106.0 6.3 7,246 2.9 2.6 1,608 0.8 0.7 PH; heat
Boise Cascade Corp Wallula 317.0 6,452 2.6 2.3 7,542 3.7 3.2
Chevron C'.1em. Co. Kennewick 323.0 9.0 - - - 511 0.2 0.2 PH; heat; NH 3 ; NO3
Crown Zellerbach Pulp Mill Camas 120.7 77.2 54,819 22.3 19.6 48,346 23.6 20.7 PH; heat
Longview Fibre Co. Longview 68.1 54.9 63,850 25.9 22.8 48,690 23.7 20.9 PH; heat
Martin Marietta Alum. - - -
Cliffs 215.7 18.6 1,937 0.9 0.8 Fluoride; heat; oil and grease
Reynolds Metal Co. Longview 63.1 12.4 - 763 0.4 0.3 Cyanide, flouride; oil and grease
US ERDA Hanford Richland 350.2 (464) - - - - Heat; radioactive wastes
Wash. Pub.Power Supply-Hanford Richland 380.0 730 - Heat; radioactive wastes
Wash. Pub.Power Supply #1 Richland 351.8 (5.5) - Radioactive wastes; heavy metals
Weyerhauser-Chlorine Pit Longview 63.7 3.2 (189) 0.1 0.1 PH; Ni; Zn; PH; lead; mercury
Weyerhauser Pulp Div. Longview 63.5 72.0 87,50o 35.5 31.3 34,000 16.6 14.6 PH; heat
Weyerhauser Wood Prod. Longview 64.8 (12.8) (9,300) 3.8 3.3 (81000) 3.9 3.4 Oil and grease; phenols
Washington Sub-total 229,000 93.0 81.9 152,000 74.2 65.3
Industrial Sub-totals 246,000 100.0 88.0 205,000 100.0 87A
TOTALS 280,000. 100.0 233,000 100.0

0
Ln
I
LJ
FJ

0
Ul

Table 205-7

Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings for the Willamette River and Tributaries
During the Period l/l/76 to 8/31/77 (Major Dischargers Only)/

(a) Municipal Summary

FLOW BOD SUSPENDED SOLIDS OTHER IMPORTANT
FACILITY N LOCA 10 RIVER MILE** MGD lb/Day C, lb POLLUTANT RELEASED
---- @_n T @ - - ------------------

Albany STP Albany 119 5.3 512 2.2 0.7 402 1.8 0.4 Bacteria; viruses; canning wastes
Beaverton STP Beaverton 28.4 38.1 1.9 437 1.9 0.6 342 1.5 0.3 Bacteria; viruses; canning wastes
Clackamas County S D 1 Milwaukie 18.5 4.0 538 2.3 0.7 484 2.2 0.4 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Corvallis.STP Corvallis 131 5.4 562 2.4 0.8 976 4.5 .8 Bacteria; viruses; canning wastes
Cottage Grove STP Cottage Grove 187 22 1.3 299 1.3 0.4 248 1.1 0.2 Bacteria; viruses; canning wastes
Eugene STP & WTP Eugene 178 16.8 6587 29.1 9.7 4025 18.6 3.5 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Fillsboro (01) West Side STP Hillsboro 28.4 37 1.6 148 0.6 0.2 102 0.8 0.1 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Independence STP Independence 95.3 1 0.5 481 2.1 0.7 437 2.0 0.4 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Lebanon STP Lebanon 109 11.7 1.8 297 1.3 0.4 139 0.6 0.1 Bacteria; viruses; PH
McMinnville STP 0.3 172 0.7
McMinnville 54.9 11.2 2.6 221 0.9 0.1 Bacteria; viruses;
Oak Lodge Sanitary District Milwauk 20.1 20.6 237 1.2 0.4 264 1.2 0.2 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Oregon City STIP Oregon City 25.2 2.7 368 1.6 0.5 488 2.2 0.5 Bacteria; viruses;
Portland " Tryon Creek STP Portland 20.3 5.1 655 2.9 0.9 748 3.4 0.6 Bacteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Salem -'Willow Lake STP Salem 78.2 17.2 6001 26.5 8.8 5948 27.6 5.1 Bacteria; viruses; canning wastes
Springfield STP Springfield 184.3 7.6 1651 7.3 2.4 1706 7.9 1.5 Bacteria; viruses
Aloha STP Aloha 28.4 / 38.1 4.5 234 1.0 0.3 257 1.1 0.2 Bacteria; viruses
Durham STP Durham 28.4 / 9.5 6.5 313 1.3 0.4 351 1.6 0.3 B'acteria; viruses; industrial wastes
Fanno Creek STP Beaverton 28.4 / 9.4 3.9 688 3.0 1.0 1324 6.1 1.1 Bacteria; viruses
Metzger STP Hillsboro 28.4 / 9.4 2.6 503 2.2 0.7 715 3.3 0.6 Bacteria; viruses
Tiqard STP Tigard 28.4 9.4 1.4 156 0.6 0.2 296 1.3 0.3 Bacteria; viruses
Woodburn ST? Woodburn 35.7 .8 1.0 377 1.6 0.5 555 2.5 0.5 Bacteria; viruses; pH
4 21,400 -.2 17.2
Sub-totals 21,200 2 7 37o-.

Percentages do not add to 100%, and BOD and Suspended Solids do not add to totals shown because numerous minor dischargers have been omitted.
BOD is the Biochemical Oxygen Demand after incubation at 20*C for 5 days.
)A %M is the % of total Municipal dischargers
%I is the % of total Industrial discharges
%T is the % of total dischargers
28.4/38.1 indicates that source enters at tributary River Mile (RH) 38.1 and that the tributary enters the Willamette River at RM 28.4
All data provided by D. Siler, Environmental Protection Agency, Surveillance & Analysis Division, Seattle, Wa. (Siler, unpublished), in the
form of summaries of reportsprovided by dischargers. The accuracy of the reported data is highly variable.

Table 205-7 (Continued)

Percent Contribution to Waste Loadings for the Willamette River and Tributaries
During the Period l/l/76 to 8/31/77 (major Dischargers Only)

(b) Industrial Summary

FLOW BOD SUSPENDED SOLIDS OTHER IMPORTANT
P2@LUIMT REI!EMED

American Can Company Halsey 147.2 12.8 1556 3.4 2.2 2761 3.6 2.4
Boise Cascade Corporation Salem 84.2 15.8 6478 14.2 9.5 8977 11.9 7.7
Crown Zellerbach Corporation West Linn 26.4 9.8 2478 5.4 3.6 4377 5.8 3.8 PH
Crown Zellerbach Corporation Lebanon 109 / 11.7 3.3 2683 5.9 3.9 2485 3.3 2.1 Heat
Evans Products Company Corvallis 132.2 0.9 2726 6.0 4.0 2689 3.6 2.3 pH; heat
Oregon Metallurgical Corp. Albany 119.5 3.6 735 -- -- 123 0.2 0.1 Fluoride; chloride; metals; Cd;
oil ahd grease
Oregon Steel Mills - Rivergate Portland 1.7 10.9 3100 4.1 2.7 PH; heat
Pennwalt Corporation Portland 7.4 23.1 2080 2.B 1.8 Lead; chromium; zinc; ammonia; PH
heat
Portland Willamette Company Portland 101.5 9.7 0.01 0 0.0 0.0 Nickel; chromium; cyanide
Publishers Paper Company Newberg so 24.8 10493 23.1 15.4 13787 18.3 11.8 Zinc
Publishers Paper Company Oregon City 27.5 12.0 7541 16.6 11.1 8822 11.7 7.6 Zinc
Rhodia, Incorporated Po'rtland 7 0.05 952 2.1 1.4 1016 1.4 0.9 Phenolics; herbicides; pH; heat
Tektronix Inc. Beaverton 28.4 38.1 0.4 -- -- -- -- -- -- Chromium; ammonia; total metals;
cyanide; pH
Teledyne Wah Chang Albany 118.9 2 1.8 -- -- -- 221 0.3 0.2 Metals; ammonia; organics; radioacw-
tive wastes
Western Kraft Corporation Albany 116.5 8.2 2505 5.5 3.6 5365 7.1 4.6 Heat
Weyerhaeuser Co. Springfield 174.8 14.7 36.8 7868 17.3 11.5 19213 25.5 16.4 Heat; pH
Sub-total 45,300 T9.5 T6.2 7T200 T9.6 64.4

TOTALS 70,200 96.6 117,000 81.5

Ln
I
W
W

Lil

Table 205-8

summary of Municipal and Industrial Loadings Based on
Tables 205-5, 205-6, and 205-7

Municipal Loadings Total Industrial Loadings Timber Products Industry Loadings

BOD Suspended Solids BOD Suspended ' solids BOD Suspended Solids
lb/day %1_1 %T lb/day %M %T lb/day %I %T lb/day %I %T lb/day %I %T lb/day %I %T

Lower Columbia River
above Estuary
Oregon* 16,000 27.2 4.2 17,900 34.1 4.8 11,000 3.5 3.0 31,01)0 9.7 8.3 11,000 3.5 3.0 21,100 6.6 5.7
Washington 17,000 29.8 4.6 8,100 15.4 2.2 229,000 72.6 61.4 152,000 47.5 40.8 229,ooo 72.6 61.4 148,000 46.2 39.7
'Estuary Area =1,700 3.0 0.5 ::Z:;3,000 5.7 0.8 2%30,000 9.5 8.0 !Z:@62,000 19.3 16.6 6,000 1.9 1.6 21,800 6.8 5.8

Willamette River 22,900 39.9 6.1 23,500 44.7 6.3 45,300 14.4 12.2 75,200 23.5 20.2 44,400 14.1 11.9 69,600 21.7 18.7

Sub-totals 57,100 100.0 15.3 52,500 100.0 14.1 316,000 100.0 84.7 320,000 100.0 85.9 290,000 92.1 78.0 261,000 81.4 69.9

Total BOD: 373,000 lb/day
Total Suspended Solids: 373, 000 lb/day

*Oregon Municipal and Industrial loadings from Table 205-6 adjusted to avoid duplication of loadings also included in Table 205-5.

The Willamette River is the next most important source; it provides
about 15-@-1/2% of the BOD load (58,000 lb/day) ana @6-1/2% of the Suspend-

ed Solids load (98,000 lb/day). The Willamette River is much smaller than

the Columbia River; therefore, BOD has been more critical there, and better

data are available. It is known, for example, that there is another
27,000 lb/day of BOD in Portland Harbor that cannot be attributed to any

known point or non-point sources. Some of this load is probably attribut-

able to bottom sediments, but it appears likely that there are some unre-
gulated discharges into the Harbor. The Willamette River is still the best
local example of how a river can be cleared up if discharges are carefully

managed.

According to Table 205-8, the estuary area is the third greatest

supplier of BOD (32,000 lb/day or 8.6%) and Suspended Solids (65,000 lb/day
or 17.4%). However, estuary loadings .@Table 205-5) are based on permitted
values rather than actual discharges, and many minor facilities such as

fish hatcheries are included in Table 205-5 that are not included in Tables

205-6 and 205-7. The net effect is to exaggerate the estuary loadings.
Basin wide, it is clear from Table 205-8 that the timber products
industry is the major contributor of both BOD (290,000 lb/day or 78%) and
Suspended Solids (260,000 lb/day or 81%). The timber products industry in
Washington (between Camas and Longview) alone contributes about 60% of the

point source BOD load (223,000 lb/day) for the entire basin. It should be
emphasized again that the point source BOD and Suspended Solids problem are
not the largest water quality problems in the Columbia River; they are how-
ever, the best documented and most easily regulated. Non-point sources of
BOD are probably more important than the point sources, and the point source
contribution to the total yearly suspended solids load of about 6 million
tons (Section 208.3) is rather minor (about 68,000 tons/year or 1.1%).
The data provided by EPA (Siler, Unpublished) , DOE (1975) and DEQ
(1976) and summarized in Tables 205-6 and 205-7 suggest that the impact of
point sources is greater in other areas: the heat budget, radioactive
contaminants, heavy metals and miscellaneous organic chemicals (including
herbicides and pesticides). The nuclear plants, the aluminum industry, and
the timber products industry contribute to undesirably high stream tempera-
tures, but solar heating of storage ponds behind dams provides even More heat.

205-35

The nuclear Industry (The Hanford Nuclear Reservation, the Washington
Public Power Supply facilities, the Portland General Electric Trojan Plant

and Teledyne Wah Chang) are the major sources of radioactive material.
Hanford was the major source of radioactive material still found in Columbia
River sediments, though the reactors responsible for the bulk of this
material are no longer active. Present day discharges of radioactive mate-

rial are much smaller than those during the period 1945-1970.
Toxic metals such as mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd) and
lead (Pb) are released by a number plants in the metal plating.and fabrica-

tion industries (Oregon Metallurgical Corp, Oregon Steel Mills, Portland

Willamette Co., and Teledyne Wah Chang) and chemical industry (Pennwatt
Corp.). Teledyne Wah Chang merits special mention because of thelarge

number of unusual, radioactive and/or toxic materials used, the classified

nature of the processing and the controversy over its discharges. Urban
storm runoff and other non-point discharges are also important sources of

metals. Teledyne Wah Chang, and Tektronix, Inc. on the Willamette River

and Reichold Chemicals Co. and Chevron Chemical Corp. on the Columbia River

release large amounts of nitrates and ammonia (NO- and NH ). Rhodia, Inc.
3 3
produces herbicides, Teledyne Wah Chang and probably several other firms
release toxic organic compounds. In some instances at least, these indus-

trial wastes are not adequately characterized, and with the possible except-

ion of radioactive materials, the impacts of the numerous chemicals mentioned
above on the Columbia River and estuary are simply not known. It is almost
certain that non-point discharges are a far more important source of herbi-
cides and pesticides than are the point sources. Furthermore, no compre-

hensive summary of the industrial discharges into municipal sewer systems

exists. Thus, our knowledge of pollutants released in the Columbia River

remains crude.

In summary, the Columbia River has not experienced the extremely severe

water quality problems that have plagued other rivers in this country, both

because of its large river flow and because of the relatively low population

density in much of its drainage basin. Industrial and non-point source
water quality problems are present and should not be ignored. These include

tributary siltation, over-allocation of tributary and main stem flows, non-
point source pollution, gas supersaturation, overheating, BOD loadings, and

the introduction of toxic substances including: metals, biocides, radioactive

materials, and miscellaneous organic chemicals.

205-36

205.4 REFERENCES

A. Conomos, T.J., M.G. Gross, C.A. Barnes and F.A. Richards. 1972.
"River-Ocean Suspended Particulate Matter Relations in Summer."
IN The Columbia River Estuary and Adjacent Ocean Waters
Bioenvironmental Studies. (A.T. Pruter and D.L. Alverson, ed.@.)
University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington. pp.176-202.
The distribution, concentration, production, consumption and
diffusion of inorganic and organic particulate matter originating
in the Columbia River, the estuary and coastal ocean are described
on the basis of field studies. Excellent illustration

B. Conomos, T.J., and M.G. Gross. 1972. "River-ocean Nutrient
Relations in Summer." IN The Columbia River Estuary and Adjacent
Ocean Waters Bioenvironmental Studies. (A.T. Pruter and
D.L. Alverson, ed.). University of Washington Press, Seattle,
Washington. pp.151-175.
The physical processes governing the mixing of river and ocean
water during the upwelling season are described using T-S diagrams.
The distribution of nutrients is explained in terms of physical
processes and biological activity. Excellent illustrations

C. Haertel, L., and C. Osterberg. 1967. "Ecology of Zooplankton,
Benthos and Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary." Ecology
43:459-472.

Fauna of the Columbia River estuary were sampled over a 21
month period. The largest numbers of fish and benthic invertebrates
occupy the slightly brackish water of the central part of the estuary;
the major plankton blooms also occur in this area. Some species use
the upper estuary as a nursery ground.

D. Haertel, L., C. Osterberg, H. Curl, P.K. Park. 1969. "Nutrient and
Plankton Ecology of the Columbia River Estuary." Ecology 50(6):962-,978.
Monthly samples of nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton
were taken in the Columbia River estuary over a period of 16 months
in order to determine distribution with season and salinity, and
interrelationships between plankton and nutrients. The estuarine
phytoplankton are composed primarily of freshwater species. The zoo-
plankton are composed of estuarine, fresh and marine species.

E. Park, P.K., C.L. Osterberg, and W.L. Forster. 1972. "Chemical
Budget of the Columbia River." IN The Columbia River Estuary and
Adjacent ocean Waters. University of Washington Press, Seattle,
Washington. pp.123-134.
The input of nutrients, dissolved oxygen and other dissolved
substances to the ocean from the Columbia River for the years 1966
and 1967 is calculated on the basis of data collected in the estuary.
Readable.

205-37

F. Park, P.K., M. Catalfomo, G.R. Webster and B.H. Reid. 1970.
"Nutrients and Carbon Dioxide in the Columbia River." Limnol.
Oceanoqr. 15:70-79.
Nitrate, phosphate,-silicate, alkalinity and carbon dioxide
budgets were calculated for the Columbia River on-the basis of
data collected at Clatskanie. Nutrient ratios and calcite
saturation in the river are discussed.

G. Siler, D. Unpublished. Average Loadings: Intermediate Summ, ary
and Percent Contribution of Loadings for the Lower Columbia River
and Willamette River Basin (computer printouts). Environmental
Protection Agency, Surveillance and Analysis Division, Water
Surveillance Branch, Seattle, Washington.

H. State of Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality. 1976.
Proposed Water Quality Basin Plan. Salem, Oregon.

1. North Coast-Lower Columbia River Basin, text 46pp.
appendices, various paginations.
2. Willamette River Basin, text 57pp., appendices,
various paginations.
3. Sandy River Basin, text 49pp., appendices, various
paginations.

The basin plans show the major industrial dischargers in each
basin. Loadings allowed for each discharger are given. Water
quality problems and needs are discussed for each basin.

I. State of Washington, Department of Ecology. 1975. 303(e) Water
Quality Management Plan. Olympia, Washington.
1. Water Resource Ihventory Area 24. Willapa Basin, 128pp.
2. Water Resource Inventory Area 25, 26. Cowlitz-Wahkiakum
Basin, 149pp.
3. Water Resource Inventory Area 27,28,29,30,31. Lewis and
Middle Columbia River Basins, 201pp.
The basin plans show the major municipal and industrial dis-
chargers in each basin, and in some instances, the loadings allowed
for each discharger. Water quality data for each river segment are
given, along with a discussion of water quality problems.

205-38

0 0 0

@
I FLUSHING
C)
@ lu @@I--o CHARACTERISTICS

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICTS

David Jay
James W. Good

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

206 FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS .................................. 206-1
206.1 FACTORS GOVERNING ESTUARINE FLUSHING ...................... 206-1
A. Characteristics of the Estuary ............................ 206-2
B. Pollutant Source and Properties ........................... 206-2
206.2 FLUSHING AND POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION ....................... 206-3
206.3 FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNGS BAY AND ITS
TRIBUTARIES ............................................. 206-8
206.4 REFERENCES ................................................ 206-11

FIGURES

206-1 Calculated Flushing Time in Semi-Diurnal Tidal
Cycles (Low Flow) ....................................... 206-4*
206-2 Pollutant Distribution - South Channel .................... 206-6
206-3 Pollutant Distribution - North Channel .................... 206-6
206-4 Pollutant Distribution - Entire Estuary ................... 206-7
206-5 Predicted Flushing Time Sub-Areas of Young Bay .......... 206-10

TABLES

206-1 Predicted Flushing Times Main Body of Estuary ........... 206-4
206-2 Predicted Flushing Times Sub-Areas of Youngs Bay ........ 206-9

206 FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS

Tidal currents and river flow generate complex circulation patterns
throughout the estuary and distribute natural substances (nutrients,
drift debris, plants and animals), as well as introduced pollutants
(sewage, industrial and fish processing waste, etc.-). Because of its
strong circulation and extensive wetlands, the Columbia River estuary
has considerable ability to assimilate certain wastes. Some wastes are
consumed by plants and algae in the primary production process, others
are oxidized by bacteria or by contact with the air, and still others

are diluted and washed out to sea. Waste disposal is thus one of the
beneficial properties of estuaries.
Preservation of the rich biological resources of the estuary
requires knowledge of how much and what type of waste material can be
assimilated. Overloading the system can degrade or eliminate its

ability to assimilate waste. This section then, focuses on the ability
of the estuary to dilute wastes so that they will not reach harmful

concentrations.

To determine the ability of an estuary to absorb reasonable
levels of pollutants, it is first necessary to know the rate at which
it flushes or exchanges water with the open sea. An estuary's flushing
ability is measured in terms of flushing time. The flushing time is
defined by Neal (1965) as "the average time required for the river
water, with its contained pollution, to move through the surveyed area."
Flushing time is normally estimated in tidal cycles (12 hours 25 minutes

per cycle), since the ebb and flow of the tide partially govern the

flushing process.

206.1 FACTORS GOVERNING ESTUARINE FLUSHING

Flushing is not a constant, simple process. It depends on the
complex interaction of many factors operating in the estuary. The calcu-
lation of flushing time is based on certain definite assumptions. It
is a physical property that can be predicted for the estuary, its bays
and tributary streams. As such, flushing times are useful (in a general
,7-=y) for comparing one estuary to another, or different parts of a

single estuary. For example, one would not place a sewage outfall in a
poorly flushed area of an estuary. The 'physical characteristics of an
estuary, the source of a pollutant and its physical, chemical and biologi-

cal properties are important when considering flushing and are discussed

here.

A. Characteristics of the Estuary
Physical factors which control flushing of an estuary include
(1) freshwater discharge (the primary controlling factor for flushing
of the Columbia River estuary), (2)'tidal range (measured in feet between
Hi gh and Low Water marks) and average tidal level during,each tidal
cycle, (3) the vertical differences in salinity and currents and the
resulting vertical mixing and (4) wind and wave action. When making
flushing predictions, these factors are simplified. Though not
discussed here, several methods may be used to make predictions. Each

has its advantages and disadvantages.

B. Pollutant Source and'Properties
The calculation of flushing time also requires assumptions about
the character of the pollutant-. To understand the significance of a
flushing time calculation, it is necessary to know w hat assumptions were

made with regard to:
1. Timing of Introduction--Pollutants are usually introduced

in one of three ways:

- A one-time introduction, as in the case of an oil spill,
- An-intermittent introduction,.as. in the case of pesticides,

which run off of.farmlands after heavy rainfall, and

- Continuous input, as from an industrial or municipal outfall;

2. Source--A pollutant source may be from a single location
called a "point-source," or from a dispersed area known as.a "non-
point-source." Introduction may be directly into the estuary or from
an upriver or tributary source;

3. Physical Properties--Such-properties as the density,
solubility and size (if the material is suspension) of a pollutant are
extremely important in determining its behavior; and

4. Biological and Chemical Properties--Pollutants are classified

according to the interactions with a body of water and the biological and
chemical processes occurring there. A substance whose concentration is

206-2

affected only by simple mixing of water masses is known as "conservative."

Conservative substances include salt, some detergents and heat (ignoring
air-sea interactions). Examples of non-conserv ative substances include
dissolved oxygen (produced by photosynthesis, consumed by respiration)
and nutrients (consumed by plants).

206.2 FLUSHING AND POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION
While some information on flushing times and pollution
distribution exists for the Columbia River estuary, it is important to
realize that these values are only predictions; and that results differ,
depending on the prediction technique used. Verification of flushing

predictions through actual field study of the estuary has been
impossible, due to cost and technical limitations. Because of recent
advances in computer modeling of estuaries, better flushing predictions
can be made. However, there are not enough data available for the
Columbia River to merit any extensive computer modeling.
The Columbia River estuary, because of its great discharge of
freshwater, is, in general, extremely well-flushed. Various combinations
of tides and river flows may cause flushing times to vary from as low
as two tidal cycles, to as high as ten (about 1-5 days). These are
rather low flushing times, compared to other estuaries. For example,
New York harbor takes from 6-10 days to flush. In some portions of the
estuary, however, water is exchanged with the sea less rapidly than in

others. For example, the poor flushing time exhibited by the lower
Skipanon River would have led to a buildup of fluoride pollutant in
that area during periods of low river flow, which would have been lethal

for some aquatic life, had an aluminum reduction plant been constructed

at Warrenton. The potential also exists for harmful pollutant buildup

in other areas, such as backwater sloughs, low discharge tributaries

and poorly circulating zones of the estuary-
Table 206-1 shows predicted flushing times for the main body of
the estuary in tabular and graphic forms. During low river flow typi-
cal in September and October (120,000 cfs), flushing time is nearly
five days (nine tidal cycles, Table 206-1). At moderate flows of about
380,000 cfs, the flushing time is about 4.4 tidal cycles (2 days 7 hours).

206-3

TABLE 206-1

PREDICTED FLUSHING TIMES FOR COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY l/

POLLUTANT LOAD BUILDUP 2/
TIDAL FLUSHING TIME AFTER MANY TIDAL CYCLES-
RIVER FLOW RANGE (in s6mi-diurnal (amount x load introduced
(cubic feet/second) (in feet) tidal cycles) per tidal cycley

123,000 .6.5 9.9 8.0
8.0 9.1

153,000 6.5 8.6 7.6
8.0 8.7

169,000 6.5 8.2 7.2
8.0 7.8

382,000 6.5 4.4 3.5
8.0 4.3

l/ Flushing times are averages, calculated by the modified-tidal prism
method. Calculations are based on the indicated tidal range. One
tidal cycle equals 12 hours, 25 minutes.

2/ After many tidal cycles and with a continuous, constant input of

pollutants carried by river flow, the amount of pollutant in the

estuary will be equal to some value (shown in Column 3) times the

load introduced per tidal cycle. This does not refer to concentration

at any location, but only the total amount in the entire estuary.

From: Neal, 1965

206-4

124- 50 123-45 @0@

101 0 4

.5 CYCLES
S
"\,3 3 CYCLE

101

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

The calculation methods are not adaptable to the very high flows
is (600,000 cfs), typical of the spring freshet. At these high flow levels,
the flushing time is probably less than two days (four tidal cycles).
The third column in Table 206-1 shows the buildup of a continuously
introduced pollutant after many tidal cycles. For example, if during
each tidal cycle 1,000,000 gallons of a conservative pollutant were
introduced to the estuary (with a river flow of 200,000 cubic feet per
second), the constant amount of that pollutant present in the estuary
would be approximately 7,000,000 gallons. Flushing would prevent
greater buildup. The waste would be widely distributed by currents and
mixing, and it would be more concentrated in some locations than others.
Flushing times for three subsections of the estuary are shown in Figure
206-1. The flushing time for a pollutant released at any point is the
sum of flushing time for segments downstreams from the release site.
Some very simple flushing tests have been run v@ith the Corps of
Engineers physical model of the estuary. These involved one-time-only

releases of pollutant, rather than the continuous release that the

above flushing time calculations assumed. The releases were made at

RM 47 (above Puget Island), at peak ebb and peak flood for freshwater

flows of 200,000 and 600,000 cfs. Concentrations were observed for

the ebb tide case and then for the flood tide case. Between 4 and 8

semi-diurnal tidal cycles (about 2-4 days) were required to flush the
pollutant out of the estuary under high runoff (600,000 cfs) conditions,
while between 12 and 16 tidal cycles (about 6-8 days) were required

under low flow conditions (200,000 cfs).
Figures 206-2, 206-3 and 206-4 show how a pollutant continuously
introduced into the estuary at specific points is distributed under
equilibrium conditions (after many tidal cycles). The relative
concentration from one area to the next usually decreases, as you go

up or downriver from the point of introduction. Such is not the case,

however, with the hypothetical outfall located in the north channel at
RM 9 (Figure 206-3), where upstream concentrations will be higher than

those at the outfall or downstream. This is probably due to the strong

flood and weaker ebb currents along the north channel in that area, but
0 it may be an artifact of the model. On the other hand, the absolute

206-5

0
ON Figure 206-2 Predicted Pollutant Figure .206-3 Predicted Pollutant
I
01 Distribution South Channel Distribution North Channel

4oo

300 0

0
0 Outfall 15 nautical miles from mouth
--------- Outfall 11 nautical miles from mouth C:
z ',-@Outfall 13 nautical
Imiles from mouth
60

0 200 0 6
0
0.

rt
rt Outfall 9 nautical
0 0 30
@j miles from mouth

]Do

7-6, 0 L-0
11 5 10 15 20
1 5 10 15 Distance from the mouth (nautical miles)
Distance from the mouth (nautical miles)

Pollution distribution for the south channel Distribution of a conservative pollutant calculated for the
calculated by a mathemetical model for fresh north channel using a mathematical model. Outfalls are lo-
water flow of 123,000 cfs. Outfalls are lo- cated at 9 and 13 nautical miles from the mouth. Fresh water
cated at RM 11 and 15. flow is 123,000 cfs.

From: Neal, 1965
m

Figure 206-4 Predicted Pollutant Distribution - Entire Estuary

30 Conservative Pollutant
100 :1
Non-conservative
rt M Pollutant; half-life
6 days

10 rt
0 20 0

rt, rt

H. Ct Q
rf," <
U) 0)
rt
0 10

0
5 10 15 20
Figure 206-4 Distance from the mouth (nautical miles)

Distribution of pollutants predicted by a mathematical model for continuous release at each one of
three outfalls of a conservative pollutant and a pollutant which decays with a half-life of about six
days. The pollutant that decays might be a radioactive contaminent or it could be a nutrient used by
0
ON plankton, for example. The freshwater flow is 123,000 cfs.

concentration of pollutant is higher in the south channel (Figure 206-2)
by a factor of about two. These two factors represent a considerable
dilemma, with important implications for the locatiQn of any major out-

fall in the estuary. Without further tests, it is unclear whether it
is preferable to locate any major new outfalls on the north or south

channel. Such knowledge is needed to determine the best sites for

industry.

206.3 FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNGS BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES

Thus far, flushing time has been discussed as a property of the
main body of the estuary. Flushing times may also be calculated for

estuary tributaries. In fact, this more detailed knowledge is often
needed in the planning process. For example, outfalls should be located

where river currents and ebb tidal flows are strong (areas that are

well-flushed). Knowledge of flushing characteristics is also important
in the siting and design of marinas, which often experience flushing

problems. Furthermore, areas that are naturally poorly-flushed are

often areas of high biological productivity, if they are not overwhelmed
by pollutants. Finally, physical alterations such as dredging, filling
and channelization of flow may strongly affect flushing characteristics
of localized areas, even if the characteristics of the estuary as a

whole are not affected.. These localized effects should be evaluated.

Localized flushing data are available only for Youngs Bay.and
its tributaries. Table 206-2 and Figure 206-5 show predicted flushing

times for several sub-areas of the Youngs Bay drainage system to the
main channel of the river outside the bay, depending on the actual river
flow and tidal range. Flushing time varies from about one day (Youngs
Bay - 1.9 tidal cycles) to 18 days (lower Skipanon River - 37.6 tidal
cycles). Flushing the pollutant out the Columbia River would then take
another 1 to 4 tidal cycles, depending on the flow conditions. Flushing
time prediction6 have not been made for other sub-areas of the estuary,
including Baker Bay, Grays Bay or Cathlamet Bay. Baker Bay, however,

is probably not so well-flushed as the Youngs Bay area, because it lacks
freshwater inflow from tributaries; however, no supporting information is

available.

206-8

TABLE 206-2

PREDICTED FLUSHING TIMES FOR YOUNGS BAY DRAINAGE SYSTEM

RIVER FLOW FLUSHING TIME
(cubic feet TIDAL RANGE (in semi-diurnal
AREA per second) (in feet) tidal cycles)

Youngs Bay 785 8.0 1.9
(area between
3 bridges) 24 6.0 2.7

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Youngs River 560 8.0 6.3

12 6.0 17.7

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lewis & 225 8.0 7.2
Clark River
12 6.0 18.6
------------------ 7 -------------------------------
Skipanon River 50 8.0 10.4
(downstream of
tideqate) 1.6 4.0 37.6

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Skipanon River 2/
(upstream of 50 3.5 12.1
tidegate) 5 3.5 45.0

l/ Predicted flushing times derived from Alumax study of physical
characteristics of Youngs Bay (OSU Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975).
One tidal cycle equals 12 hours and 25 minutes. All flushing times
represent the average time required to flush a pollutant from the
area indicated to the main channel of the Columbia River. A further 1
to 4 tidal cycles, depending on the fresh water flow, is required to
flush the pollutant out of the river to the ocean.

2/ The tide range is governed by the tidegate and riverf low. The upper
Skipanon River flushes much more rapidly when the tidegate is open
during the winter.

206-9

FIGURE 206-5 Flushing Time in Tidal Cycles of Youngs Bay and
Tributaries for high and low flows as calculated by a
mathematical model. High and low freshwater flows for
each tributary are given in Table 206-2.

YOUNGS BAY
LOWER SKIPANON High Flow 1.9
High Flow lo.4 ow Flow 2.7
Low Plow 37.6
YOUNGS RIVER
High Flow 6.3
Low Flow 17.7

UPPER SKIPANON
High Flow 12.1
Low F I ow 45.

LE IS & CLARK RIVER
High Flow 7.2
w Flow 118.6

From: O.S.U. Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

206-10

206 .4 REFERENCES

A. Neal, Victor T. 1965. A Calculation of Flushing Times and Pollution
Distribution for the Columbia River Estuary. Ph.D. Dissertation.
School of Oceanography, Oregon State University. 82pp.
This is the best general reference for flushing characteristics
of the Columbia River estuary. It also has an excellent description
of the other physical characteristics. Three different methods of
predicting flushing times are compared.

B. Oregon State Ocean Engineering Program
teristics of the Youngs Bay Estuarine Environs. Final report to
Alumax Pacific Aluminum Corporation. Ocean Engineering Programst
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 310pp.
This publication describes the principles, methods used to
calculate flushing times for Youngs Bay and its tributaries.

C. Simmons, Henry. 1971. "The Potential of Physical Model to Investi-
gate Estuarine Water Quality Problems." IN Proceedings: 1971
Technical Conferences on Estuaries of the Pacific Northwest. Cir-
cular 42. Engineering Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon. pp.4-28.
This article briefly discusses some flushing tests the Corps
of Engineers conducted using the physical model of the Columbia
River estuary.

206-11

0 0 6

@@ in, ESTUARY PHYSICAL
- 11 7 CIRCULATION MODELS

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

PHYSICAL CIRCULATION MODELS

David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

207 ESTUARY PHYSICAL CIRCULATION MODELS .................... 207-1
207.1 TYPES OF MODELS ........................................ 207-1
207.2 MODELS OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY ................... 207-4
A. The Corps of Engineers Hydraulic Model ................. 207-4
B. Federal Water Pollution Control ........................ 207-5
Administration Computer Model
C. Other Mathematical Models .............................. 207-7
207.3 REFERENCES ............................................. 207-9

FIGURES

207-1 Columbia River Physical Model .......................... 207-6
Vicksburg, Miss.
207-2 Columbia River Computer Model .......................... 207-8

207 ESTUARY PHYSICAL CIRCULATION MODELS

A comprehensive study considering all aspects of the physical
circulation of the Columbia River Estuary would be both nearly impossible

and prohibitively expensive, because of the size and the many.natural and
man-influenced sources of variability in the estuary. For example, a
detailed circulation study might require measurement of currents and

salinity at 60 or more stations. Such measurements must reflect short-

term, seasonal and year-to-year variability caused by factors such as the

tides, winds and freshwater flow and be taken simultaneously at as many
locations as possible. Such a study would still not exhaust the range of

flow characteristics that actually occur in the river.

Consequently, scientists and planners use models. Estuarine modeling

serves a number of purposes: first, it simplifies problems by limiting
variables to a reasonable number; second, it allows systematic variation of
important parameters over naturally occuring ranges without extensive field
data collection; third, it reduces the time, manpower and money required to
take measurements; and finally, it allows prediction (to a limited degree)

of the results of natural and man-made changes in the estuary.

Before a model can be used to predict the effects of changes in the
estuary, it must be verified; that is, the model must be adjusted or tuned,
so that it reproduces a variety of existing conditions. The existence of an

estuary model does not eliminate the need for field data collection, but the

data needed is usually much less and the understanding achieved much greater
than if analyses are made without such a model.

It must be realized that most models of an entire estuary are

greatly simplified and are not intended to produce either highly accurate

or detailed predictions for specific areas. They are best used to provide
a general understanding of an estuary and the way it functions under differ-
ent wind, tide and runoff conditions; this is precisely the kind of under-
standing that is most difficult to achieve through analysis of a field data.
In some instances, models of a small part of an estuary may be constructed

on a larger scale, to provide detailed information about a limited area.

207.1 TYPES OF MODELS

The kind of model selected is determined by what is to be modeled.
A number of modeling approaches exist for physical circulation and sediment

transport, and some modeling has been done on fish and plankton populations

and water quality parameters such as nutrients, dissolved oxygen and
bio-chemical oxygen demand, but none has been done in the Columbia River.

Models of physical circulation'and sediment transport are of primary

interest here.

There are three basic kinds of physical circulation models:

electrical, physical and mathematical. In an electrical model, electrical

current flowing through a wire is used to model water flowing in a channel.

Electrical models are useful in -simulating tidal flows in a complicated
network of channels, but they cannot easily be used to reproduce the effects
of salinity intrusion, winds, and vertical and cross-channel variations in
current speeds. Consequently, such models have not been used in the

Columbia River estuary.

Physical models are simply small-scale versions of the real estuary

or prototype. They can be used to model physical circulation, sediment

transport, the handling of ships and the effects of physical alterations
such as jetties or deeper channels. They do not usually reproduce temperature

and wind effects, or the coriolis force (the effect of the earth's rotation

about its axis). The most fundamental problem with physical models, however,
is that the relationships among the forces driving the physical circulation
become distorted. Some forces, such as those related to surface slope of

the water, are reduced in proportion to the scale of the model.
Others, such as the coriolis force and the viscous (frictional) properties
of water are not. In a physical model, it is impossible to accurately model
the mixing of salt and freshwater or the distribution of a pollutant, even
if all the velocities are accurately scaled.
There is a bewildering variety of mathematical models available. While

the usefulness of any mathematical model may be restricted to a few problems,
the variety of available approaches makes this the most versatile type' of
modeling. Mathematical models may be used to examine physical circulation,

populations, the effects of physical alterations, sediment transport, and

many other aspects of estuaries.

Analytical and computer modeling are the two fundamental kinds of

mathematical models. An analytical model has a set of mathematical equations
that are solved exactly, using the standard methods of calculus and

differential equations. This is a "pencil and paper" approach to modeling
that is extremely useful to the scientist, in that it improves theoretical

207-2

understanding of the forces working in an estuary. Generally speaking,
analytical models cannot take into account the complexities of the geometry
of a real estuary. For this, a computer model is necessary. It is common,

however, to use a less-detailed analytical model to determine what computer

modeling approach is best to get detailed answers. Computer models then,

are the type of mathematical models normally encountered by planners.
A computer model is similar to an analytical model in that it begins
with a set of equations that are to be solved by the computer. Because
computers are so much faster than hand calculations, much larger and more
complicated systems may be considered. Jt is necessary, however, to incorpo-

rate into the model all that is known of the fundamental forces at work in

an area. The computer cannot do the thinking for us. What it can do is
provide numerical solutions where analytical solutions cannot be found and

tarry out huge numbers of calculations in..a short period of time.

Estuaries are extremely complex bodies and the equations of motion

that govern physical circulation and pollutant transport.are notoiiously
difficult to solve. Even the largest computers are too small and too slow
to solve the full equations of motion and apply them to any real estuary
(at a useful level of detail). Therefore, simplifications are necessary,

and it is customary to classify models according to the simplifications used.

Assumptions concerning time dependence and the number of physical dimensions

modeled are usually made. Currents, salinity, pollutant concentrations, etc.

vary in an.estuary over time and in all three spatial dimensions: length,
width and depth. A model may be simplified by ignoring one or more of these
dimensions. The most common simplifications are: averaging out the tidal
fluctuations or all the time variation (a steady-state model); ignoring the.
cross-channel variations (two-dimensional model); ignoring both the cross-
channel and vertical variations (one-dimensional model); and/or keeping the
density (and thus salinity) constant. It is almost always necessary to
simplify the geometry of the estuary. The effects of wind, waves and runoff
from smaller tributaries are also often ignored. The kind of information
and level of detail needed, determine what model is appropriate for any given
problem. Generally speaking, the Columbia River is highly variable in time
and all three spatial directions; in addition, wind, waves, salinity
variations and tributary flow are all important.
Computer models were first introduced so that the problems of physical
0 models might be avoided. The advantage of computer modeling is.in the'

207-3

variety of questions that can be answered, the level of detail that can

be achieved, the small amount of space needed and, to some extent, the

theoretical understanding that can be obtained. Such models do have a

number of faults. The amount of data needed for verification is just as

great with the physical models. Although the distortion of the driving

forces that occurs with physical models is avoided, these same forces must

be approximated by adjustable parameters; these parameters usually pannot

be measured and their meaning is often unclear. A computer model must,be
"tuned" to duplicate observed conditions by adjustment of parameters; given

enough parameters, the model can be made to duplicate any set of field
observations, regardless of whether the physics of the model are similar to
that of the prototype. Finally, a physical model must obey the laws of
physics and behave in a "reasonable" manner; a mathematical model is under

no such obligation. Results of a computer model may be unreasonable because
of errors in the simplifying assumptions , errors in programming or the
accumulated errors in the mathematical approximations used.

207.2 MODELS OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

The two most important models of the Columbia River Estuary are the

Corps of Engineers' hydraulic model and the mathematical model produced by

Callaway, Byram and Ditsworth for the Federal Water Pollution Control

Administration (now the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

A. The Corps of Engineers Hydrailic Model
The Corps' hydrau-1ic model is. located at the Waterways Experiment

Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, with most of the other Corps' models for

harbors all over the United States. The model reproduces the area from

about six miles offshore to River Mile 52 (Beaver Army Terminal). It
covers an area of about 1.1 acres (Pigure 207-1); the horizontal scalE is

1:500, but the vertical scale is 1:100.

The vertical distortion is necessary because of the effects of

surface tension. Surface tension is the same in model and prototype. If

the horizontal and vertical scales were both 1:500, then the layer of water

in the model would be so thin that its motion would be entirely dominated

by sur face tension, except in the deepest areas. It is impossible to make
the model 1:100 horizontally because it would then cover an impractically
large area of more than 25 acres. The time and velocity scales are 1:50 and

1:10, respectively. These are determined by the speed of propagation of

207-4

a wave in the model, which is in turn, determined by the depth. The
discharge and volume ratios are 1:500,000 and 1:25,000,000. The salinity

is the same in model and prototype.
The model is equipped with tide and wave generators, a pump to
simulate long-shore currents outside the mouth, and freshwater inflows
to simulate tributaries. Because the depth distortion makes the flow too
efficient, it is necessary to install metal strips sticking up from the
bottom to increase the friction. The mixing of fresh and salt water and
pollutant transport cannot be accurately modeled because of both the

vertical distortion and the failure of frictional forces to scale properly.
Tidal heights, currents and salinities are measured with miniature

instruments.

Sediment transport can be simulated, to a limited degree, in the
movable bed part of the model (Figure 207-1). However, there are problems
in finding sediment fine enough to be of the correct scale, relative to the

sands and silts in the river, and because bottom friction is not properly

scaled in the model. Thus, sediment transport in the model cannot be-
anything more than qualitatively accurate. Nonetheless, the Corps relies
n the results of model tests in designing channels and jetties, because

it is the best method available. They are now, however, planning to use
0

both mathematical sediment transport models and the hydraulic model in the

feasibility study for a deeper channel at the Mouth of the Columbia River.
The Columbia River Estuary Model is being repaired and will be re-verified,

on the basis of results of field work conducted-in 1977 and 1978.

B. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Computer Model.

Callaway, Byram and Ditsworth have prepared a time-dependent, quasi-

two-dimensional model of the Columbia River from Bonneville Dam to the

ocean; it models the heat budget of the river in that reach. While provision
is made for thermal effluents, the main emphasis is on meteorological effects,
including solar heating and heat exchanges between the air and water. This
model is part of a larger one which models the Columbia River to the
Canadian border. Such a model can be used to determine, for example, the
effects of various water storage schemes and water diversion projects on

stream temperatures which, in turn, affect fish runs. The model can also be
used to determine the distribution of pollutants, but it is a fairly large-
scale model and is not intended to predict in detail, the concentration of

207-5

0 Q7

410DEL LIM17-S
r

4@1
PUGE ISLANO

@-@e ALTOONA WAUNA

4t LEGEND
R12 RANGE 2
R
2 STATION A
9 TIDE GAGE
f!7@@ MOVABLE-BED LIMITS
OV

-7-

'7 DIRT
STEVENS

MODEL LAYOUT

SCALES IN FEET

PROTOTYPE
MODEL 2

Figure 207-1. The layout of the Corps of Engineers Hydraulic Model at the Waterways Experiment Station.
The horizontal scale is 1:500, the vertical scale 1:100. The movable bed section Of the model
is surrounded by the dashed line.

F
* Herrmann, 1968 0

a pollutant around and immediately downstream from an outfall. A finer

scale model would be required for that purpose.
The model does not consider depth variations in current or density;

in this sense, it is oriented toward the riverine part of the system. It

does, however, take into account the time variations and those along the

length of the river channel; that is, it reflects tidal currents and
fluctuations in runoff. It is quasi-two-dimensional in that cross-channel

variations are considered indirectly.' The wider sections of the river and

areas where there are several channels separated by islands are simulated

by a network of channels (Figure 207-2). Flows vary from one channel branch
to another, and in this way, cross-channel variations Are considered. The

model works as if the entire estuary were a series of islands separated by

the channel branches (Figure 207-2). Since shallow sand bars do separate
many channel branches, the approximation is fairly accurate.

The model takes the freshwater inflow at Bonneville Dam and the tidal

height and current speed at the mouth as the basic inputs. It calculates

tidal heights and currents throughout the river. It then uses the calculated
heights and velocities, meteorological data (temperature,'wind speed, solar

radiation, etc.) and thermal effluent volumes to calculate the temperature

distribution. Pollutant distributions can also be calculated.

C. Other Mathematical Models

There are several other mathematical models that model specific

aspects of the Columbia River Estuary. They are discussed in Section 204,

because they are not general-purpose models and are more easily understood

in conjunction with a discussion of estuarine circulation.
It is likely that a detailed (mathematical) physical circulation/

sediment transport/pollutant distribution model of the'estuary will be needed

in the future. Such a model would be useful in evaluating the effects of,

potential channel alterations and water diversion schemes; it should also

be coordinated with sediment transport models of such critical areas as the

mouth.

207-7

0
C10 0 5

S TIATUTE. MILES

RM 28.-

Jim Crow Point

Astoria
RIM 0.

CHANNELS

k
JUI @CTIONS

Figure 207-2 Columbia River Schematization
River Mile 0.0 (Pacific Ocean) to
River Mile 28.3 (Jim Crow Point),

From: Callaway et al., 1969

207.3 REFERENCES

A. Calloway, R.J., K.V. Byram, G.R. Ditsworth. 1969. Mathematical
Model of the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to Bonneville
Dam: Part I Theory, Program Notes and Programs. U.S. Department
of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Northwest Region, Corvallis, Oregon. 155pp.

B. Calloway, R.J. and K.V. Byram. 1970. Mathematical Model of the
Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to Bonneville Dam: Part II
Input and Initial Verification Procedures. U.S. Department of
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Northwest
Region, Corvallis, Oregon. 130pp.

This two-volume report presents in great detail the verifi-
cation and use of the circulation and heat budget mathematical
model prepared for the Columbia River. Computer programs included.
Very technical.

C. Herrmann, F.A. 1968. Model Studies of Navigation Improvements,
Columbia River Estuary Report, Hydraulic and Salinity Verification.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi. 24pp. 218 plates, 15 photographs.

A Corps of Engineers report detailing the verification of the
physical model of the estuary. Technical.

207-9

0 0

@@ [ 1 0 S D T AND
C
0 (:D SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
- - -3 @@j LC I

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

SEDIMENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

David Jay

James W. Good

T,
ULE OF CONTENTS Page No.

208 SEDIMENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ........................... 208-1
208.1 ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS ........................................ 208-1
208.2 SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION ..................................... 208-4
208.3 SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TRANSPORT .............................. 208-12
208.4 BOTTOM SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ................................. 208-20
208.5 SEDIMENTATION IN THE ESTUARY 1792 TO DATE .................. 208-22
A. Columbia River at the mouth ............................... 208-22
B. The Lower Estuary ......................................... 208-29
C. Youngs Bay ................ T ............................... 208-31
D. Baker Bay ................................................. 208-33
E. The Port of Astoria Slips ................................. 208-34
208.6 SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ON THE
CONTINENTAL SHELF NEAR THE MOUTH ........................ 208-34
208.7 REFERENCES ................................................ 208-42

FIGURES

208-1 Graph of Erosion Behavior vs. 0 Size ...................... 208-5
208-2 Bottom Configuration - Channel Slopes and Flats ........... 208-6*
208-3 Youngs Bay Percentage of Fine Sediments ................... 208-9
208-4 Youngs Bay Mean Grain Size Distribution ................... 208-10
208-5 Sediment Sorting in Youngs Bay ............................ 208-11
208-6 Suspended Sediment Transport (Low Flow) ................... 208-13
208-7 Suspended Sediment Transport (High Flow) .................. 208-15
208-8 Bottom Sediment Transport (Low Flow) ...................... 208-20*
208-9 Mouth of the Columbia River in 1792 ....................... 208-23
208-10 Mouth of the Columbia River in 1851 ....................... 208-25
208-11 Mouth of the Columbia River in 1885 ....................... 208-26
208-12 Mouth of the Columbia River in 1902 ....................... 208-27
208-13 Mouth of the Columbia River in 1927 ....................... 208-28
208-14 Historic Shoreline Changes in Youngs Bay .................. 208-32
208-15 Offshore Scour and Shoal Patterns ......................... 208-36
208-16 Dredged Material Disposal Sites ........................... 208-39

TABLES

208-1 Grain Size Scales for Sediments ........................... 208-3
208-2 Sediment Textural Characteristics ......................... 208-7
208-3 Freshwater Flow and Suspended Sediment Transport
at Vancouver (1963-1970) ................................ 208-17
208-4 Suspended Sediment Transport at Vancouver,
Beaver Army Terminal and Astoria (1968-1970) ............ 208-19

*Figure follows the page indicated

208 SEDIMENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

208.1 ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS

Estuarine sediments are the organic and inorganic substances

which carpet the estuary floor. They are an extremely important
component of the total estuarine system, for they provide food and
shelter for diverse plant and animal life. Sediments play an important

role in the maintenance of estuarine water quality as they harbor
bacteria; these bacteria decompose organic wastes, and decomposition
releases nutrients to fuel the production of new plant material. Some
inorganic sediments are a valuable resource to man, because they
provide fill material to create new land and may contain potentially

valuable minerals, such as iron. However, because of the movement of

sediments within the estuary, the federal government spends millions

of dollars annually for dredging and navigational improvements,
designed to stabilize the estuarine system. Local ports also spend

substantial sums each year to maintain access to-ship berths. Dredged

material disposal often creates environmental problems by causing

turbidity in the water column, benthic (bottom) habitat disturb ance

and removal of area from the estuary. Consequently, knowledge of

sediment characteristics and sediment transport (movement) is an

important factor in deciding how to best utilize estuarine resources.

Estuarine sediments can be divided into two broad classes,

inorganic and organic. Most sediments in the Columbia River are

inorganic sands, silts, and clays; these sediments are introduced into

the estuary from the ocean, the main stream of the Columbia River,
and local tributaries. Organic material consisting of dead plant Zind
animal matter, wood fibers and chips, chemical, industrial and human

waste, and other matter, forms a small but important fraction of

estuarine sediments. Some organic materials are beneficial, while

others are harmful. Organics tend to behave like fine inorganic
clays and silts, and they settle out from suspension over tidal flats
and in estuary tributaries. Unlike the inorganic sediments, they
contribute needed food material to support the rich tidal flat life
0 system.

Inorganic clay, silt, sand, gravel and large particles are
classified by size according to what is commonly called the Wentworth

Scale. Clay and silt particles are also called "fines," while the

larger particles are labeled "coarse" (Table 208-1).

much can be learned about the origin and transport of sediments

by studying the size distribution (percentage of material of each size
and mineralogy (types of minerals) of a sample. The "sorting" of the
sediment is a parameter that describes the range of sediment sizes

found in a sample and is an important indicator of the processes at
work. A well-sorted sample with only a small range of particle sizes
indicates either that a single, cc nsistent process is operating, or

that only one size of sediment is supplied to the area. More
complicated size distributions, containing more than one promin ent
sediment size, are indicative of multiple sources of sediment and/or

multiple processes at work. Another frequently used property of the
sediment size distribution is skewness." It measures the assymmetry

of the size distribution; that is, does the size distribution have a

tail of fine or coarse material or an unbalanced central peak? The

skewness is also indicative of both the sources of sediment and the

processes at work.

Millions of tons of sediment enter the Columbia River estuary

each year, and much is deposited before it reaches the river mouth.

More than 130 major dams in the Columbia River drainage-basin have
probably reduced sediment discharge upriver from the estuary, by
physically blocking bottom-transported sediments and by'replacing
the free flowing river with slack water, where suspended sediment

settles out. On the other hand, maximum flow levels are much lower

(reducing the amount of sediment moving from the estuary out to sea

during spring freshet), and estuary tributaries carry much more
sediment because of logging and agricultural practices. Sediments are
suspended and redistributed in the estuary in response to tidal wave
and river forces; these vary significantly on daily, weekly, monthly,

seasonal and annual time scales. Movement of sediment is greatest

when water turbulence is highest, that is, when tidal or wave energy
is great, river discharge very high or some combination of the three.

208-2

TABLE 208-1 GRAIN SIZE SCALES FOR SEDIMENTS

GRADE SCALES

Phi -log2(diameter in mm) millimeters

BOULDER

-8 256

COBBLE - 7 128

- 6 64

5 32

PEBBLE 4 16

3 8

2 4
GRANULE

VERY COARSE

COARSE
4-
z MEDIUM 2
+ 2 _L
FINE 4
+ 3
VERY FINE
+ 4
COARSE .16
+ 5 312.
MEDIUM

V) FINE

VERY FINE
+ 8
COARSE 256
+ 9
MEDIUM
+ 10
1024
0 FINE
+ if
VERY FINE

4096
COLLOID t

FROM. SHEPARD, 1963

208-3

Waves, including both seas generated by local winds and swell

generated by distant stormst are the most important causes of sediment
transport near the mouth of the river and over the bar. Wave energy
is also important in the lower estuary.

Material is transported by the river in one of three ways:

1) dissolved in solutionj

2) as suspended sediment in the water,
3) bouncing along the bottom with the flow'of the water as

"bedload."

Particle size, particle density and current speed are the three
most important factors that determine whether or how a particle will

be transported. Silts and clays, because of their small size,

generally stay suspended in river currents and account for most of the
total river sediment input to the estuary. Sands move primarily along

the bottom, as bedload. A fourth factor, cohesion of particles, is
significant in the process of resuspension or erosion. After

deposition, finer particles, such as silts and clays, tend to adhere

tightly to one another; thus, resuspension through erosion becomes

more difficult. Therefore, sands of about .18 mm in diameter (2.50)*

are more easily resuspended than either smaller or larger particles,
if the smaller material is cohensive (Figure 208-1).

208.2 SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION

A detailed map of the Columbia River estuary showing the

distribution of sediments by dominant type (i.e. sand, silt, clay)

cannot be constructed because the data are not available. It is

possible, however, to map information on the general nature of sediments
in various areas of the estuary. This is done by first dividing the

estuary bottom along its length into marine, transition and riverine

zones. These correspond to what have also been called the lower,
middle and upper estuary. It is important to note that the boundaries

of these zones represent an "average" low flow situation, and their
position varies with daily, monthly, seasonal and annual fluctuations
of tides, weather and river discharge.

0 or "phi" is a Greek letter pronounced like "fee." The 9f scale is.
system used to classify sediments by size, so that diameter in mm--2
That is, 0 is the negative of the logarithm to the base 2 of the diameter.

208-4

FIGURE 208-1

0 1111
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not)

Two

OF-robiTiotA
I ki,

u 0.00 1

r-5TIMNTED r-5TUNKItiff
BOTTOM C.UKKENT6 CLP@f-
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208-5

The next step is to divide the estuary into physical classes

called channels, slopes and flats. Channels are areas where there

are measurable currents, though these usually flow alternately down-
stream and upstream, because of tides. They form a continuous, inter-
woven network throughout the estuary, are bounded laterally by slope

areas, are usually the deepest part of the estuary and have flat or
gently sloping beds. Slopes are areas that are adjacent to channels
on one side and are adjacent to a flat or the shore on the other side.

They have a relatively steep bed slope. Flats are intertidal and
shallow subtidal areas. They have low bed slopes and low current velo-
cities over them. Many are bounded completely by slopes (i.e. Desdemona
Sands), while others lie between slopes and the shore.
Data collected and analyzed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
showed that generalizations can be made about sediment textural
characteristics of channels, slopes and flats in marine, transitional,
and river divisions of the estuary. These observations are summarized
in Figure 208-2 and Table 208-2. Figure 208-2 shows the distribution

of channels, slopes and flats throughout the estuary, as well as the

associated sediment types. The map is based on degree of slope, rather

than contours of equal depth, and so actual channel depths may vary

significantly. General observations are as follows:

(1) Channels contain the coarsest sediments. Of the marine,

transition and river divisions, river channel sediments are coarsest,

marine channel sediments are intermediate, and the transition channel
sediments are finest. The sediments are moderately well-sorted and

tend to be skewed toward coarse material.

(2) Flats contain the finest sediments and those that are

most poorly.sorted (variable in size). Sediments on flats also tend

to be skewed toward fine particles. Of the three longitudinal

divisions, sediments are finer in the river and marine divisions than

in the transition division, where extensive mid-estuary sand flats

occur (i.e. Desdemona Sands).

(3) Slope sediments are relatively less variable in textural
characteristics throughout the estuary, and are slightly more uniform
in size near the mouth. The particle size, sorting and skewness on
the slopes are between the values observed for the channels and flats.

208-6

124- 50' f23'45' 40'

101 01 4

oll

Fri

101

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

TABLE 208-2

SEDIMENT TEXTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Summary of textural statistics of surficial sediment samples grouped according to geomorphic class and longitudinal division

Longitudinal Geomorphic Number Particle size statistic in phi notation
division class of Mean grain diameter Sorting Skewness
samples Standard Standard Standard
Range Average Range Average Range Average
deviation deviation deviation

Riverine Channels 37 -2.97 to 5.30 1.51 1.34 .22 to 2.72 .69 .53 - .77 to .35 .07 .21
Slopes 40 - .47 to 6.35 2.46 1.52 .30 to 2.56 .88 .62 - .52 to .63 .03 .23
Flats 22 1.36 to 7.08 3.22 1.56 .31 to 2.67 .92 .74 - .14 to .70 .14 .21
All 99 -2.97 to 7.08 2.27 1.59 .22 to 2.72 .82 .62 - .77 to .70 .02 .23

Transitional Channels 14 .97 to 5.03 2.58 1.45 .25 to 2.13 .89 .66 - .30 to .55 .07 .24
Slopes 18 1.04 to 5.17 2.59 1.12 .22 to 1.87 .68 .46 - .33 to .40 .02 .19
Flats 10 1.07 to 5.23 2.44 1.11 .30 to 1.41 .54 .34 - .10 to -.39 .09 .16
All 42 .97 to 5.23 2.55 1.31 .22 to 2.13 .72 .52 - .33 to .55 .05 .20

marine Channels 7 1.55 to 5.60 2.33 1.46 .26-to 3.06 .77 1.02 - .13 to .42 .06 .18
Slopes 5 1.90 to 3.81 2.42 .78 .26 to 1.85 .64 .68 - .07 to .81 .19 .36
Flats 8 2.03 to 5.95 3.99 1.41 .21 to 2.10 1.31 .68 - .10 to .80 .34 .27
All 20 1.55 to 5.95 3.02 1.48 .21 to 3.06 .96 .83 - .13 to .81 .20 .28

From: Hubbell and Glenn, 1973

0
00

In general, sand is the most common sediment size in the

estuary. Many areas contain small, but significant quantities of silt,
while clay material is generally sparse. Some. gravel is also present.
An "average" sediment sample from the estuary would contain 1 percent
gravel, 84 percent sand, 13 percent silt and 2 percent clay. However,
the actual textural characteristics at specific locations around the

estuary vary widely, and many samples contain sand, almost exclusively.
During the 1974 study of Youngs Bay sponsored by Alumax Pacific
Aluminum Corporation, some data on sediment texture were gathered. A

complete analysis was not made, but the percentage of fine sediments

(silt and clay fraction) was measured (Figure 208-3) and the average

sediment size and sorting are shown in Figures 208-4 and 208-5.
Very little fine sediment is found in the Youngs Bay main channel,

where tidal and river current velocities are great enough to prevent

fine sediment accummulation. The sediments in the channel are well-

sorted; this indicates' the relative consistency of the processes at

work. In general, the shallow southwest side of the bay contains
finer material than the north side. There are pockets of fine sediment
in protected areas, such as behind the Highway 101 Causeway, in the

Skipanon Waterway, in the Lewis and Clark River area and to the west

of Pier 3.

The variation of textural characteristics with depth in the
core samples supports the theory that alternating periods of erosion
and deposition occur in Youngs Bay, particularly in the lower sections
of the Youngs and Lewis and Clark Rivers. Textural variations are
probably caused by natural seasonal cycles, by construction of piers,
bridges, etc., as well as by the dredging maintenance of the
navigation channel. For example, sediment texture was significantly
coarser south of the Youngs Bay Bridge prior to the causeway

construction.

Although the average deposition rate for the entire Youngs Bay
area is about 1 cm/year, the deposition rates show considerable
spatial and temporal variability. Recent deposition rates for
selected sites (since 1964) are depicted in Figure 208-3.

208-8

FIGURE 208-3
YOUNGS BAY: Percentage of fine sediments I clay and silt I

Columbia River

ungs Bay Astoria

Md'arr'e Aton::

ss.

................. .. ..................

.............

.7 7

Recent Deposition Rates E in centimeters) Percent Clay and Silt

SITE A-5.5 CM PER YR 0-10010

B - 4 CM PER YR 10-3001a

t1j C - 2 CM PER YR 30-5001c
0
OD
I
0-1.5 CM PER YR 50-7001c
E - I.B CM PER YR 9GREATER THAN 7001a

I Source: Johnson and Cutshal 1,, 1975 3

YOUNGS BAY MEAN GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

SAND 0 2.0 je
FINE SAND 2 1-3.9 9(
VERY FINE SAND 4.0 - 4.9
COARSE SILT 5.0 -6.9
S I LT 7.0 - 9.0 3Z@

Figure 208-4
The coarsest material is seen in the areas where the currents are
strongest. Fine materials are found in sheltered areas.
From: 0SU ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

208-10

Sediment Sorting in Youngs Bay

POorl@ @t)octed
Vodercltel,@@ '@-)orted
Moderdtelyl V.'eH
Well 5orLed

Figure 208-5

Sorting of sediments in the Youngs Bay area. Sediments in the
main channel tend to be well-sorted. The rivers carry sediments of many
different sizes, thus, the sorting in the tributaries is poor.

From: OSU Ocean Engineering Programs, 1975

208-11

208.3 SUSPENDED SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

In the tidal part of the river, flow is alternately upriver and
downriver. In the part of the river subject to saltwater intrusion,

the different densities of saline and freshwater cause a characteristic

estuarine circulation pattern to develop under low flow conditions. An
upriver flow of dense saltwater predominates in the lower layers.
The tidal flow also transports suspended sediments alternately
upriver and downriver. Particularly during slack water, some of the
particles in suspension in the upper layers, settle down into the
lower layers; they are then transported back upstream. This process is
accelerated by "flocculation." Flocculation occurs when tiny suspended

clay particles, upon contact with saline water in the mixing zone of

the estuary, are attracted to one another, form larger, heavier
particles, and settle more rapidly than individual particles. Over
many tidal cycles, this action causes suspended sediments to accumulate

in the zone where the average flow near the bottom is zero. This zone

is termed the "turbidity maximum" or null zone; it has physical and
biological significance and harbors some of the densest populations of
microscopic food animals in the estuary.

During the high river flow periods, the suspended sediment peak

concentration in the null zone will oscillate with the tide, from

about river mile (RM) 3 to RM 8 (Clatsop Spit to Hammond Mooring Basin).

During periods of low river flow, the peak sediment concentrations

generally occur between RM 14 and RM 23 (Astoria to Harrington Point).

When river flow is moderate, the null zone is between the extremes.

Analysis of data collected by USGS shows that when river

discharge is low, maximum resuspension of bottom sediments (mostly
silts and clays) takes place with the flood tide. Silts and clays

are carried upriver, and as high water slack occurs, the silt settles
out. Relatively little silt and clay (about 20 percent) is resuspended
on the succeeding ebb tide. It might be concluded that much of the
near-shore shoaling of port slips that occurs during the late summer,
low-river-flow periods results from this mechanism. The USGS measured
a net upstream transport of suspended sediment of 7,400 tons in one
day, for a moderately low river discharge of 231,000 cubic feet per
second (cfs),(Figure 208-6); the bedload transport for the period was

208-12

.200
*M 100 -
t:
UA
&xpen&J-se&rant wmen"W IL
IS #A
IL z
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660.
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20 -

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1
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0
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20. ` a- 10
RI_ V
Uj 0 0
z *%%
CO @,
N 0.5- /1
V sor'nity %%
10 -3 U!
LU
1.0.

0 . . . . . . . . . . .
1400 1800 2400 0600 1200 1600
FACIFIC STAMAW TLME
Figure 208-6
Temporal variations in total water discharge, water-surface elevation
(stage), salinity, and the concentration and discharge of suspended sediment
at CRM 13 on September 14-15, 1969. Suspended-sediment concentrations and
salinities were determined from depth-integrated samples from the routine
sampling site. Low freshwater flow conditions - 231,000 cfs.
S-r

From: Hubbell et al., 1971

208-13

not known and might add to the transport.

In contrast to this low flow situation, sediment resuspension
at high river discharge (468,000 cfs) was greatest during ebb flows.

Ebb currents were significantly stronger than flood currents at the
point of measurement (RM 13, south side of navigation channel),
primarily because of high river discharge and limited salinity intrusion.

The concentration of suspended sediment was much higher during high
river flow (approximately 5-times the low flow concentration in this
case), and much of this suspended sediment probably moved through the

estuary to the ocean. Even so, significant shoaling of estuarine areas

may also occur during high river flows. The total downstream transport
was 50,000 tons (Figure 208-7). It should be realized that the

null zone was downstream of-RM 13, at the time of these measurements.
It is, therefore, expected that the sediment transport would be down-
stream at this location. Suspended sediment transport at the mouth,

however, might still have been upstream, because of upstream movement
in the salt wedge.

It has not been possible to routinely measure sediment transport

(suspended or bedload) in the estuary. The USGS has estimated

suspended sediment transport at -Astoria (RM 13) and at Beaver Army
Terminal (RM 53) for the period May 1968 to June 1970, on the basis
of a mathematical model of Columbia River freshwater discharge (Section

202.3), and a limited number of suspended sediment transport measure-

ments of the type shown in Figures 208-6 and 208-7. These results

must be considered as only approximate. A two-year time span is too

short to encompass the range of variability in sediment transport
conditions or to accurately establish long-term trends resulting from
dam construction. The results are best understood in light of the data
on suspended sediment transport upstream from the estuary.

Measurement of suspended.sediment transport is much easier in

the upstream sections of the river, where current reversal rarely or
never occurs. Suspended sediment,concentrations were routinely

observed at Vancouver (RM 105) during the water years 1963 to 1970.

These data, combined with the calculated daily freshwater flow at
Vancouver, can be used to calculate suspended sediment transport at

208-14

SALNITY. IN
PARTS PER THOUSAND

TOTAL WATER DISG(ARGE, IN MILLIONS OF
c Qj Cl et CUBIC FEET PER SECOND SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION, IN A
ct 1- 02
0@ Lm
m co 0
z (D 0
H' ct @' m I - Fkd -E@'
150 0
0cn o co
rt, rt

ft
m (D
co

00) ft
ft
Irt (D cl 0
rt X z
0 (D Pi ct Lo

(D 0)
(n tj n
:@r0 rf,
V6
'j vu 0)
rt ti 0rt, rt %
M -P. m
10 0 H
rt 0

cu Fl.
0 P. p En
ic Z 0, 0
ct' (D
0 M 0
0 tQ ol
sb 0,0 m
p- rt I :r
coW
m"
0 11 ko su
:3 m W.-mrt
0
Fh
rt rA
cn

OD 0En
0 tj 0fD 0
0 0 m0 m
0
rt (DM a,
Pi m
rt, 0
Fl
0 rt, Landward @S@eaword
co :3 P.
0
STAGE. IN KET ABOVE COLUMBIA RIVER DATUM 4@ to
Ln 0 0 0 0 a
SUSPENDED-saxmENT Disavmc-F, IN nioLw

Vancouver (Table 208-3). It is apparent from Table 208-3 that the

suspended sediment transport is even more variable than the freshwater
flow. This extreme variability occurs because of the greatly increased
ability of swifte@ currents to suspend sediment and the variable input
of sediment to the river system. The average yearly suspended sediment

transport at Vancouver between 1963 and 1970 was about 10 million tons

(about 0.3 tons/sec) and ranged from 4.3 to 30.8 million tons. It is
likely that a longer series of observations would reveal even more
extreme variability, since no extreme freshets occurred-during the
period 1963 to 1970. Most of this transport (about 60% on the average)
occurred during the spring freshet; in some years more than 10 million
tons of sediment were transported in a 7 to 12 week period.
Major winter freshets are less frequent than spring freshets,
but they may result in even greater suspended sediment transport. A

winter flood west of the Cascades carried 10.2 million tons of

sediment past Vancouver between 12/17/64 and 1/7/65. This included
nearly 8.6 million tons in a single week, equivalent to 14.3 tons/sec.
It appears that winter floods carry much higher concentrations

of sediment, but the suspended sediment is somewhat finer than sediment

carried during most spring freshets. The high concentration of fine

material probably results from the direct erosion of soil by heavy

rains and the attendant runoff. The winter freshets usually do not
result in runoff levels as high as during the typical spring freshet;

consequently, winter freshets are not able to resuspend as much coarse

material from the bottom.

Finally, it is necessary to evaluate the sediment transport in

the tributaries above the estuary and below Vancouver (principally
the Willamette River). Suspended sediment transport data are available

for the Willamette River for water year 1963 only. The total suspended
s@diment transport for the water year was about one million tons, or
one-sixth of that at Vancouver. There were four periods of high
transport in the Willamette.River during the year, but none of them
corresponded to the spring freshet. In contrast, only one winter storm
was large enough to strongly affect sediment transport in the Columbia
River at Vancouver. Thus, the sediment transport patterns in the

208-16

Tab le 208-3
Freshwater Flow and
Suspended Sediment Transport
In the Columbia River at Vancouver

Fresh Water Flow Suspended Sediment Transport
In 103 CFS In 10 6 Tons/Wk. In 10 6 Thns

Water Yearly Average Flow Peak Weekly Average Duration of Freshet Average Transport Peak Transport Total Transport Total Transport
Year Average Flow During Freshet Flow During Freshet In Weeks During Freshet During Freshet During Freshet For Year

1963* 188 434 459 6 o.3 0.35 1.8 6.1

1964 1918 435 652 9 1.2 2.1 10.5 12.0
(9 months Only)

1965 240 426 519 12 1.1 1.8 13.6 30.8 r

1966 172 322 391 7 0.4 0.6 3.0 5.5

1967 202 530 634 8 1.1 1.8 8.8 10.5

1968 177 332 397 9 0.3 0.5 2.6 4.3

i969 219 349 461 16 0.3 0.8 5.1 6.1

l970 179 335 403 0.3 0.5 2.0 4.S
L(9 Months only)
(AV- 5.9) (AV: iV.0T
Unless otherwise noted, data are unpublished. They were provided by D.W. Hubbell, USGS, Water Resources Division, Denver, Colorado.
T'.".e water year extends from October 1 to September 30. Thus, water year 1970 ran from October 1, 1969 to Septerber 30, 1970.
-From Progress Report Radionuclide Transport of the Columbia River Pasco to Vancouver,11ashington Reach, July 1962 to Sept. 1963, USGS Open File Report.
Portland, Oregon, 1966. Transport for 1963 were calculated on a different basis than for following years and the figures are not totally comparable.
/Duration of freshet is simply the number of weeks in the spring during which elevated transports were observed.
yiYearly total also includes a major winter storm centered west of the Cascades that contributed 10.2 million tons of sediment, 8.6 million tons during
a single week.
K)

Willamette River cannot be presumed to be similar to those in the
Columbia River. Consistent with the importance of storms in the
Willamette River drainage, almost all of the suspended sediment trans-

port was clay and silt, rather than sand.
With this background information, we can better evaluate the

suspended sediment transport data for Astoria (RM 13), Beaver Army..
Terminal (RM 53) and Vancouver (RM 105) shown in Table 208-4. The

sediment transport at Vancouver for the periods 7/1/68 to 6/30/69
and 7/l/69 to 6/30/70 were 6.8 and 4.5 million tons per year, respectively
(Table 208-4). This 'is rather low compared to the 8-year average of
10 million tons (Table 208-4). Nearly all the transport at Vancouver
for the 68-69 period was during the prolonged, but not particularly
intense, 1969 spring freshet. The 1970 freshet was short and with
the exception of 1963, resulted in less sediment transport than any
other spring freshet between 1963 and 1970.

The sediment transport at Beaver Army Terminal was larger both

years (7.7 and 7.5 million tons) than at Vancouver. This does not

mean there was a loss of sediment in.the reach between, as the Sediment

Accumulation Column in Table 208-4 might suggest.- The Willamette

River and several other tributaries enter the Columbia River in this

reach. Since dredging is routinely required in this reach, it is

safe to assume there is a net accumulation of sediment in most years.

There was a dramatic accumulation (more than 5 million tons) of sediment

in the Beaver Army Terminal - Astoria reach in both years. The total

accumulation (10.5 million tons) was about two-thirds of,the downstream

suspended sediment transport at Beaver Army Terminal during this

period and amounts to an aver age of about 1 cm/yr deposition over the

entire area of the reach. It is also likely there was a considerable
accumulation of sediment in the estuary below Astoria during this
period. Estimates based on the distribution of radionuclides in the
.estuary suggest that about one-third of the fine sediment (instead of
the two-thirds suggested by this study) passing through the estuary is

retained in the sediment. This discrepancy remains to be resolved.
Comparison of the various transports and accumulations during
high and low flow periods indicates that three of the four freshet
periods shown in Table 208-4 resulted in significant accumulations of

208-18

Table 208 -4

Suspended Sediment Transport at Vancouver,
Beaver Army Terminal (RM53) and Astoria (RM13)
May 1968 to June 1970

Suspended Sediment Transport Sediment Accumulation
In 106 Tons In 106 Tons
Year Vancouver Beaver Army Astoria Vancouver-Beaver* Beaver Army
Terminal Army Terminal Terminal-Astoria

7/1/68 to 6.80 7.69 2.30 -.89 +5.39
6/30/69

7/l/69 to 4.50 7.46 2.36 -2.96 +5.10
6/30/70

2 Year 11.30 15.15 4.66 3.85 +10.49
Total

Freshet
Periods

5/21,168t 2.64 2.37 1.09 0.27 1.28
7/22/68

3/26/69 to 5.12 4.86 3.08 0.26 1.78
7/l/69

5/14/70 to 1.95 2.18 2.37 -.23 -.19
7/l/70

1/15/70 to 0.83 2.68 -0.35 -1.85 3.03
2/18/70 5.90 Total

Low Flow
Periods

7/30/68 to .30 .59 -1.90 -.29 2.49
10/14/68

7/23/69 to .27 .43 87 -.16 1.30
9/30/69 2.79 Total

Data is unpublished. It was provided by D.W. Hubbell of the USGS, Water Resources
Division, Denver, Colorado.
*Sediment Transport at Beaver Army Terminal exce@ds that at Vancouver in most cases,
because of input from Willamette, Cowlitz, Kalama, and other rivers.

208-19

sediment in the estuary. The freshet accompanying the storm of early
1970 was.particularly notable in that there was no increase in sediment
transport in the estuary at all. The spring freshet of 1970 stands
out because it did not result in any accumulation of sediment. It is
believed that strong freshets do result in very large movements of

suspended sediment to the ocean, but no such freshets occurred during

the two-year studylperiod. The many dams on the Columbia River have
the effect of reducing the peak flows during freshets. It is likely

that this has increased sediment accumulation in the estuary.
Significant sediment accumulation in the estuary also occurred

during the late-summer low-flow periods in 1968 and 1969. Very little

sediment moved down the river into the estuary during these periods.

The major transport into the estuary was from the ocean; this sediment

transport accompanied the increased salt intrusion.

It must be remembered that the above discussion concerns only

the suspended sediment transport. The sands and gravels most often

important with regard to dredging move primarily along the bottom as

bedload. Sands, however, may move in suspension during freshets.

Under most conditions, it is likely that the bedload constitutes an

important part of the total sediment transport in the river below

Vancouver.

208.4 BOTTOM SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

As noted.earlier, the sediments transported along the bottom are

predominantly the coarser sands and gravels. The effect of currents

over the bottom causes the sand to form dunes, oriented in the

direction of transport. Dune orientation has been used to develop
a map (Figure 208-8) of bottom sediment transport (bedload) at a low
river flow period (about 125,000 cubic feet per second). Between
Harrington Point and Tongue Point (RM 18 to 23), sediment movement
along the bottom was seaward and generally confined to the navigation
channel. Below Tongue Point, transport in the channel was upstream, while
along the slopes adjacent to the channel, transport was seaward, at least
as far downstream as RM 5. On the north side of the estuary, sediment

transport transport along the bottom was generally upstream in the deep

channel, but it occurred in both directions on slopes. In the old ferry

208-20

05' 124- 55' 56 125-45' 40'

101 4

101

olp

p
L)

'o,

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

channel between Astoria and Ellice Point, transport was in a northerly
direction at the south end of the channel, and.it was in a southerly

direction at the north end.

During the spring freshet in late May and June, and during
occasional winter floods, bottom sediment transport increases and is
probably seaward in channels all the way to the river mouth.
Sediment transport along slopes is probably seaward through the entire
length of the estuary, while cross-channel transport at Astoria is
likely to be predominantly north to south. No measurements of trans-

port at high flows have been made that confirm these suspected patterns.

Detailed information@is not available for sediment movement in

Baker Bay, Grays Bay or Cathlamet Bay, though all three areas and the

entire estuary are gradually filling with sediment. Some sediment

movement information is available for Youngs Bay and its tributaries.
Bottom sediment transport is downstream in the Youngs River, almost to
the mouth (Daggett Point). Bottom transport in the Lewis and Clark

River generally does not extend to the mouth, due to the upstream move-
ment of tidal currents. In Youngs Bay, sediment (predominantly river/
ocean derived coarse sand) moves up the channel along the bottom as

far as the Youngs Bay Bridge; downstream (seaward) movement along

slopes marginal to the channel is likely. These estimates are not

based on direct measurements and need confirmation. Bottom transport

in the Skipanon River is probably negligible. The area around the
mouth of the Skipanon is dominated by sediments derived from the

Columbia River.

It would be highly desirable to have estimates of bedload transport

in the estuary; none are available. However, the USGS has estimated

the transport of coarse sediment (sand) at Vancouver, for the water
year 1963. Their method of calculation is highly empirical, and the
results must be regarded as only an approximation of the bedload
transport. For one thing, a part of the coarse material is carried in
suspension, rather than as bedload. According to the method used by
the USGS, the proportion of sand, as a percentage of the total sediment

transport at Vancouver, varies from 0% for a freshwater flow of 100,000

cfs to about 65% for a flow of 700,000 cfs. Using this method, the

208-21

USGS estimated coarse sediment transports of 2.3 and 0.11 million tons

for the Columbia River at Vancouver and the Willamette River,

respectively. The suspended sediment transports were 6.1 and 1.03
million tons, respectively. The bedload transport of the Willamette
River was, under the observed conditions, negligible. Crude estimates
for the other years, 1964-70, may be made by assuming that bedload
transport only occurs during freshet periods. Using this simplified
approach, it appears that the bedload transport at Vancouver varied

from about 1 to about 10 million tons per year, from 1963 to 1970.

Thus, the total sediment transport at Vancouver during the years 1968

to 1970 varied from about 5.3 to 41 million tons. Greater transports
are not impossible, but completion of the system of main stem dams has
probably decreased bedload and suspended sediment transport.

208.5 SEDIMENTATION IN THE ESTUARY 1792 TO DATE

The immense power of the forces operating in the Columbia River
estuary has been stressed repeatedly in this Inventory, as have the

numerous efforts by man to control, or at least to limit, the effects

of these natural forces. The evidence suggests that sedimentation
patterns in the estuary have been greatly affected by the jetties at

,the mouth, other physical alterations within the estuary and the
regulation of freshwater flow by the many dams constructed upriver from

the estuary. This section examines then, the sedimentation patterns
and their relationships to man's activities in the estuary during the

last 185 years, as determined from bathymetric charts and other

historical resources.

A. Columbia River at the Mouth

The single most important alteration of estuary circulation and
sedimentation patterns was accomplished by the construction of the
jetty system at the mouth. Before the jetties were constructed, the
mouth of the river was between Point Adams and Cape Disappointment,
and all land areas seaward of these points are the result of the jetty
construction (Figure 208-9). The natural channel, before the
construction of the jetties, was extremely variable; controlling depths
at the outer bar, then located only slightly west of Cape Disappointment,
were between 20 and 30 feet. The channel oscillated between two basic

208-22

-4 C"A-R T
shewi ng part of the
COAST OF NWAMERICA
with the tracks of His zW,4--'1YSTY.v Sloop
@DIS CO VER Yawd, -4rmedTender CYIA -Tw4m
Corninandedby GE ORGEVANCOUVER EfflTand preparecl
ait@Y-er his intmediale z@xbec&w 4dLieu@,Joseph BAer,zii- wAkh

I,af: 4@. 3@ Ar. .,d L@g-:2je- 'i W. to Lai: 5;-@ X. and Long-. RA, 4@ -9
ae e4c dfflr,-ne vert@ds shewn Sx
(1792)

Colxsl@iA ]Ft'IVFR

. f Lai: 46 *,119 'N
L-W.@ .6 E
Ul

A ..... .

41:

j d'
N
X ft;y f"',
49
@Tc

41
,7
4.

VI S. h-N. allvZ16-1? ZC---7
Jvvrlza X4 Ore. 1@6-ril 9, S' 18,491.
befler rrom Me CA1,6r o/*,-, I-'? i m - da fe c r -'?A r eI 8, 1881
xlaMs Mat hat " 7he eizqrave@' che r I bi 7W no '40 -'e
6 al w a s uh @rh a cZ en W.R' /,P-,g N.

Figure 208-9
1

Entrance of the Columbia River as it was charted in 1792 by Captain
George Vancouver.

From: Lockett, 1962
208-23

forms. In one form, there was a single channel off Point Adams

(Figure.208-11). In theother form, there were two channels,.one
close to Point Adams and another just south of Cape Disappointment
(Figure 208-10). Apparently, the growth of Clatsop Spit, a transient

feature prior to construction of the jetty, pushed the single channel

further and further to the north, lengthening the path the water had to
take to discharge into the ocean. The difference in the phase of the
tide across the Spit, and the large waves accompanying storms eventually

breached the Spit, forming a second channel, with a shallow area

between called Middle Sands. The south channel then became the most

important channel,. and Peacock Spit closed off the north channel. As

Clatsop Spit grew, the cycle began again. The purpose of jetty

construction was to stablize the channel and hopefully, to achieve

greater depths,.by narrowing the channel and increasing scour.
Major alterations began with authorization of a 30 foot channel
in 1882 and the construction of the original South Jetty (4-1/2 miles
long, out to the knuckle) between 1883 and 1895 (Figure 208-12); note
the creation of Clatsop Spit as a permanent land area. The South Jetty

was not a success. By 1902, the entrance had shoaled to a controlling

depth of 22 feet. A 40 foot channel was authorized, and between 1903

and 1913, the South Jetty was extended two miles beyond the knuckle to

a total length of 6-1/2 miles. Major repairs to the South Jetty were

completed between 1931 and 1936 and again in the early 1960's.
The North Jetty was constructed between 1913 and 1917. The

most favorable entrance conditions ever achieved occurred between 1925

and 1927 (Figure 208-13). These conditions have not recurred. The

North Jetty was rehabilitated in 1938-39, at which time Jetty A was

constructed, extending south from Cape Disappointment. At the same

time, the pile dikes on Sand Island and the Chinook pile dike were
constructed. Jetty A was designed to prevent undermining of the North
Jetty and to improve the scour in the channel. Jetty B, parallel to
Jetty A but further out to sea, has been authorized but not constructed.
Further important changes in the configuration of the entrance
have.been proposed. By resolution of Congress, adopted July 8, 1972,
the Corps of Engineers has been directed to study the advisability of

208-24

C D
12
30/

7 16 .30
33
PT.
ADAMS
4Z
2
0
a ( "" 2 7
% oe spit
12 N c/o tjop
I/ 11@6 81@@
A

21
13
3 01
4 32
S.,

IG
63 17 8
39 15
N
30

C1
21
36
*171
I-- 3-2--- /45

'rRUIE NORTM

MOUTH OF COLUMBIA RIVER
1851
SCALE IN FEET
5000 IMOO 20,000

Figure 208-10
@4 32
0
PT.
_A (DA M S

@1 5
C_@

The entrance to the Columbia River as it appeared in 1851, with
two entrance channels. The controlling depths were 28 to 30 feet.
Charts from 1839 and 1841 show a similar configuration.
From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District,' 1938
208-25

1 LWACO
0
00 N ORTH '70
HEAD 4,4-e.,P
46 41
38
'r

WASHINGTON
A
35 -f .,;;*-

Z1
38 2?
.22.
21.i
35 10
12
13 PEACOC
43 :. la@ 9 CHINOOK
4 5 16 7 9 SPIT
16 SPITe 7
40 .. 13 0
16 3 15 3
31
14. 4 13 2 2
14 16
57 9
57 33 *.'-' /9 . ... :I
4.
3 3
20 ... ...
19 31 27 zo' `44 'S
48
60 20F 62 jCt@All@" 2 3
: 2.9 7
15 ra 21
72 C3 20.. 65
47 53 70 37 V.... Z6 23
Go
S1 0_0 27
87 52 1z. --- .---/ / 40 25
...30 30...
.9
to to Z3 45 `90 .. ..... za
27 -290
63 16 8 9 42 30
go, S8 25 37. 46
21 '.2s: 13 36
at ZZ: 23 * 10 .?7 -.
96 7. 1;... *: 7 9 46 4G
9 20 to 20 is 0'0@ 48
at
48 51 48
/3
53 24
63 6
27 22
22 Z2 127 17 21 .18
17
Z3 17
96 13 7 23 6 Z2 lzo' 27 27., it
W 12,6
54 7 15 CLATSO P 2@ /2
8 fo 12 -28 Z3 ..... .
69 40: -.-ye, 191 Z' .'to % 36.!, 4 3
.26 12 S P I T Is 3.2 to 7
4 . 1.0 7
3
PT
ADAIM 4".-.
.7
;1 FORT
STEVENS
800OFT. 4000 0 SOOOFT. 0 R E G 0 N

Figure 208-11
The mouth of the Columbia Fiver as it appeared in 1885, just prior to construction of the
jetty system. At this-time there was a single channel with a controlling depth of about 20 fdet.
From: Lockett, 1962
U

Q0 ILWACO
NORTH
49 43 39 HEAD
40 38 .:- 6.,Op
31 .30
54 46 132..
... 2
32
7
30 Z40
41 36 27
Z6
-30 '5 WASHINGTON
37 Z5
Z8 27
6Z 46 .30 2OZI 20
30
20
72
55 41 34 29 Z5 zs 3 20
Is* SAND
PO:
k23 23 1% /6 12
57 35 22 21 Z30:. .;.: ISLAND CHINOOK
20 PEACOCK
2, 22 224 20 13 /4SPIT
2G
20
21 73V 14
44 .: : 5 7
3
22 23 7
/9... /,4-8 12
ff ... !7::@4
.. I.. .... , .. 3
3 9
54
46 20 '0 . Z@
': 21 Z2 "? 20 ii--* -4r, 52
-.2 S. ?3 27 .... ......... 31 37 38 5z ze
Z4 ZG.. - 4-47 59 45 39 30, ZZ J*17
30-Zl. 36-4,,- -r, - 73- 34--- 7 10
57 G3 67 gg G4
54 42 13
23 9
: CHANYEL 7 73---03 =-77--F2--'64 So 43 34 a
Z2 .34-38 21 "9 3
@54 21 ;T-S, -81 73 70 : 1,
61 z 74 77 73 51 CO,
ZG Ze.
'32 36 39 44 41 44; .16
52 9 Z4 39 48 71 So P
41. zs- I -&
77 :26 6 1@7i-:
is . ; 43 31
2i -24@ 48 44 e-' 13, 50
4G 24.27 Z7 39 2 3@- 51 S? 27 Z7 27 30
35.:"31. 3, 40 57 62 ZS
2@i 32 .9 38
31... 14 7 1 3 Z3 .. .....
22 . .:-* , i3 4f .41?
30
20 zs 24..256 10 47 44 56 so
63 zs 3S
40
32 44
zo Z4 23 36 . ..... 49
75 70 37 44
53 20 M. ..2 ../ -
is .. .....
Q 14 13,
20
64 3, @3 36 3 7
65 k "; 7 4 %%ws
so. /j 19 14
3 %
is-.
56 19 06 71 13
46 "'18 % 10
40 Z
ss 37 13 43
42
3, 2, r4f.
31; 33 3P
16 55 451 40 %
27 0
46 37
POINT ADAM S

FORT
STEVENS

SOOOFT. 4000 SOOOFT.
0

OREGON
0
OD Figure 208-12
I
The Columbia River Entrance as it appeared in 1902 after the construction of the original
South Jetty.
From: loockett, 1962

tj ILWACO
0 52 NORTH '94
010 47 HEAD
00 IV
42 -0

0
52 36
-A WASHINGTON
46 30
33
32"-
A
S A N D

:14.
59 PEACO.CK. P ISLAND
@0 3
zo to CHINOOK
21 3 2
20 24'* 3'**'
20 IL
8
t.5.2
.29
A 3
7., 37 ... ... 8'
49 53 53 G4 6
39 -,41-- - 0go- 35 28 **-. /a
2G 37-'\ 42 44 55 as 86 RAPJ '@o- 5
/ \ "JC9 2****
24.. 33 / 45 75,5,j 9
129 - '34 46 60 58
701.. 30- '@;/ 49 36 36 2S-93.
141 SZ@1- - 48-.. 66 "36 -30
51 .... ...
39 47 45@,---39 26 9
48 54 0 5g---l ... ...* ->4 43 C'04'.41 28 ..... .... 30
..28 to 4f .34
1 39 53 /37 :'... -35, 51 31..
37 47 55 -.25-." .'9 14
35 351 4G .':23 %30 25 32
57\ N35 39
-28
44 55 35 34 40
G9 so
39 U rH ..2G
'11,44 2g'- 23
45 49 56 Z' \ N
'18 33
51 45 50 54 z/ 39 '33 ...'21..
,@AB 46 1 k -1: - 34 ..39
45 41 2a 37
47 N36
47 +7 34 -2r--.. 35
49 43 4 1 17
72 48 - 33'--.'..... .....
(39 39 36. 34 25 33 @4 23
636 47 43 - - - -.35 2S /7
'6 43 17 @3 16
60 45 4S --'39 % 36
74 35 '5-:*32 i;s
55 50 % 32 40 16 a
5 % 25
5 A 40
a 66 61 51 45 % eq P a .:::-.39 37
38 0
-0 /9 26
NO TES POINT ADAMS
SOV"DIAIGS AREIMFEET APIVIAIDICAre
F T
DEP rV S BEZ 0 W A144 Al L 0 WZR Z 0 W WA MR S T . N S
?4-r007'0EPrNC4VRVE
30-rOO7' DEPrH CU.QVr ..... ..... .....
40-Foor DEPrH CURVE 8000 FT. 4000 0 800OFT.
ILICHr5HIP OREGON

Figure 208-13
The Columbia River Entrance as it appeared in 1927, the best alignment ever attained.

From: Lockett, 1962

modifying the Columbia River at the Mouth Project (RM -2 to 3). The

Corps has drawn up a Plan of Survey, including field measurementst

reconstruction of the physical model and design studies to determine:
the feasibility of constructing a deeper (551 or 60') and narrower
(1600' rather than 2640') entrance channel, the possibility of different
channel alignment, and the practicality of construction of Jetty B and
repair of the existing jetties, including extension of the South Jetty
to its original length. Maintenance of the project would probably also
require a new dredge. The study is scheduled to be completed by 1981.
The major questions that will be addressed in this study are
related to: the amount of maintenance dredging required, the effects

of all parts of the project on sedimentation in the channel area, the
changes in salinity regime that would result from the project, the fate

of dredged materials deposited in various disposal sites, and the cost

effectiveness of all parts of the project. Additional studies will be
required to determine the environmental effects of the increased

dredging on the channel area and the proposed dredged material disposal

sites, and the effects of increased salinity intrusion on shoaling
inside the estuary. Major modifications of the type proposed ca nnot

be carried out without careful consideration of all the environmental

effects.

Thus far, the net result of the construction of the jetty

system has been the movement of the outer bar further to sea and
migration of Middle Sands northward to its present position as Sand

Island, the stabilization of Clatsop and Peacock Spits as permanent

land areas, and the maintenance, through considerable dredging, of the
48 foot entrance channel (authorized in 1954). The changes in the

configuration of the entrance have been quite obvious. The effects on

the estuary of the deeper entrance channel have also been profound,

though less obvious.

B. The Lower Estuary
There has been a persistent trend toward shoaling throughout the

Lower Estuary from Tongue Point to Sand Island. This tendency has been

particularly acute in Youngs and Baker Bays. A detailed study of Corps

of Engineers bathymetric surveys over the past century would probably

reveal a great deal about the causes of shoaling in the estuary. Such

208-29

a study has not been done. Nonetheless, some conclusions are possible.
As mentioned in Section 208'.3, the turbidity maximum or null zone
associated with salinity intrusion in the-estuary results in an
accumulation of sediment. The position of the null zone varies with

runoff, tide and wind conditions (approximately between Sand Island and

Tongue Point). The controlling depth at the bar has increased from about
20 to 25 feet in 1885, to the present 48 feet. This has necessarily

increased the salinity penetration accompanying bottom upstream flow in
the estuary. The increase in salinity penetration appears to have
greatly increased the rate of shoaling in the estuary, though there
have evidently been other contributing factors.

Lockett, in his paper "Sediment Transport and Diffusion:

Columbia Estuary and Entrance," states that between 1868 and 1958, the

net shoaling within the 11 mile reach between Upper Sand Island and

Tongue Point has been about 77,000,000 cubic yards, and that the cause

of this shoaling is the flocculation of fine material caused by the
increased salinity intrusion. This quantity represents about 13 or 14%
of the low tide volume of the estuary in the reach in question. There

is a natural tendency for the estuary to fill in, but it cannot have

been filling in at a rate of 15% per century, or it would have ceased

to exist long ago. It cannot be determined without further research,

what part of the observed shoaling can be attributed to increased

salinity intrusion, since there are other possible causes. One

possible cause is the system of dams that regulate the fresh water flow so
that the maximum monthly average flow during the spring freshet is less
than one third the maximum flow observed during the flood of 1893. It is
known that freshets are responsible for moving very large quantities
of sediment out to the ocean. Thus, it seems possible that the observed
shoaling below Tongue Point is, in part, related to regulation of the
freshwater flow. On the other hand, it can be argued that the dams also
decrease the supply of sediment to the estuary and might, therefore,
tend to decrease shoaling in the estuary. It should also be realized

that much of the sedimentation in the estuary has been on the
extensive mid-estuary flats, made up of material too coarse to be
affected by flocculation. Lockett's proposed mechanism is most applicable
to Baker and Youngs Bays, where extensive deposition of fine material

208-30

has occurred.

The relative importance of the dams and the increased channel

depth with regard to the shoaling problem should be determined by
sediment transport measurements in the river, under different flow

conditions. It would also be possible to compare shoaling rates in the
estuary below Harrington Point, with the rates in Cathlamet Bay (an
area of minimal salinity intrusion), using old Corps of Engineers

bathymetry data. Such a determination should be made before any further

deepening of the channel in the estuary and entrance is attempted. That
is to say, there is probably a maximum feasible for the channel

entrance, and this depth should be determined.
There may also be limitations on channel depth from the point of

view of fishery resources. These limits should also be determined.
Our present state of knowledge is so poor that it cannot now be said

with any degree of confidence, whether the observed shoaling over the

last 100 years has had beneficial or deleterious biological effects.

it seems reasonable, however, that a shoaling rate of 15% per century

is un acceptable in the long run. It certainly iscontrary to the

intent of the Oregon Estuarine Resources Goal.

C. Youngs Bay

Extensive alteration of the shoreline has occurred in the Youngs

Bay-Astoria area by filling, erosion and "natural" sedimentation
processes (Figure 208-14). Major fills have taken place along the
entire Astoria waterfront, at the mouth of the Skipanon River, and in

Youngs Bay itself. Since the construction of the jetties, considerable

erosion has occurred between Tansy Point and Point Adams. The area of

intertidal and shallow submerged lands (less than 6 feet deep) has

increased greatly in Alder Slough, along both sides of Youngs Bay, and

in the Lewis and Clark and Youngs Rivers. The most important causes

have probably been the fills at the mouth of the Skipanon River, the fill
for the causeway bridge across Youngs Bay and the fills for the Port
Piers. These fills have greatly reduced near-shore current speeds and

have resulted in the settling out of fine material.

It is likely that increased salinity intrusion has played some

role in the sedimentation in Youngs Bay. It is also possible that

208-31

Columbia River
to

-1870

1976
-----------
=L-JL-
Tansy Pt. ----------- -------------
-L'j
ILI ........
LID -C@7- IW
L2
............. -JUITIQUILELA': 1

.........
. ....... Smith Pt. ippi
,@1976
L! 11:

@1870 ... T
Y011

.......... .......... .......

... ..... .....................
-.r7O -------
wa @ h'

cistsop CO-ty
-n
Airp@q@@
N CO

o",

Cal

vmr4d.,&
Fills Historic Shoreline Changes 1870-1976
187OSha1kws(-6m1h.) in
Montagrte& Associates 11MIshalb"Mmikv) FIGME 208-14
MterWay jW ColisultantS Dikes .1-6-
0

extensive logging and log rafting have caused sedimentation. However,

the open water sections of Youngs Bay (outside the causeway and in the

channels) experience both sedimentation and erosion, with erosion
predominating in some areas. Average sedimentation rates are shown in

Figure 208-3. The sediments seaward of the causeway are predominantly

of Columbia River origin, and Columbia River sediments are evident even

in the slower flowing, lower reaches of the tributaries. It is likely

therefore, that the influence of logging activities on sedimentation

patterns is confined to the tributaries themselves. Sharp vertical
differences in sediment properties in the cores suggest that periods

of erosion may be associated with major freshets occurring perhaps

once a decade.

D. Baker Bay
Baker Bay is a very complex area for which virtually no data
are available. The long-term trend in Baker Bay is definitely one of

filling, as Sand Island has migrated to the north. Considerable
filling has occurred since the 1930's, after the stabilization of

Sand Island; this indicates that other forces are at work. Baker Bay
has no major tributary streams, and it is located close to the mouth.

Currents in the area are quite variable and relatively unknown;

they seem to respond strongly to the winds. Considerable salinity
intrusion (up to 200/oo at Ilwaco Basin under low runoff conditions)

is known to occur, and the condition is probably augmented by south-

westerly winds. The accumulation of fine materials in most parts of
the Bay suggests that a turbidity maximum and considerable sedimentation
accompanies the salinity intrusion. The influence of a deeper channel

over the bar may be important here. Other likely causes of the sedimenta-
tion problem in Baker Bay are the many fish traps constructed before 1920,
the Chinook pile dike constructed in the late 1930's, the breach between

the two Sand Islands and logging activity in the tributary streams. Unless

the causes of the increased sedimentation are determined and remedial mea-

sures taken, further difficulties in maintaining the Chinook and Ilwaco

channels will probably be experienced. It is not known whether the inter-
tidal areas with fine sediments in Baker Bay are as valuable for salmon
habitat as areas of similar elevation in Youngs Bay.

208-33

E. The Port of Astoria Slips
The Port of Astoria normally spends between $200,000 and $300,000
per year for maintenance dredging in Slips 1 and 2, located at Smith'.

Point between Piers 1 and 2, and 2 and 3, respectively. This sedimeh-
tation is believed to be related to the turbidity maximum that-accom-

panies salinity intrusion. If this hypothesis is'correct, then most
sedimentation occurs under moderate to low freshwater flows, because
salinity intrusion does not reach Smith Point under high water freshwater
flow conditions. It is believed that on the incoming tide, the pier slips
fill predominantly along the bottom, when sediment-laden water flows in.
The sediment settles out in the slip because of the low velocities pre-
vailing there, relative to the channel outside the slips. The outflow

from the-slips on falling tide is more evenly distributed with depth and

does not resuspend the material that has settled out. In support of this
hypothesis, most of the material found in the pier slips is clay and silt

that would be carried in*suspension; it is not sand, that might be carried

in as bedload.

As is shown in Figure 203-14, there is a part of the tidal cycle
during which Youngs Bay is ebbing and the Columbia River flooding. Water
then flows around Smith Point from Youngs Bay, into the pier slips. It
has been suggested that the sediments in the pier slips are carried in
from Youngs Bay. This might occur during high flow conditions in the
Youngs Bay tributaries (winter) or during periods of strong southwesterly
or northwesterly winds (resulting in the strongest wave action at Smith

Point). A determination of the sedimentation mechanisms involved might

save the Port of Astoria some costs in maintenance dredging, but it is
unlikely that the problem can be entirely solved, because of the natural

tendency for siltation.in the quiet water in an estuary.

208.6 SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ON THE CONTINENTAL SHELF NEAR

THE MOUTH
As part of the Dredged Material Research Program, the Corps of

208-34

Engineers is preparing a report on the sedimentary processes occurring

outside the mouth of the Columbia River. The report, entitled:
Aquatic Disposal Field Investigations Columbia River Disposal Site,
Oregon Appendix A: Investigation of the Hydraulic Regime and Physical
Nature of Bottom Sedimentation, was prepared by a research group from
the University of Washington headed by Richard Sternberg and Joe Creager.
The brief summary presented here is based on the working draft of the

report, and therefore, the conclusions are tentative.

The sedimentary environment near the mouth of the Columbia River
is dominated by modern sediments originating from the river, though older
sediments probably deposited during glacial times are prominent on

the middle and outer shelf. Sediments found in the study area are fine
sands, silts and clays. The coarsest material (fine sand about .18 mm
in diameter or 2.5 0) is found near the mouth of the river and away

from the mouth of the river, where it has been carried during dredged

material disposal. Slightly finer material (diameter about .15 mm or
2.75 0) occurs extensively on the inside and to the north of the outer

bar (or "tidal delta" as the geologist calls it). Finer sand (diameter

about 10 mm or 3.25 0), coarse silt (diameter about .044 mm or 4.5 9r)

and finer silts and clays, as small as .0002 mm or 12 0, are widely

distributed to the south of the river.

The effects of man's activities are evident in other ways in
addition to disposal of dredged inaterial. The building of the jetty
system has created Clatsop Spit as a permanent feature, as discussed

in Section 208.5. Furthermore, the tidal delta (outer bar) has shifted
seaward about 3,000 m. (nearly 2 miles). The long-term trend since
the jetty construction has generally been erosion south of the mouth

(and offshore of Clatsop Spit) and deposition north of the mouth

(Figure 208-15). These changes are evidently a response to altered

sediment transport patterns, resulting from the building ofthe jetties.

As the system seeks a new equilibrium, there has been some concern
that erosion offshore from Clatsop Spit and at the point where the jetty
intersects the spit would result in a breach of the spit and creation

of a new channel at that point.
The building of the dams on the Columbia River and its tributaries
has had the effect of greatly reducing the spring freshets and the

208-35

0 V1-
+

q
Cf)
'o
00

-6

a
+ CY)
+ NOTE:
F1 URE5 WITHIN OUTLINED AREAS
INDICATE SCOUR (-) AND SH AL
00 N MILLIONS OF CUBIC YARDT
-0 DE@TH IN FAT ... I
BELOW M+L-0266)

61'

OFFSHORE SCOUR AND SHOAL VOLUMES, 1877-1926
Figure 208-15a
Construction of the South and North Jetties during this period resulted in"creation of-Clatsop
and Peacock Spits, extensive erosion off Clatsop Spit, deposition off Peacock Spit, and seaward
movement of the bar

From: Lockett, 1962

-6

+
Q.
C%j
[D
t
00

TO NOTE,
00 FIG RES WITHIN OUTLINED AREAS
INDICATE SCOUR (-) AND SHOAL
+ IN MILLIONS OF CUBIC "RDS.
-10- 0 ITH IN FATHOMS
T5 BELOW M.L.L.W.(1956)
Fj

0
OD
-4 Figure 208-15b OFFSHORE SCOUR AND SHOAL VOLUMESA. 1926-1958

The South Jetty cut off the sand supply to-the area off Clatsop Spit; erosion has continued.
The bar has continued to build outward and deposition continues north of the mouth, in most
areas.

From: Lockett, 1962

amount of sediment flushed out of the estuary, as discussed in Section

202 and 208.3. Nonetheless, observations from this study indicate that

the river pours large concentrations of sediment into the ocean-during

high flow periods, both as suspended load and as bedload. The other

major source of sediment in transport over the inner shelf is the

resuspension during storms of riverine material deposited on the shelf.
during calm periods.

The major forces acting to move the sediments are: the
continental shelf circulation, tidal currents, river or estuarine

currents, and wind and wave driven currents. Tidal currents outside the

entrance and the large-scale continental shelf circulation are relatively
weak, generally less than 20 cm/sec (less than 1/2 knot). The currents

caused by the river flow are of similar strength. These currents are
all too weak to move even fine sands, though they may transport the

silt and clay fractions that are already in suspension. The really
.Amportant movers of sediment are the currents driven by local winds

(up to 80 cm/sec or about 1.6 knots) and the currents caused by locally-
generated seas and swell generated elsewhere. Sign ificant wave heights
may range up to 33 ft, with a 13 second period, and the resultant
currents may reach 80 cm/sec at the bottom. The threshold speed for
transport of all the materials found in the study area is about 29

cm/sec (about 0.6 knots). Currents of this speed will carry silts and

clays in suspension and sands as bedload. The coarsest material found
on the shelf as a result of dredged material disposal (diamater larger

than .18 mm or 2.5 0), cannot be resuspended by even the most violent

storms and moves only as bedload. Finer sands can be carried as
suspended loads by storms and as bedload during non-storm periods.
Bedload transport is a slow process; sediments move as sand
waves, as individual grains bounce along the bottom. Even a major
storm (of the sort that occurs only-once in several years), will result
in a bedload transport distance of perhaps 350 feet over a several
day period. Suspended sediment, in contrast, moves with the water.
Thus, virtually all movement of fine sands (.15 mm or 2.75 0 to .09 mm
or 3.5 0) occurs during the few storms every year that are strong
enough to resuspend this material. The general direction of bedload

208-38

transport is to the north and slightly offshore. This is the same
direction as suspended sediment transport during most major storms.
The same conclusion was reached by Ballard (1964) in his study of near-
shore sediments. Lockett (1967) concluded incorrectly that the transport
was primarily to the south. The conclusion that the longshore transport
is mainly to the north is firmly established.
These facts allow a partial explanation of the seasonal

movements of sediment on the continental shelf near the mouth. The

most sediment is carried out of the river during high flow periods,

generally in the spring, but occasionally in the winter. The coarser

sediments are deposited on the tidal delta, as mentioned above. The

silts and clays stay in suspension longer and move to the south and
offshore during fair weather (winds and currents flow to the south).

They move to the north and close to the coast during stormy periods
(winds and currents flow to the north). It appears that large

volumes of fine sediment are deposited to the south of the mouth of the

river during the summer; they are then moved to the north (and somewhat

offshore), during the winter. Some of the finest sediment, of course,

does not settle out on the shelf and moves out to sea. The result is

considerable seasonal variation of sediment characteristics near the

mouth and the sorting of particles with different sizes and densities.

one of the more interesting features of the sediment patterns

in the study area is the concentration of relatively fine, but dense

magnetic minerals (known as black sands); they occur in the nearshore

area, both north and south of the jetties. This material originates

from the river, and the observed deposits result from the sorting out
of the small percentage of magnetic material in the river sediments.
The authors speculate that enough of this material has accumulated to

trap further magnetic minerals in the magnetic field generated by the

existing deposits.

Research efforts were concentrated in two dredged material
disposal areas: B and G (Figure 208-16). Approximately 28,000,000

cubic yards of material have been dumped in/or near B since 1957,

forming a distinctive bathymetric feature, somewhat inshore of-the
authorized area (Figure 208-16). This feature contains some 10,000,000

cubic yards of the material. Mineralogical analysis shows a plume

208-39

0
00

IWac

100 8 60 40 Baker Bay

120
Q,

Pacific

Ocean

Channel----.----,
E

C.,
10,11, DMM
South Jetty

160

F
Depths in feet below MLLW

Figure 208-16
corps of Engineers dredged material disposal site for the project at'the mouth of the Columbia River.
From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1975

of material that has moved to the north away from site B. Since almost
none of the dredged material deposited here was subject to resuspension,

the balance of the material dumped at B must be in this plume. Records

of the amounts of material disposed of are not sufficiently accurate to

merit a detailed comparison, however.

Site G was an experimental area; 600,000 cubic yards of dredged

material were dumped there, inan attempt to determine the effects of

disposal on the marine environment. About 71% or 424,000 cubic yards

of this material formed a recognizable bathymetric feature. Since more

than 99% of the material deposited at Site G is too coarse to be

resuspended, it appears that some 28% of the material was not deposited

in the study area or could not be detected by the methods used.
Deposition of material outside the authorized area remains a problem

in most hopper dredging. Sediment transport data suggest that the
material at both sites B and G is quite stable. After only four

months, the dredged material at site G was already largely covered
over by a thin layer of finer material from the normal seasonal

migration of sediments in the area. Because of the lack of resuspension,
increased turbidity is not a long-term environmental problem. Most of

the environmental impacts of the disposal in site G were the immediate

ones that occurred at the time of disposal. Problems included
increased turbidity, smothering of organisms and disruption of fishing

activities. Populations of fish and benthic animals do not recover

for several months after disposal.

208-41

208.7 REFERENCES

A. Ballard, R.L. 1964. Distribution of Beach Sediment Near-the
Columbia Ridge. Technical Report #98. Department of Oceanography,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.

A study of the texture, minerology and transport of sediment
between Tillamook Head and Grays Harbor. The discussion of sedi-
ment transport and the distribution of heavy minerals are
valuable.

B. Haushild, W.L., H.H. Stevens, Jr., J.L. Nelson and G.R. Dempster, Jr.
1973. Radionuclides in Transport from Pasco to Vancouver, Washington.
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 433-N. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

In addition to the transport of radionuclides, this volume
contains data on the water discharge and suspended sediment concen-
trations, from which suspended sediment transports at Pasco and
Vancouver may be calculated.

C. Haushild,.W.L. K.W. Perkins, H.H. Stevens, G.R. Dempster, Jr., and
J.L. Glenn. 1966. Progress Report: Radionuclide Transport of
the Columbia River, Pasco to Vancouver, Washington Reach, July 1962
to September 1963. U.S. Geological Survey. Open File Report,
Portland, Oregon.

This report includes estimates of suspended and total sediment
transport for water year 19 63, for five stations including the
Columbia River at Vancouver and the Willamette River at Portland,
Oregon.

D. Hickson, R.E., and F.W. Rodolf. 1950. "History of Columbia River
Jetties." IN Proc. First Conference on Coastal Engineering,
Chapter 32. Council on Wave Research, University of California,
pp.283-298.

A readable history of the Columbia River at the Mouth Project,
contains some early bathymetric charts and details of early
attempts to achieve a deeper channel.

E. Higley, D.L., R.L. Holton, and P.D. Komar. 1976. Analysis of
Benthic Infauna Communities and Sedimentation Patterns of a Proposed
Fill Site and Nearby Regions in the Columbia River Estuary: Part I
and II.

Part I contains analysis of the effects of the proposed Port of
Astoria fill west of Pier 3 on the benthic populations on the site.
The amphipod Corophium was found in high concentrations at the
site and elsewhere. Part II consists of a brief analysis of sedi-
mentation patterns in the port pier slips and adjacent areas.

208-42

F. Hubbell, D.W. and J.L. Glenn. 1973. Distribution of Radionuclides
in Bottom Sediments of the Columbia River Estuary. U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 433-L. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. (Stock No. 2401"00247). 63pp.

Data on 172 surficial sediment samples from the estuary are
summarized. Specific data on 27 cores (geomorphic position, sedi-
ment description, remarks) are presented as well. The authors
divide the estuary bottom into geomorphic areas of channels, slopes
and flats and longitudinal divisions of marine, transition and
fluvial based on sediment characteristics. Vertical profiles of
sediments are summarized. Radiological techniques are used to
estimate the per cent and absolute amounts of fine sediments (less
than 62 microns) retained in the estuary annually. Net deposition
rate at a site above Tongue Point is also presented. This publi-
cation gives the reader an appreciation for the complexity of sedi-
ment characteristics of the Columbia River Estuary and is part of
the best work to date on Columbia River Estuary sediments.

G. Hubbell, D.W., J.L. Glenn and H.H. Stevens. 1971. "Studies of
Sediment Transport in the Columbia River Estuary." IN Proceedings
of the 1971 Technical Conference on Estuaries in the Pacific
Northwest. Circular 42. Engineering Experiment Station, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon. pp.190-226.

Information on sediment transport and deposition in the
Columbia River Estuary was obtained by measuring and sampling flow,
surveying the bed with acoustic techniques, and determining radio-
nuclide levels. Flow measurements and water sediment samples show
that temporal variations in suspended-sediment concentrations and
in suspended-sediment discharges are large and significantly affected
by a turbidity maximum that develops and migrates longitudinally
in the estuary. Bottom sediment transport along the channels and
marginal slopes for both the north and south channel is discussed.
A generalized map of bottom sediment movement during low flow is
presented. Information is given on retention of fine sediments
within the estuary and net deposition rate at a site above
Tongue Point.

H. Johnson, Vernon G. and Norman H. Cutshall. 1975. Geochemical
Baseline Data, Youngs Bay, Oregon, 1974: Final Report to Alurnax
Pacific Aluminum Corporation. (Karla J. McMechan, ed.). School of
Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 65pp.
This report summarizes geochemical data for Youngs Bay, provides
a baseline record of fluoride and selected trace metals in Youngs Bay
sediments, identifies areas that might serve as heavy metal traps,
and provides information on recent depositional history of bay
sediment.

208-43

I. Krone, R.B. 1971. Investigation of Causes of Shoaling in Slips
One and' Two, Port of Astoria, prepared for the Port of Astoria.
Davis, California. 16pp.
A limited study designed to estimate the source and cause of
shoaling in port slips. It includes particle size data and
volatile solids content of sediments taken at four sample sites
in slips 1 and 2, a description of flocculation processes in the
estuary, and estimates of sediment sources made by analyzing,
Corps of Engineers physical model tests run at 600,000 cfs.

J. Lockett, John B. 1962. Phenomena Affecting Improvement of the
Lower Columbia Estuary and Entrance. Presented at the Eighth
Conference on Coastal Engineering, Mexico City, Mexico. U.S. Army
Engineering Division, North Pacific.
This paper describes work undertaken to improve the lower
Columbia Estuary and Entrance for navigation and discusses past
concepts of phenomena controlling the sediment transport regime
of this area as related to these improvements.

K. Lockett, John B. 1967. "Sediment Transport and Diffusion:
Columbia Estuary and Entrance." Journal of Waterways and Harbors
Division, Proceedings of American Society of Civil Engineers.
Vol. 93, No. WW4, Proceedings Paper 5601. pp.167-175.
This paper describes navigation improvements and dredging
activities in estuary, reviews Corps of Engineers physical model
studies, and describes sediment texture, transport and diffusion.
A generalized map illustrating sediment transport patterns in the
estuary is given. River sediments are transported predominantly
down the navigation channel, as indicated by their negative
skewness. Ocean derived sediments move predominantly upstream.

L. Ocean Engineering Programs. 1975. Physical Characteristics of
the Youngs Bay Environs. School of Engineering, Corvallis, Oregon.

Contains a readable discussion of tides and currents in the
estuary and the various geodetic datum levels. Reports the results
of research on the tides and tidal currents in Youngs Bay and River,
and in the Skipanon and Lewis and Clark Rivers.

M. Shepard, F.P. 1963. Submarine Geology. Harper and Row, New York,
N.Y. Second Edition. 555pp.
The most frequently used text in marine geology, containing
chapters on instrumentation, waves, physical properties of sediment,
sediment transport, beaches and shore processes and many other
topics. Some chapters are readable by the layman, some are not.
There is a third edition that covers substantially different material.

208-44

N. Sternberg, R.W., J.G. Creager, W. Glassley, J. Johnson. At press.
Aquatic Disposal Field Investigations Columbia River Disposal
Site, Oregon. Environmental Effects Laboratory. U.S. Army
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station. Vicksburg, Mississippi.

A lengthy and technical study of the effects of dredge spoil
disposal at sea in sites B and G off the mouth of the Columbia
River. Sediment texture, minerology and transport, and currents
in the area are discussed. Material deposited in Sites B and G
appear to be quite stable.

0. Stevens, H.H. Jr., D.W. Hubbell, and J.L. Glenn. 1973. Model
for Sediment Transport Through an Estuary Cross Section. Am. Soc.
Civil Eng., 21st Annual Hydraulics Div. Speciality Conference.
pp.279-291.

A highly technical paper explaining a method used to calculate
suspended sediment transport through a cross section off Astoria
during the period March 1968 to June 1970.

P. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1938. Mouth of
the Columbia River, Oregon and Washington. Portland, Oregon. 15pp.
plates and photographs.
A readable history of early jetty construction at the mouth.
Interesting photographs and early bathymetric charts.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1975. Columbia
and Lower Willamette River Maintenance and Completion of the 40-foot
Navigation Downstream of Vancouver, Washington and Portland, Oregon:
Final Impact Statement.

Impact statement outlining possible impacts, both negative and
positive, of completing and maintaining the navigation channel.
Discusses actual projects, methods and disposal areas.

208-45

0 0 0

I
Lf-----@ u I PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS
@@ 10 a
I

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

209 PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS .................................. 209-1
209.1 DREDGING AND DISPOSAL ................................. 209-1
A. Dredge Methods ........................................ 209-1
1. Hopper Dredge ..................................... 209-1
2. Pipeline Dredge ................................... 209-2
3. Clamshell Dredge .................................. 209-3
4. "Sandwick ......................................... 209-4
B. Disposal Methods ...................................... 209-4
C. Disposal Sites & Additional Filled Lands .............. 209-5
D. Projects .............................................. 209-6
209.2 DIKES AND LEVEES ...................................... 209-12
A. Diking, Drainage and IT2rovement ...................... 209-12
Districts
B. Flood Control Structures .............................. 209-15
C. Estuarine Restoration ................................. 209-15
209.3 JETTIES AND PILE DIKES ................................ 209-17
A. Jetties ................................................ 209-17
B. Pile Dikes ............................................ 209-18
209.4 ROADWAYS AND CAUSEWAYS ................................ 209-18
209.5 REFERENCES ............................................ 209-21

FIGURES

209-1 Active and Potential Spoil Sites ...................... 209-6*
209-2 Flood Control Structures .............................. 209-16*

TABLES

209-1 Land Disposal Sites (Habitat, Wildlife ................ 209-7
and Size)
.209-2 Authorized Dredging Projects .......................... 209-10
209-3 Flood Control Districts ............................... 209-13
209-4 Traffic Volumes on Major Roads ........................ 209-20

*Figure follows the page indicated.

209 PHYSICAL ALTERATIONS

Since their arrival in the lower Columbia area, people have altered

the natural environment to make more efficient use of resources. Although

there have been natural changes, the human changes have probably had a
greater impact on the area. As technology has advanced, more dramatic
alterations to the natural estuary have occurred.

This section will discuss man-made alterations to the estuary area.

It will examine both the reasons for and the problems associated with actions

such as dredging, filling, and dike and jetty construction in the estuary
area, and it will also provide general information about dredging methods

available to the Portland District Corps of Engineers.

209.1 DREDGING AND DISPOSAL

A. Dredge Methods

Four major factors determine the type of dredge used for a project.

The first is the location of the area to be dredged, second is the size
of the area to be dredged, third is the availability of disposal sites, and
wind and wave conditions in the area to be dredged constitute the fourth
factor. Hopper dredges and other methods that require short set-up times
are used to remove small shoals in the estuary and all shoals in open
water, while pipeline dredges, which require a long set-up time, are used
where extensive dredging is required.

1. Hopper Dredges

These dredges are self-propelled, ocean-going vessels that store
the dredged material in hoppers (holding tanks), until reaching a disposal
site. Because they can operate in rough and open water, hopper dredges

are used to maintain the mouth of the Columbia River and channels where

pipeline dredges cannot operate, or where there are no nearby disposal

sites.

Hopper dredges are equipped with one or two large centrifugal
pumps, with suction pipes hinged on each side of the ship. The intake is
toward the stern of the ship and is raised and lowered by cables. The

suction pipes are equipped with broad scrapers that feed a thin layer of

bottom materials into the pipes as they are dragged along the bottom.
As the material is pumped into the hopper, the sediments settle out and the
liquid overflow is discharged into the water. When the hoppers are full,

the dredge moves to the disposal site, large valves in the bottom of the
hoppers are opened, and the material is flushed out. Hopper dredges

often require many runs over the same course to attain the desired depth

and width for the project.

The Portland District Corps of.Engineers uses three hopper dredges:

the Biddle, the Harding and the Pacific. The Biddle has a capacity of

3,060 cubic yards, a maximum dredging depth of 62 feet, and a minimum

dredging depth of 17 feet 7 inches. Its cruising-range is 4000 miles.

The dredge Harding has a capacity of 2,682 cubic yards, a maximum
dredging depth of 62 feet, and a minimum depth of 20 feet. The cruising

radius is 2,200 miles.

The Pacific has a.500 cubic yard capacity, can dredge to a maximum

depth of 45 feet, and has a minimum dredging depth of 12 feet. The
Pacific has a cruisingIrange of 5000 miles. None of these dredges can

keep up with'the shoaling problem of the mouth of the Columbia.

In 19771 the dredge Essayons, the largest in the United States,
worked at the mouth to deepen the'channel to the authorized depth of

forty-eight feet. The Essayons is from the Philadelphia District Corps of

Engineers. @If the channel across the Columbia bar is ever deepened,

a new dredge would have to be built to maintain the authorized depth.

2. Pipeline Dredge

Pipeline dredges usually consist of a large centrifugal pump

mounted on a nonpropelled, specially designed barge. Bottom materials are

pumped up through a large diameter suction pipe to the barge, and then

on to the disposal area through & pipeline network. The end ofithe suction

pipe is equipped with a revolving cutter-head that breaks up the bottom
material for easier transport. The suction pipe with cutter-head is
lowered to the desired depth by a large hinged ladder controlled by cables,

that extend forward from the bow of the barge. The cutter-head is turned

209-2

by a shaft that extends down the ladder and is powered by a motor on the
barge. The pipeline network is floated on pontoons, extending as far as
4,000 feet to the disposal site. Greater distances can be attained
through the use of booster pumps.

Pipeline dredges are towed to the dredge site, and the pipeline
is assembled. During operation, the dredge is held in position by

anchors, swing lines, and spuds. Spuds are long, steel shafts that

pass through openings in the barge and can be raised and lowered
independently. They are dropped into and raised from the river bottom
by a spud motor; they serve as a pivot for the dredge when positioned

alternately.

When the barge is in position, the spuds are dropped and anchors
are placed on each side. Swing lines attached to the anchors can then
be tightened or loosened to swing the bow and cutter-head back and

.forth in a small arc. During dredging, only one spud is placed at a

time, thus allowing the dredge to move forward, as it swings back and

forth. Dredging can be almost continuous, except for changes in
anchor positions and addition of pipeline sections.

The major limitation of the pipeline dredge is that disposal

areas must be relatively close to the dredging operations. The main
advantage is the large volume of material that can be dredged in a
short period of time.
The Corps of Engineers currently operates only one pipeline
dredge, the Oregon. This dredge can move 2,000 to 3,000 cubic
yards of material an hour. It has a maximum dredging depth of 85
feet and a minimum dredging depth of 12 feet.
3. Clamshell Dredge
These dredges consist of a floating platform with a crane

operation and an accompanying barge. The platform and barge are

towed to the dredging location and are held by anchor lines. The
dredging is done by a "clamshell" or shovel at the end of a cable. This
cable is raised and lowered by a motor, so that the shovel drops to

the bottom, gathers a load of bottom material and is raised to the

surface. The crane then turns and deposits the material in the barge

209-3

alongside. When the barge is filled to capacity, it is towed to the

disposal site, where large valves on.the bottom are opened.and the

material is flushed out.

4. ."Sandwick"

The "Sandwick" is a specially modified landing craft, mechanized
with a hinged, hydraulically,operated deflection door installed on the

stern of the vessel. Because the "Sandwick" does not remove material

through the use of pumps or buckets, it is not considered a dredge, but it

is termed a sand bypasser.

Normal procedure provides for the "Sandwick" to locate itself
over the shoal to be removed and place four anchors opposite each

quarter of the craft. With the anchors in place, the deflector door is
lowered and the throttles are opened to about three-quarter speed. This
causes large volumes of water, moving at a relatively high velocity,
to be directed downward into.theshoal. This agitates the material so

that it can be carried by the currents to settle in locations up to

several hundred feet away.

In silts, material can be agitated at depths of 20 feet and
displaced 400 to 600 feet or more, without the "Sandwick" changing

positions. As the size of material to be displaced increases, the

working depth and the distance the material is displaced decreases.

B. Disposal Methods
Methods of disposal vary with the type of dredge, dredge site,
and disposal sites. Hopper dredges deposit their material at sites
which are to form the base for new islands, at sites where pipeline
dredges later will deposit the material on land, and at ocean disposal

sites.

For pipeline dredges, two methods are normally used. The first

is a method called "end dumping." In this process, the end of the
discharge pipe is placed in the,dispo.sal area, with no retaining dikes.
Bottom sediments and water are pumped through the pipeline to the
disposal area. The mixture is then allowed to flow over the disposal
area; most of the sediments settle out before the water finds its way

back to the main river course.

A second disposal method for pipeline dredged material is

209-4

formation of an open ended, linear dike that runs parallel to the river.
The discharge pipe is aimed in a direction which forces the exhaust
water to flow around the end of the dike; this provides the greatest amount
of settling time before, the excess water returns to the-main -1!.!
channel. As disposal continues, the dike is lengthened to continue to
allow adequate settling time.
C. Disposal Sites and Additional Filled Lands

There are numerous sites where dredge materials are deposited
within the estuary region. Disposal sites are in the estuary waters, on the
estuary shorelands, and in the open ocean. Figure 209-1 shows the active
and potential disposal sites for channel maintenance projects within

the estuary region.

The amount of material that can be deposited at a water disposal

site is difficult to determine. The deposited material is continually

transported to other areas by existing currents. Material in
adjacent areas is being transported into and through the disposal area.
.In addition, it should be noted that a disposal site is a target area.
When the hoppers are flushed, it is projected that the material will be
deposited within the boundaries of the designated disposal sites. However,
because of currents that may exist, the material does not always land on target.
The criteria used by the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers for
determining when a land disposal site is exhausted include the depth

of the fill (the amount the fill exceeds twenty feet Columbia River
Datum), the distance from the height of the surrounding dike, and the

cost of continuing disposal at the site.
Disposal area B is located in the Pacific Ocean. This site is used
for material dredged from both the mouth of the Columbia River and the
Columbia River channel. The disposal area is 230 and is at a water
depth of 130 feet.

Area D is located south of Chinook, Washington in the Columbia
River. The source of the disposed material is the mouth of the Columbia
River and the Columbia River channel. The disposal site is 92 acres,

at a depth of 50 feet.

Area E is an ocean disposal site. It is used to deposit

dredged material from both the mouth of the Columbia River and the

209-5

Columbia River channel. The site has 92 acres and a depth of

70 feet.
Area F, in the Pacific Ocean, is used solely for disposal of
material dredged from the channel at the mouth of the Columbia River.
This area is 74 acres, at a depth of 125 feet.

Area G is an experimental site, used on a one time only basis,
to determine the effects and movement of disposed material.
Additional estuary disposal sites are at Tansy Point (6 acres

at 50 feet), Point Adams (6 acres at 25 feet), and Sand Island
(6 acres at 40 feet). The Tansy Point and Point Adams sites are used for
material dredged from the Columbia and Lower Willamette Rivers. The
Sand Island disposal site is used for dre.dged-mateiials from Baker Bay.
The land disposal sites listed in Table 209-1 are listed
according to the numbers assigned them in Figure 209-1. The table
includes the site location, habitats on the site (when percentage is
given, it is an estimate), wildlife value, and the acreage, according

to the U.S. Army.Corps of Engineers.

Areas noted as additional filled lands in Figure 209-1 are
primarily old disposal areas. 'Based on calculations made . from-this figure,
there are over 700 acres of fill in the estuary. Of this total,

approximately 250 acres are active disposal sites. As shown on the
map, areas previously filled by man are concentrated in the Youngs Bay/

Astoria area. Besides old disposal areas, filled lands include

industrial and commercial sites that have been leveled and raised above

the floodplain with fill. Downtown Astoria was filled after a fire

destroyed virtually the entire downtown area; this fill raised the

land above water and flood level.

D. Projects
Figure 209-1 also provides information on the projects currently
being carried out in the Columbia River estuary and the tributaries

that flow into it. The term "project" not only refers to the
completion and maintenance of the main navigation channel but also
includes a number of side projects that are related to the main channel.
Table 209-2 lists all projects-that have been authorized in the
Columbia River estuary, whether they have been completed or not.

209-6

124- 5d 123- 45' 40'

.01 0 4

101

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

TABLE 209-1 Page 1 of 3

LAND DISPC;SAL SITES

Site Location JApprox River Mile) Habitat Wildlife Size
1. Rice Island (RM 21 .0) fill/sand, grass occassional. waterfowl,
shorebird and aquatic
mammal use 130
2. Miller Sands Island (RM 23.5) fill/sand, grass waterfowl,.shorebirds,
aquatic mammals (within
wildlife reserve) 240
3. Altoona, Wa. (RM 24.3) sand beach 10
4. (RM 24.8) fill/sand, grass shorebirds 10
5. Pillar Rock (RM 27.1) fill/sand, grass little use 10
6. Jim Crow Sands (RM 27.2) fill/sand, grass, pines waterfowl, shorebirds 70
7. Jim Crow Point (RM 28.2) fill/sand waterfowl resting area 10
8. Pile dikes off channel (RM 29. 1) open water/Pile dikes possibly some fish use 20
9. Woody Island (RM 29.1) 75%- fill/sand waterfowl & shorebird 20
25%- tideland/willow resting

10. Upstream of Brookfield, SO%- fill/sand some waterfowl & mammal use 10
Wa. (RM 29.5) 20%- tideland/alderf use
willow
11. Fitzpatrick Island (RM 31.2) 90%- fill/sand important waterfowl & shore-
10%- tideland/marsh bird resting & feeding 30

12. Downstream of Skamokawa, fill/sand, snags, spruce, within wildlife reserve
Wa. (RM 33.4) willow, grass songbirds, small mammals 60
0
ko

CC)

TABLE 209-1 CONT. Page 2 of 3

LAND DISPOSAL SITES

Site Location (Approx Piver Mile) Habitat Wildlife Size

13. Between Brooks Slough and tideland/spruce, alder important wetland habitat 20
Skamokawa slough (33.7) willow, sedge, grass for deer, invertebrates,
birds

14. Welch Island No. Bank (RM 34.0) fill/sand little use 20

15. N. ti-p of Tenasillahe SO%- beach/sand little use 10
island (RM 36.8) 20%- tideland/willow, alder

16. Upstream end of fill/sand, willow, grass little use, within wild-
Tenasillahe Island (RM 38.3) lif;@ reserve 60
17. Nigger Island (RM 38.0) 75%- tideland/marsh important deer, waterfowl
25%- tideland, willow, shorebird, small mammal
cottonwood, sedge @abitat

18. Duncan Slough,_.- fill/sand fishermen access 30
Puget Island (RM 38.7)
19. Along Clifton Channel (RM 38-7) fill/sand, debris little use, fishing access 20
20. Mauna, Or. (RM 40.5) riparian, small trees mammals 20

21. W. of Welcome Slough fill/sand, willow fishing access 30
Puget Island. (RM 40.9)
22. Wauna, Or. '(RM. 40.8) fill/sandt'water little use, 20

23. NW end Coffee Pot Island(RM 41-3)fili/sand I, willow shorebirds 20

24. Puget Island, SE of diked marsh, pasture waterfowl use 10
Welcome Slough (RM 41.2)

25. SE end Coffee Pot Island(RM 42.5)fill/sand, grass, willow -little use, some waterfowl 50

TABLE 209-1 CONT. Page 3 of 3

LAND DISPOSAL SITES

Site Location (Appriox River Mi .le) Habitat Wildlife -Size
26. Driscoll Slough (RM 42.9) fill/sand little use so

27. Driscoll Slough (RM 43-0) riparian/Douglas fir, deer, small mammals,
alder, Big leaf maple songbirds 100

28. Westport Slough (RM 43.6) riparian/cottonwood, deer, small mammals,
alder, grass, willow, furbearers, songbirds 140
Douglas fir
29. Westport Slough (RM 44-0) fill/sand little use so
30. Pancake Point (RM 43.8) fill/sand little use, fishing access 20

31. White Island (RM 45.0) fill/sand none 40
32. E. end Puget Island (RM 46.3) fill/sand waterfowl resting 220
33. Off E. end Puget Island (RM 47.1)water 30
34. Cape Horn, Wa. (RM 47.6) fill/sand fishing access 20
35. Old Waterford Cannery (RM 48-7) fil.1/sand little use 10

36. Eureka Island, Bar (RM 50.9) fill/sand, grass, willow some songbird use 70
cottonwood

37. Riverbank E. edge of
Eagle Cliff (RM-51.3) fill/sand, cottonwood fishing access, some
songbird use 30
acres
0

0 TABLE 209-2 Page 1 of 2

DREDGING PROJECTS
0 COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

Authorized
Depth (ft) and River Dredging Dredge Disposal
Project Width (ft) Mile Frequency Type Sites* Amount**
Columbia River at 48 x 2640 Annual Hopper Ocean and Estuary 4,000,000 C.Y.
the mouth

Columbia River

- Astoria Area 40 x 600 3-21 Hopper Harrington Point
Sump, Area D

- Miller Sands 40 x 600 22-25 4 out of every Hopper 1, 2 850,000 C.Y.
5 years

- Pillar Rock Bar 40 x 600 25-28 Annual Hopper, 6, assorted
Pipeline WA beaches 310,000 C.Y.

- Brookfield - Welch 40 x 600 29-33 Annual Hopper,
Island Beach Pipeline 9, 11 250,000 C.Y.

- Skanokawa Bar 40 x 600 33-36" 1 out of every
5 years 12 180,000 C.Y.

- Puget Island Bar 40 x 600 36-40.5 3 out of every
5 years is, 18 230,000 C.Y.

- Wauna - Lower
Westport Bar 40 x 600 40.5-45 4 out of every 21, 22, 23, 25
5 years 26,.27, 30 510,000 C.Y.

- Upper Westport
Bar 40 x 600 45-42 3 out of every 31, 32, 34 420,000 C.Y.
5 years

- Eureka Bar 40 x 600 49-53 2 out of every
5 years 35, 37 150,000 C.Y.

- Columbia River at 10 x 150 (from mooring 3 Annual Hopper,
Baker Bay for 2.5 Miles) Pipeline,
"Sandwick" Sand Island 30,000 C.Y.

TABLE 209-'2 CONT. Page 2 of 2

DREDGING PROJECTS
COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY
Authorized
Depth (ft) and River Dredging Dredge -Disposal
Project Width (ft) mile Frequency Type sites* Amount**

Columbia River Chinook
Chinook, WA 10 x 150 7 Annual Pipeline, [email protected]' 20,000 C.Y.
to Sand Island 10 x 275-500 (turning Hopper Area D
Basin)

Skipanon Channel, 30 x 200 (1.8 miles long) 10 as needed Pipeline, Tansy Point,
Ok 30 (turning Basin) Hopper along Channel
12 (mooring basin)
6 x 40 (4500 ft. up-
stream from railroad
bridge)

Youngs Bay & 10 x 150 12 as needed Pipeline along shoreline
Youngs River, OR

Pipeline along shoreline
Deep River, WA 8 x 100 (at entrance) 22 as needed
8 x 60 (to Deep River,
Wash)

Grays Rivert WA .23 No maintenance has been done since project completed in 1909.

Skamokawa Creek, WA 6.5 x 75 33.5 as needed Pipeline
"Sandwick" along shoreline

Skamokawa Slough, 14A 24 x 150 34 No work has ever been done

Elochoman Slough, WA 10 x 100 39 Every 5 to Pipeline
10 years "Sandwick" along shoreline

Lewis & Clark 10 x 150 (1.5 miles) 13 Every 10 years. Pipeline along shoreline 50,000 C.Y.
Connecting Channel 10 x 100 (2.9 miles)

Astoria Harbor and 40 deep 13 Annual Clamshell ocean, Area D 120,000 C.Y.
0 Turning Basin
*See Figure 209-1.
**Average Annual Amount

There are two new major projects currently being considered

that would affect the Columbia River estuary. The first con sists of

a proposed fill just west of pier three at the Port of Astoria. The
fill site, according to the Port's permit application, would provide

a long-term disposal site for dredged materials from the two slips and

the turning basin. This would amount to approximately 200,000 cubic
yards annually. It is proposed that this filled area would eventually
have a commercial value-for port development. At present, status of
this project is undecided, due to the refusal of the Oregon State
Division of State Lands to agree to a permit. Their decision:is based
on the biological productivity of the area.
The second proposed project entails the deepening of the main
navigation channel to 55 or 60 feet across the bar. The current depth

over the bar is 48 feet. This project is still in the development

stage. A feasibility study,is currently under consideration by the

Portland District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The channel would be
narrowed from 2,600 feet to 1,600'feet, and-repair of the South Jetty and
building of Jetty B are contemplated. The navigation channel might

also be realigned.

209.2 DIKES AND LEVEES

A. Diking, Drainage, and Improvement Districts

of the 170,000 acres of floodplain bordering the lower Columbia

River (mouth to RM 125), approximately 110,500 acres, or 65% are
protected by dikes and levees. Diking, drainage, and improvement
districts have been formed to take,responsibility for maintaining these

structures. The administrative positions within these districts are
elected. The districts are considered political entities, and as
such, have taxation power and, in Washington, the power of emminent

domain.

There are 21 flood control districts located.in the Columbia

River estuary area. Table 209-3 shows the floodplain elevation and
levee height within each flood control district. This data is
currently being reviewed and updated by the Portland District, U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers. As noted in the table, the flood control

209-12

TABLE 209-3 Page 1 of 2

FLOOD CONTROL DISTRICTS

Floodplain Elevations,
Local Name Legal Name and Elevation Top of Levee Freeboard Datum
CLATSOP COUNTY, OREGON

Blind Slough Area Clatsop County
Diking District #7 1933 H.W. 8.6 11.6 3.0 M.S.L.

City of Warrenton
Diking District 1933 H.W. 7.6 11.6 4.0 M.S.L.

City of Warrenton Formed one district
Diking District #2 effective 2/12/73 1933 H.W. 7.6 11.6 4.0 M.S.L.

City of Warrenton
Diking District #3 1933 H.W. 7.6 11.6 4.0 M.S.L.

Clatsop County
Drainage District #1 1933 H.W. 8.8 11.8 3.; M.S.L.

Clatsop County
Diking District #2 1933 H.W. 7.6 11.6 4.0 M.S.L.

Clatsop County
Diking District #5 1933 H.W. 7.6 10.6 3.0 M.S.L.

John Day River Area Clatsop County
Diking District #14 1933 H.W. 7.8 8.8 1.0 M.S.L.

Karlson Island Clatsop County
Diking District #10 1933 H.W. 8.5 10.5 2.0 M.S.L.

Knappa Area Clatsop County
Diking District #12 1933 H.W. 8.6 10.6 2.0 M.S.L.
1>

Lewis & Clark Clatsop County
River Area Diking District #11 & 8 1933 H.W. 7.7 .10.7 to 8.7 3.0 to 1.0 M.S.L.
0
Tenasillahe Island Clatsop County U.S.E.%2.56
Diking District #6 1933 H.W. 11.9 14.9 3.0 Below M.S'.L.

W
0 TABLE 209-3 CONT. Page 2 of 2

FLOOD CONTROL DISTRICTS
Js

Floodplain Elevations,
Local Name Legal Name and Elevation Top of Levee Freeboard Datum

Walluski River Area!' Clatsop County
Diking District #13 1933 H.W. 7.7 7.7 to 6.0 None M.S.L.

Westport District Clatsop & Columbia
Counties, Diking 1876 Ii.w. 11-0 13.0 2.0 M.S.L.
District #15

Youngs River Area Clatsop County
Diking District #9 1933 H.W. 7.7 8.7 1.0 M.S.L.

PACIFIC COUNTY, WASHINGTON

Pacific County Revetment work only
Diking District #1

WAHKIAKUm COUNTY, WASHINGTON

Deep River Area 1933 H.W. 8.2 9.2 1.0 M.S.L.

Diking District #4 Wahkiakum County
Diking District #4 1933 H.W. 9.1 11.1 2.0 M.S.L.

Puget and Little Wahkiakum County Con-
Island Cohsolidated Diking 1876 H.W. 12.6 14.1 1.5 U.S.E.:2.62
District #1 Below M.S.L.

Skamokawa Creek Area Wahkiakum County, 1933 H.W.
Diking District #5 9.5 to 25.0 10.5 to 26.0 1.0 M.S.L.

Upper Grays River
Area 1933 H.W. 8.5 10.5 2.0 M.S.L.

*No longer active

From: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1970

structures are sufficient in height to withstand the previous high water.

However, the Corps of Engineers has estimated that many of the dikes in

the estuary area are not sufficient to withstand a 100-year, unregulated

flood event. In addition, many of the dikes are in serious states of
disrepair and could possibly be breached during flood stages.

B. Flood Control Structures

The alluvial land forming the floodplain has been used for

raising crops and grazing for many years. As early as 1899, residents
of the lower Columbia area realized that use of the floodplain for any
agricultural activity, other than intermittent grazing, would require
levees to protect the land from the annual floods. Most of the

existing flood protection facilities in the area were constructed

prior to 1925.

As noted before, approximately 65% of the floodplain*in the
lower Columbia area is protected by dikes and levees. Of approximately

36,604 acres of tideland soils in the estuary area, nearly 26,021

acres, or 71% are removed from the floodplain by flood control

structures. Figure 209-2 shows the location of dikes and the

protected floodplain.
Land uses in these diked areas range from conservation to

industry. By far, the largest land use of diked lands is agriculture.

This is evident in the Youngs Bay area and in eastern Clatsop County
around Brownsmead, and in Wahkiakum County. Conservation areas occur in
the Columbian White-Tailed Deer and Lewis and Clark Wildlife Refuges.
Many forested areas are also protected by dikes, especially in the Deep
River area. In almost all the protected areas, low density residential
districts occur, often in connection with the land use in that region.
C. Estuarine Restoration

In an estuary area that is ripe for development, potentially
productive areas should be considered for restoration to the estuary.
The recently adopted planning goals and guidelines that relate to

Oregon's coastal zone, address this issue in the Estuarine Resources

Goal,

The goal specifically states that "when dredge or fill activities
are permitted in inter-tidal or tidal marsh Areas, their effects

shall be mitigated by creation or restoration of another area of

209-15

similar biological potential..." In speculating which areas of the

estuary region could possibly undergo a change in land use to be

returned to estuarine activity, the following criteria might be

considered:

1. The area should be of suitable elevation.

2. It should currently have a low intensity land use.
3. The land should be publicly owned,. or public purchase should

be possible.
4. The land should not be artificially filled, or it must be

possible to remove the fill and restore the area to

intertidal or subtidal elevation.

5. There should be no adjacent land use that conflicts.with

restoration.

6. There should be a greater benefit accrued by restoring the

area to an estuarine condition than some other land use or

leaving it in its present condition.

In considering mitigation sites for dredge and fill activities

that provide areas of similar biological potential, the areas should
have similar ecological characteristics. This requires consideration

of the salinity regime, tidal exposure and elevation, substrate type,

current velocity and patterns, orientation to solar radiation, and the

slope.

While estuarine restoration is a valid concept, it should be

noted that additional lands have been formed both naturally and
artificially. Under the direction of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, the Miller Sands project at IR24 24 has created habitat

by planting on dredge disposal material.

The estuary has also been filling naturally. In Oregon, Sand
Island and the area east of Clatsop Spit have been accreting. Baker

Bay has also been filling. Based on information provided by John

Lockett in his article "Sediment Transport and Diffusion: Columbia River
Estuary and Entrance," it is estimated that approximately 12% of the
volume of the estuary below mean lower low water (MLLW) from upper

Sand Island to Tongue Point filled in, between 1868 and 1958. Although
precise information regarding all sites does,not exist, areas in the
estuary known to have been filled by man are shown in Figure 208-1.

209-16

05, 124- 55, 5d 123-45' 40'

101 0

- - ------------ ------

U-

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

209.3 JETTIES AND PILE DIKES

A. Jetties

Prior to the construction of the South Jetty in 1885, the channel

across the bar at the mouth of the Columbia River was unstable. A

natural cycle occurred in which Clatsop Spit grew and continually
encroached on the channel, pushing it to the north. Eventually, the

spit was breached and a swash channel across the spit was formed. The

swash channel eventually became the main channel, leaving the northern

portion of the spit as an island. Thus, there were at various times,

one or two channels at the mouth. The natural channel depth rarely

exceeded 25 feet. Investigation of old charts shows that Sand Island

was probably cut off from Clatsop Spit and gradually shifted north and

east to its present position.

Construction of the South Jetty, which was to run from Point

Adams, seaward for four and one-half miles, began in 1885. The
channel was not affected until 1889 when rapid construction began, and

the channel depth increased from 20 feet to 30 feet. However, the

channel continued to swing north and began to shoal, so additional

improvements were authorized to maintain a 40-foot channel across the

bar.

In 1903, extension of the South Jetty for two and one-half miles
was begun. This work was completed in 1913, and then work began on
the North Jetty. This jetty, running from Cape Disappointment to the

southwest approximately two and one-half miles, was completed in 1917.

Today, the two jetties are impressive structures. The South

Jetty has a top width that varies from 45 to 70 feet, with an elevation

of 26 feet above MLLW in some areas. The base width of the outer

portions is approximately 350 feet, and the total height from the

bottom is up-to 76 feet. Wave action has lowered the outer one and

one-half miles of the South Jetty to about MLLW. The dimensions of

the North Jetty are 25 feet wide on top, with an elevation of 28 to

32 feet above mean lower low water. Nearly 3 million tons of stone
were used in constructing the North Jetty.

While the construction of these two jetties improved the

entrance conditions to the Columbia River, the main channel still

209-17

shifted to the north, resulting in the erosion of Sand Island and
Peacock Spit. In the early 1930's , to prevent further shifting of the
channel,. Jetty A was built southward from Cape Disappointment, and four
pile dikes were constructed on the south side of Sand Island. Today the
channel is relatively stable, and.the natural scouring is.supplemented
by annual dredging to keep the average depth across the bar close to

48 feet. However, it has not been possible to maintain the authorized

channel width of 1/2 mile for the channel at the mouth.

B. Pile Dikes

Pile dikes are permeable structures built of a double row of timber
piles bolted together by a horizontal spreader beam to give them
stability. The piles are driven into the river bottom. They are usually
aligned perpendicular to the shoreline and reach toward the channel.
Pile dikes are generally constructed in a series of several dikes
and control the river flow by directing and constricting flows. The

same volume of water is confined to a narrower channel and has a

greater velocity, thereby providing a tendency toward self-maintenance

of the channel. This was the purpose for the construction of the three
pile dikes built on the south side of Sand Island, and the Chinook

Jetty built south of the town of Chinook, Washington across the state

boundary.

Pile dikes also serve to reduce bank erosion. While breaking

the effect of the current and directing it toward the channel, pile

dikes encourage the deposition of material along the dikes. Three

pile dikes were constructed near Tansy Point, where swift currents
previously eroded the bank.

Pile dikes may also have undesirable effects such as increased

erosion in other areas and increased sedimentation in channel areas

in the lee of a dike. Increased sedimentation in the Cathlamet and

Chinook channels is probably due in part, to the construction of
pile dikes designed to increase scour in the adjacent Columbia River

channel.

209.4 ROADWAYS AND CAUSEWAYS
There are four primary highways in the estuary areat U.S. 101,

U.S. 401, U.S. 30, and Washington State Road (SR) 4, -plus numerous

209-18

minor roads. These roadways are vital links for both intracommunity and

intercommunity travel. The residents count on an efficient road

system for both their own travel and for the shipment and receipt of

goods.

The four major roads mentioned above account for the majority of

traffic in the region U.S. 30 runs east-west through Clatsop County

along the Columbia River. U.S. 101 runs north-south through Clatsop
and Pacific Counties, crossing Youngs Bay as a causeway and bridge,

and crossing the Columbia River at the Astoria-Megler Bridge. The
north-south route divides at the Washington side of the bridge, with

U.S. 101 going west to Ilwaco and the Long Beach Peninsula and U.S. 401

going north to Naselle and State Highway 4. SR 4 is the east-west

route along the estuary in Washington. This road provides a direct

link from Longview and Kelso to the Washington coast.

Table 209-4 shows data on the traffic volume at various recorder

points on the highway system in the estuary. These figures indicate

average daily traffic totals (ADT), which is a year-round average
number of vehicles which pass the recording point in either direction,
in one day. They can be misleading in the analysis of road adequacy,
since they are average annual figures. What they don't demonstrate is

the high volumes of traffic during the tourist and fishing seasons,
when these highways experience peak loads. Such information should be

considered for road design and maintenance. The traffic records show

the monthly averages only at the permanent recorders, which are located
outside the CREST study area.

Permanent recorders are located on the highways that bring

traffic into the area, and they can be used to indicate possible peak

volumes. An example of the peak flows that occur are indicated by the
Gearhart recorder. Fluctuations are also shown by comparing the
August and January averages; these figures indicate that on an average
day in August, there was over three times as much traffic, as -on an
average day in January.

209-19

TABLE 209-4

TRAFFIC VOLUME OF MAJOR ROADS

Q0
Average Daily Traffic Count
0 Highway Location of Recorder 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

OREGON

U.S. 30 Westport Road 3100 3250 3300 3300
U.S. 30 Big Creek Bridge 316o 3250 3300 3300

U.S. 30 East City Limits,
Astoria 5400 5600 5600 5600

U.S. 30 West of Rainer
Recorder #05-006* 4000 4264 4567 4606

U.S. 101 Astoria Megler Bridge 1430 1500 1560 1570

U.S. 101 South City Limits of
Astoria, Youngs Bay
Bridge 8200 8700 8700 9000

U.S. 101 North of Gearhart,
Recorder #04-001* 5317 5751 5661 5464

WASHINGTON

S.R. 4 Junctiori of S.R. 401 1460 1750 1650 1900 2050

S.R. 4 Wahkiakum County Line 1700 1800 1700 2100 2250

S.R. 4 Cathlamet Western City
Limits 3150 3000 2850 2900 3150

U.S- 101 Chinook Unincorporated
Sign 2000 2250 260'0
U.S. 101 Ilwaco Eastern City Limits 1650 1650 1650 1850 .2000

S.R. 401 Junction of U.S. 101 1360 1280 1220 1380 1500

Permanent Recorder From: Washington State Department of Highways, 1972-1976;-.Oregon State Highway
Division, 1971-1974

209.5 REFERENCES

A. Barcom, Willard.. 1964. Waves and Beaches.

A book covering the dynamics of the ocean surface, the shore-
line, and the interaction of the two. Small section on shoreline
structures.

B. Hickson, R.E., and F.W.' Rodolf. 1950. "History of Columbia River
Jetties." Proceedings: First Annual Conference on Coastal
Engineering.

History of North and South Jetties and Jetty A and their effect
on Clatsop and Peacock Spits and the entrance channel.

C. Lockett, John B. 1967. "Sediment Transport and Diffusion: Columbia
Estuary and Entrance." Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Division,
Proceedings of the American Society_of Civil Engineers.
Discussion of sediments and transport agents in the Columbia
River and the entrance. Brief sections of jetties and dredging.

D. Murray, Thomas J. & Associates. 1975. Oregon Coastal Port
Development Plan, prepared for Oregon Coastal Ports Federation.
Description of port districts of Oregon coast and their condition.
Discussion of possible improvements and their cost. Alteration infor-
mation consists of possible Port of Astoria expansion and recommended
deepening of entrance and navigation channel.

E. Slotta, L.S. et al. 1974. An Examination of Some Physical and
Biological Impacts of Dredging In Estuaries.

An interdisciplinary stiidy of dredging on biological and other
physical systems present in estuaries.

F. State of Oregon, Highway Division. 1971-1974. Traffic Volume Tables.

Records of recorder stations on highways throughout the states
showing average daily totals of traffic volume, road description,
and some breakdowns on the type of vehicles.

G. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1975. Columbia and
Lower Willamette River Maintenance and Completion of the 40-Foot
Navigation Downstream of Vancouver, Washington and Portland, Oregon:
Final Impact Statement.

Impact statement outlining possible impacts, both negative and
positive, of completing and maintaining the navigation channel.
Discusses actual projects, methods, and disposal areas.

H. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1972. Lower Columbia
River Bank Protection Project, Oregon and Washington: Final Environ-
mental Impact Statement.

Discussion of impacts of construction and maintenance of dikes and
levees in the lower Columbia area. Construction and maintenance
methods and land uses protected by dikes.

209-21

I. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1976. Lower
Columbia River Bank Protection Project, Oregon and Washington:
Draft Environmental Statement (Supplement).
Update of the Corps' 1972 study entitled Lower Columbia River,
Bank Protection Project: EIS.

J. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1975. Navigable
Waters of the United States. Public Notice.

Listing of waters classified as Navigable Waters of the United
States by the Corps of Engineers.

K. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,.Portland District. 1975. 'turning
Basin at Astoria, Columbia and Lower Willamette Rivers, Oregon:
Final Environmental Impact Statement.

Discussion of possible positive and negative impacts of dredging
and maintaining a turning basin at Astoria. Discussion of dredging
methods and disposal sites.

L. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. 1972. Wahkiakum
County Consolidated Diking District No. 1, Flood Protection Project,
Wahkiakum County, Washington: Final Environmental Statement.

Discussion of possible beneficial and adverse impacts of main-
taining existing and constructing new dikes in Wahkiakum. County.

209-22

,)'@il @,
4-

"Mi TOPOGRAPHY SOILS AND
'0@0 ASSOCIATED HAZARDS
2 i

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

TOPOGRAPHY, SOILS AND ASSOCIATED HAZARDS

Robert'E. Blanchard
David Jay

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

210 TOPOGRAPHY, SOILS AND ASSOCIATED HAZARDS ................ 210-1
210.1 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY ...................................... 210-1
210.2 TOPOGRAPHY (SLOPE) ...................................... 210-4
210.3 SOILS ................................................... 210-6
A. Soil Characteristics .................................... 210-14
1. Depth of Seasonally High Water Table ................ 210-14
2. Permeability ........................................ 210-14
3. Percent of Slope ..................................... 210-14
4. Susceptibility to Flooding .......................... 210-14
5. Erosion Potential ................................... 210-15
6. Shrink-Swell Potential .............................. 210-15
7. Depth to Bedrock .................................... 210-15
8. Hydrologic Group .................................... 210-15
9. Agriculture Suitability ............................. 210-16
10. Capability Subclasses ............................... 210-17
B. Use of Map, Table & Matrix .............................. 210-18
210.4 HAZARDS ................................................. 210-18
A. Landslides .............................................. 210-18
B. Floods .................................................. 210-19
C. Earthquakes ............................................. 210-22
D. Bank Erosion ............................................ 210-23
E. Compressible Soils ...................................... 210-23
210.5 REFERENCES .............................................. 210-25

FIGURES

210-1 Geological History ...................................... 210-2
210-2 Slopes .................................................. 210-4*
210-3 Soil Associations ....................................... 210-6*
210-4 Hazard Map .............................................. 210-18*

TABLES

210-1 Clatsop County Slope Categories & Description ........... 210-5
210-2 Clatsop County Soil Associations & Components ........... 210-7
210-3 Pacific County Soil Associations & Components ........... 210-10
210-4 Wahkiakum County Soil Associations & Components ......... 210-12
210-5 Clatsop County Soil Characteristic Matrix ............... 210-14*
210-6 Pacific County Soil Characteristic Matrix ............... 210-14*
210-7 Wahkiakum County Soil Characteristic matrix ............. 210-14*
210-8 Flood Frequency Profiles ................................ 210-21

*Figures follows the page indicated.

210 TOPOGRAPHY, SOILS AND ASSOCIATED HAZARDS

People use various landforms for everything from aesthetics to

provision for their basic existence. Although the human relationship
with the land is basically of a positive nature, natural phenomena also
pose physical hazards to society.
This section will explore the geology and soils of the Columbia

River estuary area and describe their history,. uses and limitations.

Hazard areas will also be discussed, in an attempt to make people more

aware of the tenuous relationship between people and nature.

210.1 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

The geological history of the Oregon and Washington coasts is
one of alternating periods of uplift and of submersion under the sea.

Beds of undersea and terrestrial volcanic basalts and andesites alter-

nate with marine sediments, such as sandstones and siltstones.

Some 50 million years of geological history are summarized in
Figure 210-1. most of the coastal area was under the sea during the
period from 58 to 36 million years Before Present (B.P.),(Figure 210-1a).

Intense undersea volcanic activity flooded the floor of this basin with

many thousands of feet of submarine basalts, probably resulting in an

island arc. The southern part of the basin was filled with several

thousand feet of sedimentary debris derived from the land. These

sedimentary and volcanic deposits make up large parts of the present

Coast Range. Inland, large lava flows covered much of both states, and

the base of the Cascades Range was laid down.
The period from 36 to 25 million years B.P. (Figure 210-1b)
was characterized by uplift of the southern part and expansion of the

northern part of the coastal sea and extensive volcanic activity inland.
Sills of basaltic material up to 1000 ft thick were intruded into the

sediments laid down in the previous period. These sills form the base

of some of the higher peaks in the present Coast Range. More marine

sediments were laid down on the west side of the Coast Range; these
extensive estuarine and river-delta sediments consist mostly of volcanic

debris carried from inland.

0 ..........
...............

rV
4.

EOCENE 50 MILLION YEARS B.P. OLIGOCENE 30 MILLION YEARS B.P. MIOCENE 15 MILLION YEARS B.P.
(a) (b) (c)

....... ...
LEGEND

Sea
.. ... ...... . ..... Underwater
basalt flow Figure 210-1. Important Geological
Rocks antedating Events in the last 50 million years B.P.
.... ......
g- ....
p
period of ma

volcanic flows
XV

Sand
Lake and
river deposits From: Loy et al., 1976

Shoreline
W4

PLIOCENE 5 MILLION YEARS B.P.
(d)

The period from 25 to 12 million years B.P. (Figure 210-1c) was
characterized by uplift and, therefore, by retreat of the coastal sea
to a small area around the mouth of the Columbia River. This basin
gradually filled with sand and silt, alternating with layers of lava
from undersea volcanic activity. Extensive folding and faulting

occurred as a result of the uplift.
The most important feature during this period was;ithe deposition
of the Columbia River basalts that are prominently displayed in the
Columbia River Gorge and form some of Oregon's more prominent, rocky

headlands. These flows built up the Cascade Range and covered some
200,000 square miles in Oregon and Washington. Subsidence in the
Willamette Valley area late in this period allowed deposition of lake
sediments, as Volcanic material blocked streams. Continued uplift eli-

minated the marine basin near the mouth of the Columbia River.

The period from 12 to 1 million years B.P. (Figure 210-1d) was
one of further deposition of lake and river sediments in the Willamette
and Columbia River Valleys. Volcanic activity continued to build up

the Cascades.

The last million years have been characterized by repeated periods
of glacial advance and retreat, with corresponding fluctuations in sea

level. The entire Lower Columbia and Willamette River Valleys have been
submerged during interglacial periods when sea level was as much as 350
ft above present levels (resulting in the deposition of much fine silt).
Wave terraces were cut into the hills of the present coast during these
periods, and submerged terraces were formed and ancient beach sands
deposited on the present continental shelf during glacial periods of
lower sea level. During periods of glacial retreat, several enormous

floods came down the Columbia River, reworking sediments up to 700 ft

above the Willamette Valley floor, as in the case of the Spokane flood
of 20,000 years B.P. These floods and great flow in the Columbia River

during the periods glacial retreat, eroded a river channel across the

continental shelf. An undersea Astoria Canyon remains as a remnant of

erosion by submarine movement of river sediment down the continental

slope. The Columbia River estuary must have been near the edge of the
continental shelf during this period. The last rise in sea level, some
18,000 years B.P., drowned the river valleys of glacial times and created

210-3

the estuaries near their present locations. These estuaries have

continued to fill and change position.

210.2 TOPOGRAPHY (SLOPE)

The shorelands adjacent to the Columbia River estuary have a

diverse topography; the region includes the lowlands of the Qlatsop

Plains and Youngs Bay are a, the numerous islands of the river, and

the mountainous areas between Chinook Point and Point Ellice in Washington.

Such diversity has resulted in a variety of management techniques to
make best us e of the land. For example, timber owners use harvesting
techniques to control soil loss when ground cover is removed; many low7
land areas have extensive diking systems to prevent inundation by high

tides and stream freshets.

Consideration of the potential hazards in areas adjacent to
shorelands is essential to human safety. A slope map,(Fiqure 210-2)

is a special kind of topographic map designed especially for planning

purposes. Slopes have been categorized differently in the three counties

in the estuary area; these reflect the different agencies that have
done geologic and soil investigations. Slopes in Wahkiakum County are

broken into 0-10%. 10-20%, and 20%+ categories. Clatsop County.'s slope

categories are 0-9%, 10-24%, 25-49%, and 50%+. Slope categories in
Pacific County vary, depending on the soil phase. The inventory map

is prepared on such a scale that the slope information has been
generalized into low, moderate, and steep slopes. For each classification,

there are probably some local areas with slopes that do not fall within

the assigned category. Table 210-1 shows the slope categories and
their descriptions for Clatsop County. These can also be used to

generally describe the topography of Pacific and Wahkiakum Counties,
since the categories do overlap slightly.
The slope map shows, in general, the areas both where development
should be considered carefully or possibly precluded because of
slope. It also provides a tool for helping to determine geologic hazard
areas susceptible to landslides. These hazards are further discussed

in Section 210.3.

210-4

124- 5@' 50 123-45' 40'

101 0
ni,

-------------

o -

U-
LA

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Table 210-1

Slope Description

Slope Category Description

0-9% (Low) Nearly flat ground to moderately
Good suitability gentle slope. Alluvial surfaces
for development throughout lowlands. These slopes
generally present few problems to
development

10-24% (Moderate) Smooth slopes on steeper parts of
Moderate suitability isolated hills, gently inclined areas
for development within mountains. Slopes should be
considered carefully in design of any
construction. These slopes include
some that have good suitability for
development and some that are poorly
suited.

25+% (Steep) Steep to precipitous slopes, cliffs,
Poor suitability bluffs, and steep mountain slopes.
for development Erosion is often active and landslide
potential is high. Slopes pose
significant problems to most types of
land development and even preclude
development along precipitous slopes.

210-5

210.3 SOILS

Soils are mixtures in varying proportions of partly or completely

decomposed rocks, minerals, and organic material. Soil development is

characterized by distinct horizontal layers, or horizons, which are

influenced by their environments.

The basic features that influence the soil are:

1. Topographic relief

2. Parent material

3. Biological activity

4. Climate, and

5... Time

These factors combine to give a soil a distinctive color, texture,

structure, organic.content, and consistency, and each soil type can be

identified by different combinations of these factors.

Soils of similar characteristics are grouped homogeneously (into

a soil series) by the U.S.-Soil Conservation Service (SCS). Each

series is named after a community, town, river, or other geographical

feature,near the area where the soil was first mapped. A soil type is

an individual soil; its name consists of the series name, plus the name

of the texture of the surface horizon. Soil associations are groupings

of soils that are geographically associated in a repeating pattern. An

association consists of one or more major soils for which it is named,

and usually one or more minor soils. The soils in one association may

occur in another; they do differ in pattern and proportion.
General soil maps are useful for determining an approximate idea
of the soils in a region, for comparing different parts of an area, or

for finding large tracts that are suitable for a certain kind of land
use. A generalized soil map is too broad to be suitable for specific
site planning such as farm management plans, park plans, or designs
for roadways or septic tank fields. These types of activities require
use of detailed soil survey maps and information, and on-site
investigations. A soil association map for the Columbia River estuary

region is shown in Figure 210-3. Tables 210-2, 210-3, and 210-4
indicate the soil associations present and their component soil types

for each of the three counties.

210-6

05' 124' 55' 50 123-45' .0

ol
.16

r-r)

---------------

--- tf-@

0 -

@3 23

20
NAUTICAL MILES

KI LOMETERS

2 STATUTE MILES
10

Table 210-2

Clatsop County Soil Associations and Components

(1) Nehalem Association
*Nehalem silt loam
Nehalem silt loam, non-overflow
Minor soils:
Gardiner fine sandy loam
Riverwash
Brenner silty clay loam

(2) Brenner - Nestucca Association
*Brenner silty clay loam
Nestucca silty clay loam
minor soils
Nehalem. silt loam
Hebo silty clay loam
Brallier peat

(3) Coquille -- Tidal Marsh (fresh) Clatsop Association
*Coquille silty clay loam
Tidal marsh (fresh)
Clatsop silty clay loam
Clatsop, silty clay loam, sand substratum
Minor soils:
Brallier peat
Fill land, sandy
31 silty clay loam

(4) Sauvie -- Peat Association
*Sauvie silty clay loam
Peat
minor soils:
Tidal marsh (fresh)

(5) Westport-Gearhart-Dune Land Association
*Westport fine sand
Gearhart fine sandy loam
Dune land
Minor soils:
Warrenton loamy fine sand
Brallier muck

(6) Brallier-Warrenton Association
*Brallier muck
Warrenton loamy fine sand
Minor soils:
Gearhart fine sandy loam

*Soil type covering the largest area within the association.
1. The number in parenthesis corresponds to the association numbers in
Figure 210-3.

210-7

(7) Walluski-Knappa Association
*Walluski silt loam, 0 to 7% slope
Walluski silt loam, 7 to 12% slope
Walluski silt loam, 12 to 20% slope
Knappa silt loam, 0 to 3% slope
Knappa silt loam, 3 to 7%,slope
Knappa silt loam, 7 to 12% slope
Knappa silt loam, 12 to 20% slope
Minor soils:
Terrace escarpments
Meda gravelly loam, 3 to 12% slope
35 silty clay loam, 3 to 12% slope

(8) Chitwood - Hebo Association
*Chitwood silty clay loam, 0 to 7% slope
Chitwood silty clay loam, 7 to 12% slope
Hebo silty clay loam
Minor soils:
Walluski silt loam, 0 to 7% slope
Walluski silt loam, 7 to 12% slope

(10) Astoria-Winema Association, 30-60% slope
*Astoria silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
Astoria silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Astoria silt loam, landslide, 30 to 60% slope
Winema silty clay loam, 30 to 60@ slope
Winema silty clay loam, 3 to 30% slope
Minor soils:
33 silt loam, 30 to,60%-;slope
Hembre silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
13 silt loam 20 to 60% slope
Trask gravelly loam, 5 to 50% slope
Alluvial land
Freshwater marsh

(11) Svensen Association, 0 to 30% slope
*Svensen loam, 12 to 20% slope
Svensen loam, 0 to 7% slope
Svensen loam, 7 to 12% slope
Svensen loam, 20 to 30% slope
Svensen-loam, 30 to 60% slope
Minor soils:
Tolovana silt loam, sandstone substratum, 3-30% slope

(12) Svensen Association, 30 to 60% slope
*Svensen loam, 30 to 60% slope
Svensen loam, 20 to 30% slope
minor soils:
Tolovana silt loam, sandstone substratum, 30 to 60% slope

210-8

(13) Astoria-Hembre-Klickitat Association, 3 to 30% slope
*Astoria silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Astoria silt loam, 30 to 60$ slope
Hembre silt loam, sedimentary rock:substratum, 3 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, sedimentary rock substratum, 3 to 60% slope
Klickitat stony loam, 5 to 30% slope
Minor-soils:
Rock outcrop
Alluvial land

(14) Astoria-Hembre-Klickitat Association, 30 to 60% slope
*Astoria silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
Astoria silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, sedimentary rock substratum, 30 to 60% slope
Klickitat stony loam, 30 to 60% slope
Minor soils:
Alluvial land
Rock outcrop

(18) Hembre-Klickitat Association, 30 to 60% slope
*Hembre silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
Hembre silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, 60 to 90% slope
Klickitat stony loam, 30 to 60% slope
Klickitat stony loam, 5 to 30% slope
Minor soils:
Kilchir-Klickitat soils, 60 to 90% slope
Rock outcrop
Alluvial land

(20) Tolovana Association, 3 to 30% slope
*Tolovana silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Tolovana silt loam, 3 to 12% slope
Tolovana silt loam, 12 to 20% slope
Tolovana silt loam, 20 to 30% slope
Tolovana silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
Minor soils:
Alluvial land
Freshwater marsh

(21) Tolovana Association, 30 to 60% slope
*Tolovana silt loam, 30 to 60% slope
Tolovana silt loam, 3 to 30% slope
Minor soils:
Alluvial land
Freshwater marsh

(22) Tolovana Association, Sandstone Substratum, 3 to 30% slope
*Tolovana silt loam, sandstone substratum, 3 to 30% slope
Tolovana silt loam, sandstone substratum, 30 to 60% slope
Minor soils:
Alluvial land

210-9

Table 210-3

Southern Pacific County Soil Associations and Components

(2). Wahkiakum-Hembre Association
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 8 to 30%*slope
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Hembre silt loam, I to 8% slope
Hembre silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Hembre silt loam, 65 to 90% slope -
Minor soils:
Squally-gravelly silt'16am, 5 to 30% slope
Squally gravelly silt loam.' 30 to 65% slope

(4) Grehalem-Nuby Association
*Grehalem loam
Nuby silt loam
Minor soils:
Humptulips silt loam
Skamo silt loam
Riverwash

(5) Ocosta-Sauvie Association
*Ocosta silty clay loam
Sauvie silt loam
Minor soils :
Tital marsh (fresh)
Udipraments, level
Riverwash

(6) Lytell-Astoria Association
*Lytell silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Lytell silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Lytell silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Astoria silt loam, I to 8% slope
Astoria silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Astoria silt loam, 30 to 65% slope

(7) Zenker-Elochoman Association -
*Zenker silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Zenker silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Zenker silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Elochoman silt loam, o to 8% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Minor soils:
Skamo silt loam

*Soil series covering the largest area within the association.
1. The number in parenthesis corresponds to the association numbers in
Figure 210-3.

(9) Yaquina-Hetarts Association
*Yaquina loamy sand
*Netarts fine sand
Duneland
Seattle muck
Westport sand
Shalcar much
Orcus peat

(10) Ocosta Association
*Ocosta silt loam
tidal flats
Rennie silty clay loam
Made land

(11) Willapa Association
*Willapa silt loam, I to 8% slope
*Willapa silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Willapa silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Nemah silty clay loam

From: Pacific County, Soil Conservation Service

210-11

Table 210-4

Wahkiakum County Soil Associations and Components 1

(1) Germany-Cathlamet Association
*Germany silt loam, 1 to 8% slope
*Germany silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Germany silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Cathlamet silt loam@ 1 to 8% slope
Cathlamet silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Cathlamet silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Cathlamet silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Minor soils:
Stimson silt loam
Raught silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Raught silt loam, 30 to 65% slope

(2) Wahkiakum-Hembre Association
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Wahkiakum silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Hembre silt loam, I to 8% slope
Hembre silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Hembre silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Minor soils:
Squally gravelly silt loam, 5 to 30% slope
Squally gravelly silt loam, 30 to 65% slope

(3) Murnen-Lutes Association
*Murnen silt loam, 5 to 30% slope
Murnen silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Lutes silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Lutes silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Lutes silt loam, 65 to 90% slope

(4) Grehalem-Nuby Association
*Grehalem loam
Nuby silt loam
Minor soils:
Humptulips silt loam
Skamo silt loam
Riverwash

(5) Ocosta-Sauvie Association
*Ocosta silty clay loam
Sauvie silt loam
Minor soils:
Tidal marsh (fresh)
Udipsament, level
Riverwash
1The number in parenthesis corresponds to the association numbers in
Figure 210-3.
*Soil series covering the largest area within the association.
210-12

(6) Lytell-Astoria Association
*Lytell silt loam, 8 to 30%'slope
*Lytell silt loam, 30 to:65% slope
*Lytell silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Astoria silt loam, 1 to 8% slope
Astoria silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Astoria silt loam, 30 to'65% slope

(7) Zenker-Elochoman. Association
*Zenker silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
*Zenker silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Zenker silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 1 to 8% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Elochoman silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Minor soils:
Skamo silt loam

(8) Elochoman-Hembre Association
*Elochoman silt loam, 1 to 8% slope
*Elochoman silt loam, 8 to 30$ slope
*Elochoman silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
*Elochoman silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Hembre silt loam, 1 to 8% slope
Hembre silt loam, 8 to 30% slope
Hembre silt loam, 30 to 65% slope
Hembre silt loam, 65 to 90% slope
Minor soils:
Skamo silt loam

From: Wahkiakum County, Soil Conservation Service

210-13

A. Soil Characteristics

Nine soil characteristics were evaluated in an attempt to give

a generalized picture of basic soil properties for the individual
soils. These characteristics are those most commonly investigated to

determine limitations to many of the activities related to development.

The soil matrices in Tables 210-5, 210-6, and 210-7 indicate these

characteristics.

The following paragraphs provide a definition of each of the

soil characteristics.

1. Depth of Seasonally High Water Table

This category refers to the depth, in feet, of the seasonally

high water table below the surface of the soil. A high water table

may indicate a ponding problem or an impermeable layer of soil. Either
condition affects the proper functioning of a septic tank filter field.

2. Permeability

This quality refers to the ability of a soil to allow water or

air to travel through the different soil horizons. For our purposesl

we only considered the permeability of the upper layer of soil, as

noted on the SCS interpretation sheets. Low permeability means that

the water is able to flow through the soil horizons very slowly or not

at all, and it will tend to move laterally. High permeability means

that water can flow to deeper levels rapidly and may eventually reach

a layer of deep ground water, commonly called an aquifer.

3. Percent of Slope

Best described as the steepness of an area, precent of slope is

determined by dividing vertical increase by horizontal distance.

Slope is determined by the geologic characteristics of a region and in

turn, influences other factors such as drainage, climate, and

vegetation. In addition, the slope of the land surface partially

determines the suitability of an area for development.

4. Susceptibility to Flooding
The susceptibility to flooding is determined by many factors.
Included among these are water discharge from the drainage basin,
soil slope, the elevation of that soil above the normal height of the
water surface, and the occurrence and variability of tidal fluctuations.

2.10-14

TABLE 210-5

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS M ATRI X subst substratum Id landslide c clay
sy sand s silt f fine

sed sedimentary g gravelly
CLATSOP COUNTY st stony I loom
COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY STUDY TASKFORCE

RATIN
(constrairb)
H
L M I
4
4.
kc 0 E
c cr p Z4-
S
c, -.1
CO co W D H
Im @P, A 2- 1 E V171 20E 14 A 14B 14C 14D 32C 16A 16-Al 21A 18A 30AI19A r37 B 7F 1311-]'18- 1 6B I 6C 1 6 D 123AI 24EI31 B 1358
F3T2 8i F22 Al 38 F138G
2-11F 3A 4A 5A 26A TA 8A 17A 15A 25AI 9A 112F 112-412 H 12-lEfl 201711 1 1 1 1 1 1
ICHARACTERISTIC Isymi, El FI

% SLOPE 0 z 0 010 0 01 0 0 0 010 elo 0 Q!110 0 0 0 0 el@@ z 010 0 10 0 0 Z 01 0 0 0 0 e 0 z 0 0 iib % 24' 254
DEPTH TO BEDROCK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 000000 00 0 00 0 0010 0 00 0 0 alo 0 0 010 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 @60 +60
EROSION POTENTIAL 0 Q@10 0 *1* 0 e0elooozoo 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 0 IZZ01000 1z z e Q@ Q5 Z, i;b 610 LOW MEDI H I
FLOOD POTENTIAL 00100000 00 000000 *00 600006- 10 0 0 0 * 0 0.0 0 010 0 0 *1 NO YES
WATER TABLE 00100000 0 0 0 0 We 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *1 6066169 000000000 46ft (6ft
.P2 .6-2 @6
PERMEABILITY z e 01 Z. Q@ 10.0.0 0.0 0 Q5WQ5 1* 0,101 O.Q5 Q51Z @aIQ5 0 0 0 0 Oi Ole Q5 0 1;b e @a 0 z 0 0 in/hr in/hr in/ hr
SHRINK / SWELL 0 Q5 0 10001010 0 0 0 010 0 0 0 0 OJQ5 0 0 0 0 0 *1 10 001000000 LOWIMED1 HI
AGRICULTURE CLASS Vie Vie Vie IVW lvwlillw.lllw iVw Ville VIIw IIw Vie Vie Vie We Vils. llc lie [Ile Ille-Ille.11c IVw Vills Vill lie Hle :IV]e Vie We Vie VlIIw VI e Vie Vie Vie lie Ile [Ile lVw
REST

HYDROLOGIC GROUp B B B D D C D D D A D A A B B B C 8 8 B B B B B B D A D B B B B B B B B B B B B B/D1 A

TABLE 210-6

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS MATRIX s silt C clay
sy sand f fine
PACIFIC COUNTY g gravelly
I loam
COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY STUDY TASKIFORCE

@7 RATING
(constraints
H

0
co
0 @4 G
ca
0) C@ 07E
a) 's E
Z@ 0 0

W D H
0 Q!) 101
sym 1001101 1102135 12101411 1412 1413 13301281128212831430 4401320[@30 A[I31 4601470148011601'490150015901621 1622 520 3 1 4 D
LHARACTERISTIC map 11352 3601361 1362 60 601 6021603 7 13801 9 1290@291129212931 5 i54015601561[562@580163111632 633

0-910-
SLOPE 0 0101Q!l 0101Q@ 0161Q@ 0 0 0 0 0 61Q@@o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q@ 0 000 000 0000 010 Q@10 0 0 01010 Q@ 0 0 Q@ 0 0 % 24%2541
DEPTHTOBEDROCK 000000000*00 0 010100 00000009 000 0 00100001 (60 *60
EROSION POTENTIAL 0 @e 0 Qb Z e 0 Q@ Q@ e 0 @A 0 0 0 Q5 Q5 Q5 Q!l 0 @15 Z Q5 0 0 ON5 0 0.0 0 1100 0 0 0 0 0 1011 Q5 0 00 000 LOWMED HI
.FLOOD POTENTIAL 0000 0 0000 0 101,1010106 0 0010 01010 01010 0 0000000010 elio 0 0 0 0 0 0100 0100010100 NO YES
-WATER TABLE 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 010 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 i6ft <6ft
Q5 i Q5 -2 .6-2 (.6
PERMEABILITY Q!) @a lia 0 0 Q51 Q@ Q!I @t @6 @z 0 0 0 z Q@ Q!l iit Q5 Q5 z (A Q@ 0 0 0 0 10 Q!I 0 0 0 e 0 le Q@090 *Z@aQ@9999 in/hr in1hr in/hr
SHRINK/ SWELL 0 0 * 0.0 0.0.0 0.0.0 0 9 0 0.0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 @b 10.0 Q@ 110,0 0 *,Q@ (;@ Q5,0 110, 0 0 LOW MED HI

AGRICULTURE CLASS Vie Vie Vile lVe Vie III e lVe Vie ]Ile lVe Vie Vile Vill IIIw Vill III e Ive Vie Vile IVw III w VI e Vile VII e Ile lVe Vie Vile VIw Vie IVw IVw VIItw V1IIw 111W IVw IIw IIw IVw IVe Vie III w Vils VIlle Vile Vs Vie Vie Vile We Vie Vile
HYDROLOGIC GROUP B B 8 B B B B B B 8 8 B C B B B B B B B B B B D A C D D A C D B A A B B B C A A C C C C B B B
- I I I -
__T
CREST
322

TABLE 210-7

c day
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS MATRIX I loom
WAHKIAKUM COUNTY g gravelly
COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY STUDY TASKIFORCE S silt

(constraints)
M @H
L
u t u
C7
Z15: q,
co -- - coo W D H
map
VHARACTERIS-TIC IsymII701100 1102 11103 k201122 li23 1124 1110 IU2 1113 IH4 1 2942 9511501151 1153121011406J241 12421243 281 282 283 320_130 _191 11931 2 23011601310 1 311 11801 6 1 3 4 122112221223 11361138 1139 13 *10 10 1

10 -
% SLOPE 0 0 Q!i 0 0 Q!) 0 0 0 Q@ 0 0 10 Q!l 010 0 Q@10 0101 Q@ 0 0 Q!l 0 0 0 0 Q@ 0 0 00 000 0 e 0 0 Q!i 0 240 251
DEPTH TO BEDROCK 00000000000000000000000000000000 0Q00000000 46 0 1- 60
EROSION POTENTIAL [email protected];@.00. 0Q5Q5I;A0 00 00. 0 Q5 0,00 LOW MED H I
.FLOOD POTENTIAL 01010 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 010 0.0.0 0 0.0 0 0,0 0 0 0 0 010 0 0,0 0 01 0 0@' 0 0,0.0 0 010 0,010 0 NO YES
WATER TABLE 01010.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 00 10.0 010 01010.0 46ft - Vt
-f72.6-2 <7
PERMEABILITY We Q5 e.e e z e Q!I1 Q5 (;15 0 0 0 e e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q5 0 0 0 0 wwo 0 000000 @iLhr!EL!Lrin/@r
SHRINK / S 010 0 010 0 0 0 0 010,0 0.0.0 010,0 0.0,0 01010 0.0.0 010.0 0.0. Q5 jo 0 0. 000000 LO%.MED, H I

AGRICULTURE CLASS lic Vle Vie Vile [Ile lVe Vie Vlle,lle lVe Vle@Vleillle lVe Vie Vile Ile me lVe i1c iilw Vie Vile Vile lVe Vie Vile IVw IVw Ille Vie 1IVw I Vw. lVe . Vie IVw VIls IVIlle Ve 1VIe IVIle lVe Vie 1VIIeIVIe Vile
HYDROLOGIC GROUP B B B B B B B 8 B B B B B B B. B B B. B B B. B B B B B B B C C B B C D B B B C A B B B B B B B B.
WELL
CREST

Areas most susceptible to flooding are along valley bottoms, stream and
river beds, and at the mouths of rivers and streams. With proper
planning, flood-prone areas can be and are used for many beneficial
purposes, without posing a serious hazard. Certain recreational and
agricultural uses are examples. Periodic flooding is sometimes
beneficial, as it may renew soil nutrients on croplands.

5. Erosion Potential

Erosion Potential refers to the likelihood of the soil being

washed away by rainfall and subsequent runoff, if suitable ground cover
is not maintained. Factors influencing erosion potential are rainfall,
degree of the slope, length of the slope, and type of ground cover.

6. Shrink-Swell Potential

Shrink-swell potential is the extent to which the soil swells

increases volume) when it gets wet and shrinks (decreases volume) when
it dries out. It refers to the relative change in soil material
volume to be expected with changes in moisture content. Shrinking and
swelling of certain soils causes serious damage to building foundations,
roads, and other structures. A high shrink-swell potential indicates

a maintenance hazard for structures built in, on, or with such soil

material.

7. Depth to Bedrock
This characteristic refers to the depth, in feet, from the soil

surface to bedrock. Bedrock prevents or restricts root and water

penetration and represents the lower boundary of the soil horizon.

For agricultural uses, deep bedrock is generally favorable, whereas

for development, shallow bedrock is desirable for good foundations.

8. Hydrologic Group

Hydrologic soil groups are used to characterize surface runoff

from thoroughly wetted, bare soil, after rainfall. The influence of
ground cover is treated independently from hydrologic soil groups.
Soils are grouped from A to D, with group A having the lowest surface
runoff potential and D having the highest runoff potential.

a. GROUP A

Group A soils have low surface runoff potential and high
infiltration rates, even when thoroughly wetted. They consist chiefly

210-15

of deep, well to excessively drained sands or gravel. These soils have

a high rate of water transmission.

b. GROUP B

Group B soils have moderately low surface runoff potential
and moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. They consist
chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately to well drained soils,

with moderately rapid permeability. These soils have a moderate rate

of water transmission.

c. GROUP C

Group C soils have moderately high surface runoff potential

and slow infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. They consist
chiefly of soils with a l,ayer that impedes downward movement of water,
soils with moderately fine to fine texture, soils with slow infiltration,

or soils with moderate seasonal water tables. These soils may be

somewhat poorly drained. They include well and moderately well drained
soils, with slow to very slow permeability at twenty to forty inches.
Thus, these soils have a slow rate of water transmission.

d. GROUP D

Group D soils have high runoff potential and very slow

infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. They are chiefly shallow

clay soils with a high swelling potential, a permanent high water
table, very slow infiltration, and nearly impervious claypan or

layer at, or near, the surface.
9. Agricultural Suitability
Agricultural capability classes show, in a general way, the

Suitability of soils for most kinds of field crops. The classes are

determined by soil limitations, potential hazards and risks of damages

when used for field crops. The grouping does not consider major land

reshaping that would change some characteristics of the soils. Nor
does it take into consideration, possible major reclamation projects.

In grouping the soils in the Columbia River Estuary, two levels were

used, the capability class and the subclass.

The capability classes are designated by Roman numerals I through
VIII. The numerals indicate progressively greater limitations and

narrower choices for practical use.

210-16

a. Class I soils have few limitations that restrict their

use. They may be used safely for cultivated crops, pasture, rangel

woodland, or wildlife.

b. Class II soils have moderate limitations that reduce the

choice of plants or require moderate conservation practices. They are

suited for cultivated crops, pasture, range, woodland, or wildlife. .

c. Class III soils have severe limitations that reduce the

choice of plants, require special conservation practices, or both.

They are best suited for cultivated crops, pasture, range, woodland,

or wildlife.

d. Class IV soils have very severe limitations that reduce

the choice of plants, require very careful management, or both. Their
soils are best suited for cultivated crops, pasture, range, woodland,

or wildlife.

e. Class V soils are not likely to erode but have other
limitations, impractical to remove, that limit their use largely to

pasture, range, woodland, or wildlife.

f. Class VI soils have severe limitations that make them

generally unsuited for cultivation. They are largely limited to less
intensive pasture, range, recreation, woodland, or wildlife uses.

g. Class VII soils and landforms have limitations that

preclude their use for commercial plants, and restrict their use to

recreation, wildlife, or water supply.

h. Class VIII soils and landforms have limitations that

preclude their use for commercial plants, and restrict their use to

recreation, wildlife, or water supply.

10. Capability Subclasses

Capability subclasses are soil groups within one class. By

adding a small letter e, w, s, or c to the class numeral, the primary

limiting factor is designated. The letter "e" indicates that the
main limitation is risk of erosion, unless close-growing plant cover

is maintained. The letter "w" indicates that water in or on the soil

interferes with plant growth or cultivation (in some soils the wetness

can be partly corrected by artificial drainage). The letter "s"

indicates that the soil is limited, due to its shallow dry or stony

nature. The letter "c", used in only some parts of the United States,

210-17

shows,that the chief limitation is climate that is too cold, too dry,
or too cloudy for production of many crops.

B. Use of Map, Table, and Matrix
The soil association map, tables, and soil matrices can be used

together to determine the general characteristics for an area. After
locating the area in question on the map, consult the table for the
appropriate county. The association numbers on the map correspond to
the numbers on the tables. After determining the major soil in the

association, the soil matrix can be consulted to determine the soil

characteristics. It should be emphasized that this method provides a
general indication of the characteristics of an area. To determine

specific features, a detailed map of soil types should be consulted or

an on-site investigation should be performed, before consulting the

matrix. It should also be noted that the soils were rated on the

majority characteristic. Thus, a characteristic may occasionally
include a range larger than the rating.

210.3 -HAZARDS

@ The hazards section and map (Figure 210-4) show areas where,

under certain conditions, there could be risk to human life or serious

property loss. In the three county areas adjacent to the Columbia
River estuary, such risks could result from landslides, floods, earth-
quakes, and the presence of compressible soils. Much of theinformation

mapped in Figure 210-4 is generalized. Exact boundaries of the hazards
can be established only by future detailed studies of specific localities.

A. Landslides

The erosion of slopes through any of a varie ty of processes results

in slope retreat or "landsliding". One of the major forms of slope

retreat is soil creep, the slow downslope movement of earth and rock

under the influence of gravity. Variations of temperature and water

content, and the influence of plant and animal activity are important

factors in the rate of soil creep. A more rapid downslope movement

similar to soil creep is called a debris slide or landslide.
The term "slump" is used when a more or less continuous mass of
earth slips downhill. On nearly vertical slopes, masses of bedrock
or earth may become detached and fall. This type of activity is termed

"rockfall."

210-18

124' 55' 50' 123-45' 40'

101 of 4

%
I.,

-2

Cz-
-------------

w9l

77
-7- 30

.01

d NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

The various forms of landslides are directly related to the

topography of an area. Massive land failure is caused primarily by

the high winter rainfall, which saturates the weathered and soft
marine sedimentary rocks underlying a good portion of the study area.
The areas noted as having landslide topography are obvious hazard areas.

However, stable areas could also be endangered when located below the

landslide topography.
Landslide topography is a major feature of the uplands surrounding
the estuary. Much of Wahkiakum County's uplands would be prone to mass

movement, should the vegetative cover be removed. The shoreline area
between the eastern boundary and the town of Cathlamet is also subject

to downslope movement, if there is vegetation removal or an increase in
the intensity of activity along the shoreline.
Clatsop County also has large areas subject to landslides. The
major area is noted as being south of Astoria. This area is mostly in
timber production and with proper management, it won't experience

massive slope failure. Astoria has several locations of active slope

movement. Much of this has been caused by urban activities and has

resulted in damage to public and private property. Eastern Clatsop

County has little area that is subject to slope failure. The two areas

that would affect the study area are on the shoreline between Aldrich

Point and Bradwood and the upland area south of Wauna and Westport.

B. Floods

A flood is defined as a condition that prevails when the waters of
a stream or river exceed the capacity of the normal channel and overflow
the adjacent flood plains. unfortunately, detailed flood studies have not
been completed for the lower Columbia region. The 100-year floodplain
determin@tions exist for wahkiakum County, parts of Clatsop County, and the
Chinook area of Pacific County. Flood potential for the rest of the area
must be evaluated from a combination of general studies including: Flood
frequency profiles, prepared by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; flood area
delineation in Clatsop County, Oregon, by the Oregon Department of Geology
and Mineral Industries; 100-year flood event approximation by diking.and
drainage districts; and soils information on soils with floodiftg potential.

210-19

The reach of the Columbia River in the estuary undergoes
no significant seasonal fluctuations in depth and areal extent. In
fact, the fluctuations that do occur in the estuary are on a daily
basis, in response to tidal action.
The small streams draining into the estuary are subject to only
moderate variations in streamflow and generally pose no threatening,
hazards to most of man's activities. However, the Big Creek drainage
area, in the eastern section of the estuary in Clatsop County, is
subject to torrential flooding and related erosion. The steep slopes
and low permeability of this drainage area account, in large part, for
the high runoff.

Flooding in the estuary area is caused by heavy rainfall, high

tides, and strong winds. Construction of dikes, levees, or landfills

can protect lands from flooding. However, such construction can also

shift the water that would fill the floodplain downstream, to flood

some other area. This type of activity could occur in the diked areas

of Youngs Bay and Grays Bay and the sloughs around Skamokawa and
Brownsmead. Also unique to the estuary is the factor that water may be
unable to drain because of high tides or winds,and it will "back up" into
other areas and may result in a flood condition.

Flood frequency profiles completed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers provide an estimated height of a 100-year, unregulated flood

event. Table 210-8 shows these heights at selected points throughout

the estuary. The 100 and 500-year floodplains have also been mapped for

parts of the estuary area by the Federal Insurance Administration of the

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. These are used in the

administration of the Flood Insurance Act of 1968 and the Flood Disaster

Protection Act of 1973.

While flooding in the Columbia River is largely regulated, except
for tidal fluctuations, flooding does occur in the tributaries.within

the study area. This flooding may subsequently affect the area at the
mouth of the tributary where it joins the estuary, but is will have

little effect on the overall river height. As shown on the hazards map,
floo.ding potential exists on almost all estuary area lowlands.
Another type of flooding, a tsunami (seismic wave), should also

210-20

Table 210-8

100-Year @lood Event Unregulated 1

Location He,ght2

Fort Stevens, Oregon 8.5
Astoria, Oregon '8.8

Tongue Point, Oregon 9.0
Harrington Point, Washington 9.1

Jim Crow Point, Washington 9.6

Skamokawa Creek, Washington 10.2
Lower End of Puget Island, Washington 11.0

Wauna, Oregon 11.9

Upper End of Puget Island, Washington 13.0

1 United States Army Engineer District, Portland, Columbia River Flood
Frequency Profiles, Fall and Winter Freshets, Drawing #CL-03-133/1, 1972.
2 Height is the approximate height above mean sea level in feet

210-21

be mentioned. These waves are sea waves caused by submarine earthquakes

or volcanic eruptions. While the coastline is the area most affected

by this type of wave activity, it can also cause damage within the

estuary. The tsunami generated by Alaska's Good Friday earthquake in

March, 1964, caused $20,000 worth of damage to the dock and log raft
areas in Warrenton. Tide level reached an unexpected high of about'll.5

feet above mean sea level.

The extent of damage caused by a tsunami in an estuary

dependent on several factors: the source of the disturbance, the level
of the tide (tidal height) and the strength of the tide (spring or
neap). The most dangerous conditions would occur when a tsunami struck

at high tide during spring tides from a source that enabled the energy

to travel directly through the mouth of the river.

C. Earthquakes

Thewest coast of North America is situated along an active

earthquake belt which encircles the Pacific Ocean Basin.

Although the coastal parts of California and Washington experience more
seismic activity than coastal Oregon, earthquake potential is still a

significant hazard.

In July, 1938, an earthquake of approximate intensity 3.5 on the

Richter Scale originated at an epicenter near Astoria. Recorded damage

was minimal, and the tremor was significant only in that it showed the
potential for earthquakes in the estuary area.
Vibrating ground motion during earthquakes can affect not only
buildings, bridges, and other structures, but also areas of potential
land subsidence and landslides. Areas of peat and organic soils and

thick sections of sand and gravel may consolidate and subside as a
result of seismic shaking. Since subsidence is usually uneven,

buildings on this type of ground will be tipped or destroyed. In
regions of moderate to high relief and unstable slopes with saturated
ground conditions, such as often occur in the estuary region during
winter and spring months, seismic shaking could produce massive

landslides.
Large earthquakes with epicenters outside the estuary region
also have significance with regard to seismic shaking hazards. In

210-22

November, 1962, an earthquake occurred in the Portland area and was
felt over a total area of 20',000 'square miles. An earthquake centered
at Olympia, Washington occurred in April, 1945, and was felt as far

south as Cape Blanco on the southern Oregon coast.

D. Streambank Erosion
Erosion of streambanks, while hot a severe hazard in the estuary,

often poses hazards to activities that may be present along the shore-
line. It subsequently serves as a constraint to development. Within
the estuary, erosion occurs along the islands where the river flow is

constricted (therefore faster) and along many tributary streams, where
the meandering course of the waterway results in erosion. Figure 210-4

shows areas of streambank erosion based upon observations of the C-ounties'

Soil Conservation Office staff.

Most of the eroding areas within the estuary and the tributaries

are adjacent to low intensity land uses such as agriculture and forest

uses. Because of this, there is no widespread danger to human life,

but rather, it constitutes a continuing loss of property, unless

measures are taken to slow the process. The primary hazard exists where
erosion is affecting dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding.
This consists of erodingiareas such as Puget Island, Deep River, Grays

River, Elochoman River, and the Lewis and Clark River.

E. Compressible Soils

Compressible soils include peat and organic soils. In the

estuary, they occur in the tidal flats of the Columbia, Skipanon, Lewis
and Clark, and John Day Rivers and in the Clatsop, Spit area.
In addition, some terraces are underlain by layers of peat and organic
soils.

While compressible soils do not constitute a hazard to the

degree of earthquakes, landslides and floods ' they certainly are a
limitation to development. Peat and organic soils are poor foundation
materials for many types of construction. They contain a high
proportion of void space to solids and do not consolidate readily under
natural conditions. Structural loads on peat, however, will cause
consolidation, as water is forced out of the voids. Settlement, which

is usually irregular, can amount to more than 50 percent of the
thickness of the original layer.

210-23

Peat can also occur in the subsurface without any indications

of 'its presence at the ground surface, particularly in tidal flats or
other low lying areas of high ground water. Compressible soils
situated as far as 50 feet below the surface, can compress significantly

under heavy loads.

210-24

210*5 REFEREOCES

A. Allen, J.E. and R. Van Atto. 1964. Geologic Field Guide to the
Northwest Oregon Coast. Portland State'University, Portland, Oregon.
39pp.
A guide to the geological northwest Oregon as seen from Highways
6,'26 and 101.

B. Baldwin, E.M. Undated. Geology of Oregon. University of Oregon,
Eugene, Oregon. 63pp.
A readable discussion of the geology of the state of Oregon.

C. CH 2M & Hill. 1976. Flood Insurance Study, prepared for Clatsop
County and the Cities of Astoria and Warrenton and the Town of
Hammond for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Federal Insurance Administration.

A study noting areas of the 10, 50, 100 and 500-year floods
for the purpose of administrating the Flood Insurance Act of 1968
and the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973.

D. Loy, W.G., S. Allan, C.P. Patton, and R.D. Plank. 1976. Atlas
of Oregon. University of Oregon Book, Eugene, Oregon. 215pp.

An extremely interesting compendium of cultural, economic, and
environmental information about Oregon. There are short sections
on geology and the coastal ocean. The graphics are superb.

E. McKey, Jeff, and Mike Morgan. 1974. An Environmental Plan of the
Lewis and Clark, Youngs, and Walluski River Valleys.

An environmental inventory of the Lewis and Clark, Youngs, and
Walluski River valleys, giving suggested management policies.
Description of soils, geological, topographical and hazard conditions.

F. State of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. 1972.
Environmental Geology of the Coastal Region of Tillamook and Clatsop
Counties, Oregon: Bulletin 74.

Inventory of geologic conditions existing in the coastal region
of Clatsop and Tillamook Counties. Discussion of geological hazards
and possible mitigating measures.

G. State of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. 1973.
Environmental Geology of Inland Tillamook and Clatsop Counties,
Oregon: Bulletin 79.
Inventory of geologic conditions existing in the inland regions
of Clatsop and Tillamook Counties. Discussion of geological hazards
and possible mitigating measures.

H. U.S. Army Engineer District, Portland. 1972. Columbia River Flood
Frequency Profiles, Fall and Winter Freshets, Drawing #CL-03-133/1.
Map showing 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100-year regulated and 100-year
unregulated flood elevation for various points along the Columbia
River from the mouth to Bonneville Dam.

210-25

I. U.S. Army Engineer District, Portland. 1971. Flood Profiles,
Drawing #CL-03a-116.

Map showing flood profiles at selected points of the Columbia
River from the mouth to Bonneville Dam.

J. VTN Washington, Inc. 1975. Flood Damage Prevention Plan, pre-
pared for the Wahkiakum. County Board of Commissioners.

Study to identify the physical and cultural features affected
by flood situations and to present a plan to protect life and
property.

210-26

0 0 0

/I
off , - BIOLOGICAL
M& I I CHARACTERISTICS

.- I

0 0 0

8
Fn ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
AND TERMINOLOGY
Ll:@j A

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

James W. Good

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

301 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY ....................... 301-1
301.1 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM DEFINED ................................ 301-1
301.2 ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS ...................................... 301-2
301.3 ECOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY .................................... 301-2
A. Productivitz-and Standing Crop ............................ 301-2
B. Ecosystem Organization .................................... 301-3
1. Individual Level
2. Population Level
3. Community Level
4. Ecosystem Level
C. Ecological Succession ..................................... 301-4
D. Chemical Cycling .......................................... 301-4
.E. Energy Flow .............................................. 301-4
F. Food Webs ................................................. 301-4
G. Carrying Capacity ......................................... 301-6
H. Limiting Factors .......................................... 301-6
1. Species Abundance and Diversity ........................... 301-6
J* Habitat and Ecological Niche .............................. 301-6
301.4 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION BY SALINITY ..................... 301-6
301.5 REFERENCES ................................................ 301-9

FIGURES

301-1 Simplified Estuary Ecosystem .............................. 301-5

TABLES

301-1 Estuarine Animal Components According to Salinity ......... 301-8

301 ECOLOGICAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS

An estuary must be viewed as a concept rather than a physical
entity that can be easily defined and geographically mapped. The Columbia
River estuary provides an excellent example of the difficulty involved in
defining the limits of a particular estuary. Great and variable freshwater
discharge, significant tidal and wave energy, markedly variable salt water
intrusion, morphology and other factors combine to make it an unusually

dynamic estuary. The response of plant and animal life to these dynamics
is extremely complex and not w@ll understood. Subsequent sections describing
biological resources often make note of this fact. Nevertheless, there have

been many useful research studies that provide facts and insight into the

ecological complexities of the estuary. This section defines the concepts

and terminology used when discussing these complexities.

301.1 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM DEFINED

. An estuary is defined by Odum in Fundamentals of Ecology (1971) as
"a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the
open sea; it is thus strongly affected by tidal action, and within it, sea-
water is mixed (and usually measurably diluted) with freshwater from land

drainage."

The word ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos which means

"house" or "place to live." Ecology, then, is the study of the place where
organisms live.
A system is'defined by Webster as "regularly interacting and inter-

dependent components forming a unified whole."
An ecological system, or ecosystem, is a unified whole consisting of
all organisms in a given area interacting with the abiotic (non-living
environment) in such a way that the energy flow leads to a clearly defined
structure of food relationships, biologic-diversity, and cycling of minerals

and nutrients.

An estuarine ecosystem is a transition zone between adjacent marine
and freshwater environments. However, many of its most important physical

and biological characteristics are not transitional, but different from
both the river and the ocean. Variability is a key characteristic, and

while stressful conditions often limit the number of species present, the

food conditions are so favorable that estuaries are packed with an abundance

of life.

301.2 ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS

Although ecosystems are often very complex and difficult to fully
understand, they are made of basic components which are easily defined.
The first three components listed below make up the non-living or abiotic
environment, while the last three make up the living or biotic environment
and constitute biomass (living weight). These basic components of ecosystems
include the following: (1) the physical regime which includes temperature,
solar radiation, wind, tidal forces, pollution, and other physical factors;
(2) inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, pitrogen, phosphate, and
water that are involved in mineral cycling; (3) organic compounds such as

proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and humic substances that link living and
non-living components; (4) producers such as green marsh plants and micro-
scopic plants called phytoplankton that are able to manufacture food from
simple inorganic substances and sunlight by the process of photosynthesis;
(5) consumers, chiefly invertebrate animals, fish, birds, and man which
ingest producers and/or other consumers; (6) deco osers, primarily bacteria
and fungi that break down particulate organic matter, and release nutrients
to fuel new production by plants. This organic matter may be living
organisms or the remains ofplants and animals, cp1lectively called detritus.
When the abiotic components of the ecosystem are puitable for plant produc-
tion, the consumers may flourish and contribute dFtritus to the decomposers,
which in turn release nutrients to plant:productipn, and so the cycle goes.

301.3 ECOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY
Analysis of functional relationships in the estuarine ecosystem makes
t
the above descriptive information more useful. Fpr the understanding and
best possible ecosystem management, it is important to know how energy
flows through the system, how food chains or webs are con structed, how
diversity and abundance vary, how nutrients cycle, and how the system is
controlled. Some of these functional relationships will be examined as
they apply to,the Columbia River estuary in subseguent sections of the
Inventory. But first, some terms and concepts uspd in ecology must be

defined and discussed.

A. Productivity and Standing Crop
Primary productivity is defined as the rate at which producers (pri-
marily green plants, algae, and phytoplankton) c opvert nutrients, carbon
dioxide and light energy from the sun into food 11a.terial (new plant tissue).

301-2

The key word in the definition is rate, because productivity refers to the
energy fixed per unit of time.- Secondary productivity refers to the rate
at which consumers, such as zooplankton, fish and man, store energy at

higher levels on the food chain.
In general terms, productivity refers to biological "richness."
However, productivity should-not be confused with standing crop, which is
the number or weight of individuals present at any one given time. While

this measure is often directly related to productivity, it is not necessarily

SO. Standing crop or biomass, is more a measure of the production that

is stored or held in reserve. This storage is a key factor in stabilizing

the estuarine ecosystem in that it provides a food and energy reserve for

times of the year when productivity is low. major storage components in

estuaries include tidal marshes and mudflats.

B. Ecosystem Organization
Ecosystems are studied and discussed on different organizational

levels, each increasingly complex. These levels are:

1. Individual Level

Individual organisms of a single species are the lowest level of

organization in ecology. However, even individual organisms are very

complex.

2. Population Level

Populations are groups of individuals of the same species, such as

total number of a particular estuary fish. A population interacts with

the living and non-living environs and fluctuates in numbers.

3. Community Level

Ecological communities are assemblages of different populations that
occur in a given defined area and which affect one another in a significant

way. There are communities, for instance, in mud flats, marshes and open

water.

4. Ecosystem Level

The ecosystem level embraces the several communities that make up,
for example, the estuarine ecosystem. The present assemblages of species,
populations, communities and ecosystems are the result of long-term evolu-

tionary and shorter-term successional processes.

301-3

C. Ecological Succession
Ecological succession-in a given area is the gradual.replacement of
less mature,communities with more mature communities. This.replacement
results from interactions of species with the environment. In an estuary

marsh, for example, the plant communities which colonize the flat at the

outer edge continue to move outward, being replaced by more mature

communities.

D.-- Chemical Cycling.

Chemicals such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and
others are the materials of which living organisms are made. Non-living.
chemical nutrients are taken up by green plants, organized, passed on in
the food chain and eventually broken down by decomposers, once again avail-
able for uptake and new plant production (Figure 301-1). Inthe Columbia

and other estuaries, the physical availability of nutrients is strongly,
controlled by-river flow. Nutrients flowing downstream are continually

being flushed out of the estuary to the sea.

E. Energy Flow
The ultimate source of energy for life in our world is the sun.
Flowing through ecosystems,.this energy is the essential driving force
behind the cycling of chemical nutrients. Light energy from the sun is
captured, converted and stored by green plants and subsequently passed on

to higher levels in the.food chain.. The energy thus diverted into the
living world is used,to maintain and further organize the living world.
Eventually, however, the energy which has.been temporarily div.erted.and
stored must be lost as organisms die and are decomposed (Figure 301-1).

F. Food Webs
I The term food web implies complex producer-consumer interrelation-
ships. While feeding relationships can be complex and variable, the
concept is simple and can be described as a "food chain" (Figure 301-1).
A primary producer converts sun energy to plant material. This material
is eaten by.animal herbivores, which in turn, are preyed upon by carni-
vores and/or omnivores, which also feed on plants directly. Each transfer
along the chain is about 10% efficient; that is, for every 10 pounds of
biomass consumed, only one pound is used to produce biomass in the consumer.
The rest is lost to body function maintenance and waste. Decomposers or
microconsumers form an essential link 'in the food chain, breaking down

301-4

FIGURE 301 -1

SIMPLIFIED ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM SUNLIGHT
ILLUSTRATING FOOD CHAIN ENERGY
RELATIONSHIPS, ENERGY FLOW

AND CHEMICAL CYCLING

OCEAN RIVER

PRIMARY PLANTS a ALGAE
PRODUCTION Phytoplankton, Marsh Debris, Seaweed)

HERBIVORES
CA Zooplankton, Shrimp, Clams,Worms)

z IstCARNIVORES
CONSUMPTION
M (Juvenile and Small Fish, Crabs)

2
2 2 nd., 3rd. CARNIVORES
(Large Fish, Man)

DECOMPOSITION WASTE AND
DECOMPOSITION
L (Bacteria)

RIVER OCEAN

ENERGY

1. ENERG FLOWS THROUGH THE SYSTEM AND IS LOST.
2- MINERALS, NUTRIENTS, AND DETRITU ARE BROUGHT DOWNSTREAM WITH THE RIVER,
RECYCLED AND EVENTUALLY LOST TO THE OCEAN.
7(P h

301-5

complex organic matter into its inorganic, non-living chemical constitu-
ents, which again become available for primary production. Each step
in the food chain is termed a tropbic (or feeding) level. The interre-
lationship between these levels is the food web and varies with. season,and

location in the estuary.
G. carrying Capacity
carrying capacity,is the ability of an ecosystem to support organisms,

usually expressed in biomass or numbers. This concept'has significant
implications in man-@-managed systems,,where changes in carrying capacity
often result from physical -or biological alterations.
H. Limiting Factors
Limiting factors are the ecosystem characteristics which limit diver-
sity or abundance of species. Availability of light, nutrients, food,

habitat and space are:examp les of factors which'limit populations.
I. Species Abundance'and Diversity
Species abundance. refers tothe number of organisms of the same
species in a given area-Species diversity refers to the number of dif-
.ferenIt species in a given area. In estuaries, species diversity is often

low, but the abundance of thosespecies present is often very great.
J. Habitat and-Ecological Niche
The habitat.of;-'an organism is the place where it lives, or the
place where one would look for it. Habitat may also refer to the place
occupied by an entire-community, such as a tidal marsh community. The
ecological niche, on the other hand, is a more inclusive term that includes
.not only the physical space occupied, but also the functional role (such
as feeding relationships), its position with respect to environmental
gradients including salinity, tempe �ature, sediments, moisture, and other
conditions of existence. By analogy, it may be said that the habitat of
an organism is its "address" and niche is its "pkofession," biologically

speaking.

301.4 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION BY SALINITY
Variable salt content in estuarine waters.is one of-the most bio-
logically significant differences between it and adjacent marine and fresh-
water environments. All forms of life in an estuary must respond to these
changes and their response is used as a basis for differentiating between
groups of plants and animals. The distinction is most clearly illustrated

301-6

with aquatic animal life in estuaries. While species, size, form, feeding

habits and other characteristics are used to group or classify various
animals, their distribution, abundance and behavior in response to
different salinities is a major consideration for all. Table 301-1

describes the major groupings of estuarine animals according'to their
response to salinity differences. Plankton, benthic invertebrates and
fishes are discussed in subsequent sections using the terminology in this
table. Salinity ranges in the table are those commonly used in the

literature.

301-7

Table 301-1 ESTUARINE ANIMAL COMPONENTS ACCORDING TO SALINITY

I. THE: FRESHWATER COMPONENT

A. The stenohaline* freshwater component, not penetrating salinities
greater than 0.51/oo.

B. The euryhaline* freshwater component
1. First grade - penetrate downstream through oligohaline'
salinities (0.5-5*/oo)
2. Second grade - penetrate downstream through mesohaline
salinities (5-18*/oo)
3. Third grade - penetrate downstream through polyhaline
salinities (18-300/00).

II. THE MARINE COMPONENT

A. The stenohaline component, not penetrating a salinity below
300/00.

B. The euryhaline component, extending from the sea over the
middle reaches of the estuary wherever conditions are
suitable.

1. First grade - penetrate upstream through polyhaline
salinities 30-180/oo)
2. Second grade - penetrate upstream through meschaline
salinities (18-5*/oo)
3. Third grade - penetrate upstream through oligohaline
salinities (5-0.50/oo).

III. THE ESTUARINE COMPONENT

Comprising the few species which are restricted to estuaries, and
penetrate neither fresh or fully saline waters.

IV. THE MIGRATORY COMPONENT

Which spends only a part of its life in the estuary

A. Marine species which enter the estuary for a part of their life
cycle either to feed, e.g. flounder, or to spawn, e.g. herring.

B. Species which migrate through estuaries from the sea to fresh-
water.

1. Anadromous species, ascending the rivers to spawn, e.g.
salmon.

*Stenohaline refers to organisms with a very narrow range of tolerance to
salinity
*Euryhaline refers to organisms with a wider and variable range of
toleranc-e to salinity

Adapted From: Perkins, 1974
301-8

301.5 REFERENCES

A. Clark, John. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Considerations
for Management of-the Coastal Zone. The Conservation Foundation.
178pp.

B. Odum, Eugene P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. 3rd Edition.
W.B. Saunders Company. 574pp.

C. Perkins, E.J. 1975. The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal Waters.
Academic Press. 678pp.

D. Whittaker, Robert H. 1970. Communities and Ecosystems. The
Macmillan Company. 158pp.

301-9

0 0 0

3
10 n@ TIDAL MARSHES
@ -a 21

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

TIDAL MARSHES

James W. Good

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

302 TIDAL MARSHES .......................................... 302-1
302.1 ENVIRON14ENTAL FACTORS .................................. 302-1
302.2 PLANT COLONIZATION, SUCCESSION AND
MARSH TYPES .......................................... 302-5
302.3 COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY MARSH TYPES
AND COMMUNITIES ...................................... 302-6
A. Youngs Bay ............................................. 302-6
B. Baker Bay .............................................. 302-8
C. Grays Bay .............................................. 302-8
D. Lower River and Mouth .................................. 302-8
E. Eastern Clatsop ........................................ 302-9
F. Eastern Wahkiakum ...................................... 302-9
G. Columbia River Islands ................................. 302-10
302.4 FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF TIDAL MARSHES 302-13
A. Biological Productivity and
Detrital Export ...................................... 302-13
B. Fish and Wildlife Habitat .............................. 302-14
C. Erosion Buffer ........... .............................. 302-16
D. Water Quality Maintenance .............................. 302-16
E. Recreation Use ......................................... 302-17
302.5 REFERENCES 302-18

FIGURES

302-1 Tidal Marsh in the Columbia River Estuary .............. 302-2*
302-2 Marsh Plants ........................................... 302-3

TABLES

302-1 Tidal Marshes in the Columbia River Estuary ............ 302-2
302-2 Common & Scientific Names of More Abundant
Plants in Columbia River Estuary ..................... 302-4
302-3 Net Production of Dry Matter ........................... 302-15
302-4 Organic Export (Nehalem Bay Salt Marsh) ................ 302-15

*Figure follows the page indicated.

302 TIDAL f4ARSHES

Tidal marshes are communities of vascular aquatic or semi-aquatic
vegetation, rooted in poorly drained, poorly aerated soil, with varying
quantities of salt. Tidal marshes are generally found between lower high
water (LHW) and approximately extreme high water (line where non-aquatic

vegetation begins).

From the mouth to about river mile (RM) 50, the Columbia River

estuary has approximately 11,457 acres (4,629 hectares) of tidal marsh
(Table 302-1 and Figure 302-1). The largest.part of this acreage (7,173
acres) is preserved in the Lewis and Clark and Columbian White-Tailed

Deer National Wildlife Refuges. The next largest marsh areas are in Grays

and Youngs Bays. Many tidal marshes diked in the early part of this
century are not included in these acreage totals, and no information is

available on their original size.

The values and functions of tidal marshes are examined later in

this section. Common and scientific names of predominant tidal marsh
plants (Table 302-2) have been included for purposes of clarification.
Figure 302-2 graphically shows some common Columbia River estuary tidal

marsh plants.

302.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Environmental factors such as the duration of tidal exposure and

submergence, tidal water salinity, water quality, and soil nutrients

largely determine the location of tidal marshes and plant species

distribution.

Generally,,the predominant influence on the Columbia River tidal
marshes is the very high flow of freshwater, which dilutes and limits salt

water intrusion. This is particularly important in the spring, when river

runoff is often more than double that of normal, and new marsh plants are

germinating or spreading roots after winter dormancy. Because the river

waters are less dense than intruding salt water from the ocean, the river

freshwater tends to float on the surface and spread over newly-sprouting

marsh plants as the tides rise. Local winter and spring rains reinforce

the freshwater effects, causing high estuary tributary water flows, high
1-0 water tables, and relatively low soil and soil water saliniti es.

Table 302-1

TIDAL MARSHES OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

Area Acres Hectares3

Baker Bay 816 331

Lower River and mouth 293 119

Youngs Bay-Astoria 1,136 449
Grays Bay 1,449 587

Eastern Clatsop 569 230

Eastern Wahkiakum 464 188
Columbia River Islands 4 6 730 2,725
Columbia River Estuary 11,457 4,629

1) For purposes of this inventory, the Columbia River Estuary includes
1OWer river areas which are part of Clatsop, Pacific, and Wahkiakum
Counties.

2) ArE!aS correspond to the subareas of the estuary used in CREST
planning (Figure 100-2).

3) ThExe are 0.405 hectares per acre.

4) The Lewis and Clark and Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife
Refuge includes this area and small portions of two other areas.
Tidal marshes within refuge boundaries total 7,173 acres (2,095
hectares).

From: 1. Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976
2. Other aerial photo interpretation

302-2

05 124- 55 S. 12 3-45' @0'

ol 0 4

101
4,

NAUTICAL MILES

KILoMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Figure 302-2. SOME COMMON COLUMBIA RIVER
ESTUARY TIDAL MARSH PLANTS

Lyngby's sedge Three-square bulrush
(Carex Lyngbyei) (Scirpus americanus)

Tufted hairgrass Pacific silverweed
(Deschampsia caespitosa) (Potentilla pacifi ca
3d2-3

TABLE 302-2

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF THE MORE ABUNDANT PLANTS IN
THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY TIDAL MARSHES

Common name Scientific name

Beaked spike-rush Eleocharis rostellata

Birds-foot trefoil Lotus.corniculatus

common cattail Typha latifolia

Common reed Phragmites communis
Creeping bentgrass Agrostis alba

Lesser cattail Typha angustifolia

Lyngby's sedge Carex lyngbyei

Marsh horsetail Equisetum palustre

Pacific silverweed Potentilla Pacifica,

Pacific water-parsley Oeneanthe sarmentosa

Pointed rush Juncus oxymeris

Reed canarygrass Phalaris arundinacea

Seacoast bulrush Scirpus maritimus

Seaside arrow-grass Triglochin maritimum

Softstem bulrush Scirpus validus

Spreading rush Juncus supiniformis

Thread rush Juncus filiformis

Three-square bulrush Scirpus americanus

Toad rush juncus bufonius

Tufted hairgrass Deschampsia.caepitosa
Wapato, Sagitaria latifolia

302-4

The tidal wave ( height variation) is relatively unaffected by the river

flow, and it progresses upstrear@, well past what is thought of as the

estuary.

The freshwater influence in tidal reaches of the Columbia results

in marsh areas being dominated by freshwater or marginally salt-tolerant

species such as Lyngby's sedge, sof tstem bulrush and common reed. The
conspicuous absence of more salt-tolerant species, such as saltgrass and
alkali grass, is further evidence of freshwater predominance, even in marshes
close to the river mouth. Pickleweed is also absent, but this is typical of

Northern Oregon salt marshes.

302.2 PLANT COLONIZATION, SUCCESSION AND MARSH TYPES

Succession is defined as the orderly replacement of one natural

community by another and is a basic phenomenon in tidal marshes. The tidal

marshes of the Columbia River estuary exhibit successional zones from lower

high water (LHW) tide level, inland, to the juncture with terrestrial
vegetation. Each of these zones has specific tolerance to the environmental
factors of scour, saltwater, degree of exposure or submergence, nutrient

supply and biological activities.
The first stage in succession, colonization of the tideflats by pioneer
plants, is largely determined by the type of tideflat sediment; but it is also

influenced by freshwater predominance in the Columbia estuary. A typical

mudflat colonizer, seaside arrow-grass, is present only in lower and mid-

estuary marshes and then in very low numbers. Three-square bulrush, beaked

spike-rush, softstem bulrush and seacoast bulrush are more common colonizing

species in various areas of the estuary.

After initial colonization, an area is usually invaded by Lyngby's
sedge, by far the most dominant marsh species in the entire estuary. After
die-back of some original colonizers, an area is invaded by a third stage of
plants including tufted hairgrass, Pacific silverweed, creeping bentgrass

and more sedge. In upper estuary marshes, a sedge/pointed rush/tufted hair-
grass association is almost always the dominant high marsh community.

The tidal marsh is a transition area between the estuarine and

terrestrial environments. Each stage of the succession process brings about
an increase in the height of the marsh which results in a new set of environ-
mental factors. The iower marsh, the area submerged twice daily by high tides,
is predominantly estuarine habitat and provides food and shelter for animal

302-5

communities of the estuary. The high marshes generally exhibit more
freshwater and upland characteristics.

This successional feature of tidal marshes resulting in their ex-

pansion is termed progradation, meaning an increase in land area due to
accretion along the shore. Since the Columbia estuary has filled substan-

tially over the past century, it can probably be assumed that its marshes
are prograding. This is suspected when one compares old navigation charts
with maps of the present extent of tidal marshes. However, there are some
areas where the reverse process, retrogradation, is probably taking place.

Marsh vegetation types and.various dominant plant communities found
in each were described in 1975 by C.A. Jefferson in Plant Communities and

Succession in Oregon Coa!@tal'Salt Marshes." The vegetation types of saline-
brackish water tidal marshes included (1) low sand, (2) low silt, (3) sedge,
(4) immature high, (5) mature high and (6).bulrush and sedge. Freshwater
tidal marshes mentioned, but not discussed in detail, included (1) bulrush,
(2) intertidal gravel marsh, (3) diked salt marsh and (4) high, freshwater
intertidal marsh. Because of the absence of many of the common salt-tolerant

marsh plants in the Columbia estuary, application of these described
vegetative type-plant community associations must be done somewhat loosely.
Probably all vegetative types (both estuarine and freshwater) are present in

the-Columbia--estuary, with some modification of communities, due to the
very low salinities present. The next section describes the vegetative
type-plant communities in general, based on available information. The

areas described correspond to the seven CREST planning areas.

302.3 COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY MARSH TYPES AND COMMUNITIES

A. Youngs Bay
The marshes of Youngs Bay, its tributaries and'the.Tongue Point area

total approximately 1,136 acres (Figure 302-1). These marshes have not been

studied in detail, but descriptions of some areas are available.
Marshes fringe the southwest edge of Youngs Bay, and continue up the

west bank of the Lewis and Clark River for several miles. There are scattered

marsh areas along the rest of the bay and up the Walluski and Youngs River.
Undoubtedly, a significant proportion of the diked land in the lower Youngs
and Lewis and Clark River areas were tidal wetlands, prior to diking in the
1920's and 1930's. This contention is supported by the presence of thousands is
of acres of tideland soils (compresssible, organic, peat-like). At the time

302-6

of diking, aquatic vegetation probably inhabited only the outer fringes of

the area, with the remainder of the land having built up gradually over the

past several thousand years.

The tidal marsh located in the small cove between Tansy Point and

the peninsula which forms the west bank of the Skipanon River (known as
Alder Creek), is approximately 75 acres, and species composition reflects

the predominant influence of freshwater. The outer sandy portion of the
marsh is dominated by softstem bulrush, a common colonizing species in other

areas of the estuary. Cattail is also present in isolated stands. These

species grade into sedge marsh and through a mixed sedge (mature high

marsh) area where upland species begin to invade. A bark fill on the east

side of this area is encroaching on a portion of the marsh area.

Cooperage Slough is an 100 acre tidal marsh located about nine miles
up the Youngs, River on the east shore and has been surveyed and described

by The Nature Conservancy. The daily mean tidal range is approximately 8.5

feet, and there is an intricate network of tidal channels draining the

marsh and adjacent forest, which is second growth red alder and Sitka

spruce. The marsh is essentially an undisturbed freshwater marsh and is

similar to many on the islands in Cathlamet Bay. On low muddy areas
adjacent to tidal channels, softstem bulrush dominates along withother

scattered vegetation including wapato. On slightly higher areas, an
association of Lyngby's sedge, Pacific water-parsley and Pacific silverweed
dominates. This grades into a higher area with scattered bulrush and upland
species, including dense clumps of lady-fern. Wetland shrub species occupy
the highest portion of the marsh and include Hooker's willow, crabapple,

Young alder and others.

Daggett Point (Russian Point) is another area surveyed by The Nature
Conservancy. This marsh area is very similar to Cooperage Slough in species
composition and distribution. There is significant stand of common reed
growing up to 10 feet tall, and a portion of the mature high marsh is dominated
by tufted hairgrass along with seaside arrowgrass, sedge and silverweed.
Other areas of Youngs Bay marshes have been described only generally,
but as elsewhere in the estuary, they are dominated by species characteristic
of freshwater tidal marshes. Cattail, bulrush, and sedge are probably
dominant, with distribution of these species a function of substrate type and
degree of tidal submergence and exposure.

302-7

B. Baker Bay
Tidal marshes totaling nearly 816 acres fringe almost the entire
shore of Baker Bay, except where shorelines are intensively developed.
Tidal marshes also fringe the north and east side of Sand Island. These
marshes have not been characterized in detail, except for one intensively
sampled area adjacent to Fort Canby State Park (Figure 302-1).
Vegetation in this area grades sharply from upland older forest
to.immature high marsh, through sedge and three-square bulrush communities.
The area shows complete vegetative coverage except for tidal channels. The
upper marsh has rich species diversity dominated by sedge. Between this
area and relatively pure stands of sedge is an area co-dominated by Pacific
silverweed and sedge. Creeping bentgrass is also an important species here.
The zone dominated by sedge contains few other species. The pure stand of
three-square bulrush represents.the.initial colonization of the low sandy

portion of the marsh. This marsh area is probably representative for Baker

Bay, though verification would be useful.

C. Grays Bay
The Grays Bay area has the second largest concentration of tidal
marsh in the estuary, with some 1,449 acres. The substrate of the higher
marsh area sampled in Grays Bay is generally sandy, with sparse vegetation
dominated in three different areas by a toad,rush/spreading rush association,
an introduced species called birds-foot trefoil and marsh horsetail.
Lyngby's sedge dominates the next band of vegetation in each area.. The

lower end of this zone grades into vegetation dominated by beaked spike-

rush and softstem bulrush. The bulrush forms large circular rings on the
outer edges of the marsh, which are clearly visable on aerial photographs.
Beaked spike-rush forms less.uniform, more solid patches. Areas occupied

by both species extend far out into the bay and are accessible only at very

low tides. The marsh area thus grades from an immature high marsh to sedge

marsh to bulrush marsh.

D. Lower River and Mouth

The northeast edge of Fort Stevens State Park borders on the Columbia

River and is fringed with about 300 acres of tidal marsh. These are in a

protected area sometimes known as Trestle Bay, located southeast of Clatsop

Spit. The spit and embayment were formed in the last part of the 19th
century, after construction of the south jetty. The marsh is bounded on the

upland side by dunes and scotchbroom and on the river side by a sand-mud flat.

302-8

The transition area between upland mature high marsh is very

diverse, with a mixture of species from both groups. The mature high marsh
is dominated by Pacific silverweed and creeping bentgrass. Thread rush and
common reed are also found here in patches. The area grades into an area

dominated by creeping bentgrass and sedge. Sedge then becomes dominant to

the outer edge of the marsh, covering more than 50% of the entire marsh

area. At the edge of the marsh, a few colonizing species such as seaside

arrowgrass and three-square bulrush are found'. The marsh area thus grades

from a mature high marsh to an immature high marsh to a low sandy marsh.

Some low-salinity-tolerant species are found in this lower estuary marsh,

but the distinct absence of saltgrass and pickleweed are indicative of the

predominance of freshwater, even close to the river mouth.

E. Eastern Clatsop

The Eastern Clatsop planning area contains some 569 acres of tidal
marsh, much of it is in embayments along the shoreline. Small marshes are

also present at the mouths of streams draining into the Columbia. A thorough
survey of these marshes is needed, particularly in the eastern part of the

area. Gnat Creek marsh and Big and Little Creek marshes are areas surveyed

by the Nature Conservancy.
One other marsh area, approximately two miles east of the outlet of

the John Day River into Cathlamet Bay, has been intensively sampled. The

marsh is bounded on the east, south, and west by a stand of Sitka spruce

and willow and on the north, by the south channel of the Columbia River.

Eskeline Creek drains into the marsh from the southwest, and a railroad

divides the marsh into the north and south parts. The marsh has no eleva-

tional gradient and no obvious zonation of vegetation. The south area of

the marsh is dominated by Lyngby's sedge, common cattail and marsh horsetail,
with many other species in lesser numbers. The patchy distribution of these
species is attributed to differences in time of colonization, the fresh-
water influence of the creek and selective feeding habits of nutria (an

introduced rodent). North of the railroad, the marsh exhibits much less
diversity than on the south side, and it is dominated by sedge, marsh horse-
tail, Pacific water parsley and softstem. bulrush.

F. Eastern Wahkiakum

Eastern Wahkiakum County has a few significant stands of marsh

vegetation totaling 188 acres. These marshes are located at the juncture of
Elochoman Slough with the Columbia river, Nigger Island, and the upriver and

302-9

end of Puget Island. These marshes are probably somewhat different from
each other; they tend to be dominated by sedge, softstem bulrush, and
seacoast bulrush and possibly common cattail. Pointed rush and tufted hair-
grass are also likely to be present, particularly in the higher marsh areas.
These marshes need further study and description.

G. Columbia River Islands
Approximately 20 major islands within the Lewis and Clark National
Wildlife Refuge contain some 6,730 acres of tidal marsh. Each of these
islands was surveyed by the Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit
(Oregon State University), as part of a Corps of Engineers study of riparian
habitat. Their descriptions are briefly summarized here.
1. Grassy Island .(River Mile 22)
The deposits forming this tidal marsh island have a northwest orienta-
tion. The older deposits are along the southern edge, extending into younger
sand deposits to the northwest and northeast. The older deposits are
dominated by Lyngby's sedge and the younger deposits by softstem bulrush and

-seacoast bulrush. Sedge grows, under.the two species of bulrush, but it is
abundant only along the more elevated southern edge. Pointed rush is
moderately abundant in the area dominated by Lyngby's sedge. Softstem bulrush
is somewhat less abundant than seacoast bulrush. The two species each
dominate some sections of the island; they co-dominate a fairly large area,

as well.

2. Unnamed Island (near Oregon Shore) Between River Miles 21 and 23
These islands are entirely tidal marsh. Lyngby's sedge, in association
with smaller amounts of pointed rush and tufted hairgrass, dominates the
southern edges of these islands. The lower sand flats to the west and north

are dominated by softstern bulrush and seacoast bulrush; the latter is more

clearly prevalent along the northeast extension of the eastern-most island,

which appears to bea new area of deposition.

3. Green Island

The northeast section of this island has the highest elevation and is
dominated by Lyngby's sedge. Several extensive sand deposits of low elevation
occur on the north and southwest part of the island. These sand flats are
covered by patches of softstem bulrush, seacoast bulrush, and beaked spike-
rush. Softstem bulrush is the most abundant and seemingly, the most suited
to deep water.

302-10

4. Russian and Seal Islands

Russian and Seal Islands are areas of deposition simila r to, but
older than, that of the unnamed islands between RM 21-23. Vegetation is
entirely tidal marsh. The proportion of the islands dominated by the more
mature Lyngby's sedge /pointed rush /tufted hairgrass association, in
relation to that dominated by the younger softstem bulrush or seacoast

bulrush associations, is about nine to one for Russian and Seal Islands.

The areas of most recent deposition for Russian and Seal Islands

are along the northwest and southwest sides. Softstem bulrush and seacoast

bulrush dominate these sandflats. Lesser cattail and beaked spike-rush

dominate some patches of vegetation. The latter occurs most frequently in

tidal channels. Patches of softstem bulrush and, less frequently, seacoast

bulrush, are found along the northwest tip of Russian Island, softstem and

seacoast bulrush occur in pure stands, as well as in association with each

other and sedge. Marsh horsetail also forms patches in which it is the

dominant species. Wapato is the most abundant species on the tidal flat

that extends from the southwest corner of Russian Island.

5. Minnaker Island

Most of Minnaker Island is dominated by Lyngby's sedge. Pointed rush

and tufted hairgrass are important vegetation, although they are not as pre-

valent as on some of the other islands. Pacific willows are becoming estab-
lished in a few places. Patches of softstem bulrush a nd beaked spike-rush

dominate the younger shorelines.

6. Karlson Island

Only the western end of Karlson Island is undisturbed tidal marsh.

Much of the island has been diked (no longer functional, however) or is

forested by Sitka spruce and Pacific willow. Most of the tidal marsh is the
Lyngby's sedge/pointed rush/tufted hairgrass association. This association

covers the southern half of the marsh, except for the extreme western edge.
The western edge is a low mar sh, dominated by softstem bulrush. A large

stand of common reed forms the northern edge of the marsh. A stand of marsh

horsetail is adjacent to the southern edge of the reed stand.

7. Snag Island

The older northeast section of this island, dominated by Lyngby's
sedge, slopes into extensive sand flats dominated by stands of softstem
bulrush, seacoast bulrush, and beaked spike-rush. Generally, the Lyngby's
sedge growing on Snag Island is shorter and has less vegetative growth than

302-11

that on most other islands; the density of beaked spike-rush is also lower.
The stands of seacoast bulrush are very tall and thick; other than Douglas'
aster, they are the only species to appear healthy and robust at the time
of the OSU survey. Lesser cat-tail is also present in patches.

8. Marsh, Brush and Horseshoe Islands

Approximately 75 percent of the acreage of Brush and Horseshoe Islands

is tidal marsh. Only about 20percent of Marsh Island is tidal marsh. The

marsh vegetation of these islands is another example of intertidal freshwater

marsh dominated by Lyngby's sedge, in association with tufted hairgrass and
pointed rush. The hairgrass has a higher percent cover value (30%) on these
islands than on the islands previously described.

9. Woody Isla nd

A dense stand composed of Sitka spruce, western red cedar, creek
dogwood, and Pacific willow covers approximately 60 percent of Woody Island.

A narrow band of marsh extends around the island, and it is more extensive

on the southern shore adjacent to Horseshoe and Tronson Islands. The domi-
nant marsh type is the Lyngby's sedge/pointed rush/tufted hairgrass associa-
tion. There are patches also dominated by marsh horsetail, reed canarygrass

and softstem bulrush.

10. Tronson Isl and

Apprxominately 10-15 percent of this island is covered by Pacific
willow shrubs; the remainder is tidal marsh composed mainly of Lyngby's sedge/
pointed rush/tufted hairgrass association. Marsh horsetail is dominant in

depressions.

11. Goose Island

This small island, adjacent to the north side of Tronson Island, is
covered by tidal marsh. The Lyngby's sedge/pointed rush/tufted hairgrass

association dominates the high ground. On the sandy, low deposit on the
southwest side, beaked spike-rush and spreading rush are the dominant species.
12. Grassy (RM 31) and Quinns Islands

These two islands have similar vegetation. A narrow stand of Pacific

willow occurs on the older easter n shore of Quinn Island. The Lyngby's

sedge/pointed rush/tufted hairgrass association extends from th e trees into.

sandflats, which are dominated by patches of softstem bulrush and beaked

spike-rush.

13. Fitzpatrick Island

This island has a concave surface. The southwest shore, elevated a

meter or more above the river bottom, is edged with willows. Adjacent to the

302-12

northern section of the willow band is a sizeable patch of lesser cattail.
The number of species associated with the dominant Lyngby's sedge found at
the edge of the willows, decreases toward the center and increases on the

elevated northeastern and southern edges of the island. Scattered Pacific

willows are growing in these higher areas. Lyngby's sedge, (approximately
12 inches tall), is the main component of the vegetation of the rest of the
island. Beaked spike-rush dominates the tide channels.

14. Welch Island

Welch Island is of intermediate age. The north end, where sand has

most recently accreted, is covered with beaked spike-rush; it also grows
in the outlets of the tidal channels. This changes rapidly into a marsh
dominated by Lyngby's sedge. Shallow roots of the sedge fill the substrate
completely, and the plant sheds an abundance of leafy material which rapidly
decomposes. These factors, and sedge's propensity for trapping debris and

sediment have resulted in an elevation about a foot above the tide flat.

Most high tides inundate the island, and the marsh is crisscrossed by an

intricate network of moderately deep drainage channels. A large number of

species characteristic of mature sedge marsh have colonized the island, but
only the sedge has become well established.

302.4 FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF TIDAL MARSHES

A great deal of research has been conducted concerning the functions

and values of tidal marshes. most of this research has been on the Atlantic

Coast, and some recent work has been done in Nehalem Bay. While the value

of the Columbia estuary marshes has not been studied, much of the information
from other areas applies. Analysis of this information clearly shows that
marshes fulfill certain functions which are directly or indirectly beneficial

to man.

A. Biological Productivity and Detrital Export
Tidal marsh plants, like all other green plants, use the sun's energy
to convert inorganic substances (water and carbon dioxide) into organic
materials (simple sugars), through the process of photosynthesis. Because
all living things are ultimately dependent on organic material produced by

green plants, the productivity of a group of plants is an important factor in
determining how many and what kind of organisms will live in an area, In

comparison with other producers of both the land and the sea, tidal marshes
have environmental conditions that are conducive to a high productivity rate.

302-13

Production of high yield agricultural crops by man requires a signi-

ficant input of petroleum energy in the form of nutrient fertilizers (i.e.
phosphates and nitrates) and petroleum fuel to run farm machinery. In the
tidal marsh, the high yield is produced with no input of energy or nutrients

by humans. The nutrients, phosphates and nitrates are available in the
seawater which floods the marsh, and the energy subsidy is provided by tidal

action.

Table 302-3 summarizes some of the available data on relative

primary productivity of some agricultural crops and marshes common to the

Columbia estuary.
The major importance of the high productivity of estuarine marshes is
its contribution to secondary production of estuarine water and bottom-
dwelling populations. Tidal action transports a large proportion of fixed
organic marsh material into estuary waters, as dissolved or particulate
organic material. This export of marsh production is the primary means of

organic enrichment of estuaries. The marsh detritus serves as food for

amphipods, clams, crabs, insects, polychaetes and oligochaetes (worms), as

well as other species. These animals, in turn, become food for larger animals
including fish, birds and ultimately man. Table 302-4 lists-the percentage

export of net production from marshes in Nehalem Bay, Oregon; these are

similar marshes to Columbia River tidal marshes.

B. Fish and Wildlife Habitat

The significance of the marsh as fish and. wildlife habitat relates to
both its high biological productivity, assuring an abundance of food for
animals, and its position in the land-sea interface, providing a diversity
of habitat types within a small area.

At different times of the year, many species of waterbirds and shore-

birds utilize the marsh for feeding and nesting. The lower Columbia area in

general, and its tidal marshes in particular, support large populations of
waterfowl in the fall and winter. Several tidal marshes are popular duck

hunting areas.

The expanses of marsh and adjacent flats uncovered at low tide attract
raccoon, skunk and muskrat for feeding, while the higher marshes provide

habitat for small burrowing rodents. One of these rodents, nutria, is a

harmful introduced species, which has destroyed many cattail marshes in upper
estuary areas. Blacktail and the endangered Columbian white-tailed deer are

also common visitors to the marsh.

302-14

TABLE 302-3

NET PRODUCTION OF DRY MATTER

Grams/square meter/year

Wheat field (world average) 2881
Rice field (world average) 5111
Sugar Cane (Hawaii) 27111
Low Sandy Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 7382
Immature High Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 10412
Mature High Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 2832
Sedge (Carex Sp.) Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 20002
3
Sedge (Carex lyngbyei) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, Or.) 1746
Bulrush (Scirpus maritimus) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, Or.) 6093
Rush/Bentgrass (Juncus Agrostis) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, 14793
Or.)

From: 1. Odum, 1971
2. Northwest Environmental Consultants, 1975
3. Eilers, 1975

TABLE 302-4

ORGANIC EXPORT FROM NEHALEM BAY SALT MARSHES

Marsh Type Percent Export Tidal range above MLLW

Bulrush (Scirprus) 80% 4.3 - 6.0 ft.

Sedge (Carex) 100% 5.5 - 7.4 ft.
Rush bentgrass (Juncus/Agrostis) 49% 7.4 - 9.2 ft.

From: Eilers, 1975

302-15

At high tide, when tidal creeks are filled with water, fish come in

from subtidal areas. Juvenile salmon, starry flounder, three-spine sculpin
and other species utilize these areas. The importance of the marshes to
juvenile salmon deserves special mention. The edges of marsh areas provide
5heltered habitats for juvenile salmon, where food in the form of amphi-
pods and other small invertebrates (which feed directly on marsh detritus),

is plentiful and larger predatory species of fish are avoided.

C. Erosion Buffer

Eroding streambanks present significant problems in many areas of
the estuary and tributary streams, particularly where dikes come down to the
water'-s edge. Cost for dike repair, rip-rap and other shoreline protection
is extremely high. Tidal marshes act as natural bulkhead.in protecting the

shoreline from erosion; when preserved, they can save considerable cost to

the upland owner.
D. Water Quality Maintenance
Columbia River waters often have high turbidity (cloudiness), parti-

cularly during high runoff periods. The turbidity can have the effect of
reducing light penetration, and can therefore reduce the productivity of

the phytoplankton. When the water containing suspended sediments covers a

tidal marsh, the vegetation of the marsh slows the water movement and causes

the sediment to be deposited in the marsh. Thus, the marsh helps to reduce
the turbidity in the surrounding water and increases the total production

of phytoplankton.
The tidal marsh also maintains water quality by its removal of inor-
ganic nutrients from the water. These nutrients include phosphates and
nitrates which may have their source in sewage effluent or septic tank
leachates. The tidal marshes, particularly the lower marshes which are

covered daily by the tides remove the nutrients from the estuary waters.

New wastewater treatment facilities are now being constructed in many
parts of the United States; some are able to remove the nutrients from sewage
effluent. This form of treatment, tertiary treatment, is very costly. A
recent study values the work of the East Coast marshes in removing just

phosphorus, at between $480 and $1420 per acre per year. The report states

that the marshes appear to be uniquely adapted to removal of nitrogren from
the water, as well. This treatment of the water is expensive when done
technically, but it is performed by the marsh for free.

302-16

It should be emphasized, however, that secondary treatment, or

removal of organic solids of sewage (a relatively inexpensive process),
cannot be done efficiently by a tidal marsh, since it is already naturally
high in organic detritus. Raw sewage would put an additional burden on the
functioning of the marsh.

E. Recreation Use

Another important function of the tidal marsh is that of providing
an area for a wide range of recreational uses. These uses range from

hunting and fishing to photography and nature study. While the social value
of these activities and the intrinsic aesthetic qualities possessed by tidal
marshes cannot be easily quantified, they cannot be overlooked in assessing

their overall importance.
Marshes form a highly interrelated ecosystem, with little capability
to resist or recover from the effect of intensive human activity within
marsh. Recreational use of the marsh must then be examined in terms of

suitability. Such ecological suitability would be measured by how well a

site could meet a need of the particular recreational use, without incurring
long-term, detrimental, and/or irreversible impacts (changes) to the natural

system. Uses which are best suited to a marsh are of low intensity, and
cause little disruption to the sensitive environment.

302-17

302.5 REFERENCES

A. Aikens, Glen J. and C.A. Jefferson. 1973. Coastal Wetlands of
Oregon, prepared for the Oregon Coastal Conservation and
Development Commission.
This publication gives only limited information about'Columbia
River estuary marshes, some of which is inaccurate. Vegetation
types and community associations found in Oregon coastal salt
marshes is described and tidelandcommunities discussed.

B. Bierly, Kenneth. 1973. Warrenton Lumber Company Bank Fill,
unpublished.

Describes the tidal marsh communities in the Alder Creek area
of Youngs Bay.

C. Eilers, Hio Peter. 1974. Plants, Plant Communities, Net Produc-
tion and Tide Levels: The Ecological Bi geogrLaphy of Nehalem Salt
Marshes, Tillamook County, Oregon, unpublished. Ph.D Dissertation.
Oregon State'University.,

The marshes of Nehalem Bay are described and measurements of
productivity and,export given for different marsh communities,
several of which are similar to Columbia River tidal marshes.

D. Gosselink, James G., D.P. Odum and R.M. Pope. 1974. The Value of
Tidal Marsh, publication No. LSU-SG-74-03. Center for Wetland
Resources, Louisiana State'University, Baton Rouge.

Natural tidal marshes are evaluated in monetary terms based on
their values to fisheries and waste assimilation. The analysis
computes the estimated total social value of tidal marshes at
$50,000-$80,000 per acre.

E. Jefferson, Carol A. 1975. Plant Communities and Succession in
Oregon Coast Salt Marshes, unpublished. Ph.D. Dissertation. Oregon
State University.

The salt marshes of Oregon are described by vegetation type and
community associations. Successional patterns and the significance
of environmental factors are discussed. Several of the communities
described are present in Columbia River tidal marshes.

F. Montagne and Associates. 1976. Natural Resource Base and Physical
Characteristics of the Proposed Offshore Oil Platform Fabrication
Site, Warrenton, Oregon: (Technical Reports, Data Base and Appendix),
prepared for Pacific Fabricators, Inc.

This report analyzes data collected in-Spring 1976 and compares
it with recent, more comprehensive studies of the Youngs Bay area.
Included are physical data, tidal marsh and habitat information,
vertebrate wildlife information, and fish and benthic data.

302-18

G. The Nature Conservancy (Oregon Chapter). 1977. Oregon Natural
Areas: Clatsop County Data Summary.

A detailed description of several potential natural areas in
the CREST study area, including Dagget Point, Tansy Point,
Cooperage Slough and Gnat Creek Marsh.

H. Northwest Environmental Consultants. 1975. The Tidal Marshes of
Jefferson County, Washington, prepared for the Jefferson County
Planning Department, Port Townsend, Washington.

An excellent resource on all aspects of tidal marshes of the
Pacific Northwest, with particular reference to Jefferson County.

I. Odum, Eugene P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecolog , 3rd Edition.
W. B. Sanders Co.

A basic textbook and reference for the study of ecological
systems. Includes sections on marine, estuarine and freshwater
ecosystems.

J. Oregon Cooperative wildlife Research Unit. 1976. Inventory of
Riparian Habitats and Associated Wildlife Along the Columbia River,
prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District.
Photointerpretive analysis of land forms and vegetation is
provided along with intensive vegetative analysis of tidal marsh
and other riparian communities. No production or detrital export
data were developed. Associated wildlife including waterfowl,
other birds, mammals amphibians and reptiles were studies in
relation to their habitats. This study was the primary information
source for tidal marsh mapping and description in this section.

302-19

0 0 0

ro-@@
SHORELINE HABITAT AND
I I
WILDLIFE RESOURCES
@ a k . @ @@ 2 1

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

SHORELINE HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

James W. Good
George D. Potter

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

303 SHORELINE HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES ............... 303-1
303.1 OREGON SHORELINE HABITAT ............................... 303-3
303.2 WASHINGTON SHORELINE HABITAT ........................... 303-4
303.3 WATERFOWL .............................................. 303-5
A. Migrant Waterfowl ...................................... 303-5
B. Resident Waterfowl .................................... 303-8
303.4 BIRDS OTHER THAN WATERFOWL ............................. 303-14
A. Wading Birds, Shorebirds and Gulls ..................... 303-14
B. Raptors ................................................ 303-22
C. Colonial Nesting Birds ................................. 303-22
D. Gamebirds .............................................. 303-23
303.5 BIG GAME ................................................ 303-24
303.6 AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL FURBEARERS ..................... 303-25
303*7 SMALL MAMMALS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS-----., 303-26
303.8 MARINE MAMMALS ......................................... 303-30
303.9 REFERENCES ............................................. 303-31

FIGURES

303-1 Shoreline Vegetative Habitats .......................... 303-2*
303-2 Important Wildlife Areas ............................... 303-6*
303-3 Estimated Waterfowl - Use Days ......................... 303-10

TABLES

303-1 Shoreland Habitat Types ................................ 303-1
303-2 Columbia River Estuary Waterfowl ....................... 303-6
303-3 Migrant Waterfowl Concentrations (Lower Estuary) ....... 303-7
303-4 Estimated Waterfowl Populations ........................ 303-9
303-5 Migrant Waterfowl Concentrations (Upper Estuary) ....... 303-11
303-6 Annual Waterfowl Production Estimates .................. 303-12
303-7 Monthly Waterfowl Population Estimates ................. 303-13
303-8 Species, Habitat, Abundance (Birds other than
Waterfowl) ........................................... 303-15
303-9 Breeding Sites and Population Statistics for
Colonial Nesting Birds ............................... 303-23
303-10 Small Mammal Habitats .................................. 303-27
303-11 Reptile and Amphibian Habitats ......................... 303-29

*Figure follows the page indicated.

303 SHORELINE HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Tidal marshes and riparian grass, shrub and forest lands along

the edges of the Columbia River estuary provide valuable habitat for
many species of aquatic and terrestrial birds, mammals, amphibians,

reptiles, and invertebrates. These areas are also a valuable

recreational and aesthetic resource. However, much of the shoreline,

particularly in flat areas, has been altered for urban development and

shoreline roadways, or diked and drained for agriculture. Many of the
steeper forested areas along the shoreline are managed for timber

production. Thus, while the estuary area is not heavily urbanized, the

natural character of riparian vegetation and habitat has been

substantially altered.
The dependence of each species upon particular habitats is the

key concept when considering estuary wildlife. The various species of

animals associated with the estuary are most easily categorized by the
type of habitat they occupy. Tidal marshes, freshwater wetlands,

islands, sloughs and riparian fringes are all extremely valuable

habitat for wildlife. The most current source of information on

Columbia River estuary habitats and their wildlife is the recent study

prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [Oregon Cooperative

Wildlife Research Unit (OCWRU), 1976. In ntory of Riparian Habitats
and Associated Wildlife along the Columbia River]. This publication

was a primary source document for the following discussion of wildlife

habitat and resources.

Vegetative habitats along the shorelines of the estuary are

mapped in Figure 303-1. The relative amount of shoreline area in the
various habitat categories is given in Table 303-1, but this excludes

the shoreland of Youngs Bay, and estuary tributary streams.

Of special importance with regard to habitat and wildlife

management in the lower Columbia area are the two national wildlife
refuges located between river miles 20 and 39. Established in 1@72

and managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of

Interior), the Columbian White-Tailed Deer and Lewis and Clark

National Wildlife Refuges serve to protect some of the most important

TABLE 303-1

SHORELINE HABITAT TYPES IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY
(in decreasing order of shoreline area occupied)*

Tidal marsh Shrub willow
Shrub willow Herbaceous types
Grassland Beachgrass/sedge meadow
Willow/cottonwood, large trees Willow/cottohwood/ash
Cottonwood, large trees Airport
Willow, large trees Cottonwood/willow/alder
Sitka spruce/western red cedar/ Blackberry
cottonwood/alder Douglas fir/western red cedar/
Beachgrass alder
Alder Douglas fir
Sand Developed parks or campgrounds
willow, small trees Ash
Residential/urban Shrubs/beachgrass
Pasture Douglas fir/oak/maple
Sitka spruce/cottonwood/willow Marsh
Willow/ash Shrub types
Cottonwood/ash Ponds, lakes, and reservoirs
Industrial Willow/cottonwood
willow/alder Cottonwood
Sitka spruce Oak/Douglas fir
Douglas fir/alder/maple Douglas fir/western red cedar/
Douglas fir/Sitka spruce/alder maple
Alder/Sitka spruce Rock rip-rap
Maple/Douglas fir Sitka spruce/western red cedar/
Alder/Douglas fir alder
Cottonwood/Sitka spruce Oak/maple

*Order of habitats is based on a narrow shoreline strip of variable
width and does not include Youngs Bay or estuary tributary streams.

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976

303-2

0@, 124- 55, 50@ 123-45' 40'

0 4

:7@ Z46

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

wildlife areas-of the estuary. The 5,200 acre deer refuge encompasses

Tenasillahe, Hunting and Price Islands, as well as part of the mainland
near Cathlamet, Washington. Most of this land is diked, moist floodplain

pasture with numerous sloughs, channels and blocks of shrub and forest.

The Lewis and Clark Refuge encompasses 35,000 acres, two-thirds of which

are open water. Some 20 named islands and numerous unnamed bars, flats

and tidal marshes total about 9,400 acres, making it the largest natural
marsh in Western Oregon. The marsh vegetation i's also a major food and

nutrient supplier to plant and animals low on the estuarine food chain.

Uses in these refuge areas are limited to game management, recreation,

hunting and scientific research. I

. 'Wildlife discussed in this-section includes waterfowl, birds

other than waterfowl, big game, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians

and marine mammals. These wildlife are extremely valuable because of
the roles they play in the natural functioning of estuary and upland

ecosystems and because of the recreational opportunities they provide

for hunters, trappers, photographers, and bird and nature observers.

The future of wildlife species in the lower Columbia River region

depends largely on the decisions made by man regarding shoreland

development, logging and navigational practicesi and the management of
hydroelectric dams upriver from the estuary.

303.1 OREGON SHORELINE HABITAT

Wet beach sand and stablized foredunes characterize the Oregon

side of the mouth of the Columbia River which is part of Fort Stevens

State Park. The dunes run transversely from southwest to northeast

and provide a rolling landscape. On the foredunes, coast pine and

scotchbroom range from dense inland stands to scattered individuals

near the shoreline.

Tidal marshes and mudflats occur on the shoreline southeast of

Clatsop Spit in the area known as Trestle Bay. There are deep tidal

channels, and marsh vegetation occupies distinct vegetative bands

between upland dry areas and mud flats. Lyngby's sedge, common reed,
creeping bentgrass, and Pacific silverweed are locally dominant

species-in these marshes.

303-3

From Fort Stevens east to Tongue Point, the Columbia River

shoreline is distinctly urban. Youngs Bay, however, is-characterized

by fringing tidal marshes along dikes or rip-rapped shorelines. Much

of the diked land in Warrenton and up the Youngs River and Lewis and

Clark River is used as pasture. Upland from these areas, the slopes

are fore@fted with Sitka spruce, Douglas fir, western red cedar,

western hemlock and red alder (in clearcut.areas).

Between Tongue Point and Westport, the estuary has many tidal

marsh islands in various stages of succession to upland vegetation.

marshes are dominated by Lyngby's sedge, slough sedge, bulrushes and

creeping bentgrass. Pacific willow and Hooker's willow form dense

stands on islands, and forested swamps on these islands-are dominated

by Sikta spruce. These areas are all part of the Lewis and Clark and
Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuges and constitute

one of the largest natural marshes on the West Coast.
Much of the low-lying shorelan d in the upper estuary is used

for agriculture, though in several areas, steep forested slopes come
down to the water's edge. The Westport/Wauna area is more heavily
urbanized and dominated by the Wauna Paper Mill. Areas along the shore-
line in the upper estuary are utilized as dredged material disposal

sites for maintenance of the Columbia River 40 foot channel. Pile

dikes along the shore have the effect of lessening shoreline erosion
by trapping sediments, but at the same time removing natural shoreline

habitat.

303.2 WASHINGTON SHORELINE HABITAT

Wet beach sand and the stabilized dunes of Peacock Spit are met
abruptly by the basalt rock outcroppings of Cape Disappointment on
the Washington side of the Columbia River mouth.
Baker Bay, a large, extremely shallow embayment, is fringed by
narrow tidal marshes, that grade into red alder and Sikta spruce
forests. Parts of the bay.shoreline are urbanized, and low-lying
alluvial soil areas up tributary streams are diked and used for

pasture.
Steep mountain slopes, forested predominantly with Sitka spruce,
western hemlock and Douglas fir come down to the river's edge up-

303-4

stream from Baker Bay, except where the roadway runs along the shoreline

for about 10 miles, where Grays Bay and River interrupts the topography,

and where Skamokawa Creek and the Elochoman River drain into the

Columbia.

The tidal marshes in Grays Bay are extensive, with bulrushes
and sedges dominating. Up the tributary streams, lowlands are diked

and used for agriculture. The diked lands up Skamokawa Creek and the
Elochoman River are also used for agriculture, though a large portion

near the Elochoman is part of the White-Tailed Deer Refuge. In well-

drained but frequently flooded sites along this stretch of shoreline,

black cottonwood, Sitka spruce and western red cedar are prevalent.
Salal, salmonberry, wild blackberry and dogwood form dense understories,

and there are small areas of tidal marsh.

Puget Island is almost entirely diked and used for agricultural

crops and pasture. Swamp forest and marsh areas are present on the

upriver and downriver ends of the island. Many shoreline areas along
this portion of the river are used as dredged material disposal areas.

Upstream from the urbanized Cathlamet area, the Columbia cuts

through the Coast Range. Steep cliffs and forested, undeveloped areas

predominate through the remainder of Wahkiakum County.

303.3 WATERFOWL

many species of waterfowl utilize the Columbia River estuary for

resting, feeding and breeding (Table 303-2 and Figure 303-2) throughout
the year. Though it produces only a limited number of waterfowl, it

receives intensive use by migrant waterfowl in fall and winter, and

serves as a staging area for early spring migrations north.

A. Migrant Waterfowl

The lower estuary is not rich in waterfowl habitat. While

limited tidal marshes and urbanization cause concentrations to be low,

Baker Bay, Trestle Bay and Youngs Bay afford some waterfowl refuge.
Baker Bay has the heaviest migrant waterfowl use in the lower estuary
(Table 303-3). Coots, pintail and widgeons use the area in October,

with increased use by canvasbacks, scaup and white-winged and surf

303-5

TABLE 303-2

SPECIES OF WATERFOWL OBSERVED IN THE

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

Lower River
Lower Estuaryl Upper Estuaryl and Estuary
Species RM 0-12 RM 12-79* RM 0 - 140

Whistling Swan x x x

Canada Goose x x x
White-fronted goose x x
Snow goose x x

Mallard x x x
Gadwall x x
Pintail x x x
Green-winged Teal x x x
Blue-winged Teal x
Cinnamon Teal x x
European Widgeo.n x x
American Widgeon x x x
Shoveler x x
Wood Duck x x
Ring-necked duck
Canvasback x x x
Greater Scaup x
Lesser Scaup x x x
Redhead
Common Goldeneye x
Barrow's Goldeneye x x x
Bufflehead x x x
White-winged Scoter x x
Surf Scoter x x x
Ruddy Duck x x

Common Merganser x x x
Hooded Merganser x x
Western Grebe x x x

American Coot x x x
Harlequin x
Old Squaw x

*most species in upper unit were in National wildlife Refuges (RM 18-39)

From: 1. Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976 (species
were actually observed in the area).
2. Ives and Saltzman, 1970 (include species present from the
mouth to Bonneville Dam).

303-6

124- 123-45' 40'

101 0, 4

EST
5916
C@ TER

"'@,tn@', z,4 0.
AN

0 -

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

TABLE 303-3

Migrant Waterflow Concentrations in the Lower Columbia. River Estuary
(River Mile 1-12)

Geographical Vegetation Seasonal
Concentration Species Location Habitat Occurrence

High American Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Fall
widgeon open Water

Low Coots Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Fall
Open Water

Moderate Canvasback Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Winter
duck Open Water

Low Surf & White- Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Winter
winged scoters Open Water

Moderate Western Grebes Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Winter
Open Water

High Pintail Baker Bay Tidal Marsh/ Fall
Open Water

From: 1. Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976
2. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Personal Communication), 1977

410

303-7

scoters in December and February. Western grebes are present throughout

the winter. Tidal marshes and shorelines along the bay and its islands

are used for resting and feeding.

Trestle Bay on the.0regon shore is used by dabbling ducks and
coots in early winter and by divilng,ducks, primakily canvasbacks, during
the remainder of winter. Areas opposite Alder Creek and in Youngs Bay

and its tributary streams also have some tidal marsh and shoreline

habitat important to migrant waterfowl (Table 303-4).
The upper estuary, particularly Grays Bay and the Lewis and Clark/
Columbi an White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuges (River Mile 20-39),
receives intensive use by migrant waterfo@71. Tidal marshes provide

resting and feeding areas for widgeon, pintail, mallards, whistling
swans, Canadian and white-fronted geese, coot, green-winged teal,

@common merganser, western grebei:gadwall, scaup and other species.

Diversity and abundance vary throughout the winter season, but a

distinct buildup of mallard, Canadian goose, pintail and widgeon occurs
in February as a precursor to spring migra-ti6n'north in March. This

is illustrated in Figure 303-3, where the estimated number of waterfowl-

use-days for the lower and upper estuary are compared. While all refuge

areas are used by most species, areas of particular concentration are

shown in Table 303-5 and Figure 303-2. Waterfowl concentrate in the
area of Karlson Island (a protected sanctuary during hunting season).

Grassy, Russian and Seal Islands (RM 23-25) are concentration areas

for whistling swans, and Canadian geese/widgeon are concentrated on

Tensillahe (RM 35-38).

B. Resident Waterfowl

The estuary area is not a major production area for waterfowl.
Estimates of annual waterfowl production for the national wildlife

refuges in the estuary area are shown in Table 303-6. Monthly water-

fowl populations for the same areas during spring and summer months
are shown in Table 303-7. Ideal habitat for nesting and breeding

are areas of non-tidal marsh/shrub-marsh vegetation. The low
production of waterfowl in the estuary area is attributed to the limited

amount of such habitat. Nevertheless, several areas of the lower

estuary where tidal marshes are associated with upland habitat, are
used for nesting and breeding (including Sand Island in Baker Bay,
Trestle Bay, and Youngs Bay). Mallards are the predominant resident

303-8

TABLE 303-4

YOUNGS BAY AND RIVER, WINTERING AREA
ESTIMATED WATERFOWL POPULATIONS

December January February March
Species 1975 1976- 1976 1976,

Coot 50 50 60 40

Swan 10 20 30 2

Canada geese 50 150 50 10

Mallard 150 350 150 50

Pintail 50 110 75 10

Green-winged teal 110 - - -
Widgeon 300 600 400 100
Shoveler - 5 5 -
Scaup - 50 50 300

Bufflehead 10 50 50 50

Common merganser 35 40 40 30

Unidentified 200 150 250 100

NOTE: Gull use heavy during all months

*Based on one flight per month and occasional observations. Restricted
to Youngs River from mouth to approximately RM 5 (above Haven Island).

From: Dave Fisher, Manager Columbian White-Tailed Deer National
Wildlife Refuge

303-9

ESTIMATED WATERFOWL USE OF THE UPPER AND LOWER COLUMBIA
RIVER ESTUARY DURING FALL AND.WINTER, 1974-75.

1,200

1,100

1,000

900

800

700

600

LLJ 500
cn X

400
0
LL
0:
Ld
F- 300

200

100 --- \ Lower Estuary (R.M. 1-12)

@O
S 0 N D i F M

MONTH (1974-75)

FROM: OREGON COOPERATIVE WILDLIFE RESEARCH UNIT, 1976. FIGURE 303-3

303-10

TABLE 303-5

MIGRANT WATERFOWL CONCENTRATION
IN THE
UPPER COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY (River Mile 12-50)*

'Geographical Vegetation Seasonal
Concentration Species Location Habitat- Occurrence

Moderate Canada Geese National wildlife Tidal Marsh Winter
Refuge RM 18-38 and Islands

Low White-fronted National Wildlife Tidal Marsh Fall/spring
Geese Refuge RM 18-38 and Islands

High Mallards National Wildlife Tidal Marsh Winter
Refuge RM 18-38 and Islands

High Widgeons National Wildlife Tidal Marsh Winter
Refuge RM 18-38 and Islands

High Pintail Ducks National Wildlife Tidal Marsh Winter
Refuge RM 18-38 and Islands

High Whistling Grassy, Russian & Intertidal Winter
Swans Seal Islands Marsh and
Flats

*Areas further upriver receive greater habitat use by migrant waterfowl.

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976

303-11

TABLE 303-6

ANNUAL WATERFOWL PRODUCTION ESTIMATES REPORTED BY
REFUGE PERSONNEL FOR LEWIS AND CLARK/COLUMBIAN WHITE-TA--,-!'ED DEER
NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES

Birds/YEAR
Lewis & Clark Columbian White-Tailed
Species Refuge . Deer.Refuge
1974 1975 1974 1975

Canada goose 5 8 6 6
Mallard 150 125 40 60
Gadwall
Pintail 15
Green-winged teal 75 85 50 50
Blue-winged/Cinnamon teal 45 20 40 40
American widgeon
Shoveler
Wood duck 35 35 60 45
Redhead
Ring-necked duck
Canvasback
Lesser/greater scaup
Ruddy duck
Common merganser 50 50 75 60
Hooded merganser 10 15 15 12
Pied-billed grebe
American coot

Total 385 338 286 273

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976
(Production estimates obtained from NWR managers).

303-12

TABLE 303-7

MONThLY WATERFOWL POPULATION ESTIMATES (APR!-.-AUGUST 1974)
PREPARED BY REFUGE PERSONNEL FOR LEWIS AND CLARK
AND COLUMBIAN WHITE-TAILED DEER NWR's

Species April May June July August

Whistling swan
Canada goose 225 50 20 27 30
White-fronted goose 100

Mallard 925 425 300 230 800

Gadwall

Pintail 325 100 45 35 200

Green-winged teal 400 135 135 155 180
Blue-winged/Cinnamon teal 75 55 75 50 70
American widgeon 1600 600 100 90 350

Shoveler 2 2 18 10

Wood duck 55 55 70 75 85

Redhead

Ring-necked duck

Canvasback

Lesser/greater scaup 350 220 15

Common/Barrow's goldeneye

Bufflehead 20

Ruddy duck

Common merganser 350 250 120 100 100

Hooded merganser 7 15 30 23 25

American coot 10

Unidentified ducks 300 250 135 150 250

Total 4634 2173 1063 945 2190

From: Oregon Cooperation Wildlife Research Unit, 1976

303-13

population in the wildlife refuge areas and Grays Bay, but wood ducks,
green-winged teal, blue-winged/cinnamon teal and common merganser also

nest and breed in these areas.

303.4 BIRDS OTHER THAN WATERFOWL

According to the recent study of habitat and wildlife along the

lower Columbia conducted by the.Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research

Unit (OCWRU), some 149 species of birds are found near the mouth and
along the shorelines of the estuary (Table 303-8). This does not
include the 26 species of waterfowl discussed in the previous section,
indicating that a least,175 species of birds can be found in the estuary
area. These include waterfowl and marine birds, wading birds, shore-
birds, game birds, raptors and others. Some are migrants (present or
passing through only at certain seasons), while others are permanent
residents. Many nest along the shorelines, several in colonies such as

the large herony on Karlson Island.
Many of the non-waterfowl birds play an important role in the

functioning of the estuarine ecosystem, feeding on organic matter, small

fish, crustaceans and mollusks. This is particularly true for the
long-legged wading birds and shorebirds which utilizesand and mud
flats extensively.

Some of the riparian habitat sampled by OCWRU researchers had
very high densities for bird communities. The richness of riparian
habitat was attributed to.several factors including (1) the linear
dimensions of the riparian habitat areas, providing large areas of
"edge" which are known to be productive (2) the nutrient rich,
productive flats and marshes which provide food for many species,
(3) the tall and multilayered vegetation such as cottonwood/willow

habitat and (4) the isolation of riparian vegetative strips which

create "islands" that may be attractive to birds.
A. Wading Birds, Shorebirds and Gulls
The several species of wading birds and the many shorebirds and
gulls play an important role in the natural functioning of the estuary.
While gulls are some of the most common birds seen on the shorelines,
sandpipers, plovers, great blue heron and other waders provide

303-14

Table 303-8

Species of Birds (Other than Waterfowl), Their Preferred Habitat and
Estimat@d Abundancel Along Estuary Shorelines

Abundance Rating Seasons are abbreviated
as follows:

AB = ahiridant--100 or more birds observed/day/observer F = Fall
Vc = ve-nr common--50-99 birds/day/observer W = Winter
C = common--10-49 birds/day/observer Sp= Spring
U = uncommon--5-9 birds/day/observer S Summer
R = rare--0-4 birds/day/observer
Vr = very rare--fewer than 5 birds/season/observer
A .= accidental--10 or fewer records/season

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F W Sp S F W Sp S

WATERFOWL MARINE BIRDS
Common Loon Open water U C U

Artic Loon Open water U R U R

Red-throated Loon Open water U R U

Red-necked Grebe Open water R

Western Grebe Open water Vc Vc

Pied-billed Grebe Open water R

Double-crested
Cormorant Open water U U C

Brandt's Cormorant Bays and estuaries U U U U
Pelagic Cormorant Bays and estuaries U U U U

White-winged Scoter Coastal waters U U U U

Surf Scoter Coastal waters U C Ab U

Black Scoter Coastal waters R R R

Common Merganser Open water U R R R

Red-breasted
Merganser Coastal area R Vr R

Caspian Tern Open water C C C C U U

Common Murre Open water U U

Pigeon Guillemot Open water U U

Cassin's Auklet Open water Ac

303-15

Table 303-8(Cont.) Page 2 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F. W Sp S F W Sp S

LONG-LEGGED WADING BIRDS
Great Blue Heron Shoreline U U U U U U R R

Green Heron Shoreline Vr Vr

Great Egret Marsh, mud flats Vr

Black-crowned Night
Heron Marsh Ac Ac

American Bittern Marsh, grassland Vr Vr Vr-

Sandhill Crane Fields, marshes Vr C U

American Coot Marshes, open water C C

RAPTORS
Turkey vulture Open country R R

Sharp-skinned Hawk R R R

Cooper's Hawk Cottonwood U

Red-tailed Hawk Woodlands U U U U R R R R

Rough-legged Hawk Open country U U
Bald Eagle River's edge R R R R R R

Marsh Hawk Marsh, fields U U U U

Osprey Lakes, rivers,
Cliff faces Vr Vr

Barn Owl Ash-willow,
cottonwood R R

Screech Owl Tree-willow,
cottonwood R R R R R R

Great Horned Owl Cottonwood, oak-pine R R R R

Snowy Owl Beachgrass, beaches R

Saw-whet Owl Tree-willow,
cottonwood U R R R

Peregrine Falcon Tidal flats, open
country R R R R

American Kestrel Open country U U U U R R

Northern Shrike Open country,
grassland U U R

303-16

Table 303-8(Cont.) Page 3 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F W Sp S F W Sp S

GAME BIRDS
Ruffed Grouse Forest U R R R R R

California Quail Open forest and
agricultural land R R R R

Ring-necked Pheasant Shrubland,
agricultural land R R R R R R R R

Common Snipe Marshes U U U C U C

Band-tailed Pigeon Forest R R R

Mourning Dove Cottonwood, tree
willow R R U R

SHOREBIRDS AND GULLS
Semipalmated Plover Mud flats C C U

Snowy Plover Sandy beaches R R R R

Killdeer Mud flats, beaches U U R R R

Golden Plover Vr

Black-bellied Plover Mud flats, beaches U U U

Surfbird Rip-rap U

Ruddy Turnstone Mud flats R U

Black Turnstone Rip-rap U U

Whirrbrel Mud flats U U

Spotted Sandpiper Sandy beaches R R R

Solitary Sandpiper Mud flats R R

Wandering Tattler Rip-rap U U

Greater Yellowlegs Mud flats R R

Knot Tidal flats U

Pectoral Sandpiper Marshes R

Least Sandpiper Mud flats C C R

Dunlin Mud flats Vc Ab Ab Ab

Western Sandpiper Mud flats, marsh Vc C Vc U C Vc

Sanderling Sand beaches U C R

Northern Phalarope Open water C C

Parasitic Jaeger Tidal marshes R

303-17

Table 303-8(Cont.) Page 4 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F W Sp S F W Sp S

SHOREBIRDS AND GULLS (Cont.)
Glaucuous-winged
Gull Bay and estuaries Vc Vc Vc Vc U C U U

Western Gull Bays, estuaries,
river C C C Ab R R

Herring Gull Bays, rivers edge U U U U U U

Thayer's Gull U U U U U

California Gull Bays, river Ab C C Ab Ab U

Ring-billed Gull Bays, river U Ab Vc

Mew Gull Bays, estuaries C C R C U

Bonaparte's Gull Bays, estuaries U C R

Heerman's Gull Open water U U

Black-legged
Kittiwake U U

OTHER BIRDS
Vaux's Swift Sitka spruce,
tidal marsh C U C R R

Rufous Hummingbird Conifers, edges U U R U

Belted Kingfisher Rivers, streams,
ponds R R R R U U U U

Common Flicker Open forests U U R R R R

Yellow-bellied Cottonwood, tree
Sapsucker willow R

Hairy Woodpecker Cottonwood U R R R R
Downy Woodpecker Tree willow,
cottonwood U U R U U R

Willow Flycatcher Cottonwood R R

Western Flycatcher Alder C Vr

Western Wood Peewee Cottonwood U

Olive-sided Fly-
catcher Sitka spruce R R

Horned Lark Grasslands U U
Viol@?t-green Swallow C U C Vc C C

303-18

Table 303-8 (Cont.) Page 5 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Perferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)
F W Sp S F W Sp S

OTHER BIRDS (Cont.)
Tree Swallow Tree willow, C C U Vc C U
cottonwood

Rough-wigned Swallow Near water C U U

Barn Swallows C C C Vc U U

Cliff Swallow Rock scraps, U C Vc R R
buildings

Purple Martin River edge, R R R
sandy beaches

Steller's Jay Conifers, tree willow U R R R

Scrub Jay Tree willow Vr

Common Raven Cliffs, grasslands, R R R R
rabbitbrush

Common Crow Beachgrass, tree U U C C C C U U
willow, open country

Black-capped
Chickadee Woodlands C U U U Vc C C C

Chestnut-backed
Chickadee Conifers R U U U

Bushtit Deciduous woods R R R

Red-brested Tree willow, R R R
Nuthatch conifers

Brown Creeper Cottonwood U R R R

Wrebtit Adler R

Winter Wren Tree willow, C C C C C C U R
cottonwood

Bewick's Wren Tree willow, U U U C U U U U
cottonwood

Long-billed Cat-tail marsh, R R R R R R
Marsh Wren sedge marsh

Rock Wren Cliff faces, Vr
rocky area

Sage Thrasher Ab

America Robin Cottonwoods C U U C Vr R C C

Varied Thrush Conifers U U C R

303-19

Table 303-8(Cont.) Page 6 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F W Sp S F W Sp S

OTHER BIRDS (Cont.)
Hermit Thrush Conifers R R R

Swainson's Thrush Cottonwood, tree
willow C R C

Golden-crowned Tree willow,
Kinglet cottonwood Vc C U VC C U

Ruby-crowned Conifers, cotton-
Kinglet wood R R R U R R U

Cedar waxwing Conifers, cotton-
wood U

Starling Cottonwood, urban
areas C C C VC Vc R C C

Hutton's Vireo Alder R R R

Red-eyed Vireo Cottonwood R

Warbling Vireo Tree willow,
cottonwood R

Orange-crowned
Warbler Tree willow U R U U

Yellow Warbler Shrub willow,
cottonwood C

Yellow-rumped
Warbler Woodlands U

Black-throated
Gray Warbler Woodlands R R R

Yellowthroat Marsh edges,
tree willow U U R R

Wilson's Warbler Shrub willow U U C R

House Sparrow Urban areas, farms C C C C

Western Meadowlark Grasslands,
rabbitbrush C U U U U

Red-winged Blackbird Shrub willow,
cotton marsh U U Vc R U R

Northern oriole Cottonwood R U

Brewer's Blackbird Fields, farmlands U R

Brown-headed Fields, farmlands, tree
Cowbird willow, cottonwood U U C C

303-20

Table 303-8(Cont.) Page 7 of 7

Lower Estuary Upper Estuary
Species Preferred Habitat (RM 0-12) (RM 12-79)

F W Sp S F W Sp S

OTHER BIRDS (Cont.)
Western Tanager Conifers R

Black-headed Grosbeak Cottonwood R

Lazuli Bunting Russian olive

Evening Grosbeak Woodlands C C R

Purple Finch Cottonwood R R U U

House Finch Cottonwood
urban areas R R R

Pine Siskin Conifers C U Vc R U R

American Goldfinch Tree willow,
brushy areas R U Vc R C

Red Crossbill Conifers Vc Vc U C

Rufous-sided Towhee Cottonwood R R R R R

Savannah Sparrow Grasslands U C C C R

Dark-eyed Junco Woodlands R U R R

White-crowned
Sparrow Russian olive U U

Fox Sparrow Sitka spruce,
cottonwood R R

Song Sparrow Tree willow,
cottonwood U C C C C C C C

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976
(List compiled from actual observations and references which cite.
birds occurring in the area.)

303-21

aesthetic pleasure for nature-watchers. These birds feed on diets of

small fish, crustaceans, insects, frogs and other small animals.

Several of the shorebird species noted in Table 303-8 are migrato ry
and present only during certain seasons. Among the shorebirds, the

common,snipe provides some recreational use as game.

B. Raptors
Raptors found in the estuary area include the sharp-shinned

hawk, the Cooper's hawk, the red-tailed hawk, the rough-legged hawk,

the bald eagle, the marsh hawk, the osprey, the peregrine falcon, the

American kestrel, the saw-whet owl, the barn owl, the screech owl, the

great horned owl, the snowy owl, the Northern shrike and the turkey
vulture. Found at various times of the year, raptors utilize most
types of shoreline habitat from beachgrass to cottonwood (Table 303-8).

Many of these birds play an important role in rodent and insect control,

and all are protected by law. Most raptors are classified as rare or

uncommon in the estuary area. The peregrine falcon, a rare visitor

to the estuary area, is the only species considered endangered nationally.

C. Colonial Nesting Birds

Colonial nesting birds which nest in the estuary area include

the great blue heron, the pelagic cormorant, the glaucuous-winged gull,
the western gull and the Caspian tern. Table 303-9 shows breeding sites
and population statistics for colonial nesting birds in the estuary

area, excluding Youngs Bay. Colonial nesting birds generally utilize

the same area from year to year. These nesting sites should be preserved.

of particular interest are the known heronies in the estuary area;

two of these are in the National Wildlife Refuges and protected. The

herony on Karlson Island, according to a recent study sponsored by the

National Science Foundation, is the largest known on the Oregon coast;

it consists of 175 nests in 48 Sitka spruce trees and covers almost an

acre. An estimated 442 young birds were produced in the herony during

the year of the study. The Karlson Island herony and another on Welch

Island are the only ones reported, although others may exist.

D. Gamebirds

Gamebirds present along the estuary shoreline include the

ruffed grouse, the California quail, the ring-necked pheasant, the band-

303-22

TABLE 303-9

BREEDING SITES AND POPULATION STATISTICS FOR COLONIAL
NESTING BIRDS IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY AREA

Geographical Numbers of Type of
Species Location Pairs Habitat

Pelagic Cormorant Cape Disappointment Undetermined Cliff Face
CRM-2
Great Blue Heron Karlson Island 175 pairs 2 Tidal Spruce
CRM-26

Great Blue Heron Welch Island CRM-34 28 active Cottonwood
nests

Glaucuous-winged Sand Island CRM-5 360-520 pairs Rock, rip-rap,
Gull estimated sand, grass,
drift

Western Gull Cape Disappointment Undetermined Cliff Face
CRM-2

Western'Gull Sand Island CRM-5 540-780 pairs Rock, rip-rap,
sand, grass,
drift
Caspian Tern Sand Island CRM-5 100+ pairs 3 Rock, rip-rap,
sand, grass',
drift

From: 1. Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976
2. McMahon, undated
3. Joe Welch, 1977 (Personal communication)

303-23

tailed pigeon, the mourning dove and the common snipe. Their preferred

habitat and estimated abundance are included in Table 303-8. In

general, the OCWRU found that gamebirds are not abundant in the estuary

except for common snipe in tidal marsh areas. The upper estuary, however,

has more species and higher densities of gamebirds than the lower

estuary.

Other gamebirds which the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife

report are present in the estuary area include mountain quail, blue

grouse, valley quail, and bobwhite quail.

303.5 BIG GAME

Four species of big game are known to live in the Columbia River

estuary area; included are elk, black bear, black-tailed deer and the

endangered Columbian white-tailed deer (Figure 303-2). Cougar, which
might be expected to occur in the area, have not been reported in

recent studies.

Near the Columbia River mouth, black-tailed deer are the only
big game species that commonly utilize immediate shoreline habitat.

Beach grass, open fields or brushy clearcut areas are used for grazing,

with alder and coniferous habitat used extensively for cover. Black

bear and elk occur in upland areas, especially along the Washington

shore.

All four species inhabit the estuary areas above Baker Bay on

the Washington shore and east of Astoria on the Oregon shore. Black-

tailed deer, which are numerous in both Washington and Oregon areas of

the estuary, utilize many habitat types; they seem to prefer upland

forested areas, however, where the cover affords maximum protection.

Elk are also found on both shores, sometimes in herds feeding in

pasture areas. Forested habitats such as Sitka spruce, Douglas fir

and alder are likewise utilized. Occasionally, black bear are found

along mid to upper estuary shorelines, though they much prefer the

more isolated upland forest areas.

The Columbian white-tailed deer is listed as an "endangered"

species by the U.S. Department of Interior. To preserve and protect
this species in its riverbottom land natural habitat, the 5,230 acre
Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuge was established

303-24

in 1972. The refuge lands-which encompass Price Island,.Hunting Island,
Tenasillahe Island and part of the mainland northwest of Cathlamet,

are mostly diked.

In a 1975 study of habitat use and activity patterns, L. H.

Suring reported that preferred habitat of the deer in summer and spring
is grazing vegetation, such as natural or cattle-maintained pasture.

Woody cover and forage is necessary for fall feeding, to permit fat
storage for overwintering, for breeding and for protection from severe

weather and possible predators. Where either too much open area
(pasture) or heavily wooded cover occurs without interspersion, deer

use and densities are reduced.

There are numerous estimates of white-tailed deer populations.

Presently, there are thought to be about 200-300 on the Washington

shore of the Columbia between Skamokawa and Cathlamet, about 50 on
Tenasillahe Island, about 50-75 on Puget Island, 25-30 on the Oregon

shore between Westport and Clatskanie, for a minimum total of about

325 deer. There are also reports of sightings near Grays Bay, Welch

Island, Wallace Island and farther upriver at Deer Island. Former

distributions included Columbia River islands and shorelands from the

Dalles to Astoria, and the Cowlitz and Willamette River valleys. A
larger, healthy and unprotected population of white-tailed deer is

still active in Douglas County, Oregon. Alteration or loss of habitat

appears responsible for the decline in original distribution and

population. Continued management and research is needed if this

species is to be preserved.

303.6 AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL FURBEARERS

Aquatic furbearers in the estuary area include beaver, river

otter, mink, muskrat and nutria. Terrestrial furbearers include
raccoons, opossums, coyotes, striped and spotted skunk, porcupines

and gray fox.
Aquatic furbearers, particularly beaver, nutria and muskrat,
are much more abundant in the upper estuary wildlife refuge areas than
in the lower estuary, or any other areas farther up the Columbia.

Muskrats and nutria are very common in tidal marsh, willow and

303-25

Sitka spruce habitat. Otter are not common along estuary shorelines,

but utilize small tributary streams and sloughs. Only low densities

of mink occur along estuary shorelines. Beaver are very common,

utilizing many vegetative habitats. Beaver use of sloughs, ponds and

other areas protected from wave action and from extreme tidal fluctuations

is extensive. However, tidal willow and spruce habitat between river

miles 26 and 38 reportedly have intensive beaver use as well. According

to unpublished reports by the Washington Department of Game, the

Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, and observations by the OCWRU,

some 409 beaver and estimated 6,000 nutria were harvested by trappers

in the estuary area during the 1974-75 seasons. This gives a minimum

estimate of abundance.

Of terrestrial furbearers in the estuary area, raccoons are most

common; they utilize alder and beachgrass, but prefer intertidal
habitats. opossums prefer non-tidal habitats and are more common in

reaches of the estuary area and farther upriver. of particular interest

are reports of gray fox by the OCWRU, since this animal has not been
previously reported along Washington or Oregon shores of the estuary.

303.7 SMALL MAMMALS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

In the OCRWU study of wildlife associated with riparian habitat,

nineteen species of small mammals, including shrews, mice, rabbits,
voles, moles, weasels, squirrels, chipmunks and mountain beaver were

trapped or observed. Deer.mice and species which feed on insects were

most common. Habitats where different species were observed or trapped

are shown in Table 303-10.

Reptiles and amphibians found in the estuary area include frogs,

snakes, salamanders, lizards and newts; they are listed by habitat

type occupied in Table 303-11. The highest number of species and

greatest abundance of reptiles and amphibians are found along the

immediate shoreline "edge" habitats. Upland habitat and tidal marshes,

are not as extensively used.

Bats are found in low densities in the estuary area. They

utilize most habitat types.

303-26

0 TABLE 303-10
SPECIES OF SMALL MAMMALS IDENTIFIED IN VARIOUS COLUMBIA RIVER
ESTUARY HABITATS (RIVER MILE 0-79)

TIDAL MARSH ALDER

Vagrant shrew Vagrant shrew
Dusky shrew Dusky shrew
Pacific water shrew Pacific Water shrew
Shrew-mole Trowbridge's shrew
Deer mouse Shrew-mole
Townsend's vole Coast mole
Creeping vole Snowshoe hare
Pacific jumping mouse Townsend's chipmunk
Short-tailed weasel Douglas' squirrel
Long-tailed weasel Deer mouse
Norway rat Townsend's vole
Long-tailed vole
Pacific jumping mouse
Long-tailed weasel
TIDAL SHRUB WILLOW California ground squirrel

Vagrant shrew
California ground squirrel COTTONWOOD
Deer mouse Vagrant shrew
TIDAL SITKA SPRUCE Townsend's mole
Brush rabbit
Vagrant shrew Eastern cottontail
Dusky shrew Townsend's chipmunk
Pacific water shrew California ground squirrel
Trowbridge's shrew Deer mouse
Brush rabbit Townsend's vole
Eastern cottontail Long-tailed vole
Townsend's chipmunk Creeping vole
Northern flying squirrel
Deer mouse WILLOW
Pacific jumping mouse
Long-tailed weasel Vagrant shrew
Brush rabbit
COTTONWOOD/WILLOW Deer mouse
Townsend's vole
Vagrant shrew
Townsend's mole REED CANARYGRASS
Eastern cottontail
Deer mouse Vagrant shrew
Townsend's vole Deer mouse
Pacific jumping mouse Townsend's vole

303-27

Table 303-10 (cont'd)

MAPLE/DOUGLAS FIR BEACHGRASS

Snowshoe hare Vagrant shrew
Mountaine beaver Dusky shrew
California ground squirrel Shrew-mole
Norway rat Coast mole
Pacific jumping mouse Brush rabbit
Long-tailed weasel California ground squirrel
Deer Mouse
Creeping vole

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976

303-28

TABLE 303-11

Species of Reptiles and Amphibians Identified in Various
Columbia River Estuary Habitat (River Mile 0-79)

TIDAL SHRUB WILLOW COTTONWOOD/WILLOW

Pacific treefrog Long-toed salamander
Northern red-legged frog Red-spotted garter snake
Northwestern salamander Northwestern garter snake
Rough-skinned newt
Northwestern garter snake DOUGLAS FIR/MAPLE

SITKA SPRUCE Pacific giant salamander
Western red-backed salamander
Pacific treefrog Rough-skinned newt
Northern red-legged frog Olympic salamander
Northwestern salamander Northern alligator lizard
Red-spotted garter snake Red-spotted garter snake
Northwestern garter snake
DOUGLAS FIR/HEMLOCK
COTTONWOOD
Eschscholtz's salamander
Pacific treefrog Western red-backed salamander
Northern red-legged frog
Bullfrog PASTURE
Red-spotted garter snake
Northwestern garter snake Pacific treefrog
Northwestern salamander
REED CANARYGRASS Long-toed salamander
Rough-skinned newt
Pacific treefrog
Northern red-legged frog ALDER
Long-toed salamander
Red-spotted garter snake Pacific treefrog
Northwestern garter snake Northern red-legged frog
Bullfrog
TIDAL MARSH Red-spotted garter snake
Rough-skinned newt
Pacific treefrog
Northern red-legged frog CAT-TAIL/BLACKBERRY LINED POND
Red-spotted garter snake
Northwestern garter snake Bullfrog
Rough-skinned newt
Western red-backed salamander WILLOW/REED CANARYGRASS
Eschscholtz's salamander
Northwestern garter snake
BEACHGRASS

Pacific treefrog
Red-spotted garter snake

From: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, 1976

303-29

303.8 MARINE MAMMALS

Harbor seals are the most common marine mammal in the estuary,
although California sea lions are increasingly using the lower

Columbia River.

Sand bars and islands, such as Desdemona Sands (RM 9), Miller

Sands (RM 25), and Rice Island (RM 22) are haulout areas for harbor

seals and can be considered vital habitat (Figure 303-2). A December,

1976 count of harbor seals in the estuary numbered them at nearly

1,000. They extend far upriver and have been sighted at Oregon Falls

in the Willamette River.

In the last few years, the California sea lion has been using
the Columbia estuary more frequently. One confirmed sighting at
Bonneville Dam extends the known range of this species. The increased

estuary and river use by sea lions and seals stems largely from a

decreased level of harrassment resulting from enforcement of the 1972

Marine Mammal Protection Act. This increased range of marine mammals

and their effect on the fish harvest, as well as their interferences

with river fishermen, has resulted in a growing controversy.

303-30

303.9 REFERENCES

A. Ives, Frances and William Saltzman. 1970, The Fish and Wildlife
Resources of the Lower Columbia River Area. Special Report to
State Department of Transportation from Oregon Department of Game.
This report discusses estuarine value's, public access, and
fishery and wildlife resources.

B. Mate, Bruce (Marine Mammalogist, Oregon State University). 1977.
Personal communication.

C. McMahon, Ellen, et al. Undated. A Survey of Great Blue Heron
Rockeries on the@_Or@_egon Coast. National Science Foundation Student-
Originated Study. Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, Charleston,
Oregon.
Data ori thirteen coastal Oregon heronies including the Columbia
River are presented.

D. Montagne and Associates. 1976. Natural Resource Base and Physical
Characteristics of the Proposed Offshore Oil Platform Fabrication
Site, Warrenton, Oregon (Technical Reports, Data Base and Appendix).
Prepared for Pacific Fabricators, Inc.

Predominantly a literature review with some original bird and
wildlife survey work done in 1973 near the site which is on
Youngs Bay.

E. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. 1973. A Plan for Land and Water Use,
Clatsop County:' Phase I, prepared for Clatsop County. Portland,
Oregon.

Contains limited information on estuary habitats, but is very
general and applies to Clatsop County.only.

F. Suring, L.H. 1975. Habitat Use and Activity Patterns of the
Columbian White-tailed Deer along the Lower Columbia River. M.S.
Thesis, Oregon State University.

A detailed study of the activity and utilization of different
vegetative habitats is given.

G. State of Oregon, Coastal Conservation and Development Commission.
1974. Fish and Wildlife Resources of the Oregon coastal Zone.
Prepared by Ken Thompson, Oregon Department of Game and Dale Snow,
Fish Commission of Oregon.

This report discusses fish and wildlife in the coastal zone
including offshore, estuaries, freshwater, and uplands. The
estuarine area includes submerged lands, coastal tideland, sub-
mersible lands and coastal saltmarsh.

303-31

H. State of Oregon, Cooperative wildlife Research Unit. 1976.
Inventory of Riparian Habitats and Associated Wildlife Along the
Columbia River: Final Report, prepared for U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.

Recently completed study classifying riparian habitat and
associated wildlife of the greater portion of the estuary and its
shorelands. Includes qualitative and quantitative sampling of
vegetation and wildlife, habitat classification maps, etc. A
vast amount of data and valuable resource. This study was the
primary source document for this inventory of wildlife.

I. State of Oregon, Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1976. Fish and
Wildlife Habitat Protection Plan for Clatsop County, prepared by
Doug Taylor and Warren Knispel for Clatsop County Department of
Planning and Development.

Information on fish and wildlife resources and specific recom-
mendations for habitat protection are provided. Data on 'recreational
use of fish and wildlife is also given.

J. State of Oregon, Game Commission. '1972. Outdoor Almanac: Wildlife
Conservation. Portland, Oregon.
Individual leaflets on wildlife such as birds, fish, game, etc.
are provided with specific information on individual species.

K. state of Oregon, Department of Transportation. 1975. Lower
Columbia River Ports Region Study. Prepared by Planning Section,-
Salem, Oregon.

This publication contains natural resource data, wildlif e distri-
bution maps, etc. for the lower Columbia area in support of proposed
port development areas.

L. State of Washington, Department of Game. 1975. A Baseline Survey
of Significant Marine Birds in Washington State. Coastal Zone
Environmental Studies Report No.. 1.

Fact sheets on many species on marine birds inhabiting the
shorelines of Washington, including the lower Columbia.

M. State of Washington, Department of Game. 1975. Marine Shoreline
Fauna of Washington: A Status Survey. Coastal Zone Environmental
Studies Report No. 2.

Fact sheets on many species of birds and mammals inhabiting the
shoreline of Washington including the lower Columbia River.,

N. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1976. Final Environmental Impact
Statement: Lower Columbia Bank Protection Project (Washington and
Oregon). Portland, Oregon.
Riparian biology is discussed and tables of species of birds,
mammals, etc. found in the lower Columbia area are presented.

303-32

0. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1975. Final Environmental Impact
Statement: Columbia and Lower Willamette River Maintenance and
Completion of the 40-foot Navigation Channel Downstream of
Vancouver, Washington and Portland, Oregon.
Descriptive information on riparian biology and tables of data
on birds and mammals are provided.

P. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife.
1973. Final Environmental Impact Statement: Proposed Additions to
and Operation of the Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife
Refuge.

Describes the acquisition of over 5,000 acres in the Columbia
River estuary area as refuge land to preserve habitat of the
endangered Columbian white-tailed deer.

303-33

0 0 0

8
[ I PLANKTON
%-.-J
[a 4 1

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

PLANKTON

James W. Good

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

304 PLANKTON ................................................. 304-1
304.1 PHYTOPLANKTON ............................................ 304-1
A. Oxygen and Nutrients ..................................... 304-2
B. Phytoplankton Distribution and Abundance ................. 304-2
C. Factors Limiting Phytoplankton Productivity .............. 304-4
304.2 ZOOPLANKTON .............................................. 304-6
A. Distribution and Abundance ............................... 304-7
1. Freshwater Group ..................................... 304-7
2. Estuarine Group ...o .................................. 304-7
3. Marine Group ......................................... 304-9
B. Zooplankton-Nutrient-Phytoplankton Relations'...) .......... 304-9
C. Zooplankton Food Web Relationships ....................... 304-10
304.3 REFERENCES ............................................... 304-11

FIGURES

304-1 Seasonal Changes in Phosphates and Nitrates .............. 304-3
304-2 Phytoplankton Populations ................................ 304-5
304-3 Estuarine Zooplankton Copepods ........................... 304-10*

TABLES

304-1 Common Zooplankton in Columbia River Estuary ............. 304-8

*Figure follows the page indicated.

304 PLANKTON

All swimming and floating organisms belong to the "pelagic"

division. Active swimmers, such as salmon and herring constitute the

"nekton," whereas, weak swimmers and the floating, drifting life, form
the "plankton." This group includes bacterioplankton (bacteria), phyto-

plankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals).

one of the most useful groupings for plankton is size classification.
The largest plankton (macroplankton) range from 0.2 millimeters (mm) to

more than a meter and include animals such as copepods, fish larvae and
jellyfish. The next smaller group (microplankton) ranges from 0.02-0.2 mm
and includes most phytoplankton and protozoans. Plankton in the smallest
size grouping (nannoplankton), less than 0.02 mm, include bacteria and the
smallest phytoplankton. To understand plankton and their relationship to
physical factors and to each other, it is necessary to understand their

growth and reproductive processes.

Bacterioplankton may regenerate within a few hours by asexually

reproducing a copy of their genes and then dividing into two. Phytoplankton,
which may reproduce sexually or asexually, generally require a day or more

to double in size, even under favorable environmental conditions.

Zooplankton growth rates vary enormously from less than a week for

some protozoa to more than a year for some larger macroplankton. As an
example, the dominant estuarine copepod in the Columbia, Eurytemora

hirundoides, has a generation time of about three months (with favorable

summer conditions).

This section examines what is known about the plankton of the

Columbia River estuary. Phytoplankton production and nutrient relationships

and other limiting factors are considered and zooplankton distribution,
abundance and relationships to physical and biological variables are also

discussed.

304.1 PHYTOPLANKTON

Phytoplankton, one of the primary producers in the estuarine ecosystem,
utilize nitrogen, phosphate, silicate, carbon dioxide and other minor con-
stituents in the photosynthetic process to produce organic matter. Phyto-
plankton require sunlight for photosynthesis and therefore are confined
to surface waters where light penetrates. A 1967-68 survey of Columbia River

estuary phytoplankton by Lois Haertel and other Oregon State University

researchers represents the only available data on the subject; it is the

basis of this discussion.

A. Oxygen and Nutrients

Nutrients in the estuary are derived from three sources: (1) fresh-

water entering the estuary, (2) marine waters, and (3) regeneration within

the estuary by zooplankton excretion and decomposition processes. Nutrient

budgets are examined in detail in Section 205 (Estuarine Water Quality,
Nutrients, Mixing and Pollutants), with monthly oxygen and nutrient inputs

shown in Table 205-1.

Oxygen values are generally high in the estuary, owing to high
values-(5-8 ml/liter) from incoming freshwater. Oxygen in the salt wedge

is generally lower (2-3 ml/liter) during summer, when offshore upwelling

occurs. silicate values are always high in river water and probably are

never limiting, even though river phytoplankton (diatoms) utilize large

quantities of silicate to manufacture their delicate encasements. Silicate

values in the salt wedge are much lower. Phosphate levels (Figure 304-1)
are about equal in entering fresh and marine waters in winter, depleted in

late summer freshwaters (probably due to upriver phytoplankton growth and
uptake) and enriched in entering marine waters during upwelling season. .
Nitrate levels in entering freshwater vary from near zero in summer to high
levels (Figure 304@1) during winter, while nitrate levels in entering marine

waters behave in the opposite manner. The depression in summer nitrate

values to very low levels is probably due to upriver phytoplankton growth
and uptake, and would seem to indicate that nitrate is limiting for summer

phytoplankton production in the estuary. However, other forms of nitrogen

such as ammonia, may be available and utilized by the freshwater phytoplank-
ton which extend into the estuary. Plankton/nutrient relationships are also

discussed in Section 205.

B. Phytoplankton Distribution and Abundance

Haertel and other Oregon State University researchers found that the

Columbia River estuary has no unique flora, but rather is a mixture of

marine and more dominant freshwater species.

The most abundant phytoplankton are freshwater diatoms including

Melosira spp., Fragilaria crotonensis, Asterionella formosa, Stephanodiscus

astrea and Syndra ulna. These species, which are characteristic of eutrophic

lakes, indicate that the estuarine phytoplankton represent a-downstream

304-2

CHANGES IN NITRATE, PHOSPHATE, N:P RATIO, AND RIVER FLOW
WITH SEASON, 1966-1968.

SALINITY

0%0 (entering freshwater)
30-@..(ontorinq marine water)
100--

so -

70 -

60 -

50
N-P RATIO
40 -
'ej
30 - % P04
%q limiting
20 .
15:4-
10 N03
limiting
0

30--
NITRA TE (p M) 20 -
10

3--

2
PHOSPHATE 0M)

0--
20--

15
RIVER FLOW 0
003M31S&C.)

Oiihi@J''J-A'hOLh'D'Jk-ML-AL-ML'J'LJALi6h6504A41JLjii6Nn
1966 1967 1968

FROM HAERTEL, ET. AL., 1969 FiouliE 304-1

304-3

extension of the river plankton. Phytoplankton are most abundant in the
entering freshwater, with chlorophyll a and the number of cells decreasing

downstream, with increasing-salinity. Green and red algaes are also

present in entering river water, though they are not nearly so abundant

as the diatom species. Marine phytoplankton present in the intruding salt
wedge but never more than 10% of the total estuarine flora, include such
species as Asterionella Japonical Fragilaria ocea-n-ia and Anabaena sp.
Freshwater phytoplankton are most abundant between April and Sept-

ember (Figure 304-2), with maximum peaks of 17,000 and 26,000 cells/milli-
liter (ml) in May of 1967 and 1968 respectively. Populations are low to

non-existent in winter. Marine phytoplankton populations reached a maximum

of 600 to 1,600 cells/ml in late summer of 1967 and 1968.

C. Factors Limiting Phytoplankton Productivity

Factors affecting productivity in the estuary may include (1) the

availability of light, (2) the depth of the photic layer which is a function

of river water turbidity, (3) concentration and resupply rate of nutrients,
(4) water temperature, (5) river flow and amount of vertical mixing, (6) the

rate of grazing by herbivores (primarily zooplankton) and (7) the presence

or absence of micro-constitutents (e.g. vitamins) or growth-inhibiting
substances in water. Several of these variables are illustrated in. Figure
304-2 as compared to the standing crop of total phytoplankton and major
freshwater phytoplankton species which extend into the estuary. No actual

measurements of production (rate/unit of time) have been made.

in winter, nutrient levels are high (Figure 304-1) and would not be

limiting. River flow has high and low periods during winter without apparent
effect on phytoplankton numbers. Also, high year-round turbidty (secchi
disc readings) with a variable photic layer (0.1 to 1.1 meters in depth) does
not correlate significantly with changes in phytoplank ton abundance, though
it must certainly keep overall productivity relatively low. of the remaining
variables studied, only the amount of solar radiation shows a strong correla-

tion with the spring increase and fall decrease in phytoplankton abundance.

This indicates that light must limit phytoplankton production in winter.

Either nitrate or phosphate levels might be limiting duking:the

summer, though the depleted nutrients in entering freshwater are substantially
enriched in the lower estuary through mixing with entering upwelled marine
waters (Section 205.2). Regeneration of phosphate and ammonia by animal
excretion and other sources may also serve to keep sufficient nutrients

304-4

Melosira italica

Frogilaria crotonansis

z
Malosira granulato

Asterioneliq formoso
so-

FRESHWATER PHYTO- -
PLANKTON SPECIES R -

so--

-Total no. of calls

Marine a brackish componan
of total calls

TOTAL PHYTOPLANKTON
cells (102/m I)

so-
_j

z
2
a"-

.j
SOLAR RADIATION 400 J
(Iongloys)
ROD
J
w

a
w
x

TURBIDITY
02
ILI
SECCHI (m) 0

Is-

J0
RIVER FLOW 10 - Jz

j
IL

so-

a.
T(OC) Is -

FIGURE
0 A N J J A 8 0 N 0 J F 0 A N 4 j a 9 0 a 0 j 304-2

304-5

available. Nonetheless, research in the adjacent co ntinental shelf waters

and in other estuaries suggests that nitrogen is the limiting factor,

because of its slow regeneration and other factors. The Columbia River

might be an exception to this general rule, but no evidence suggests that

this is so.

Seasonal succession of the four major freshwater diatom species

(Figure 304-1) showed that Melosira italica was definitely a spring species,
M. granulata and Fragilaria crotofiensis were more abundant in summer and

Asterionella, formosa was abundant during both seasons. Increase in tempera-

ture over the summer was shown to be the controlling factor in this

succession of species.

In summary, overall phytoplankton abundance (and presumably
productivity) is probably limited on a year-round basis by the high turbidity
(and shallow photic zone) in the Columbia River estuary, owing to great and

variable river flow, high suspended sediment loads and strong tidal mixing

forces. Within the resultant shallow productive surface layer, available
-light appears to limit phytoplankton during the winter. Low nutrient levels,

particularly nitrate, have the potential to limit growth in summer.

304.2 ZOOPLANKTON

In contrast to the phytoplankton, which consist of only a few
principal groups, the zooplankton include animals from many animal phyla.
Some of the groups represented in the Columbia River estuary zooplankton are

protozoans, coelenerates (cnidarians), ctenophores, polychaetes, rotifers,

copepods, mysids, chaetognaths, mollusks, tunicates and vertebrates.

Many zooplankton organisms, such as calanoid copepods, live their

life-cycle as plankton, while others, such as some fish and benthic inverteb-

rates, are planktonic only in larval stages. In spring and early summer,

these temporary plankton may be quite abundant as they seek dispersal and
food. Some benthic animals, such as amphipods and harpacticoid copepods,
live both in the sediments and water column with equal ease. Accordingly,

the division between plankton, free-swimming animals and bottom dwellers is

not precise, but varies depending on individual life cycles, feeding and

other behavioral habits. For this reason, benthic invertebrates and fish

which spend part of their life cycle as plankton will be discussed in
subsequent sections of this Inventory. 0

304-6

While several investigators have compiled species lists of zooplankton
in the Columbia River estuary, the only ecological studies of zooplankton are
those performed by Haertel and other Oregon State University researchers from
1964 through 1968. These studies are the basis for much of the following

discussion.

A. Distribution and Abundance

High and variable river flows, large tidal range and relatively short
flushing time combine to make the Columbia River estuary an unstable
environment as compared to many other smaller estuaries. However, what

stability does exist, allows the formation of three distinct zooplankton groups
including (1) freshwater species which are carried by river flow and remain

associated with the freshwater areas of the estuary, eventually to be flushed
out to sea; (2) an indigenous estuarine group which maintains itself within
fairly defined salinity ranges; and (3) a marine group which generally remains
associated with the intruding salt wedge. At times during the tidal cycle,
stratification in the estuary is such that all three groups might be found in
one location, each predominant at different water depths. Table 304-1 is a

checklist of common zooplankton found in the estuary by different investigators.

1. Freshwater Group

Dominated by the copepod, Cyclops vernalis and two cladocerans,
Bosminia longirostris and Daphnia longispina, the freshwater zooplankton are

abundant throughout the estuary at low tide. At high tide, when salinities
are above 5'/oo, they are much depleted in the estuary and are found further
upstream. They are most abundant in late summer [2,000-5,000/cubic meter .
(m3)], with a lesser peak in spring. A population minimum of 20-50/m 3 occurs
in February and March. The major factors causing lower winter populations
are decreased temperature and continual loss to the ocean, though phytoplankton

are undoubtedly an important food source for zooplankton in summer, there is
little statistical correlation with phytoplankton abundance. This is probably
because phytoplankton abundance is highest in early summer when light levels
are highest, and zooplankton are most abundant in late summer when temperatures
are highest.

2. Estuarine Group

Of particular interest are the indigenous species, which maintain
their populations in the center of the estuary despite the unstable
environment. These are dominated by the Eurytemora hirundoides and Canuella
canadensis, which show obvious depletion both upstream and downstream as

304-7

TABLE 304-1. CHECKLIST OF COMMON ZOOPLANKTON IN
THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

FRESHWATER GROUP

Cladocerans Copepods
Bosmina longirostris Paracyclops finbratus
Ceriodaphnia pulchella Bryocamptus niemalis
Daphnia longispina Cyclops vernalis
Daphnia pulex Diaptomus spp.
Diaphanosoma brachyrum Epischura nevadensis
Leptodora kindtii
Moina brachiata
Sida crystallina Rotifers
Tlm-or@cephalis serrulatus
Alona costata Brachionus spp.
Alona quadrangularis Asplanchna sp.
Chydorus globosus Kerattella sp.
Eurycercus lamellatus
Ilyocryptus sordidus
Leydigia acanthocercoides
Pleuroxis denticulatus
Camptocercus rectirostris
Macrothrix sp.
Alona affinis
Pleuroxis striatus
Chydorus sphaericus

ESTUARINE (CiLIGOHALINE) GROUP

Copepods

Eurytemora hirundoides
Canuella canadensis (predominantly benthic)

MARINE GROUP

Cladocerans Ctenophores

Evadne nordmanni Pleurobrachia sp.
Podon sp.
@Copepods
Tunicates
Acartia clausi
Oikopleura sp. Acartia longiremus
Pseudocalanus minutus
Coelenerates Calanus finmarchicus
Aurelia sp. Epilabidocera amphitrites
Aequoria sp. OithQna spinirostis
Oithona similis

From: Haertel and Osterberg, 1967
Haertel and others, 1969-
Higleyand Holton, 1975
Snyder et al., 1973

304-8

illustrated in Figure 304-3. Eurytemora, by far the most abundant zoo-
plankter in the water column, has populations reaching 10,000-100,000/m3
in late April and May. Eurytemora,populations reach a second, lesser peak
in late July and a third peak in early winter. These variations in abun-
dance arelassociated with the generation time of Eurytemora', which is
approximaiely 3 months at warmer summer temperatures. The long period
between the early winter and late spring peaks is probably due to colder

water temperatures.

Haertel tested several variables for correlation with Eurytemora
abundance including water temperature, phytoplankton abundance, trans-
parency and river flow, with no conclusive results. Along with life cycle
patterns noted above, river flow also definitely affects Eurytemora abun-
dance, as was shown by the January 1967 floods, from which seriously

depleted Eurytemora populations did not recover for 18 months. In contrast,

upstream freshwater plankton recovered rapidly from the flood and downstream
marine species were unaffected.
Canuella, a harpacticoid copepod, is generally much less abundant in
the water column than Eurytemora, but this is because it is primarily a
benthic dweller and not sampled adequately by plankton tows.

Both Eurytemora and Canuella are more abundant at 10 meters than
closer to the surface. This may be the key behavioral mechanism which
maintains these species in the central part of the estuary. Other species

which concentrate near the surface are swept out to sea.

3. Marine Groups
The Marine group of zooplankton associated with the salt wedge shows
increasing abundance with increasing salinities. Peak populations ranging
from 1,000 to 10,000/m3 occur throughout the year, but are depleted some-
what during the winter. Predominant species include Acartia clausi, Acartia
longiremus, and Pseudocalanus minutus. variations in seasonal distribution
of these species can be attributed to the strong variability of river flow

and resultant salinities.

B. Zooplankton - Nutrient - Phytoplankton Relations
It was noted earlier in this section that nitrate and phosphate are
seriously depleted in river waters entering the estuary in summer. For
phytoplankton species able to reproduce in the slightly brackish estuarine
waters, phosphate and particularly nitrate would seem to be the limiting
factors. However, zooplankton are known to excrete phosphate and ammonia

304-9

(which is a more favorable source of nitrogen than.nitrate). With popula-
3
tions ranging from'10,000-100,000/m , Eurytemora may plan an important role
in the regeneration of nutrients which then become available for maintaining

estuarine phytoplankton production. No data have even been collected on

ammonia to test this hypothesis, and it is not known whether the fresh-

water phytoplankton extending into the estuary have the ability to repro-

duce in.brackish water.

C. Zooplankton Food Web Relationships

Zooplankton that have been discussed in this section are among the
smaller macroplankton'which feed on phytoplankton and other particulate

organic matter in'the estuary. As such, they are classified as herbivores
and are.food for the first carnivores, including larger invertebrates and

juvenile fish. There have been several studies of feeding habits of

fishes, which will be discussed in detail in a subsequent section of this

.inventory. To summarize zooplankton are important food items in the

estuary, particularly the more abundant species such as Eurytemora.

304-10

124- 11 50' 123--'

10, 0, 4

1/2 MM.

unclc;@"
10, Ir

@7A

/W9.

ial

F NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES
/rl

304.3 REFERENCES

A. Haertel, L. 1969. Plankton and Nutrient Ecology of the Columbia
River Estuary. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. School of Oceanography,
Oregon State University. 71pp.

B. Haertel, L., and C. Osterberg. 1967. "Ecology of Zooplankton,
Benthos and Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary." Ecology
48:459-472.

Fauna of the Columbia River estuary were sampled over a 21-
month period. The largest numbers of fish and benthic inverte-
brates occupy the slightly brackish water of the central part of
the estuary; the major plankton blooms also occur in this area.
Some species use the upper estuary as a nursery ground.

C. Haertel, L.,.C..Osterberg, H..Curl, P.K. Park*.. 1969. "Nutrient
and Plankton Ecology of the Columbia River Estuary." Ecology
50(6):962-978.
Monthly samples of nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton
were taken in the Columbia River estuary over a period of 16 months
in order to determine distribution with season and salinity, and
interrelationships between plankton and nutrients. The estuarine
phytoplankton is composed primarily of freshwater species. The
zooplankton are composed of estuarine, fresh and marine species.

D. Higley, D.L. and R.L. Holton. 1975. Biological Baseline Data,
Youngs Bay, Oregon, 1974, prepared for Alumax Pacific Aluminum Corp.
School of Oceanography, Oregon State University.
Presents 1974 baseline data collected as part of "Physical,
Chemical and Biological Studies on Youngs Bay." Information
includes animals present, distribution and seasonal abundance.
Feeding babits of selected fish species are presented along with
information on the life history and behavioral characteristics
of the most abundant amphipod, Corophium salmonis.

E. Kujala, Norman. 1976. Columbia River Estuary Fishes and
Invertebrates. Unpublished background report prepared for the
Columbia River Estuary Study Taskforce.
An inventory of commercially and ecologically important fish
and invertebrate plankton and benthos, with distribution and
abundance maps on various species, and information on reproduction
and nursery areas. A primary information source for inventory
sections on estuary plankton, benthic invertebrates and fishes.

304-11

F. Misitano, David A. 1974. Zooplankton, Water Temperature and
Salinities in the Columbia River Estuary, December 1971 through
December 1972. Data Report 92, National Marine Fisheries Service,
NOAA, Seattle, Washington. 31pp.
Excellent data on plankton organisms present from the mouth
to Harrington Point along with associated temperature and
salinity is presented. However, it does not include a discussion
of results or draw any conclusions.

G. Parsons, T. and M. Takahashi. 1973. Biological OceanograRhic
Processes. Pergammun Press, New York. 186pp.
A technical review of plankton and the chemical and ecological
processes in which they are involved. Difficult but useful back-
ground reading.

H. Perkins, E.J. 1975. The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal Waters.
Academic Press. @678pp_
A comprehensive, well-documented and readable book on the
subject, with useful information on plankton ecology and numerous
other subjects.

Snyder, George R., R.J. McConnell, J.T. Durkin, D.A. Misitano,
.and H.R. Sankorn.- 1973. Checklist of Aquatic Organisms in the
Lower Columbia and Willamette Rivers, completion report to'U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. National Marine
Fisheries Service. 41pp.
This checklist includes information on zooplankton in the
estuary and upriver to Portland. It was compiled from a review of
the literature and from a 1973 survey by the National Marine
Fisheries Service. Information on finfish, shellfish, benthic
organisms and larval fishes is also given.

304-12

0 0 0

BENTHIC
0 INVERTEBRATES
8 s

COLUM13IA RIVER ESTUARY

BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES

James W. Good

NOTE: Much of the descriptive and distribution information
in this section was derived from the background report
on estuary fishes and invertebrates prepared for CREST
by Mr. Norman Kujala, Oregon Ocean Services, Warrenton,
Oregon, (reference K., pg. 305-15).

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

305 BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES .................................. 305-1
305.1 FACTORS AFFECTING BENTHOS DISTRIBUTION
AND ABUNDANCE ......................................... 305-3
A. Substrate ............................................... 305-3
B. Salinity ................................................ 305-4
305.2 DOMINANT GROUPS OF BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES ................ 305-5
A. Decapod Shellfish ....................................... 305-6
B. Mysids .................................................. 305-8
C. Amphipods ............................................... 305-8
D. Polychaetes ............................................. 305-10
E. Oligochaetes ............................................ 305-10
F. mollusks ................................................. 305-11
G. Nematodes ............................................... 305-12
H. Chironomids (Midges) .................................... 305-12
305.3 REFERENCES ............................................. 305-14

FIGURES

305-1 Conceptual Model of Larger Animals Within
Benthic System ........................................ 305-2
305-2 Decapod Shellfish Distribution .......................... 305-6*
305-3 Mysid Distribution ...................................... 305-8*
305-4 Pmphipod Distribution ................................... 305-10*
305-5 Polychaetes Distribution ................................ 305-10*
305-6 Oligochaetes Distribution ............................... 305-12*
305-7 Clam Distribution ....................................... 305-12*

TABLES

305-1 Decapods Found in the Columbia River Estuary ............ 305-6

*Figure follows the page indicated.

305 BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES

All organisms, plant or animal, which live within, on, or closely
associated with the bottom sediments belong to a group known as benthos.

Benthic animals that live within the sediments are called infauna while

those that live on or just above the sediment surface are epifauna. Much
of the infauna is microscopic, living among the particles of sediment.

Infauna may be sedentary or mobile, burrowing through the sediments.
Epifauna are usually larger mobile animals, but some are also sessile,
attaching themselves to available firm substrates, such as rock or wooden,
piling.
Another convenient way to classify benthic organisms is by size.
The smallest group, microbenthos, includes all animals 0.04 millimeters (mm)
or less. Bacteria, small protozoa, fungi, algae, diatoms and other micro-

scopic organisms fall into this category. Many of these organisms live
adhered to sand particles or particulate organic matter while others, such

as some diatoms, form filamentous colonies on the surface of plants, rocks
or sediment. The bacteria in the sediments are an extremely important

component of the estuarine ecosystem, recycling nutrients to fuel new pro-

duction of plant matter. Meiobenthos include organisms which are larger

than 0.04 mm but smaller than 1 mm in size. Predominant meiobenthos

include nematodes and harpacticoid copepods. They are generally confined
to the top few centimeters (cm) of sediment. Macrobenthos include
organisms which are larger than 1 mm in size and visable with the naked eye.
Most epifauna (crab, shrimp, etc.) and some infauna (clams, polychaetes,
etc.) are included in this group. The larger macrofauna can be divided into

three feeding types: selective particle feeders, deposit feeders and filter

feeders (Figure 305-1) .
Selective particle feeders may be scavengers, predators or herbivores,
feeding either on whole organisms they capture or fragments of plants or

animals. Fishes, crabs, some worms and other mobile species fall into this

category. The food is primarily organic material and broken down by
mechanical and chemical processes. Wastes are combined with mucous and

often form distinctive fecal pellets, which may make up a significant

percentage of the bottom sediments.

AIR

0
ul
BACTER SOLUBLE INSO UBLE INSOL BLE
ORGANICS ORGANICS INORGANICS
WATER

SELECTIVE DEPOSIT FILTER BENTHIC
FEEDERS FEEDERS FEEDERS PLANTS

AEROBIC
SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE INSOLUBLE
ORGANICS ORGANICS INORGANICS DEPOSIT
BACTERIA EXTRACELLULARI
ENZYMES

SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE INSOLUBLE
ORGANICS ORGANICS INORGANICS ANAEROBIC
DEPOSIT

-XTRACELLULA
I
E
BACTERIA -vp NZYMES

INSOLUBLE ORGANICS WITHIN WATER INCLUDE PHYTOPLANKTON, ZOOPLANKTON, DETRTTUS, ETC.
SOLID LINES REPRESENT PHYSICAL TRANSFER
*DENOTES CHEMICAL REACTION

FIGURE 305-1. CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF LARGER ANIMALS@WITHIN BENTHIC SYSTEM

From- Bella, 1975

Deposit feeders include two general types. Some are worms that

move through the sediment, ingesting and utilizing what organic material

is contained therein, and discarding the remains as feces. other deposit

feeders bury themselves in the sediment. Using siphons or other

extensions, they suck up detritus that has recently fallen to the bottom.

These animals are unselective in what they feed upon, but they often have
efficient sorting mechanisms. Nevertheless, the feces of these deposit

feeders may contain a high percentage of inorganic material.

Filter feeders draw in water and particulate matter. Most clams,

for example, use tiny hair-like cilia to create currents of water over a
mucous network which traps particles. Others, such as tube-dwelling worms,

may force water through their burrows by body movements. Some have effi-

cient sorting mechanisms, much the same as deposit feeders. Feces of

filter feeders is primarily organic.

The feeding habits of benthic animals can have a significant effect

on the sediments and overlying waters. Deposit feeders turn over huge
quantities of sediment particles and bring oxygen to deeper layers. Filter
feeders and some deposit feeders remove detrital and particulate material

from the water and sediment surface, sometimes with a marked local effect

on turbidity. These animals play an important role in partially breaking
down organic matter for the microorganisms which complete the mineralization

process.

305.1 FACTORS AFFECTING BENTHOS DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE

The distribution and abundance of estuarine benthos are affected by

many physical and biological factors which vary in both spatial and
temporal dimensions. These include (1) substrate type, (2) salinity and
other chemical and physical conditions.of the water, (3) river flow,
(4) tidal forces and degree tidal exposure, (5) exposure to wave and

current action and (6) effects of grazing, predation and harvesting. All
of these factors are important in the Columbia River estuary and two of
the most important are discussed in detail.

A. Substrate

Most of the intertidal and subtidal areas of the Columbia River

esutary are covered with a layer of unconsolidated substrate composed of
fine mineral sediments (silt and clay), coarse mineral sediments (sand,

gravel, and cobbles) and organic matter. While all areas have a mixture

305-3

of these materials, the component which predominates is determined by a
variety of factors including (1) the rate and type of sediment supply,
(2) organic detrital input, (3) biological activity and (4) the energy
environment (river flow, currents, waves,.tides, wind). The latter

physical forces are dominant factors in the Columbia.

The general distribution of sediment types in Columbia River estuary
channels, slopes and flats is discussed in Section 208 of this InventoKy
(Sediment and Sediment Transport). To summarize, sand is the predominant
sediment type for the entire estuary, with an "average" sediment sample

containing 1% gravel, 84% sand, 13% silt and 2% clay. However, the actual

textural characteristics at specific locations in the estuary vary widely.

Sand is the dominant sediment type in channels, which form a continuous,

interwoven network throughout the estuary (Figure 208-2). Upper and lower

estuary channels, however, have coarser sand than those in the middle

estuary. On the steeper slopes, which separate the channels from flats,
sediments are predominantly sand, but are often less coarse than adjacent

channels. Flats contain the finest sediments and are the most variable.

Flats in the central part of the estuary (e.g. Desdemona Sands) are pre-

dominantly sand, while the flats in Baker Bay, Youngs Bay and Cathlamet Bay
have significant quantities of silt, clay and organic material, along with

fine sand. Because of the more sheltered nature of the latter areas and

the higher organic content of the sediments, the benthos is richer in both
diversity and abundance of species. The fine sand in these areas is
suitable for filter feeders and the organic detritus present is necessary

for deposit feeders.

B. Salinity
The gradual changes in salinity from the mouth to the upper part
of the estuary is the primary factor to which all forms of estuarine life
must respond. As with plankton and fishes, benthic invertebrates can be
divided into freshwater, estuarine and marine components. In the Columbia,
salinity penetration depends on tidal cycles, river flow variationis and

complex mixing processes. These are discussed in detail in Section 204
(Estuarine Circulation). Maximum salipity penetration during low flow and

high tide is about River Mile (RM) 23, opposite Harrington Point. During

average flow conditions on high tide, saline waters will intrude to about
Tongue Point (RM 18), while during high flow, only to about Youngs Bay (RM 12).

305-4

On the ebb tide during high river flow, salt water may be pushed nearly
out of the estuary (RM 2-5). The strong ebb and flood currents and high

and variable river flow create a very unstable environment for benthic

animals. Mobile epifauna may migrate back and forth with the ebb and

flood of the tide, but infauna may be subjected to overlying waters with

marked daily salinity changes.

The salinity of water within the sediment (interstitial water) is

extremely important to infauna distribution. While no information is

available on the subject with regard to the Columbia River estuary, two

opposing factors may be at work. First, overlying saline waters tend to
percolate downward, raising interstitial water salinity. Some studies have

shown that interstitial water remains more saline than fresh overflowing

ebb tide water. However, the influence of ground water pressure, may be
significant in keeping interstitial salinities slow, particularly during
winter when the water table on adjacent shorelands is high. This subject
needs further study to determine its relationship to infauna. distribution.

Salinity seems to be an extremely important variable relative to

abundance of benthic organisms in the estuary. Species which are found

upriver from the estuary (e.g. certain copepods, mysids; and amphipods)

greatly increase in numbers in the low salinity of the waters of the

mid-estuary.

305.2 DOMINANT GROUPS OF BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES

Each group and each species of benthic invertebrates contributes

to the healthy functioning of the estuary ecosystem. To date, research

emphasis has been on the abundant and presumably more important species,
both from an economic and ecologic perspective. Decapod shellfish, mysids,

amphipods, polychaetes, oligochaetes, mollusks, nematodes and insect larvae

are discussed in some detail in this section. Groups such as benthic
copepods, isopods, nemerteans, bacteria and other micro and meiofauna are

not discussed, though they may be extremely important.

In general, the shallow, fine sediment areas of the middle estuary

harbor the greatest concentrations of benthic invertebrates, particularly

infauna. Benthic populations in Baker Bay and Youngs Bay are extremely

rich. Grays Bay and Cathlamet Bay have not been as extensively studied
as other areas, but because of greater freshwater influence, it might be

305-5,

expected to be less rich. The central area of the estuary, where sediments

are generally coarser, is less important for infauna, but has large popu-

lations of epifauna which move about the bottom. There are few studies

which have examined complex ecological relationships. Distribution rela-

tive to salinity and sediment texture is discussed for some groups, and
limited data on feeding relationships are presented. However, a compre-
hensive ecologically-oriented study of benthic invertebrates and their
relationship to each other and other groups of organisms would be extremely

useful.

A. Decapod Shellfish

There are four decapod shellfish found in the estuary. These species

are listed (Table 305-1) and discussed below as to their distribution and
use of the estuary. Figure 305-2 illustrates their distribution in the

estuary.

Table 305-1 DECAPODS FOUND IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

Common Name Scientific Name Salinity Preference

Dungeness Crab Cancer magister Marine to mesohaline
Sand Shrimp Crangon franciscorum marine to Oligohaline
Shrimp Crangon sp. Marine to polyhaline 16
Freshwater Crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus Freshwater to Oligohaline

From: Snyder et al., 1973

Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) are epifauna found in salt water
along the Pacific Coast from Southern California to Alaska. In the Columbia
River estuary, they are found associated with intruding salt water throughout
the year. During low river flow (when saline water penetration is greatest),
juveniles may be found as far as 15 miles upstream to Astoria. Adults are
generally limited to the deep channels of the lower estuary from Hammond
and Chinook jetty out to the mouth. An important winter fishery exists for
crab in the ocean just off the mouth and some commercial'and sport fishing
is done in the deep channels of the lower estuary off Sand Island. Crab
(male only) may be taken only with pots (traps) and must be 5-3/4 inches

or wider across the shell.

305-6

124- 123-45

iol 01 4

10, - - -----

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Though spawning takes place in the adjacent ocean, the estuary

appears to be an important nursery area for immature Dungeness crab. For

example, hundreds of small crab (three to four inches across the shell)

have been caught during a ten minute otter trawl tow in the Desdemona

Sands area. Smaller numbers can be taken in a similar manner at the

entrance to Youngs Bay and off Chinook Point. Large numbers of adults

and juveniles can also be found in Baker Bay during the fall. Dungeness

crab are scavengers, making use of both plant and animal material

available to them on the bottom.

Sand shrimp (Crangon franciscorum) are classified as epifauna and

adults are about three inches long and have a gray speckled sandy color.

The first pair of walking legs are chelate (have pincers). of the marine

decapods found in the estuary, sand shrimp are most tolerant of low
salinities, with young shrimp found as far upstream as Harrington Point

(RM 22), as well as in Grays Bay and Cathlamet Bay. As spawning season

approaches, adult sand shrimp, which are confined to the more saline lower
estuary areas, move toward the ocean. Eggs hatch in water of high salinity.

In early summer, the newly hatched shrimp migrate into waters of reduced

salinity in the mid to upper estuary, They are abundant through fall,

but are found in more saline waters in winter. Large populations of adult

and immature sand shrimp are also found in Baker Bay. Sand shrimp are not
taken commercially but may have some potential. Sand shrimp are primarily
scavengers but may prey upon animals, such as worms. They are important

as a food item for many fishes including white sturgeon, starry flounder,
sculpin, sand sole, tomcod, hake, longfin smelt and the shellfish, Dungeness

crab.

The other species of Crangon found in the estuary was originally

classified by Haertel as Crangon niqracauda, the blacktail shrimp. Sub-
sequent work by Richardson, Colgate and Carey of Oregon State University

and the National Marine Fisheries Service researchers, show that this

shrimp may actually be Crangon stylirostris or Crangon alaskensis elongata;

it is an epibenthic animal found only in waters of higher salinity below

RM 6 to 7.

Western freshwater crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) are found in

tributary streams and sloughs throughout the mid to upper estuary as well
as farther upriver where salinities are low. In appearance somewhat like

305-7

a small lobster, those animals are considered a delicacy locally and are
harvested in the fall when adults are migrating into freshwater streams
to spawn. They are caught commercially and for personal use by using
traps or by hand-collecting in streams or flats of the estuary. The

migration peak is in October, but no data are available on the size of

the population.

B. Mysids

Mysids are small shrimp-like crustaceans. Species associated with

estuaries are difficult to group as either plankton or benthos, since

most spend daylight hours on or near the bottom sediments and then enter

the plankton during darkness, probably to feed. The predominant feeding

mechanism is filter feeding, with detritus and diatoms common in the diet.

They also may prey on small animals, such as copepods. Their variety in

diet and medium size, relative to other estuarine invertebrates, makes

them an important link in the estuarine food web.

Estuarine mysids vary in their ability to penetrate freshwater.
Marine mysids associated with the Columbia River estuary include: Neomysis
kadiakensis (which is very abundant in the ocean off the mouth), Neomysis
rayii, Acanthomysis macropsis and Archaeomysis grebnitzkii. These period-
ically abundant species remain in waters of relatively high salinity; their
collective distribution is shown on Figure 305-3 as "other mysids." The
most abundant mysid in the Columbia River estuary is Neomysis mercodis,
brackish to freshwater species whose distribution is also shown in
Figure 305-3. This species is found throughout the year, but is most
abundant in spring and summer. The size of mysids (2-4 cm) makes them an
important food item for many estuarine fish. Large numbers of Neomysis
mercedis have been.found in the stomachs of white sturgeon, chinook salmon
fingerlings, starry flounder, longfin smelt, staghorn sculpin, tomcod,
shiner perch and prickly sculpin.

C. Amphipods

Amphipods are small (up to 1 cm) crustaceans which occur in great
numbers in certain areas of the Columbia River estuary. Some are epifauna,

some build tube-like burrows and some migrate out of the sediments into

the water column under certain conditions, particularly at night. The
feeding mechanisms of amphipods are varied, and include filter-feeding,
deposit-feeding and scavenging.

305-8

05 124- 50, 123- 45' 40'

101 01 4

eom sl

/V
X///

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES
ZD

Common amphipods found in brackish water areas of the Columbia River

estuary include Anisogammarus confervicolous, Eohaustorius washingtonianus,
Paraphoxus milleri and two species of the genus Corophium. other species
of lesser numerical importance are also found, mostly in the intruding

salt water of the lower estuary. The abundance of amphipods at selected
sites sampled by Higley and Holton are shown in Figure 305-4.
Two species, Corophium salmonis and Corophium spinicorne are the

most dominant amphipods in the estuary. C. salmonis is found in mudflats

where it builds tubes in the mud, whereas C. spinicorne is more abundant
along the shoreline where it builds its tubes on vegetation, piling, rocks
and other surfaces. Anisogammarus is also abundant in these vegetated

areas, but can also be found in the central sandy flats of the Columbia
River (e.g. Desdemona Sands). Other species are locally dominant in

certain areas.

According to Higley and Holton, the brackish water areas of the
central estuary where fine sand predominates harbors the highest density

of the amphipod Corophium, with up to 57,000/square meter found in certain

areas of Youngs Bay. Salinity and substrate texture appear to be ideally

combined in this area. On the other hand, they found that coarse sand

areas generally have low densities, probably because the substrate is too
loosely compacted to support a burrow tube. Densities of up to 6,400/square

meter were found in the Skipanon River and 29,000/square meter in the
Lewis and Clark River. Based on Higley and Holton's limited sampling in

areas of the estuary other than Youngs Bay, amphipods appear to be both

widespread and abundant. Grays Bay shows densities of nearly 10,000/square

meter, Cathlamet Bay up to 21,000/square meter, and the MARAD Basin near

Tongue Point had nearly 10,000/square meter. In Baker Bay densities are
generally well below 1,000/square meter, probably because of the more

saline water present. At Miller Sands (RM 23), National Marine Fisheries

Service studies indicate Corophium densities of up to 4,000/square meter.

Corophium salmonis, the most abundant of all amphipod species, is predomi-

nantly a low salinity to freshwater species and is found in lesser number

all the way up the river to Portland.

Amphipods, particularly Corophium, are an ecologically important

estuarine group in that they are very abundant, consume large amounts of

detrital and other material, and serve as an important food source for

many species of fish which use the estuary including starry flounder,

305-9

longfin smelt, staghorn and prickly sculpin, shiner perch, tomcod, white

sturgeon and downstream migrant Chinook, coho and other salmon fingerlings.

The large quantities of amphipods consumed by juvenile salmon may indicate

a critical interrelationship, but there are no definitive data available.
Several of the benthic amphipods appear to make a nightly migration

into surface waters, and some researchers believe they find their way back

to the bottom area they left. However, there must undoubtedly be some
colonization of new areas as individuals are swept away by tidal currents.

D. Polychaetes

Polychaetes are a group of predominantly marine Annelid worms and
are found in bottom sediments of the Columbia River estuary. Their distri-
bution and abundance, according to Higley and Holton, is illustrated in

Figure 305-5. These patterns are best understood when they are compared

to sediment texture and salinity information. Polychaete densities are

low upstream from Tongue Point because of little or no salinity there and
the predominant marine nature of this animal group. Even Neanthes (Nerei's)

limnicola, an estuarine species tolerant of freshwater, is not abundant
upstream from Tongue Point.. Below Tongue Point, densities are low in
coarse sand areas and highest in shallow protected areas such as Baker Bay,
Youngs Bay and smaller embayments, indicating a preference for fine sand

and smaller size sediment.

Polychaetes range in size from less than 1 cm to 10 or more. The

estuarine species, Neanthes limnicola may grow to 10 cm. It and other
polychaetes are an important food source in the estuary for starry flounder,
white sturgeon, prickly sculpin, staghorn sculpin, tomcod, lemon sole,
shiner perch, and Dungeness crab. Polychaetes also play an important
ecological role in the estuary by irrigating and turning over the sediments.
Though present throughout the year in estuarine sediments, polychaetes
probably exhibit seasonal population fluctuations. Their life cycles in
the Columbia have not been studied, but information from similar estuaries
probably applies. For example, Neanthes limnicola has been found to be
self-fertilizing with a benthic larvae, while other species have planktonic

larval forms.

E. Oligochaetes
The Oligochaeta class of Annelid worms contains familiar tdrrestrial
,species, such as the earthworm, and about ten families of predominantly
freshwater aquatic worms. Some species have penetrated downstream into

305-10

124- 55, 56 123-45' 40'

ol 4
lol

1/2 cm.

or@ hiUm s9,

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ow oll

0 0

NAUTICAL MILES

KILoMETERS

STATUTE MILES

05 124- 55' 123' 45' 'o,

10, ol 4

I cm.
"thes 'co

0,
bQ

Olf
14,

0 0
o",
00

101

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

estuarine waters and there are also a few marine species. These tiny
worms are found in the estuary sediments and range from 1 to 5 cm in

length. They look like a common earthworm, slightly pink to red color,

with a clitellum or band around the body near the front end. The worms

are generally on the surface or buried in the first few centimeters of
bottom sediment. Many species are associated with decaying organic matter

such as leaves and seaweed.

Oligochaetes are a dominant group of organisms in bottom sediments

of the Columbia River estuary. They are most abundant in fine sediment
areas, as illustrated by the distribution and abundance data from Higley

and Holton in Figure 305-6. Youngs Bay and Baker Bay are the most pro-
ductive areas studied to date, with concentrations of up to 50,000 and
75,000/square meter respectively. Oligochaetes are permanent residents
of the estuary. A decline in density might be expected during the winter

months, but seasonal patterns were not that apparent in studies to date.

As a numerically important bottom dweller, oligochaetes play an
important role in estuary ecosystem functioning. They aerate the top
layers of sediment and may be important as food for estuary fishes, though
it is difficult to determine to what extent because they are quickly

digested. Crustaceans, such as amphipods, mysids, and shrimp, are more
frequently noted in fish stomach analysis because the chitinous shell
slows down digestion.

F. Mollusks

The Columbia River estuary does not have the common bay clams

(cockel, gaper, softshell, etc.) and oysters found in nearly every other
Pacific Coast estuary. This is probably due to the high freshwater dis-
charge and resulting low salinities present in the Columbia. Of mollusks

present in the estuary, two bivalve clams, Macoma inconspicua and

Corbicula fluminea (a freshwater species) are the most common and abundant.
The distribution of these species is shown in Figure 305-7. The patterns

shown are generalized and based on limited sampling.

Macoma inconspicua is a small, white clam about 1 to 2 cm in length,
found in brackish waters of the lower estuary. Highest densities have

been recorded in Baker Bay with 28,421 and 3,757/square meter at two
different locations in Higley and Holton's 1975 study. Densities are
generally under 1,000/square meter in most other areas where Macoma is
present. Macoma has been found to be an important food item for starry

flounder, sculpin and Dungeness crab.

305-11

Corbicula fluminea is a small freshwaterspecies found in the
Columbia River estuary, in some estuary tributary streams and upstream
in freshwater areas. They range up to 3.5 cm in length, are round,
brown and ridged. There seems to be some overlap with Macoma habitat,

as illustrated by Higley and Holton's sample in the Lewis and Clark River,,

where 168 Macoma and 56 Corbicula/square meter were present. Corbicula

were found by the National Marine Fisheries Service to be the second most

dominant benthic animal (next to the amphipod, Corophium) upstream of

the estuary to Vancouver, Washington. Corbicula are likewise found in

many estuary areas, including Grays Bay, Cathlamet Bay and Youngs Bay.

Another freshwater clam, Anodonta, is present in upper estuary
areas, though no studies of its distribution or abundance are available.

Several species of this clam may be present. These dark-colored clams

are the largest ones in-the estuary, ranging up to 12 cm in length.

G. Nematodes

Nematodes are small, unsegmented benthic worms which are found in

large numbers in certain estuary areas. Higley and Holton found over
44,000/square meter at one Baker Bay site, though most areas sampled had

considerably fewer nematodes. In Youngs Bay west of Pier 3, about 1,000
to 2,000/square meter were present in an average sample. High densities
were also present in other estuary areas where fine sediments predominated;

in Grays Bay, up to 7,290/square meter were found, and in Cathlamet Bay,
up to 4,467/square meter. Up to 8,299/square meter were found opposite
Alder Slough in Warrenton. While no studies of species composition of

Columbia River estuary nematodes has been attempted, up to 37 separate
species have been identified in other estuaries, indicating that they are
a diverse as well as abundant.group. Ecologically, these meiofauna

organisms contribute to aeration of bottom sediments and probably serve
as food for larger benthic organisms.
H. Chiromonids (midges)
Midges or chironomids are mosquito-like aquatic insects whose larvae

live in the bottom sediments. In some freshwater parts of the estuary,
chironomids are an important component of the benthic fauna. In Higley
and Holton's work, chironomids were found in Youngs Bay and its tributary
streams. -Highest concentrations were in the upper Skipanon River where
up to 2,472/square meter were found. Similar concentrations probably exist

305-12

124- 50' 123-45 40'

101 01 4

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10,

---------------------
0
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0

10,

NAUTICAL M LES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

124- 55' so 12 Y@5' 40'

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. ..........-
1:1:1: N ............ F:

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. . .. . . ...... ......
............

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............

..............
. ...........
.44:

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

in freshwater portions of many estuary tributaries and sloughs. Juvenile

salmon captured at many estuary sites including Youngs Bay and Miller
Sands use chironomids as food. Other diptera insects are likewise uti-
lized by juvenile salmon. Chironomid larvae emerge as flying adults and

later lay eggs in water weeds to repeat their life cycle.

305-13

305.3 REFERENCES

A. Bella, David A. 1975. Tidal Flats in Estuarine Water Quality Analysis,
prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. pp.10-20.

A description of the general chemical benthic system and benthic
system for larger benthic animals is presented. Feeding mechanisms
of macrobenthos are described.

B. Durkin, J.T. and S.J. Lipovsky. 1975. Baseline Fish and Shellfish
Investigations Offshore of the Columbia River Conducted from
October 1974 through June 1975. Interim report to the Dredged
Material Research Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. National
Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. 49pp.

Preliminary results of this study are presented including
information on demersal fish and their food habits. This
information is to be correlated with other research being
conducted to determine the effects of dredge material disposal
off the mouth of the Columbia River.

C. Durkin, J.T. 1975. An Investigation of Fish and Decapod Shellfish
Found at Four Dredge Material Disposal Sites and Two Dredge Sites
Adjacent to the Mouth of the Columbia River. Completion Report to
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. National Marine Fisheries Service,
NOAA. 29pp.

Results of sampling conducted at two lower estuary dredge
sites and disposal sites B, D, E and F are presented including
fish and shellfish present, and effects of dredging and disposal
on their distribution and abundance.

D. Green, J. 1968. The Biology of Estuarine Animals. University of
Washington Press, Seattle. 401pp.
An extremely useful background text for estuarine biology,
with information on vegetation, plankton, benthic organisms
and freshwater species. Specific sections on benthic organisms
such as amphipods, crab, etc. are presented.

E. Haertel, Lois. 1965. Biolo_qical Studies in the Columbia River
Estuary: Progress Report Ecological Studies of Radioactivity-in
the Columbia River and Adjacent Pacific Ocean. (C. Osterberg, ed.).
Department of Oceanography, Oregon State University. pp. 3-50.
A good list of the aquatic organisms in the estuary with
distributions, seasonal occurrence, and food habits of many species.
The best information in one report.

F. Haertel, L., and C. Osterberg. 1967. "Ecology of Zooplankton,
Benthos and Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary." Ecology 48:459-472.
Fauna of the Columbia River estuary were sampled over a 21-month
period. The largest numbers of fish and benthic invertebrates occupy
the slightly brackish water of the central part of the estuary; the
major plankton blooms also occur in this area. Some species use the
upper estuary as a nursery ground.

305-14

G. Higley, D.L., and R.L. Holton. 1975. Biological Baseline Data,
Youngs Bay, Oregon, 1974, prepared for Alumax Pacific Aluminum
Corporation. School of Oceanography, Oregon State University. 91pp.

Presents 1974 baseline data collected as part of "Physical,
Chemical, and Biological Studies on Youngs Bay." Information includes
animals present, distribution and seasonal abundance. Feeding habits
of selected fish species are presented along with information on the
life history and behavioral characteristics of the most abundant
amphipod, Corophium salmonis. Numerous sample stations in Youngs Bay,
Youngs River, Lewis and Clark River and the Skipanon River provides
the best available data on benthic organisms in this area.

H. Higley, D.L., R.L. Holton and P.D. Komar. 1976. Analysis of Benthic
Infauna Communities and Sedimentation Patterns of a Proposed Fill
Site and Nearby Regions in the Columbia River Estuary, prepared for
the Port of Astoria. Oregon State University, School of Oceanography,
Corvallis, Oregon. Reference 76-3. 78pp.

Distribution and abundance data on benthic communities is
presented for stations ranging from the mouth to Pillar Rock including
each of the major embayments of the estuary. This study was a major
data source for distribution maps and discussion of benthic communities.
Discussion centers on two important groups, polychaetes and amphipods.

I. Higley, D.L., V.G. Johnson and K.J. McMechan. 1975. Annotated
Bibliography of Aquatic Environmental Conditions at Miller Sands Island,
Columbia River, Oregon, prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Portland District. Oregon State University, School of Oceanography,
Corvallis, Oregon. 34pp.

Useful summary of literature on estuarine benthic ecology,
particularly amphipod biology. Sections on general estuary studies,
Pacific Coast estuaries, fish ecology, etc. are provided.

J. Kujala, Norman F. 1966. Columbia River Sampling Program. Progress
Report. Ecological Studies of Radioactivity in the Columbia River
Estuary and Adjacent Pacific Ocean. (J.E. McCauley, ed.). Department of
Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. pp.15-20.

K. Kujala, Norman F. 1976. Columbia River Estuary Fishes and
Invertebrates. Unpublished background report prepared for the Columbia
River Estuary Study Taskforce.

An inventory of commercially and ecologically important fish
and invertebrate plankton and benthos, with distribution and
abundance maps on various species, and information on reproduction
and nursery areas. A primary information source for CREST Inventory
sections on estuary plankton, benthic invertebrates and fishes.

L. Montagne and Associates. 1976. Natural Resources Base and Physical
Characteristics of the Proposed Offshore Oil Platform Fabrication
Site Warrenton, Oregon (Technical Reports, Data Base and Appendix).
Prepared for Pacific Fabricators, Inc.
A report of benthic sampling of intertidal and submerged lands
0 immediately adjacent to the Skipanon River-Youngs Bay construction
site. The amphipod Corophium was a dominant organism.

305-15

M. Perkins, E.J. 1975. The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal Waters.
Academic Press, 678pp.

A comprehensive, well-documented and readable book on the
subject, with useful information on benthic ecology and numerous
other subjects.

N. Richardson, M.D., W.A. Colgate and A.G. Carey. 1976. A Study of
Benthic Baseline Assemblages in the MCR Disposal Site Area, Annual
Interim Report, 1 October 1974 - 31 August 1975. Oregon State
University, School of Oceanography, Corvallis, Oregon.

Contains preliminary results of baseline information on benthic
community structure and classification at several disposal sites off
the mouth of the Columbia River. Study is being conducted as part
of the Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Research Program. Five
different species distribution patterns and at least eight different
macrobenthic assemblages were defined for the area. Both abundance
and biomass increased with depth.

0. Snyder, G.R., R.J. McConnell, J.T. Durkin, D.A. Misitano, and
H.R. Sanborn. 1973. Checklist of Aquatic Organisms in the Lower
Columbia and Willamette Rivers, completion report to U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Portland District, National Marine Fisheries Service.
41pp.
This checklist includes information on benthos in the estuary
and upriver to Portland. It was compiled from a review of the
literature and from a 1973 survey by the National Marine Fisheries
Service. Information on finfish, shellfish, plankton and larval
fishes is also given.

0 0 0

r I I.%@ r- - FISHES
%fto...W0
a n

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

FISHES

Kurt Buchanan

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

306 FISHES ...................................................... 306-1
306.1 FISHES FOUND IN THE ESTUARY ................................. 306-1
306.2 LIFE HISTORIES OF SELECTED FISHES ........................... 306-1
A. Chinook Salmon .............................................. 306-5
B. Echo Salmon ................................................. 306-10
C. Sockeye Salmon .............................................. 306-11
D. Chum Salmon ................................................. 306-11
E. Steelhead Trout ............................................. 306-13
F. Cutthroat Trout ............................................. 306-14
G. White Sturgeon .............................................. 306-15
H. Green Sturgeon .............................................. 306-16
I. Starry Flounder ............................................. 306-16
J. English Sole ................................................ 306-17
K. Columbia River Smelt or Eulachon ............................ 306-18
L. Longfin Smelt ............................................... 306-18
M. American Shad ............................................... 306-19
N. Pacific Herring ............................................. 306-20
0. Northern Anchovy ............................................ 306-21
P. Pacific Lamprey ............................................. 306-21
Q. Pacific Staghorn Sculpin .................................... 306-22
R. Northern Squawfish .......................................... 306-23
S. Largemouth Bass ............................................. 306-23
T. Yellow Perch ................................................ 306-24
U. ireshwater Catfishes ........................................ 306-24
306.3 TIMING OF ANADROMOUS FISH MIGRATIONS ........................ 306-25
306.4 ECOLOGY OF FISHES IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY ............. 306-25
A. Fish Distribution ........................................... 306-25
B. spawning and Nursery Areas .................................. 306-29
C. Estuary Contributions to Offshore Fish Production ........... 306-30
306.5 REFERENCES .................................................. 306-31

FIGURES .

306-1 Salmonid Distribution, Migration Routes and
Hatcheries ................................................ 306-6*
306-2 Anadromous Salmon and Steelhead Spawning Habitat ............ 306-8
306-3 White and Green Sturgeon Distribution and
Abundance ................................................. 306-16*
306-4 Starry Flounder Distribution and Abundance .................. 306-16*
306-5 Columbia River Smelt and American Shad Adult
Migration Routes and Spawning Areas ....................... 306-18*
306-6 Occurrence of Northern Anchovy and Pacific Herring .......... 306-20*

*Figure follows the page indicated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONT.

TABLES Page No.

306-1 Fishes of the Columbia River Estuary ........................ 306-2
306-2 Times of Adult Fish Runs .................................... 306-26
306-3 Times of Major Juvenile Outmigration ........................ 306-27

306 COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY FISHES

Fishes of commercial importance and fishes which affect them are

discussed in this section. In addition, life history information and the

ways the Columbia River estuary affects these fishes are presented. Infor-

mation used is from research reports of the National Marine Fisheries

Service, Oregon State University, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife,
Washington State Department of Fisheries, an interim report on Columbia
River estuary fishes and fisheries written for CREST by Mr. N. Kujala, and
various other publications and communications.
Available information emphasizes only certain fishes and/or areas
in the estuary. Many areas of the estuary have never been sampled.

306.1 FISHES FOUND IN THE ESTUARY

Numerous researchers list fishes found in the Columbia River estuary,
and their findings are summarized in Table 306-1. The fishes are classi-
fied as marine, migratory, and/or freshwater according to the system des-

cribed in Table 301-1 (Estuarine Animal Components). For fishes which use
estuaries, this system of cl assification is somewhat arbitrary because the
constantly changing physical characteristics of the estuary make the distri-
bution and occurrence difficult to place within boundaries.

No fishes are known to be restricted to the Columbia River estuary,

that is, unable to penetrate either fresh or fully saline waters. Those

classified as migratory either enter the estuary to feed or spawn, or pass
through the estuary from saltwater to spawn in freshwater.

306.2 LIFE HISTORIES OF SELECTED FISHES

Aspects of the life history of the following fishes are discussed

in this section: all salmon and trout except mountain whitefish, white

and green sturgeon, starry flounder, English sole, Columbia River smelt,

longfin smelt, American shad, Pacific herring, northern anchovy, Pacific
lamprey, Pacific staghorn sculpin, northern squawfish, largemouth bass,

yellow perch, and freshwater catfishes. These fishes are discussed either
because of their economic importance or their relationship to economically

important fishes.

Table 306-1

Fishes of the Columbia River Estuary

r
e y
t r
FAMILY & COMMON SCIENTIFIC NAME a o
e w t
n h a
i s r
r e g
a r i
M F M

Salmonidae
Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha x x
Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch x x
Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta x x
Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka x x
Steelhead trout Salmo gairdneri x x
Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki x x x
Mountian whitefish Prosopium williamsoni x

Osmeridae
Eulachon (Columbia River Smelt) Thaleichthys pacificus x x
Whitebait smelt Allosmerus elongatus x
Rainbow smelt Osmerus mordax x
Longfin smelt Spirinchus thaleichthys x x
Surf smelt Hypomesus pertiosus x

Petromyzontidae
Pacific lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus x x
River lamprey Lampetra ayresi x x

Acipenseridae
Green sturgeon Acipenser medirostiris x x
White sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus x x

Pleuronectidae
Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus x
English sole Parohprys vetulus x
Sand sole Psettichthys melanostictus x
Butter sole Isopsetta isolepis x

Bothidae
Striped bass Monrone saxatilis x x

Agonidae
Pricklebrest poacher Stellerina xyosterna x
Blacktip poacher Xeneretmus latiforns x

306-2

Table 306-1 (Cont.)

r
e y
t r
a o
e w t
FAMILY& COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME n h a
i s r
r e g
a r i
M F M

Ammodytidae
Pacific sandlance Ammodytes hexapterus x

Chimaeridae
Ratfish Hydrolagus colliei x

Clupeidae
American shad Alosa sapidissima x x
Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi x x

Cottidae
Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus x
Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison x
Brown Irish lord Hemilepidotus spinosus x
Prickly sculpin Cottus asper x
Riffle sulpin Cottus gulosus x
Tidepool sculpin Oligocottus maculosus x

Cyclopteridae
Showy snailfish Liparis pulchellus x
Ringtail surfperch Liparis rutteri x

Embiotocidae
Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata x
Redtail surfperch Amphistuchus rhodoterus x

Engraulidae
Northern anchovy Engraulis mordax x

Gadidae
Pacific hake Merluccuis productus x
Pacific tomcod Microgadus proximus x

Hexagrammidae
Lingcod Ophiodon elongatus x
Greenling Hexagrammos sp. x

Pholidae
Saddleback gunnel Pholis ornata x

Rajidae
Longnose skate Raja rhina x

306-3

Table 306-1 (Cont.)

@4
ca 0
FAMILY & COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME a)
4J
0
U)
a)
@4
P4

Scorpaenidae
Darkblotched rockfish Sebastes crameri x
Black rockfish Sebastes melanops x

Squalidae
Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias x

Stichaeidae
Pacific snake prickleback Lumpenus sagitta x

Trichodontidae
Pacific sandfish Trichodon trichodon x

Catostomidae
Largescale sucker Catostomus.macrocheilus x

Centrarchidae
Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides x
Warmouth Lepomis gulosus x
Bluegill Lepomis macrochirus x
Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus x
White crappie Pomoxis annularis x
Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus x

Cyprinidae
Squawfish Ptychocheilus oregonensis x
Peamouth Mylocheilus caurinus x
Carp Cyprinus carpio x
Chiselmouth Acrocheilus alutaceus x
Dace Clinostomus sp. x

Gasterosteidae
Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus x

Ictaluridae
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus x
Yellow bullhead Ictalurus natalis x
Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus x

Percidae
Yellow perch Perca flavescens x

Sources: Durkin, T.J., and D.A. Misitano (1974)
Durkin, T.J., and R.J. McConnell (1973)
Fies, T.T. (1971)
Gaumer, T., D. Demory, and L. Osis (1973)
Haertel, L., and C. Osterberg (1967)
Higley, D.L., and R. L. Holton (1975)
Misitano, D.A. (1977)

306-4

A. Chinook Salmon

Of all the Pacific salmon, adult Chinook salmon, or kings, are the
largest; they average between 12 and 30 lbs. and on rare occasion, they may
weigh over 100 lbs. They are found in larger rivers from southern California

around the Pacific rim to Hokkaido, Japan and northern China (Hart, 1973).

They are the most important commercial fish in the area. Adults are silver

with black spots on the back, dorsal fin, and both lobes of the tail fin,

and black coloring on the inside of the jaws. Juveniles spend from a few

months to over a year in freshwater before migrating to the sea, and most

return to spawn when they are 4 or 5 years old. The greatest numbers of

migrating adults follow the deeper channels such as the main ship channel

and the old ship channel on the Washington side of the river (Kujala, 1976),

(Figure 306-1). Spawning generally occurs in larger tributaries and

hatcheries. In the Columbia River, there are spring, summer and fall Chinook;
these divisions refer to the timing of adult migration.

1. Spring Chinook

Spring Chinook enter the estuary as two major runs. The first run

is from February to April, with peak numbers coming in late March (Kujala,

1976). It is composed of two segments of about equal size that head for

the Cowlitz and Willamette Rivers. The second major spring run passes
through the lower river in April and may and heads for tributaries above

Bonneville Dam. The outlook for the lower river segment of spring Chinook

is good because of large, increasingly successful hatchery programs on

lower river tributaries (Chanev and Perry, 1976).
The spring Chinook runs above Bonneville Dam are primarily fish
produced in the Snake River, with additional production by Columbia River
tributaries above McNary Dam and mid-river tributaries between McNary and

Bonneville Dams. The once-productive upriver spring Chinook run is in pre-

carious condition mainly as the result of great dam-related mortality of

adults and juveniles. In 1975, the entire main stem Columbia was closed

to upriver spring Chinook fishing for the first time in history, and

fishing was prohibited in Snake River tributaries in Idaho for the second

consecutive year. This closure was continued in 1976. The record low
river flow in 1977 created conditions that were as good as currently

possible for adult passage at main stem dams (Chaney and Perry, 1976).
There were sufficient numbers to allow a commercial and sport fishery.

306-5

In a high flow year, those fish would have been "caught" by dams instead

of fishermen. There is a good potential for substantial run recovery and

rehabilitation of sports and commercial fisheries when passage problems

are resolved at main stem dams.

2. Summer Chinook

Summer Chinook enter the estuary in late may, reach peak numbers in
June, and are gone upriver by July (Chaney and Perry, 1976). The run is
composed of two distinct segments. One is destined primarily for the Salmon
River drainage in Idaho, and the other for tributaries of the Columbia River
above its confluence with the Snake. Because of their high quality and size,

summer Chinook have been seriously overfished in the lower Columbia. The

stocks have been further reduced by loss of spawning habitat due to construc-

tion of Grand Coulee Dam in 1941. Fishing restrictions allowed a slow

recovery to an all time high in 1957. Since then, however, there has been
a drastic decline in the stocks. This parallels the increase in main stem

Columbia and Snake River dams. Summer Chinook salmon suffer heavy adult
and juvenile mortalities at main stem dams. The condition of the Snake

River runs is particularly bad, with very few adults returning over the

dams. The lower Columbia commercial, summer Chinook season was closed in

1965 for the first time and has not been reopened. Main stem and tributary

sports fisheries were closed throughout the Columbia Basin in 1974. The
ocean commercial and sports fisheries still take numbers of these fishes.

Sinc e summer Chinook salmon have been almost totally ignored in salmon

research and artificial propagation efforts, and they suffer high, chronic
dam-related mortalities, it is doubtful that they will soon contribute

significantly to commercial and sport catches.

3. Fall Chinook

The fall Chinook run is the largest and the most economically impor-

tant run to the lower river and offshore fishery. The run is composed of
two major divisions (Kujala, 1976). The early, upriver run is destined
primarily for mid-river tributaries and hatcheries between Bonneville and
McNary Dams; it enters the estuary in late July, peaks in the estuary in
late August, and peaks at Bonneville Dam by mid-September. The lower river

fall Chinook run enters the river in late August, peaks in early September,
and runs until late September. -These fish are headed primarily for tri-
butaries below Bonneville Dam. The two runs overlap and are harvested

306-6

124- 56 123-45* o'

101 of 4

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SEA RESOURCES HATCHERY
fall Chinook
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TATUTE MILES

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NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Youngs Bay, Baker Bay, Grays Bay, Alder Slough, and west of Miller Sands;

they are also found upriver in freshwater.

Starry flounder spawn in December and January in California, and in
February and April in Puget Sound (Hart, 1973). The juveniles are symmetri-
cal and planktonic until they become 10 mm long (3/8 in), and then the left

eye migrates to the right side and the fish settles to the bottom. Age 1+
fish, about 90 mm (3-1/3 in), are found in Youngs Bay during most of the
year; 0+ age fish 30-40 mm (1-1/2 in) are found in higher salinity stations
by the end of may and in lower salinity stations by mid-June (Higley and
Holton, 1975). These 0+ age fish grow to about 80 mm (3-1/8 in) by September.
In general, the lower salinity stations have smaller fishes. At the higher
salinity stations, the fish diet (listed in decreasing importance), from
January to May was Corophium, harpacticoid copepods, bivalves, and Neomysis
(small shrimp-like crustaceans)7 from June to September was Corophium, poly-

chaete worms, harpacticoid copepods, Neomysis, and bivalves; and from October

to November was bivalves and polychaete worms. The diet in shallower, lower
salinity stations from January to May was polychaete worms, Corophium, and
harpacticoid copepods; from June to September almost entirely Corophium, and
some Neomysis; and from October to December again almost entirely Corophium.

The most detailed published information concerning starry flounder in

the Columbia River estuary is that of Haertel and Osterberg (1967). Starry

flounder is one of the most common fishes in the estuary and the upper estuary
is probably used as a nursery area. Flounder older than 2-1/2 years are

seldom caught in the estuary. Many more starry flounder are caught at

Harrington Point (freshwater) than at Chinook Point (brackish to salt water).

Fishes at Harrington Point are generally 0+ or 1+ years old, and the 0+ age
fish appear during June. These 0+ age fish, after reaching a length of 50-
60 mm (2-1/4 in), shift their diet from copepod plankton to amphipods, and
polychaete worms. Over 50% of the older fish's diet is Corophium. At
Harrington Point in the summer, young flounder also eat the small clam

Corbicula. During the winter, starry flounder quit feeding.

J. English Sole

Adult English sole are an important part of the commercial trawl catch

in the ocean and are partly distinguished from other flatfishes by their quite

pointed snout. Larval English sole are found upriver to Youngs Bay in two

size ranges, 4-6 mm (1/5 in) and 20-21 mm (3/4 in) (Misitano, 1977). Large

306-17

numbers of juveniles up to 75-100 mm (3-4 in) are present below,the Astoria
Bridge and are caught at the mouth of Youngs Bay ship channe 1, off Chinook
Point, and in Chinook Channel (Kujala, 1976). Zero to two year old fish eat
mostly copepods, amphipods, and polychaetes, and also eat some mysids and
small fish (Haertel and Osterberg, 1967). English sole juveniles appear to

use the estuary as a nursery area.

K. Columbia River Smelt, or Eulachon

Eulachon are found in salt water from the Russian River in California

north to the eastern Bering Sea and Pribilof Islands (Hart, 1973). They are

175-225 mm (7 - 9 in) long, slender, blue or blue-brown on upper parts and
silver-white on sides and belly, and have an adipose fin (a small fleshy
fin) between the dorsal fin and tail, like a salmon. Smelt are commercially

fished from December until April in the Clatskanie to Longview reach, with
little fishing done below Tongue Point (Kujala, 1976). Smelt are highly

valued as a food fish. The size of runs has increased in recent years, and
smelt have returned to the, Sandy River in Oregon after being absent for many

years. In 1973, 2.3 million pounds were harvested. Adults enter the estuary

from the sea in December, peak in February, and the run is finishE!d by April.

They are found throughout the estuary during migration but travel mainly

along the deeper channels and adjacent banks (Figure 306-5). According to

the Washington Department of Fisheries (1967), most are destined for the
Cowlitz River, the rest spawn along the Eaglecliff-Stella reach of the

Columbia River and the Grays River, Kalama River, Lewis River, and Sandy
River. These adults spawn over fine pea sized gravel to which the eggs stick.

Adults usually die after spawning. The young hatch in about 30 days, and
they feed only on their yolk sacs as the river currents carry-thein to sea.
These yolk sac juveniles, 6-8 mm (1/4 in) are found in the estuary only from
February to May (Misitano, 1977). They are not seen again in the estuary

until they return as adults to spawn.

L. Longfin Smelt
Longfin smelt are found from San Francisco Bay to central Alaska.
They are distinguished by having an adipose fin, and long pectoral fins
(fins near the gills) that reach nearly to the pelvic fins (middle belly
fins), and being pale olive brown on the back and silver-white on sides and
belly (Hart, 1973). Adu lts reach 100-125 mm. (4 - 5 in) at maturity and are
generally considered marine. Information on British Columbia populations

306-18

oe 124- 5d 123-4e .0'

100 4

GRAYS

DEEP
. . .. ..... :RIVE

@dv

ic HN 0041
RIVER

LUSKI RIVER

lop
Yqu R1 R

NAUTICAL MILES

LEW S AND KILOMETERS
LARK RIVER

STATUTE MILES

indicates that spawning takes place at the end of their second year, from

October to December in streams near the sea. Adults usually die after

spawning.

Little is known about longfin smelt in the Columbia River estuary.

Juveniles and adults are found throughout the year from-Harrington Point

to the mouth, primarily in the main river channels along sandbars and in

Youngs Bay (Kujala, 1976). Larval longfin smelt comprise 67% of the total

catch of larval fishes throughout the year (Misitano, 1977). Many newly
hatched smelt are found during the early months of the year. Thus, it is

quite possible that the estuary area is used for spawning by longfin smelt
(Higley and Holton, 1975). Older juveniles in Youngs Bay eat Corophium,

Neomysis, and zooplankton. Smelt from larval stages to 130 mm (5 in) are

also found in Youngs Bay.

Longfin smelt are a very important source of food for other fishes

in the Columbia River estuary. Longfin smelt are the most common fish

consumed throughout the estuary (Haertel and Osterberg, 1967).

M. American Shad

American shad are native to the Atlantic coast of North America.

They were introduced to the Pacific coast and may now be found from Baja
California, around the Pacific rim to Kamchatka in Asia. They were intro-

duced into the Sacramento River in 1871, and from 1885 to 1886, 910,000
were introduced into the Columbia River (Jordan and Evermann, 1923). They
are recognized by their large scales, deeply forked tail, compressed body,
keeled scales along the belly, metallic blue-back shading to silver-white
below, and a variable row of 4 round dark spots on the shoulders (Hart,
1973). In the Columbia River, spawning females average 4 pounds in weight;
males weigh about 1 pound (Kujala, 1976). There is a commercial season for

shad in Youngs Bay, John Day River, and Grays Bay between mid-May and mid-
June (Kujala, 1976). They are principally taken for the females' roe, which
when fried, is a delicacy. Shad are also taken by sports fishermen and are

considered prized fighting fish to catch on artificial flies and lures. In

1902, of all the economically important fishes in the U.S., only cod and

Chinook salmon exceeded American shad in value (Jordan and Evermann, 1923).

Adults enter the Columbia River estuary from the sea in late April,

run through June and travel mainly in the main river channels (Figure 306-5).

Although they spawn mainly in the upriver tributaries, shad also spawn in

306-19

the Youngs River, Walluski River, Lewis and Clark River, Deep River, Grays
River, and in slow moving sloughs near the head of tidewater. Males migrate
upriver first, and most are five years old; most females are six years old
(Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1967). Shad prefer shallow flats
near the mouths of creeks for spawning and feed little before and during
spawning (Jordan and Evermann, 1923). They spawn near the surface at night
and the fertilized semi-bouyant eggs hatch 3-6 days later (Wash. State Dept.
of Fish., 1967). Adults may return to sea and spawn again another year.
Most juveniles migrate seaward in late fall or winter. However, some lower

river juveniles may migrate in May and June (F. Young - Oregon Fish and
Wildlife Comm. in Kujala, 1976). Adults and juveniles may be found through-

out the year in the lower estuary (Kujala, 1976). Juvenile American shad
from 50-170 mm (2 - 7 in) are found in Youngs Bay throughout the year (Higley

and Holton, 1975). The diet and habitat preferences are not known for these

juveniles.

N. Pacific Herring
Pacific herring are marine fish found from Baja California to the
Beaufort Sea (off northern Alaska), and are distinguished by their large,

easily removed scales, blue-green to olive colored back and silver-sides
and belly. Adults may be 250-300 mm (10 - 12 in) long (Hart, 1973).

Herring are an important commercial fish used for human consumption, fish
meal, and bait. Their diet is normally larger zooplankton and larval fishes.
Herring spawn yearly in schools in salt water from the high tide line
out to a depth of 3Q feet (Wash. State Dept. of Fish., 1967). This occurs
during winter and spring months. The eggs adhere to vegetation, pilings,
etc., and hatch in 10-14 days. The juveniles mature-in 2 or 3 years.
Mature adults enter the river in the greatest numbers during winter, spring,
and early summer primarily during spring tides (Kujala, 1976). There is
only one known spawning area in the Columbia River estuary, and it is
artificial. Misitano (1977) states that evergreen boughs placed in the

water at the National marine Fisheries Service boat house in Hammond,
Oregon, were used for spawning by 33 adult herring, 163 mm (6-1/2 in)
average length, from 10-17 April. Moderate spawning also took place 1-3
July (Figure 306-6). Juvenile herring from 10-40 mm (1-1/2 in) long were
found during March, May and June from the mouth upriver to Astoria,

although they were relatively scarce.

306-20

05, 124- 55' 50' 123-45' 40'

101 0, 4

APPR XIM UPRIV LIMITS FOR A A HERRI

... .......

.... ... ...
.. ... .....

. .... ....... .. ....

17
iv

x 1,
x i.,.]

.... ......

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Herring of all age classes can be found throughout the year in the

estuary (Kujala, 1976). Their distribution is associated with the salt-
wedge. Their maximum penetration upriver is in the vicinity of Tongue

Point, and occurs during high tides and low runoff.
Little is known of the food and habitat requirements of herring in
the es tuary. A few herring 40-120 mm (1-1/2 - 4-3/4 in) long are present
in Youngs Bay in August and November (Higley and Holton, 1975). one herring
70 mm (2-3/4 in) long and captured in Youngs Bay in October by Higley, Holton
and Komar (1976) had eaten calanoid and cyclopoid copepod zooplankton.

0. Northern Anchovy

Anchovy are marine fishes found from Baja California to the Queen

Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia (Hart, 1973). Adults

are 150-180 mm (6 - 7 in) long, feed on plankton, and are recognized by

their large scales, large mouth, and metallic blue or green color above and

silver on the sides and belly. Anchovy are an important food for other

fishes such as salmon and tuna. In the Columbia River estuary, white

sturgeon and hake feed on them (Kujala, 1976). No commercial fishery for
them exists in the estuary, although in some years tuna fishermen use them

for bait in the late summer and early fall.

Large schools of anchovy enter the Columbia River periodically from

May through December (Kujala, 1976), and are associated with the salt or
brackish waters. They may be found from Tongue Point to the mouth during
low river flow in late summer and fall, from the Chinook Jetty to the mouth

during high river flow, and in Youngs Bay at the highway bridge in September

and October (Figure 306-6). At times, the changing tides and freshwater
runoff seem to trap anchovy at the water surface where they are seen in

distress. It is not likely that anchovy spawn in the estuary, although

this is not definitely known. The food and habitat requirements of the

juveniles are also not known. A few juvenile anchovy 22-68 mm (1-2-3/4 in)

long are present from Hammond, Oregon, to the mouth during January, March,

October and November (Misitano, 1977).

P. Pacific Lamprey

Lamprey are marine fish found from Baja California, around the

Pacific rim to Hokkaido, Japan. These primitive fish are elongated and

may reach 68 cm (27 in) in length; they are recognized by a jawless mouth

and seven gill pores (Hart, 1973). In British Columbia, adult lamprey

306-21

enter spawning streams from the sea from July to October but do not spawn
until the following spring. Pacific lamprey enter Big Creek, Oregon, in
great numbers from summer through fall (R. Sheldon - Big Creek Hatchery
Manager, personal communication). Approximately 200,000 Pacific lamprey
transit the Columbia River annually (Corps of Engineers, 1976). In the
spring, both sexes dig the nest, the eggs hatch in 2-4 weeks, and the

larval lamprey drift downstream and bury themselves in mud at the bottom

of pools. The adults die after spawning. After five years of feeding in

the stream on algae and zooplankton, the 110 mm (6 in) juveniles metamor-.
phose into adult form, migrate downstream in spring, and soon start a para-

sitic life on fishes. In turn, white sturgeon feed on them.

Commercial species of marine fishes are frequently found with lamprey

scars (Hart, 1973). The lamprey attaches itself to a fish and feeds on the

fish's blood and tissue. The prey is greatly weakened but may survive.

Damage to the growth of the fish and the quality of its flesh must be sig-

nificant but is unassessed. There is no known estimate of the numbers of

fish that are attacked and do not survive. These fish are a direct loss,

but the effect on the commercial fisheries resource is uncertain.

There are also river lamprey present in the Columbia River but, un-

like Pacific lamprey, adults only reach 30 cm (12 in) in length. Their

life history is similar to the Pacific lamprey, and they also prey on

juvenile and adult salmon (Carl et al., 1967).

Pacific Staghorn Sculpin
Pacific staghorn sculpin are found from northern Baja California to
the Gulf of Alaska. It is a marine species tolerant of very low salinities

and is often found as a bottom-dweller in estuaries. Adults may reach 46 cm

(18 in), and their distinguishing characteristics include eyes placed high

on the large flattened head, antler-like spines on the gill plates, and
strongly marked fins (Hart, 1973). Locally, these fish are often called
bullheads. They are voracious feeders and larger individuals feed on fishes

if given the opportunity.
Large numbers of adults and juveniles are found from the mouth of
the Columbia River upriver to at least Tongue Point. Staghorn sculpin,
mostly juveniles, are present in Youngs Bay throughout the year in both
high and low salinity water (Higley and Holton, 1975). Their diet at a

306-22

high salinity station is mostly Corophium, and Neomysis from January to
May; mostly Crangon shrimp, fish and Ne mysis from June to September, and
Corophium and Cragon from October to December. At a lower salinity site,
the diet from January to September is mostly Corophium and Neomysis. Stag-
horn sculpin are quite numerous at Chinook Point, Astoria, and Harrington
Point (Haertel and Osterberg, 1967). Their diet gradually changes with

increasing age. Juveniles up to one year consumed small prey items such
as amphipods, copepods and small fishes, while older individuals consume
larger fish and very young crabs. Ripe adult staghorn sculpin appear during
February and March, and although spawning has not been observed, there is

@probably a spawning population in the estuary (Misitano, 1977). A few very
young fish, 6-13 min (1/2 in) long, have been captured upriver to Astoria
from January to March, and May to September.
The freshwater prickly sculpin are numerous in the estuary and may

migrate to the estuary for spawning. Their diet, from studies by Higley
and Holton (1976), and Haertel and Osterberg (1967), is largely amphipods,

small shrimp, and some lampreys.

R. Northern Squawfish

Northern squawfish are a predaceous minnow found from British Columbia
to central California, and are distinguished by their large size, (up to
4 feet), strong scales, large mouth and pointed head, and deeply forked tail

(Jordan and Evermann, 1923). Although they are primarily a lake fish, they
are found both in slower moving sections and sloughs of rivers, and in fish

ladders at dams where they carry diseases which seriously affect migrating

salmonids.

Squawfish spawn from May to early July in British Columbia, and their
small adhesive eggs hatch in about a week (Carl et al., 1967). They reach
sexual maturity at about 30 cm (12 in) in their sixth year, and may live

15 or 20 years. Terrestrial insects and plankton form the bulk of the
juvenile diet, whereas the diet of adults is mostly fish. They are primarily
bottom dwelling fishes and eat many bottom-dwelling sculpins, although at

times they consume large numbers of salmon fry.

S. Largemouth Bass

The largemouth bass is one of America's favorite game fish. They
attain a large size, have an aggressive nature, and are hard fighters. To
hook and land a big one in most waters requires patience, knowledge, and

306-23

skill (California Department of Fish and Game, 1966). These fish are natives

of the east coast of North America and were introduced into the Columbia

River in the late 1800's. They are distinguished by their large mouth,

green-brown color, wide dark band down the length of the side, and an almost

completely divided dorsal fin. Bass prefer lakes and sluggish oxbow areas
with many weeds and clear water of 80'F. In water below 50'F they become

inactive.

Individuals mature at age 2 or 3, and may live to 16 years in cold

water. They build nests and spawn when the water temperature reaches or
exceeds 60'F. Eggs usually hatch in a week, and the fry eat zooplankton
and crustaceans. Larger juveniles eat insects and adults eat mainly fish.
There is little sports fishing pressure on largemouth bass in the

estuary although Fies (1971) finds that there are populations in many of
the lower river sloughs. The effect of bass feeding on the populations of
migrating juvenile salmonids in the estuary and upriver areas is not known.

T. Yellow Perch

Yellow perch are a highly edible game fish and were introduced into

the Columbia River from eastern North American in 1890. They are distin-

guished by their yellow color, orange lower fins, and 6 to 8 dark vertical

bars. Yellow perch mature at about two years and spawn when water tempera-
ture reaches 7-130C (45-550F). They weave their long strings of eggs, up
to 8 feet, in aquatic plants and tree roots. They are a schooling fish,
avoid strong currents, and compete with and may eat young salmon and trout.

The diet also includes small crustaceans, snails, aquatic insects, and

other fishes (California Department of Fish and Game, 1966).
There is little sports fishing pressure on yellow perch in the estuary,

although Pies (1971) finds-that there are populations in many of the lower
river sloughs. The effect of yellow perch feeding on populations of migra-
ting juvenile salmonids in the estuary and upriver areas is not known.

U. Freshwater Catfishes

Although Fies (1971) finds that there are populations of yellow and
brown bullheads and channel catfish in many of the lower-river sloughs,

there is little sports fishing pressure.

There are no freshwater catfishes native to the Pacific coast of

North America; these were introduced into the Columbia River in the late
1800's. As adults, they are omnivorous and occasionally become heavy fish

306-24

eaters. The effect of these catfishes feeding on populations of migrating
juvenile salmonids in the estuary and uprive r areas is not known.

306.3 TIMING OF ANADROMOUS FISH MIGRATIONS

The Columbia River estuary is part of the migration routes of a

number of anadromous fishes, both adults and juveniles. The adults have
matured in the ocean, and are returning to freshwater to spawn. The
resulting juveniles stay in freshwater for varying lengths of time before

migrating to the sea. Knowledge of the adult migration times, as seen in
Table 306-2, has been gained largely through the commercial fisheries.
Juvenile migration times are not as well known. Research, largely by the
U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, provides the information found in

Table 306-3.

More detailed information about migration is provided in the previous

section on life histories of fishes.

306.4 ECOLOGY OF FISHES IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

A. Fish Distribution

The distribution of fishes throughout the estuary is quite variable,
being affected by many physical and biological factors. Time of year, stage
of tide, water quality, food availability, adequate habitat, and physiologi-
cal needs all affect where certain fishes may be found at any particular
time. However, the gradual change in salinity from the mouth to the upper

part of the estuary is probably the primary factor which determines the

distribution of fishes. In the Columbia, salinity penetration depends on
tidal cycles, river flow variations and complex mixing processes. These

are discusged in detail in Section 204 (Estuarine Circulation). Maximum

salinity penetration during low flow and high tide is about to river mile
(RM) 23, opposite Harrington Point. During average flow conditions on high
tide, saline waters intrude to about Tongue Point (RM 18) while during high
flow, only to about Clatsop Spit (RM 5). On the ebb tide during high river

flow, salt water may be pushed nearly out of the estuary (RM 2-5).

Freshwater fishes are commonly found in the sloughs and slow moving

areas of the upper estuary, although they may also be found in the fresh-
water areas of the rest of the estuary. According to Fies (1971), suffi-
cient populations of freshwater game fishes are present in upriver sloughs,

306-25

Table 306-2
Timing by Month of Adult Fish Runs in the
Columbia River Estuary
0

COMMON NAME J F M A M J- A S 0
Spring Chinook Salmon x x x x
Summer Chinook Salmon x
Fall Chinook Salmon
x x x x x
Coho Salmon
x x x x x
Sockeye Salmon x
Chum Salmon
x x
Summer Steelhead Trout x
Winter Steelhead Trout x x x x
Cutthroat Trout x x
Columbia River Smelt, or Eulachon x x x x x
American Shad x x x
Pacific Lamprey x x x x x

Sources: Chaney and Perry (1976)
Hager, personal communication
Kujala (1976)
Sheldon, personal communication

Table 306-3
Timing by Month of Major Juvenile Outmigration in the
Columbia River Estuary
COMMON NAME J F M IA M J, J A S 0 N D
Spring Chinook Salmon (a) x x x x x x x
Fall Chinook Salmon (b) x x x x x x x
Coho Salmon x x x
Sockeye Salmon x x x
Chum Salmon x x x x
Steelhead Trout x x x x
Cutthroat Trout x x x
Columbia River Smelt, or Eulachon x x x x
American Shad x x x x x x
Pacific Lamprey x x x

a = yearlings
b = subyearlings

Sources: Durkin, personal communication
0
Hart (1973)
Misitano (1977)
Sims, unpublished NMFS Research
F. Young, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Comm. in Kujala, 1976

particu larly Blind Slough, to support moderate sport fishing pressure
although there is little use presently. The effect of predation by these
fishes on migrating juvenile salmonids is unknown. These sloughs surely
provide rest and food to migrating juvenile salmonids, and food, rearing

and spawning habitat to freshwater gamefish. Also found here are white

sturgeon, juvenile starry flounder, and seasonally, adult American shad.

The sloughs and freshwater marshes represent a great nutrient pool and
must significantly contribute to the productivity of the entire estuary,

although, no measurements of this contribution are available.
Throughout the lower river below Harrington Point, Washington, eury-

haline fishes (those found over a wide range of salinities) provide the bulk

of species present. These fishes include starry flounder, prickly and Pacific
staghorn sculpin, longfin smelt, Pacific tomcod, and Pacific snakeblenny
(Haertel and Osterberg, 1967). Throughout this area, the greatest variety
and number of fishes are taken consistently in water of oligohaline to meso-
haline salinities (0.5 to 18 0/00). This was true whether these waters were

found at-Astoria, in the fall, or at Chinook Point, as in other seasons.

These sites usually had large blooms of the copepod Eurytemora at those times

of year (Figure 304-3).
A different distribution pattern is seen for larval and juvenile

fishes by Misitano (1977). The greatest variety of species are captured

closer to the mouth of the river where salinities are highest. Many of
these species are marine. The reduction of salinity upriver is reflected
by a corresponding decrease in the variety of species. Although the area
from Youngs Bay to Tongue Point has the fewest species and lowest salinities,
the area accounts for almost 50% of all larval fishes found during the year.
This high percentage is due to the influx of larval longfin and Columbia
River smelt to the estuary from upstream, during the first part of the year.
Throughout the estuary, larval and post-larval fishes are most abundant from

January to May.
When juvenile salmonids are found in the estuary, they frequent pri-
marily two kinds of areas: shallow, slow moving areas and deeper channels.
As a rule, migrating subyearling salmonids, (i.e., fall chinook and chum),
prefer mudflats and beaches. Tidal flats and adjacent shallow water areas,
as shown in Figure 203-7 (Columbia River Estuary Bathymetric Chart), are
important areas to these fall Chinook and chum juveniles. Older migrating

306-28
1

juveniles, i.e., spring and summer Chinook, coho, sockeye, steelhead and
cutthroat trout prefer the deeper channel areas. Downstream migrant salmon

undergo physiological changes that enable them to enter salt water. After

these changes occur, the juveniles are called smolts. The smoltification
process is largely a function of fish size, water temperature, and daylengt-h.

As smoltification occurs, the fish lose their juvenile markings and assume
their silver ocean coloration. In the Columbia River, juvenile salmonids

usually became smolts before entering the estuary. It is felt that smolts
are physically able to enter salt water as soon as it is encountered and do
not require a period of adaptation to salt water while they are in the
estuary. Youngs Bay seems to be a very important area in the estuary, where
migrating smolts make their change to a salt water life. The sheltered waters

are also a rich food source for these fishes.

The distribution of fishes throughout the rest of the estuary is very
poorly known with many of the pertinent research results not yet available
in the open literature. Fishes use lower river sands such as Desdemona Sands

as feeding areas. The main river channels are used for migrations of adult

salmonids, smelt, and shad, and are also frequented by sturgeon, starry

flounder, and occasionally herring and anchovy.

B. Spawning and Nursery Areas

The estuary supports runs of many fishes migrating to spawning grounds

at different times of the year, but actual spawning within the estuary seems
to be limited to Pacific herring, Pacific staghorn sculpin, prickly sculpin,

and a new species of snailfish (Misitano, 1977). The spawning sites of the

very numerous longfin smelt are not known but seem to be either in the estuary
or in freshwater streams emptying into the estuary.

The Columbia River estuary is used as a nursery or rearing area for
at least the following species: juvenile salmonids (for varying lengths of
time), white and green sturgeon, starry flounder, English sole, butter sole,

Pacific tomcod, longfin smelt, and prickly and Pacific staghorn sculpin.
Numbers of minnows, sunfishes, and various freshwater gamefish spend their

lives and reproduce in the freshwater parts of the estuary.

The relative importance of various e8tuary areas as nurseries for

these fishes is not well understood. The contributions of estuary wetlands,

marshes, and shallow water areas to fish production is probably quite high,

although the extent of the contribution is not yet known. These areas

306-29

provide a source of nutrients and detritus which helps support plant and
animal production throughout the estuary, and also provide suitable habitat
for various invertebrate animals, such as the amphipod Corophium and the
mysid Neomy sis. There is much evidence to show that these animals are an

important part of the diet of fishes, such as juvenile salmonids that,use
the estuary for a nursery. It is likely that all those shallow water food
rich areas, as shown in Figure 304-3, and Figures 305 4, 5, 6 and 7.
(General Distribution and Abundance of Canuella and Eurytemora, Mysids,
Ampbipods, Polychaetes, Oligochaetes, and Molluscs), are extremely impor-
tant to the further production of many kinds of fishes in the estuary.
C. Estuary Contributions to Offshore Fish Production
There is a large commercial fishery off the mouth of the Columbia

River for both salmonids and bottom-dwelling fishes. English sole and

butter sole are known to use the estuary as a nursery, and large numbers
of the adults are caught in this fishery. Juveniles of many species in-
cluding salmonids may stay and feed in salt water off the mouth of the

Columbia River. The contribution of estuary and Columbia River produced

nutrients, plankton, larval and juvenile fishes, and invertebrates to the
offshore fish production is not clearly understood, but it is probably

substantial.

306-30

306.5 REFERENCES

A. Becker, C.D. 1973. Food and Growth Parameters of Juvenile Chinook
Salmon, Oncorynchus tshawytscha, in the Central Columbia River.
Fishery Bull. 71(2): 387-400,

Investigations on juvenile Chinook salmon in the Hanford Reach
of the Columbia River.

B. California Department of Fish and Game. 1966. Inland Fisheries
Management. A. Calhoun, (ed.). 546p.
Detailed life history, bibliography, and management of fresh-
water fishes in California.

C. Carl, G.C., W.A. Clemens, and C.C. Lindsey. 1967. The Freshwater
Fishes of British Columbia. British Columbia Provincial museum
Handbook No. 5. 192p.

The basic taxonomy, distribution, and life history of freshwater
fishes in British Columbia, Canada.

D. Chaney, E., and L.E. Perry. 1976. Columbia Basin Salmon and Steel-
head Analysis. Pacific Northwest Regional Commission. 74p.
An evaluation of the migrations, past and present commercial
harvest, and potential for Columbia Basin salmonids.

E. Craddock, D.R., T.H. Blahm, and W.D. Parente. 1976. Occurrence
and Utilization of Zooplankton by Juvenile Chinook Salmon in the
Lower Columbia River. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 105 (1): 72-76.

A study of juvenile Chinook salmon diet in the Prescott-Kalama
Reach of the Columbia River.

F. Durkin, J.T. 1977, personal communication.

G. Durkin, J.T., and R.J. McConnell. 1973. A List of Fishes of the
Lower Columbia and Willamette Rivers. U.S. National Marine Fisheries
Service. 13p.

A summary of collections of fishes from the lower Willamette
River to the lower Columbia River.

H. Durkin, J.T., and D.A. Misitano. 1974. occurrence of a Ratfish in
the Columbia River Estuary. Fishery Bull. 72(3): 854-855.
A ratfish, Hydrolagus colliei, was caught in the Columbia River
estuary, near the Oregon shore, 24 Aug. 1972.

I. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. Columbia River Thermal
Effects Study. Vol. I: Biological Effects Study. 102p.
This volume concerns the biological effects of water tempera-
ture on Pacific anadromous fishes in the Columbia River system.
Thermal standards for Pacific salmonids are discussed.
0

306-31

J. Fies, T.T. 1971. Survey of Some Sloughs of the Lower Columbia
River. Oregon State Game Commission. 58p.
A survey to gather physical, biological, and chemical infor-
mation from major slough areas.

K. Gaumer, T., D. Demory, and L. Osis. 1973. 1971 Columbia River
Estuary Resource Use Study. Fish Commission of Oregon. 16p.

A comprehensive study of the recreational use of marine food
fish, shellfish, and other miscellaneous invertebrates in the
Columbia River estuary.

L. Haertel, L., and C. Osterberg. 1967. Ecology of Zooplankton,
Benthos, and Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary. Ecology 48(3):
459-472.

Fish, fish stomachs, benthic invertebrates, and zooplankton
were sampled for 21 months in the Columbia River estuary.

M. Hager, R. 1977, personal communication.

N. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific Fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
Bull. 180. 740p.

Taxonomic keys, illustrations, life histories, distributions,
and economic importance of Pacific marine fishes of Canada.

0. Higley, D.L., and R.L. Holton. 1975. Biological Baseline Data,
Youngs Bay, Oregon, 1974. School of Oceanography, Reference 75-6.
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 91p.

A study of the kinds of animals found 3-n the Youngs Bay, Oregon
area, and their distril?ution, food habits, and seasonal patterns of
abundance.

P. Higley, D.L., R.L. Holton, and P.D. Komar. 1976. Analysis of
Benthic Infauna Communities and Sedimentation Patterns of a Proposed
Fill Site and Nearby Regions in the Columbia River Estuary. School
of Oceanography, Reference 76-3. Oregon state University, Corvallis,
Oregon. 78p.
An investigation of invertebrates, fishes, and sedimentation
patterns occurring in Youngs Bay, Oregon.

Johnsen, R.C., and C.W. Sims. 1973. Purse Seining for Juvenile
Salmon and Trout in the Columbia River Estuary. Trans. Amer. Fish.'
Soc. 102(2): 341-345.

A description of the conversion of a Columbia River gillnet boat
to purse seine fishing, and the catch of juvenile salmonids.

R. Jordan, D.S., and B.W. Evermann. 1923. American Food and Game
Fishes. Doubleday, Page, and Co., New York. 574p.
Basic life history of saltwater and freshwater American food
and game fishes.

306-32

S. Kujala, N. 1977, personal communication.

T. Kujala, N. 1976. Biological Characteristics of Fishlife and
Plankton in the Columbia River Estuary. CREST Interim Report.
40p.

The occurrence of aquatic fauna in the ' Columbia River estuary,
and their basic life history and economic importance.

U. Lipovsky, S.J. 1977, personal communication.

V. Misitano, D.A. 1977. Species Composition and Relative Abundance
of Larval and Post-larval Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary,
1973. Fishery Bull. 74(l): 218-222.

A summary of ichthyoplankton occurring in the Columbia River
estuary, with a record of herring and snailfish spawning on
artificial substrate.

W. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1976. Maximizing the
Return of Salmon and Steelhead to Oregon Fisheries. 15p.

An evaluation of the Oregon stocks of salmonids, their ocean
distribution and harvest.

X. Sheldon, R. 1977, personal communication.

Y. Siebert, J., T.J. Brown, M.C. Healy, B.A. Kask, and R.J. Naiman.
1977. Detritus Based Food Webs; Exploitation by Juvenile Chum
Salmon (Oncorynchus keta). Science 196: 649-650.

Harpacticoid copepods are the principal food of chum salmon
during the first weeks of estuary life.

Z. Sims, C.W. in press. Migrational Characteristics of Juvenile Fall
Chinook Salmon, Oncorynchus tshawytscha, in the Columbia River
Estuary.

Migration timing and residence time of juvenile fall Chinook
salmon from Jones Beach, Oregon, to the mouth.

AA. Sparrow, R.A.H. 1968. A First Report of Chum Salmon Fry Feeding
in Freshwater of British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Ed. Canada
25(3): 599-602.

A brief report on the diet of chum salmon fry in the Cowichan
River, B.C.

BE. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1976. Environmental Impact State-
ment - Lower Columbia River Bank Protection Project.

Description of Corps of Engineer proposed bank protection
measures for the lower Columbia River, and the resultant impacts.

CC. Washington State Department of Fisheries. 1967. Pacific Northwest
Marine Fishes. 32p.

A brief summary of the life history and commercial harvest of
selected economically important marine and anadromous fishes.

306-33

CULTURAL
ZA
CHARACTERISTICS

I
0 0 0

4 uFon@ fl LAND AND WATER USES

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

LAND AND WATER USE

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

401 LAND AND WATER USE .................................... 401-1
401.1 EXISTING LAND USE ..................................... 401-1
401.2 WATER USE ............................................. 401-3
401.3 LAND OWNERSHIP ........................................ 401-4
401.4 ZONING ................................................ 401-5
401.5 REFERENCES ............................................ 401-7

FIGURES

401-1 Generalized Land Use Patterns ......................... 401-2*
401-2 Generalized Water Uses ................................. 401-4*
401-3 Public and Private Ownership .......................... 401-4*

*Figures follows the page indicated.

401 LAND AND WATER USE

The analysis of current land use patterns is basic to the
planning process. Existing land use in the estuary area is a direct
reflection of the geography and natural resources of the region. Water
uses have developed over time and in response to industrial, commercial,

recreational and natural resource use patterns. Land and water uses
also reflect the area's social and economic development.
This section details current land and water uses in the estuary
area, land ownership of the adjacent shorelands, and zoning. It is
important to examine land and water uses because they have a direct
relationship to many of the physical and biological processes
operating in the estuary. Existing uses also influence the type or

direction of future plans and development.

401.1 EXISTING LAND USE

Land use patterns show the type of development that exists in
an area. Figure 401-1 indicates generalized land use pa tterns in the

Columbia River estuary area. U.S. 30 is the major arterial on the

Oregon side of the Columbia River and connects Astoria with Portland.

Beginning at the eastern-boundary of Clatsop County and heading west,

a variety of land uses are found. In the communities of Westport and

Wauna, forest product industries and some agriculture predominate.

Also, construction and operation of the Crown Zellerbach pulp and

paper mill has resulted in new residential development near there.
To the west, the diked lands along the Columbia River provide
excellent land for agricultural uses, while the land further away from

the river is generally devoted to forest use.

Near the towns of Knappa and Svensen, the uses are a combination
of forest, agricultural, and residential. Residential uses are

prevalent near both Astoria and the industrial complex in the Wauna-
Westport area. There are a variety of uses that are unique to a

riverfront environment; examples of such uses include log storage in

the sloughs and moorage for numerous houseboats. The area is also

near the western boundary of the Lewis and Clark National Wildlife

Refuge, which includes most of the islands in the Columbia River from

Puget Island to Tongue Point.

Land use in the Astoria area is the most intensive in the entire

estuary region. Its location near the mouth of the Columbia River has
resulted in development of an intensive industrial-commercial water-
front; the Port of Astoria and the fish processing industries are
particularly dependent on this location. The City of Astoria is the
financial and shopping center for the region, including those Washington
communities in the lower estuary area. This area supports industrial,
commercial, residential, institutional, cultural' and recreational
land uses. At Tongue Point, northeast of Astoria, a Federal Job Corps
Center and Coast Guard unit occupy the former Naval base. South of
Astoria, land use reverts to agriculture and forestry, where diked
estuarine lands provide valuable agricultural land for pasture.
Across Youngs Bay from Astoria is the Clatsop County Airport,

owned and operated by the Port of Astoria. The Coast Guard also
maintains a unit at the airport to support their rescue operations.

Toward the Pacific Ocean, industry in support of the commercial
fishing fleet is present along much of the waterfront. Although there

are limited agricultural and forest uses, the focus of the land use
in the Warrenton-Hammond area is toward commercial and sport fishing
and toward the services that support recreational activities at nearby

Fort Stevens State Park and the coastal beaches. The proposed Brown
and Root offshore platform fabrication yard along the Skipanon Water-

way may increase the residential demand for this area.

In Washington, land adjacent to the estuary is predominately in

forest use from the eastern boundary of Wahkiakum county to the Ilwaco
area, in Pacific County. In Wahkiakum County, according to the

Wahkiakum. County Water and Sewer Study prepared in 1970, over 83
percent of the entire county is forested land. The next most intensive

land use is agriculture; it occupies only about seven percent of the

total land area. The shoreland area in Wahkiakum County consists almost

exclusively of forested land, with some agricultural land use north of

401-2

124' 50, 123-45

.. . .. . ......
@Vf V -at
...... . ...
.... .... ..

0-
-104

............

...... KILOMETERS
m

STATUTE MILES

Cathlamet and Skamokawa and in the Grays Bay area. The two exceptions
to this general pattern are Puget Island, an agricultural and rural
residential area, and the conservation oriented Columbian White-Tailed

Deer National Wildlife Refuge, located southeast of Skamokawa and

east of the Lewis and Clark National Wildlife Refuge.

In Wahkiakum County, the City of Cathlamet is the only

.incorporated community, with other residential concentrations occurring
in the estuary area at Sk@amokawa, Roseburg, Eden, Altoona, Pillar Rock,

Eagle Cliff, and on Puget Island.
With the exception of Cape Disappointment and the Ilwaco areas,

Pacific County is very similar to Wahkiakum County in its land use

patterns. The eastern portion of the county is exclusively in forest
use. West of the Astoria bridge, the predominant uses are rural in

nature. There is a population center at Chinook and recreational

activity at Fort Canby State Park. The U.S. Coast Guard maintains a

unit on the eastern side of Fort Canby.

401.2 WATER USE

Water uses in the Columbia River estuary range from recreation
to industry, and include many activities that directly support the

economy of the region. Marinas, mooring basins, and launching ramps

provide access to the water throughout the estuary. These areas
support both commercial and recreational use of the river in the

eastern portions of the estuary. Many people enjoy pleasure boating

and fishing both on the river itself, and on the sloughs and channels

throughout the lowland areas. As the river widens to the west,

recreational boating decreases, and the main water uses are commercial

fishing and navigation. Commercial fishing is conducted throughout

the estuary, but it is more intensive west of Tongue Point. Figure

401-2 shows commercial water uses throughout the estuary. Recreational

uses are discussed in Section 402 (Recreation).

Industrial uses and other activities supporting industry are

widespread. many of the sloughs in the eastern portions of the estuary

and the lower reaches of the Youngs, Lewis and Clark, and Elochoman

Rivers serve as log storage sites. Logs are often'stored adjacent to

401-3

where they will be used, until they can be processed or loaded aboard
a ship for export.

Dredging of the navigation channel is a continuous project in
the Columbia River. The disposal of dredge materials takes place at
many sites along the river, both in the water and on the land. This
activity is discussed in Section 209 (Physical Alterations).
Commercial fishing is probably the main use of the Columbia
River estuary; it is also the industry that is most dependent on
maintaining the productivity of the estuary. Fish drifts are located
throughout the estuary, from the mouth to the eastern boundary,
including the mouths at Youngs Bay and Grays Bay. Fish drifts are the
recognized areas that gillnetters are allowed to fish. The areas

mapped in Figure 401-2 are those areas used by gillnetters with both
"diver" nets and "floater" nets. A "diver" net is one that is weighted
so it moves along the bottom. As the name implies, a "floater" net is

one that hangs down from floats on the surface.

The Columbia River is also used as a water highway for ocean-
going ships and barges. Any ship crossing the Columbia River bar must

pass through the estuary. Because of the large number of vessels

crossing at the Columbia mouth, no official count has been made. In

1973, however, deep draft ships that crossed the bar numbered 4080.

Related to this figure are the maritime activities of the ports. While

the Port of Astoria is the site of industrial activities such as

loading of logs, grain, and barges, the other ports in Ilwaco, Chinook,
and Wahkiakum County are primarily mooring areas where commercial and

charter fishing concerns are based, and where individual boat owners

moor their boats.

401.3 LAND OWNERSHIP

Land ownership patterns are a valuable tool for indicating

where future development is most likely to occur. Urban-type develop-

ment usually occurs first on the small, private holdings, although
larger private holdings offer the possibility for larger-scale develop-
ments (including recreational or industrial complexes). Figure 401-3
depicts the pattern of public and private ownership in the estuary area.

401-4

05' 124- 55' 50 123-45' 40

0 4

-0

JGILLNET

Cl@

'0,

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

05 124- 50 123- 45'

10, a,

------------ -

NAUTICAL MILES

KILOMETERS

STATUTE MILES

Land ownership patterns within the estuary region indicate the

influence of the forest products industry in the area. Crown Zellerbach
is the largest property owner in Clatsop County. Boise Cascade is
the next largest. Although most of their holdings are in the upland
areas beyond the estuary shorelands, a large portion of the shoreland
area is also held in corporate ownership. AS shown on the land ownership
map, the majority of lands in Pacific and Wahkiakum Counties shorelands
are held by private corporations. This is in contrast to the statewide
pattern, where the federal government controls the majority of the

land.

Federal lands include all holdings by an agency of the United
States government. Most of the federal lands located in the estuary,
a very limited area compared to other holdings (with the exception of

the wildlife refuges), are administered by the Corps of Engineers.

A large portion of federal land at the mouth of the Columbia River is
leased to the States of Washington and Oregon for Fort Canby and Fort

Stevens State Parks.

Ownership by other government entities is negligible in
Washington. In Oregon, although state lands include parks, highways,

and riparian lands, the majority of the state's holdings are forest
lands in the eastern portion of the estuary shorelands.

Smaller parcels of private lands account for the remainder of

the ownership. These include owners of small forest tracts, farm and

rural residential tracts, and urban and suburban lots.

401.4 ZONING

The zoning of an area provides an overview of existing land use
and an indication of the areas where future development is expected

.to occur. Zoning is the most common way of implementing comprehensive

plans. Implementation of zoning ordinances allows local jurisdictions

to guide development into suitable areas.

Zoning within the estuary region is indicative of the basically

rural nature of the area. Large areas of agriculture, forest use, and

general development zones are used to maintain the agriculture and

timber resources of the area. It should be noted that the large

401-5

residential zones in Clatsop County do not indicate large developments

in the Youngs Bay and Tongue Point to Knappa areas, but show rural
residential areas of low density, that cover a large area.
Zoning in the estuary area is in a state of flux, because local
jurisdictions are currently compiling comprehensive land use plans.

Because the planning processes in the various jurisdictions of the CREST
planning area are at different stages.of development, the generalized

zoning map does not necessarily reflect the existing situation in the

estuary area.

401-6

401.5 REFERENCES

A. Harstad Associates, Inc. 1970. Wahkiakum County Water and Sewer
r
Stidy, prepared for the Wahkiakum County Commissioners.
General examination of existing physical and social conditions
and water and sewer systems in Wahkiakum County. Development of a
comprehensive water and sewer plan. Land use information on
existing land use patterns.

B. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar R. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase I,
prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and Board of
County Commissioners by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.
Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing develop-
ment and survey of public attitudes and goals. Land use information
on land use patterns and ownership.

C. Pacific County Department of Public Works. 1974. Water Quality
Management Plan, Willapa Basin, prepared for the Pacific County
Regional Planning Council.

Examination of natural, economic, and cultural conditions in
Pacific County. Development of a comprehensive plan for the manage-
ment of water and sewage collection and disposal. Land use infor-
mation consists of land use patterns and determinents, development
trends.

D. Pacific County Zoning Ordinance No. 41 and Zoning Map.

Map: Graphic representation of official zone boundaries.
Ordinance: Definition of zone giving permitted, conditional,
and prohibited uses within each zone.

E. The Richardson Associates. 1975. Master Plan for the Columbia
River at the Mouth, Final Review Draft, prepared for the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Portland District.

Analysis of physical features at study area to determine the
best recreational and fish and wildlife uses of the project area.
Land use information consists of existing land use and land
ownership.

F. Robert E. Meyer Engineers, Inc. 1971. Preliminary Land Use Plan,
Pacific County, Washington, prepared for the Pacific County
Regional Planning Council.

Inventory of natural, economic and cultural conditions,
examination of areas where further studies are needed, showing
priority areas for planning. Land use data shows land use patterns,
ownership, and criteria considered in land use policy decision.

401-7

0 0 0

RECREATION
@z n
@ @ Loj 2)=

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

RECREATION

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

402 RECREATION ............................................. 402-1
402.1 RECREATION AREAS ....................................... 402-1
A. Fort Stevens State Park ................................ 402-1
B. Fort Canby State Park .................................. 402-2
C. Fort Columbia State Park ............................... 402-2
D. River Park ............................................. 402-3
E. Lewis and Clark National Wildlife Refuge ............... 402-3
F. Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife
Refuge ............................................... 402-4
G. Other .................................................. 402-4
402.2 STATEWIDE COMPREHENSIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION PLANS ....... 402-6
A. Activity Categories .................................... 402-6
B. Supply ................................................. 402-8
C. Demand ................................................. 402-9
D. Need ................................................... 402-11
402.3 SCORP ANALYSIS FOR ESTUARY AREA ........................ 402-11
402.4 REFERENCES ............................................. 402-15

FIGURES

402-1 Recreation Areas ....................................... 402-4*

TABLES

4021-1 Recreation Areas ....................................... 402-5
402-2 Activities ............................................. 402-7
402-3 Public Recreation Lands ................................ 402-10
402-4 User Standards ......................................... 402-12
402-5 Fish Species Harvested (1971) .......................... 402-13

*Figure follows the page indicated.

402 RECREATION

The demand for recreational activities and facilities has been

expanding rapidly during the last few years both nationally and in the

Pacific Northwest.
For the Pacific Northwest as a whole, tourism is the fourth

largest industry in terms of employment. Tourism also ranks as the

fastest growing industry in the Northwest. The Bonneville Power

Administration predicts that tourism will be the area's largest industry

by the year 2000.

It is difficult to assign economic value to recreation. Its

benefits are essentially aesthetic and subjective, and to assign a.

monetary value to recreational experiences involves both arbitrary

assumptions and the priorities of the individual doing the analysis.
There are often expenditures that aren't considered in analysis of the

money spent by participants. For instance, surveys of campers do not

take into account their purchases of food and other items from area

businesses.

402.1 RECREATION AREAS

A. Fort Stevens State Park

Located in Oregon at the mouth of the Columbia River, Fort

Stevens State Park is an historic-site. Construction by the U.S. Army

began in 1863, with the objective of defending the mouth of the Columbia
River from a Confederate invasion. During World War II, Battery
Russell, the Fort's seventh battery, had the distinction of being the

only fortification in the continental United States to be fired upon

by an enemy since the War of 1812.

Recreation attractions at the park are varied. There is access
to fifteen miles of ocean beach for clam digging, surf bathing, and

beachcombing. Saltwater fishing is available at the South Jetty and
Jetty Sands, and freshwater fishing, swimming, and boating are available
at Coffenbury Lake. In addition, hiking trails, biking trails, and

camping areas are provided.

One unique attraction at Fort Stevens is the rusting skeleton

of the Peter Iredale. A four-masted British Bark which went aground
in 1906, its remains are one of the most photographed sights in the

Pacific Northwest.

There are currently 603 campsites in the 3,762 acre park. Of
these, 223 are trailer sites with full hookups, 120 are improved sites
with water and electricity, and 260 are tent sites. As one of the most
-popular recreation areas in the state of Oregon, Fort Stevens recorded
a day visitor attendance (car count) of 781,084 during fiscal year
1975-19-76. Overnight camping totaled 187,174 camper nights.

B. Fort Canby State Park

Fort Canby State Park is located in Washington, across the
Columbia River from Fort Stevens. During the Civil War, in 1862,

Fort Cape Disappointment was established there as part of the coastal
defense system. In 1875, the name was changed-to Fort Canby.

Two primary attractions at Fort Canby are the Coast Guard station

and the Cape Disappointment lighthouse. The lighthouse, activated in

1856, was the first in the Pacific Northwest. The Coast Guard station

is one of the most active in the United States,.with the responsibility

for operations at the mouth of the Columbia River.

The 1,666 acre park offers a-variety of recreational activities

including picnicking, hiking, swimming, boating, fishing, clamming,
beachcombing, and camping. There are 250 campsites available, with 60

of these providing full hook-up services -for trailers. In keeping with

the activities available and servicesprovided at the park, 670,014

people participated in day use activities during 1976. Overnight

campers numbered 39,257.

C. Fort Columbia State Park

Like Fort Canby and Fort-Stevens,,Fort Columbia was built to

guard the mouth of the Columbia River. After World War II, the site

was declared obsolete, and it was soon established as a state park.
Picnicking, hiking, and exploring the gun emplacements and old
buildings are the primary activities. Camping is not allowed on park
grounds. Located on U.S. Highway 101 between Chinook, Washington and
the Astoria-Megler bridge, the park grounds are located a:t Chinook

Point, a Registered Historic Landmark_

402-2

D. River Park

A day use park, the River Park is located along the Columbia

River at the boundary of Wahkiakum. and Cowlitz Counties. Comprised of

six acres, with 3,000 feet of shoreline, activities available include

picnic sites and shoreline access.
E. Lewis and Clark National Wildlife Refuge
In the Columbia River estuary, the river begins to widen, and

the flow slows. The slowing water deposits its silt load to form low,

marshy islands and sandbars. These islands form the Lewis and Clark
National Wildlife Refuge. Established in 1972, the refuge is situated
along the Oregon side of the main channel of the river, beginning at
approximately RM 20 and extending upriver fifteen miles.

The refuge encompasses approximately 35,000 acres, but tidelands
or open water comprise nearly two-thirds of this area. Some twenty

named islands, as well as unnamed bars, mudflats, and tidal marshes

total 9,400 acres. Most of the islands, particularly those in the

lower stretches, become flooded twice daily at high tide. On the
upstream islands, marsh vegetation gradually changes to trees and

shrubs.

wildlife abounds throughout the refuge. Water areas serve as

feeding grounds and migratory routes for many kinds of fish. Bald

eagles are frequently seen during the winter months. Beaver, muskrat,
raccoon, mink, weasel, and an occasional deer frequent the upper islands.
The islands also serve as both a wintering area and a migrational
stopover for Pacific Flyway waterfowl originating in Alaska.
Recreational opportunities at the refuge include hunting,
fishing, and wildlife observation. The islands of the lower Columbia
River are accessible only by boat. Deep channels separate most of the
islands, allowing small boat navigation, at least at high tides.
Hunting for waterfowl is considered excellent at the refuge. Certain
parts may be closed to hunting, however, so it is necessary to check
with the refuge officer. Sport fishing for salmon, trout, sturgeon,
and warm water game fish occurs throughout the refuge. Most fishing
is done by boat, although sandy beaches on many islands present bank
fishing opportunities. Wildlife observation and photography are also

402-3

popular activities there. The refuge is managed by the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service of the Department of the In terior.
F. Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuge
Located east of the Lewis and Clark National Wildlife Refuge,
the Columbian White-Tailed Deer National Wildlife Refuge covers
approximately 5,200 acres of Tenasillahe, Hunting., and Price Islands,
and part of the mainland near Cathlamet, Washington. Most of this area
is floodplain land, which is devoted to cattle grazing and is' divided
into small, poorly drained pastures.
In addition to protecting the Columbian white-tailed deer, which
is an endangered species, the refuge is also part of the overall
Columbia River wintering area for waterfowl of the Pacific Flyway.
Whistling Swan, Canadian Geese, mallards, and other waterfowl are often

found in the refuge. Other shore and marsh birds, such as the great

blue heron, sandpipers, bald eagles, and red-tailed hawks also frequent

the area. Mammals that inhabit the area include mink, beaver, raccoons,

and river otters.

Recreational values of the refuge include wildlife observation,

hunting, hiking, and fishing. The deer are easily observed from the

county road that encircles the mainland portions of the refuge. Auto-

mobiles, which the deer have grown used to, act as blinds for

observation. Tenasillahe Island, accessible only by boat, retains its
semi-wilderness character for hiking. Occasionally, a portion of the

refuge may be open to waterfowl hunting. Warm water fishing for

salmon, steelhead, and trout is available on Brooks Slough, Steamboat

Slough, Elochoman Slough, and the interior sloughs and canals of the
refuge. Boats are prohibited from the interior waters of the refuge.
The refuge is under the management of the U.S. Department of

Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.

G. Other

Additional recreation areas, including camping areas, water
access points, fishing areas, and fairgrounds have been noted on
Figure 402-1. Table 402-1 presents a matrix of recreational sites

denoting.available facilities and activities.

402-4

25'

RECREATION AREAS

LEWIS a CLARK NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

COLUMBIAN WHITE-TAILED DEER NATIONAL
WILDLIFE REFUGE

FT. STEVENS STATE PARK

FT. CANBY STATE PARK

FT. COLUMBIA STATE PARK

RECREATION AREAS (see table 402-1)
0

SHORELINE ACCESS ONLY

. . . . .......
PRIMARY SHORE FISHING AREAS (Columbia River)

PRINCIPAL BOAT FISHING AREAS (Sport Fishing)

NOTE: MOST TRIBUTARIES OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER ARE SHORE
FISHING AREAS

FROM: 1. Meyers, et. al
1973. 2. State of Oregon, Fish Commission, 1971
3. State of Washington, IAC 197

F I G U R E
402-1

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402.2 STATEWIDE COMPREHENSIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION PLANS

Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans are prepared

by states to comply with, and receive funds under, the Land and Water

Conservation Fund Act (Public Law 88-578), administered by the Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation. The.purpose of these plans is to provide guide-
lines to meet the recreational goals of the states. In establishing
these guidelines, the states conduct surveys to determine the availability

of recreational sites. The states then examine the demand for both use

of existing sites and for additional opportunities. Analysis of these
studies shows the need for providing the opportunity for additional
recreational activities, sites for pursuing these activities, and

maintenance of existing facilities.

A. Activity Categories

Table 402-2 lists the activities that are polled by the states

and by several federal agencies related to outdoor recreation. The

Washington State agency that administers outdoor recreation programs

is the Interagency Committee for Outdoor Recreation. In Oregon, this

.agency is the Oregon State Highway Division. Federal agencies that

conduct recreation studies include the Outdoor Recreation Resources

Review Commission, the U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Manage-

ment, and the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.

In analyzing these activities, a ranking can be determined to
show the relative number of participants. This helps administrators
and planners to establish priorities at a statewide level, for certain
types of facilities and activities. The ranking of activities reflects
the relative availability of areas to support certain activities and

the socio-economic characteristics which influence demand.

For recreational studies, states are divided into districts,
for the purposes of inventory and analysis. The components of these
districts make conversion of figures to a specific area extremely
difficult. The Columbia River Estuary region is in District 1in
Oregon (all of Clatsop and Tillamook Counties). In Washington, the
.estuary area falls in two districts: District 2,' South Coast (Pacific
and Grays Harbor Counties) and District 6, Lower Columbia (Wahkiakum,
Cowlitz, Clark and Klickitat Counties).' Because of the size of these

402-6

TABLE 402-2

OUTDOOR RECREATION ACTIVITIES

Driving Hunting
Sightseeing Golf
Picnicking Winter Sports

Water Sports Resorts
Sailing Horseback Riding
Power Boating
other Boating Visiting Local Parks
Water Skiing Bicycling
Outdoor Swimming Pool
Other Outdoor Swimming Mountain Climbing
Camping Rock Hounding

Beach Use others
Visiting the Beach
Clamming
Crabbing

Outdoor Events

Sports and Games

Walking

Hiking

Fishing

From: State of Oregon, 1972

State of Washington, 1973

402-7

districts, no attempt was made to extrapolate the information for the

estuary area.

B. supply
The supply of recreational lands and facilities is determined

by an actual inventory of areas operated by governmental agencies and

private interests. To identify such areas, each state uses a similar

system.

The state of.Oregon classifies recreational lands into six

classes,:

1. High Density Recreation areas
Urban
Non-Urban

2. Generally developed recreation areas.
Areas within 25 miles of a city
Areas between 26 - 60 miles from a city
Areas over 60 miles from a city
3. Large single purpose recreational or multi-purpose areas
with no development except for trails

4. Recreation areas in outstanding natural areas, usually
with little recreational development

5. Designated wilderness areas

6. Historic and cultural areas.

District 1 in Oregon has a supply of 17,610 acres of recreational

land, with 2,050 sites at 90 areas. These statistics do not include

wilderness areas or historic and cultural areas. The figures compare

to statewide totals of 117,130 acres (15%) at 1,860 areas (5%) with

32,970 sites (6%).
Washington identified and inventoried eighteen area types. An
area type is defined as "an environment suitable and desirable for certain
varied and related outdoor recreational purposes." Area types are
based on major environmental features and use capabilities of an area.

The eighteen area types are:

-Small urban recreation areas
-Large urban recreation areas
-Regional recreation areas
-Winter sports areas
-Golf course areas
-Outstanding natural areas
-Historical/Cultural areas
-Wildlife habitat

402-8

-Scenic roads
-Urban shoping areas
-Urban malls and squares
-Saltwater shorelands
-Freshwater shorelands
-Forest areas
-Wilderness
-Trails - Urban
-Trails - Non-urban
-Wetlands

Table 402-3 shows the supply of recreational lands, by area types,
for the South Coast and Lower Columbia Districts. The supply figures

that have been noted omit private recreational developments. While

there are a few of these in the estuary area, the Statewide Comprehensive

Outdoor Recreation Plans only inventory them on a statewide basis.

Therefore, no figures are provided for the specific areas.

C. Demand

Demand for outdoor recreation is defined as "the desire for out-

door recreation resources, facilities, and opportunities and the

intentions and ability to utilize same." The term "participation" is

often substituted for demand, in recreational studies. This substitution

eliminates any difference between use and demand, by making them equal.
Because actual demand is difficult to evaluate and qualify, most

studies focus on satisfied demand, rather than unfulfilled demand that

might result from constraints such as time, distance, and the lack of

facilities.

Demand studies are usually conducted by surveys. Resident house-
holds are asked about activity and area preferences, and park visitors

are questioned,as day users and campers. Also included in any demand

survey is the out-of-state tourist. The figures are often shown as

"activity days." An activity day is generally defined as one person
taking part in an activity for all, or any part of a day. The use of

this measurement shows the relative popularity for activities (as

analyzed in Oregon) and types of areas (as in Washington). In this
way, activity priorities can be analyzed for future needs.

Demand analysis for the development of priorities, projection

of needs, and establishment of implementation programs must consider

other factors in addition to the statistics provided by participation.

Consideration must be given to possible changes that will affect the

402-9

TABLE 402-3

Supply of Public Recreat@on Lands
District 2 and 6

LOWER
AREA TYPE SOUTH COAST COLUMBIA STATE

No./Acres No./Acre No./Acre

Small Urban 36/117 96/446 1,511/7,671

Large Urban 6/138 16/1,251 192/14,080

Regional 13/3,429 13/2,400 172/46,374

Forest 12/187,382 52/1,019,88 357/8,831,125

Wildlife Habitat 6/4,557 6/37,688 160/1,100,302

Freshwater Shoreland 47/680 102/3,546 808/153,855

Saltwater Shoreland 15/496 - 152/6,380

Historical/Cultural 9/748 22/2,016 152/12,454

Outstanding Natural 1/12,344 1/31,694 19/2,070,604

Wilderness - 8,482 4/1,095,361

1 A percentage of the statewide total was not figured due to the amount
of the Lower Columbia District that is outside our study area.

From: State of Washington, 1973

402-10

demand. For instance, public awareness and concern for the natural

environment has resulted in more people desiring and participating in

outdoor activities. In addition, such things as liberalized vacation

rules, improvement of transportation routes, increased discretionary

income to spend on recreation, and other socio-economic factors, all

contribute to the demand for recreation.

Activity participation for the districts which include the
Columbia River estuary have a ranking similar to the states. The

rankings of the states also are similar to nationwide preferences. The

activities most preferred are driving for pleasure and sightseeing.

D. Need

Needs result from subtracting the supply from the demand. To

determine the need, it is necessary to apply standards to each activity.

Table 402-4 shows Use Standards that were applied in the needs analysis

for the Oregon Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Program. Then,

these standards are applied to user activities, to determine the total
area needed. Subtracting the supply (miles, boat launch lanes, etc.)

shows the actual needs of an area.

Needs analysis is used to justify and prioritize expenditures

for acquisition and development. Statewide analysis in Washington
alone, estimated that over $1.5 billion dollars were needed at the time of

the plan preparation to merely meet current needs. Priorities are

necessary to guide the implementation of fund expenditures, to ensure
that the public benefit is maximized.

402.3 SCORP ANALYSIS FOR ESTUARY AREA

As stated before, it,is difficult to scale down the Outdoor

Recreation Plans for the states to reflect the conditions and needs of

the Columbia River estuary region. However, it is possible to note
activities that occur in the area and some of its apparent needs.

Important to the estuary are water related activities. Boating
and fishing are the two most popular. During 1971, the Fish Commission
of Oregon conducted a study that determined principal recreational
fishing areas and type of fish caught. Figure 402-1 shows these areas,
and Table 402-5 indicates the fish species caught during this survey.

Additional activities within the area include those discussed in the

402-11

TATBLE 402-4

U.",E'R STAN'@'A"Ji@'.

ACTIVITY C011"!IMN11's

11untJ ng 1 acre pc@- 0.0.132 user Equal. to 75 acres 1-1-cr hunter

Boating 1. lane pE@r 175 u.,7;t.!rs Rccognize that not. all boaters
require launch lanos

Swirmni ng I acre bear..:h por 400 userc

Sw i r-uning 1 pool pc-r 300 users

Camping 1 site per 8 users

Picnicking 1 site per 7 users

Walking (urban) 1 mile per 20 uscrs

Hiking 1 mile per 10 users Includes nature walks & hiking

Horseback Riding 1 mile per 4 users on recognized trail

Horseback Riding Requires no special facility
riding along county roads, etc.

Snow Activities 1 acre per 9 users Includes skiers & snow players
who use developed facilities

Fishing I mile major stream per The boating standard serves
12 users the lake fishing people

Golf 1 hole per 25 users

Outdoor Games 1 acre per 8 users

Bicycle I mile per 20 users

Pleasure Driving 1 mile per 100 users A scenic driving standard

Sporting Events 1 acre per 500 users Includes stadium & Parking

Cultural Events 1 acre per 400 users Includes building & parking

Beach I mile per 500 users

RESOURCE STANDARDS:

Streams I mile major stream per At this time the fi.Fhj-ng needs
12 users are the only needs we have
considered

Lakes 240 acres por 1 lane
0.5 acres per .1. acre beach

Prom: State of Oregon, 1972

402-12

TABLE 402-5

SPECIES HARVESTED

Columbia River Estuary

COMMON NAME LOCAL NAMES

Black rockfish Black sea bass, black snapper

Cabezon Rock cod, bullhead

Chinook salmon King salmon, salmon

Coho salmon Silver salmon

Columbia River Chub Peamouth

Spiny dogfish

Lingcod

Pacific staghorn scu-pin Bullhead

Pacific tomcod

Red Irish lord Bullhead

Redtail surfperch

Sand sole

Shiner perch Shiners

Starry flounder

Striped seaperch Rainbow perch
Whitespotted greenling Seatrout

Dungeness crab Market crab

From: Fish Commission of Oregon, 1971

402-13

Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans,-except for winter
sports and mountain climbing.
Assuming that the needs analysis done for District 1 in Oregon
is representative for the estuary, the primary needs are for hunting
(acres), camping (sites), picnicking (sites), and fishing (m ile). This
analysis did not take into consideration the private sector, which
provides lodging and some activities.

402-14

402.4 REFERENCES

A. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar R. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase I,
prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and Board of
County Commissioners by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.
Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing develop-
ment and survey of public attitudes and goals. Recreation infor-
mation includes current recreation land use and the effect of
recreation and tourism on the county's economy.

B. The Richardson Associates. 1975. Master Plan for the Columbia
River at the Mouth, Final Review Draft, prepared for the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Portland District.
Analysis of physical features at study area to determine the
best recreational and fish and wildlife user of the project data.

C. State of Oregon, Fish Commission. 1971. Columbia River Estuary
Resource Use Study.

Summary of a study conducted of the recreational use of marine
food fish, shellfish, and other miscellaneous invertebrates. Infor-
mation on boat and shore fishery, tideflat fishery, angler origin,
commercial fishery, and the food production areas, fish feeding
areas, and fish migration routes.

D. State of Oregon, Highway Division. Oregon Outdoor Recreation.,
third edition supplement.

Oregon's Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan Study
and analysis of the supply of recreation activities and facilities,
the demand for specific activities and the needs reflected. Also
discussed are the standards that apply to activities and how to
furnish recreational,sites and opportunities.

E. State of Washington, Interagency Committee for Outdoor Inventory.
1973. Washington Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation and
Open Space Plan; Volume I.

Washington's Statewide Comprehensive Outdoors Recreation Plan
study and analysis of the supply of recreation activities and
facilities, the demand for specific activities and the needs
reflects. Also discussed in how to implement and plan and meet
the needs.

F. miscellaneous information concerning Fort Canby and Fort Stevens
State Parks.

402-15

0 0 0

(/Zl ""-.I SIGNIFICANT AREAS
0
@ @ Lui a
14A

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

SIGNIFICANT AREAS

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

403 SIGNIFICANT AREAS ........................................ 403-1
403.1 WASHINGTON STATE SHORELINE OF STATEWIDE SIGNIFICANCE ..... 403-1
403.2 OREGON AREAS OF CRITICAL CONCERN ......................... 403-71
A. Identification Process ................................... 403-1
B. Candidate Areas .......................................... 403-2
403.3 HISTORICAL AREAS ......................................... 403-3
403.4 SCIENTIFIC AREAS ......................................... 403-5
A. Columbia River Marsh Islands ............................. 403-5
B. Miller Sands ............................................. 403-7
C. Alder Slough ............................................. 403-7
D. Archaeological ........................................... 403-7
403.5 AESTHETIC/SCENIC AREAS ................................... 403-8
A. Columbia River at the Mouth .............................. 403-8
B. Fort Columbia ............................................ 403-8
C. Catscomb Hill ............................................ 403-8
D. Highways ................................................. 403-8
E. Others ................................................... 403-9
403.6 NATURAL/CONSERVATION AREAS ............................... 403-9
403.7 REFERENCES ............................................... 403-12

FIGURES

403-1 Areas of Statewide Significance .......................... 403-2*

TABLES

403-1 Oregon Areas of Potential Concern ........................ 403-4
403-2 National Historic Landmarks .............................. 403-6
403-3 Identified Natural Areas ................................. 403-10

*Figure follows the page indicated.

403 SIGNIFICANT AREAS

Significant areas are discussed in this section of the Inventory
because such areas must be considered in the planning process. Areas
already designated as significant are examined, together with areas with
potential for such designation; they require special management consider-
ations to guarantee their retention as unique areas.

403.1 WASHINGTON STATE SHORELINE OF STATEWIDE SIGNIFICANCE

The Washington State Shoreline management Act of 1971, identified

specific shorelines throughout the state as Shorelines of Statewide
Significance. The Columbia River shoreline, from the mouth to the eastern
boundary of Wahkiakum, County is classified as such, based on section.
90.58.030 of the legislation. This section, as it applies to the Columbia

River and its tributaries, defines shorelines of statewide significance as
if.....those natural rivers ... west of the crest of the'Cascade Range down-

stream of a point where the mean annual flow is measured at one thousand

cubic feet per second or more..." The mean annual flow of the Columbia

River, as measured at the mouth, is 259,000 cubic feet per second. For

planning purposes, shorelines are identified in the act as all the waters

of the state and their associated wetlands, including as a minimum, all
upland areas 200 feet landward @measured horizontally from ordinary high

water).

In accordance with the above sections of the act, the following
streams and rivers in the Columbia River estuary area and their associated
wetlands are classified as shorelines of statewide significance:

Columbia River (plus all unnamed tributaries within 200 feet)

Deep River

Elochoman River

Grays River

Skamokawa Creek

The extent of these areas is shown in Figure 403-1.

403.2 OREGON AREAS OF CRITICAL CONCERN

A. Identification Process

Although the process exists for designating areas of particular

concern in the State of Oregon, no areas have been designated. This

process was established by Senate Bill 100 in 1973. It begins with the

nomination of an area by citizens, city and county governments or state
agencies. A technical and legal evaluation and inventory of the area

is then done. The Land Conservation and Development Commission (LCDC)

recommends areas of statewide concern, together with management actions,

to the Joint Legislative Committee on Land Use. That committee then

recommends approval or disapproval to the state legislature.

B. Candidate Areas

Based on inventories and public input, the Oregon Coastal
Conservation and Development Commission (OCC&DC), before disbanding
in 1975, identified several specific sites as potential areas of

critical state concern. The criteria used by OCC&DC included:

1. Areas of significant natural value or importance (relating

to the preservation of resources), and

2. Areas of significance for development of activities, uses,

or facilities of more than local significance.

These criteria were then applied to the resource areas where

public concern had been documented. These resources were:

1. Natural Resources of the Oregon Coastal Zone

a. Estuaries

b. Wetlands

c. Freshwater and shorelands

d. Uplands (forest, agricultural, urban and recreational

lands)

e. The continental shelf

f. Beaches and dunes

2. Coastal values

a. Visual resources

b. Fish and wildlife habitat areas

c. Historical and archaeological sites

d. Scientific natural areas

3. Constraints on Coastal Zone Management,
a. Geological hazards (including floodplains)
b. Deve lopment pressures and conflicts.

403-2

2 5'

AREAS OF STATEWIDE CONCERN

WASHINGTON STATE SHORELINES OF STATEWIDE
SIGNIFICANCE
0 POTENTIAL AREAS OF CRITICAL CONCERN IN
OREGON (REFER TO TABLE 404-1)

SPECIAL IMAGE REGION"

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC LANDMARKS

A. CAPE DISAPPOINTMENT

B. CHINOOK POINT

FOR OTHER LANDMARKS SEE TABLE 403-1

FROM:
1. MOSTUE, 1975.
4@
2. STATE OF WASHINGTON, DEPT. OF ECOLOGY, 1976.

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it
17,

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F I G U R E
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403-1

25' 20 123* 15'

By applying the criteria to the identified resource areas, OCC&DC

identified 80 areas of potential concern. Table 403-1 shows those
areas that fall within the Columbia River estuary region. In addition,

OCC&DC recommended that areas of critical state concern also include:
"Special Image Regions" (as identified in Visual Resource Analysis of
the Oregon Coa@;tal Zone); those sites designated in the National Register

of Historic Landmarks; and those sites listed in the OCC&DC Historical

and Archaeological Inventory, as being of national and statewide concern.
A special image region was identified as existing in the area west of
Highway 101 to the Pacific Ocean, from the Columbia River south to just

south of Tillamook Head.

The National Register of Historic Landmarks lists four sites in

Oregon that are in the estuary area. Included are Fort Astoria, Elmore
Cannery (Bumble Bee), Fort Stevens, and Fort Clatsop National Memorial.

403.3 HISTORICAL AREAS

The Columbia River estuary region is rich in historical lore.

Indian encampments lined the river in the days before white settlers

came. The Clatsop, Chinook, Cathlamet, and Wahkiakum tribes all lived

in the estuary area.
The first white men to live in the area were probably slaves.

About 1725, two shipwrecked sailors were found by Indians on the beach
near the present site of Gearhart, and they were taken prisoner to serve

as. slaves.

one of the sailors, referred to as Konapee, was skilled in making
knives and hatchets from iron and soon won the Indians' respect.

Eventually, both men were released from captivity and settled near the

present town of Hammond. This site, called Konapee by the Indians, was

probably the first place a white man lived on the north coast.

The mouth of the Columbia River was an area of several explorations

by fur trading nations. The estuary was first described in 1775 by the

Spanish Captain Bruno Heceta, but he thought it was land locked, and

the rough bar discouraged him from closer inspection. Seventeen years

later, Captain Robert Gray successfully crossed the bar and spent over

a week inspecting the area and trading with the Indians. Gray changed

403-3

Table 403-1

Areas of Potential State Concerni
Columbia River Estuary Area

1. City of Astoria

2. Big Creek and Little Creek Estuary

3. Clatsop Plains

4. Cullaby Lake

5. Elmore Cannery (Astoria)

6. Fort Astoria

7. Fort Clatsop National Monument

8. Fort Stevens

9. Lewis and Clark River Marsh

10. Lower Columbia River (areas to be determined)

11. Swash Lake

12. Tansy Point

From: OCC&DC, 1975

403-4

the name of the river from "Wauna" as the Indians called it, to "Columbia."

A short time later, Lt. John Broughton, a member of an expedition led by
Captain George Vancouver, sailed approximately 100 miles upriver exploring
and mapping.
Although previous settlements had been attempted, and Lewis and

Clark had established several encampments, including their winter head-
quarters at Fort Clatsop, it wasn't until 1810 that the first permanent
settlement, Astoria, was begun. Named after John Jacob Astor, owner of
the Pacific Fur @ompany, Astoria was founded as a center for the trade

market in the lower Columbia area.

The estuary region continued its colorful history to the present.
Following the pattern of the Pacific Northwest as a whole, the area
played an important role in the developing trade, lumber, and fishing

industries.

Many historical sites have been inventoried and marked throughout
the area. The National Register of Historic Landmarks lists eight sites

in the three counties. These areas are shown on Figure 403-1 and listed

on Table 403-2. There are numerous additional historical sites

surrounding the estuary that have county and statewide significance.
These were not listed but include Indian villages, exploration sites,

settlements and shipwrecks. The Cities of Astoria and Cathlamet each

contain concentrations of historical sites.

403.4 SCIENTIFIC AREAS

Several different kinds of scientific study have been and are

being carried out in the estuary. Compared to other estuaries on the

Oregon coast, the Columbia River has been studied extensively. However,
compared to other large estuaries, like Puget Sound, there has been
relatively little research conducted. Current scientific projects include
planting and habitat studies in Marsh Islands, and fisheries research
throughout the lower estuary.

A. Columbia River Marsh Islands

The Marsh Islands of the lower Columbia River provide a valuable

research area for wildlife and habitat study. The islands are an
important link in the chain of marsh habitat that provides the life
needs of migratory birds that live along the Pacific Coast. The islands

403-5

TABLE 403-2

National Register of Historic Landmarks

Columbia River Estuary Region

Clatsop County

Elmore Cannery (Astoria)

Fort Astoria (Astoria)

Fort Clatsop National Memorial

Fort Stevens

Pacific County

Cape Disappointment

Chinook Point

Wahkiakum County

Deep River Pioneer Lutheran Church

Grays River Covered Bridge

403-6

are both a wintering area and a migrational stopover for Pacific Flyway

waterfowl. Being subject to tidal action, they are rich in marine

nutrients that are food for the island residents.

B. Miller Sands

A manmade island of dredge material at approximately river mile

twenty-three, Miller Sands is currently being used by the U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station., It is being planted to
stabilize it against wind erosion and is being used as an experimental

test site for marsh habitat creations.

C. Alder Slough

Alder Slough, located between Tansy Point and the Skipanon Water-
way, is the location of a monitoring station used by Oregon State

University. The slough is sporadically used to measure the collection

of radionuclides in the water, as a result of the operations of Hanford

and Trojan nuclear power plants.

D. Archaeological

Archaeological investigations in the lower Columbia valley have

been limited in scope and generally unsystematic. Littleis known about

the archaeological resources of the project area. Extensive sightings

of villages throughout the region were recorded in the original journals
of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and in the ships' logs of explorers.

Much of the research and analysis which has been done on archaeological

sites has been done by amateurs. Professional archeologists have

conducted investigations on the lower reaches of the Columbia River for
the Corps of Engineers in conjunction with dredge disposal/bank protection

projects and research for master plans.

The villages of the early inhabitants of the lower Columbia River

Basin were concentrated along the 'rivers and streams of the region. The

dense forest environment hindered land travel, but the rivers offered

easy travel and an abundant food supply (primarily salmon and the plant

wapato).
Of the villages identified by the early explorers, many have
been eroded away by Columbia River floods and the wash of ships.
Other locations have been lost when the Columbia River changed its course
0 and the sites were left far from the river banks. Still others have been
buried by the silts of floods.

403-7

403.5 AESTHETIC/SCENIC AREAS
The environment throughout the-Columbia'River estuary has many
unique qualities. While several areas encourage active participation,
there are also areas that are appropriate for passive activities and have
an aesthetic value. Scenic areas within the estuary vary, often dramatically,
from site to site. Frequently, it's the site itself that has a Iparticular
value such as a large stand of trees or a waterfall. In other areas, it's
the view available from a site that makes it significant.

A. Columbia River at the Mouth

The mouth of the Columbia River and the adjacent shorelands
offer a particularly unique experience. Fort Canby and Fort Stevens
both have scenic shorelands within the park boundaries. But their real

appeal is their beach and the ocean environment. Beach activities,
including clamming, shell collecting, and walking, draw people from
a wide area.

Both parks also offer a river experience. Fort Stevens, in Oregon,

and Fort Canby, in Washington, have access to the Columbia River. One

of the most impressive sights in the entire estuary area, is from the
northern end of Clatsop Spit, where, on a clear day, the view extends

from the Columbia River Bar on the west to Mt. St. Helens to the east.

13. Fort Columbia
The aesthetics at Fort Columbia are based primarily on
its view. From the area around the old gun emplacements, the view to

the southeast includes the City of Astoria, and to the southwest
consists of Sand Island, Cape Disappointment, and the Columbia River

to the bar.

C. CatscojTb Hill

Catscomb Hill is a hilltop park within the City of Astoria. The

location of the Astoria Column enables one to view the Pacific Ocean,

the Columbia River, and the bar to the west, Saddleback Mountain and

the Youngs and Lewis and Clark Rivers to the south, and the State of

Washington, from Cape Disappointment to Point Ellice, to the north.

D. Highways
While not particularly pleasing in themselves, roads and highways
often provide a series of diverse scenic views and experiences. The

403-8

coastal highways are noted for their views, and within the estuary region,
those along the river provide a similar experience. Aesthetic resources
are often considered in designing a road. As a result, driving for

pleasure is ranked as one of the most pursued recreational activities.

Highways 101 and 30 in Oregon and Highways 401 and S.R. 4 in
Washington offer several areas with views related to the estuary.

Highway 101 provides a sweeping panorama of the Columbia River as you
cross Youngs Bay. To the south, the view is more estuarine in nature,
with smaller rivers, tidal flats, and riparian vegetation. Highway 401

in Washington also offers a river view, with Oregon in the background.

Highway 30 and S.R. 4 have occasional views of the Columbia River that

reflect the estuarine environment. Highway 30, especially near Astoria,
gives excellent opportunities to view the Marsh Islands of the Columbia
River. S.R. 4, as it winds along the shoreline in eastern Wahkiakum

County, offers many pleasing views of the river.

E. Other

There are numerous other areas within the estuary that provide

pleasant aesthetic experiences. They differ from those described above

in that they aren't accompanied by an extensive view of the water, but

this does not lessen their value. The region has numerous forested

areas, meadows and panoramic hill views.

403.6 NATURAL/CONSERVATION AREAS

The two conservation areas within the estuary are the Lewis and
Clark National Wildlife Refuge and the Columbian White-Tailed Deer
National Wildlife Refuge. These two areas were discussed extensively in
the recreation section (see Section 402 and Figure 402-1).

Both refuges have limited development within their boundaries,

primarily for grazing and haying, and they concentrate on maintaining

natural habitats for wildlife. Studies are underway to better define

habitat requirements, especially for the deer.

Natural areas have been identified for Clatsop County by the

Oregon Nature Conservancy. Their study identifies potentially

significant natural areas and endangered species. Table 401-1 lists

those areas within the estuary area. Most of these areas have been

403-9

TABLE 403-3

IDENTIFIED NATURAL AREAS

Bradwood Cliffs

Knappa. Slough

Big and Little Creek Estuary

Tansy Point

Lewis and Clark River Marsh

Aldrich Point

Youngs River Falls

Tongue Point

Cooperage Slough

Bradley Park

Clatsop Spit and Tressle Bay

Dagget Point

Sand Island

Tenasillahee Island

Calender Slough

Gnat Creek Marsh

Walluski River Wetlands

Youngs Bay
(Plus Eagle Nests at John Day and various areas identified

geographical names: Walluski River Site, Mill Creek Old

Growth, Astoria Old Growth, West of Lewis and Clark River).

From: The Nature Conservancy, 1974

403-10

mapped either in Figure 403-1 or in the recreation section. Designed
to help local governments comply with Oregon's land use planning goals,
the study recommends that each of the identified areas be investigated
thoroughly for special management considerations.

403-11

403.7 REFERENCES

A. Beckham, Stephen D. 1974. Historical and Archaeological Resources
of the Oregon Coastal Zone, prepared for the Oregon Coastal Conser-
vation and Development Commission.

A resource inventory of historical and archaeological areas on
-the Oregon coast. Sites are classified as to their importance to
the local area, county, state, or the nation.

B. Cowlitz-Wahkiakum Governmental Conference. 1975. wahkiakum County
Inventory of Historic Places.
Compilation of inventory worksheets completed during historic
inventory of Wahkiakum County. Sites included those of local and
greater than local significance.

C. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar T. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase I,
prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and Board of
County Commissioners, by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.

Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing develop-
ment and survey of public attitudes and goals. Listing and locations
of areas with historic and cultural significance.

D. Mostue, Ariel Brian. 1975. Potential Areas of Critical State
Concern In the Oregon Coastal Zone, Masters thesis. Department of
Landscape Architecture, School of Architecture and Allied Arts,
University of Oregon.

Description of concept of areas of critical state concern,
potential criteria for their selection, and a case study of
Tansy Point.

.E. The Nature Conservancy, Oregon Chapter. 1974. Clatsop County
Inventory of Natural Areas on Private Lands.

Inventory and documentation of significant natural areas in
Clatsop County. This served as a pilot project for developing a
methodology for continuing a statewide inventory.

F. The Nature Conservancy, Oregon Chapter. 1977. Oregon Natural
Areas, Data Summary.
7-
Identification of significant natural areas in Clatsop County
and recommended protection programs.

G. State of Oregon, Coastal Conservation and Development Commission.
1975. Final Report.
The final report of the OCC&DC, presenting policies and manage-
ment recommendations for the management of the Oregon coastal zone.

403-12

H. State of Oregon, Land Conservation and Development Commission.
1976. Draft: Oregon Coastal Management Program.

The draft program for Oregon's coastal zone in accordance
with the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. This document
provides a recommended method and selection criteria for areas
of particular concern.

I. State of Washington, Department of Ecology. 1976. Washington
State Coastal Zone Management Program.

The adopted coastal zone management program for the State of
Washington. Describes existing legislation to deal with the manage-
ment of shorelines of statewide significance and geographic areas
of particular concern.

J. Walker, Havens, and Erickson. 1974. Visual Resource Analysis of
the Oregon Coastal Zone, prepared for the Oregon Coastal
Conservation and Development Commission.

A study that identifies and evaluates coastal environments
and provides criteria which can be applied to the aesthetic
analysis of developments.

403-13

ECONOMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
nj

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

404 ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ............................ 404-1
404.1 ECONOMIC SECTORS .................................... 404-1
A. Fishing and Fish Processing ......................... 404-1
B. Forest Products ..................................... 404-2
C. Tourism ............................................. 404-5
D. Agriculture ......................................... 404-7
E. Port Activities ...................................... 404-9
404.2 LABOR FORCE AND EMPLOYMENT .......................... 404-10
404.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY ....................... 404-15
404.4 REFERENCES .......................................... 404-19

TABLES

404-1 Commercial Fish Landing (lbs) ....................... 404-3
404-2 Commercial Fish Landings (Dollars) .................. 404-4
404-3 Clatsop County Tourism Value ........................ 404-6
404-4 Agricultural Characteristics
(3 Counties) ..................................... 404-8
404-5 Clatsop County Employment ........................... 404-11
404-6 Pacific County Employment ........................... 404-12
404-7 Wahkiakum County Employment ......................... 404-13
404-8 Employment Distribution ............................. 404-14
404-9 Economic Analysis Matrix ............................ 404-17

404 ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Information about the level of employment, economic structure and its
potential for change is important to the planning process. Economic activities

such as, factories, stores, tree farms, etc. all occupy land, and in turn,
influence the location and viability of other activities. In addition, the

level of economic activity is directly related to the size of the population,

which affects the need for housing, and public services. For example, if a
piece of land is developed as a shopping center, it usually attracts more
retail business and medium density residential development, thus resulting
in a large complex of mixed retail, commercial, and residential uses. If the
same piece of land is developed as an industrial complex, it usually attracts
supporting industrial activities, such as warehouses, and wholesale suppliers.
Because either of the original choices preempts the probability of the other
occurring in the same place, long-range trends must be considered. Both
types of activity are needed, but each must be located in a suitable place so
that they do not conflict with each other.
As local government carries out its responsibilities for land and

water resource management, it must consider fluctuations of the local economy.

Land and water requirements of the various facets of the economy must be

understood to make decisions which support all sectors of the economy, take
..best advantage of scarce resources, and avoid use conflicts.

404.1 ECONOMIC SECTORS

The economy of the three counties in the estuary area is currently

very dependent upon local natural resources. Forest products, commercial

fishing, agriculture, and tourism constitute roughly half of the dollar value

of the local economies in the region. These facets of the economy, together
with port activities, are discussed in the following section.

A. Fishing and Fish Processing

The fishing industry employment includes both commercial fishermen,

and employees of seafood processing plants. Statistics on fisheries employment

do not accurately reflect the number of people engaged in fishing and fishery

related activities. The Clatsop County Plan, Phase 1 (1973) estimates the

number of fishermen for the Astoria area at nearly 3,000. However, estimates

are difficult to calculate because of the many independent and part-time

operations. According to a representative of the Columbia River Fisherman's

Protective Union, the number of people involved in fishing, based on gill-

netting and offshore fishing licenses, has been steadily increasing over the

last several years. Employment figures for 1974 showed that Clatsop County

employed by far, the largest number of people in seafood processing on the

entire Oregon Coast, this was nearly two thirds of the total Oregon coastal

zone employment for seafood processing.

Silver, Chinook, and Chum salmon are the principle marine species

landed at Hammond, Warrenton and Astoria, Oregon and Ilwaco and Chinook,

Washington. Other varieties include Albacore Tuna, Rockfish, Sturgeon, and
shellfish. Shellfish production in Pacific County is over half of the entire

shellfish production in Washington State. The relative value of the five
major fisheries of the Columbia River Estuary is ranked in the following

order: 1) salmon, 2) crab, 3) tuna, 4) shrimp, and 5) groundfish.

Commercial fish landings and their estimated values for 1971 through 1975 are

shown in Tables 404-1 and 404-2.

B. Forest Products

Although forest lands cover an average of 87% of the acreage of each
county in the estuary area, commercial forest land in the CREST.study area is

minimal.

Forest products data include those who work in the forests as well as

those who work in the mills. Historically, the forest products industry has

been the biggest employer in both Pacific and Wahkiakum Counties. In Clatsop

County, it ranks behind the government, wholesale and retail trade, and food

processing sectors. While the lumber products industry provides a fairly

stable year-long employment situation, the number employed has experienced a

net decrease since 1970.

Forest economists expect employment in the forest industries of the

Pacific Northwest to continue to decline in the future, as productivity

increases and the timber resource base remains static or declines. For the

estuary area, this would have the largest impact on Wahkiakum County. The

least impact would occur in Pacific County, since wood product processing

occurs outside the estuary area, primarily in Raymond and South Bend.

While forest-related employment is slowly decreasing, continued growth

is expected in foreign and domestic demand of forest products. Therefore, it

appears that the local supply of raw materials may limit growth, rather than

market demand.

404-2

TzibIc 10,J-1

IP71 - 197;@ (in jjuundo)

1971 .1972 1973 1974 .1975
Oregon:

Columbia River:
(Zones 1,2,7)
Salmon 3,882,172 3,043,17G 4,716,051 2,968,748 3,709,998
Sturgcon 134,076 119,72.1 180,091 276,220 231,442
Tuna - - - -
Groundfish - - 121,174 200,508 73,700
Other2 237,162 347,554 235,577 281,232 33,002
Total: 4,253,410 3,51.0,451 5,252,893 3,726, 4,048,142

Astoria:
Salmon 951,250 491,515 309,588 483,794 399,380
Sturgeon 4,517 1,267- 1,860 484 1,582
Tuna 11,293,939 22,377,175 19,102,041 26,723,583 16,599,703
Groundfish 10,524,GO9 10,618,335 9,450,108 9,907,149 9,372,829
Other2 6,976r395 3,786,801 8,115,627 6,206,555
Total 29,750,7-16 3-9,733,637 32,650,398- 45,230,637 32,580,049

Washington:

Cathlamet:
Salmon 514,,401 381,265 645,664 183,133 355,161
Sturgeon l4r309 20,105 23,011 8,993 41,590
Tuna - - - -
Groundfish - - - - -
Other2 57,122 102,775 63,552 6,277 52,827
Total 585,832 504,145 732,207 198,403 449,578

Chinook:
Salmon 605,8G8 573,084 475,836 489,653 451,857
Sturgeon 6,927 38,291 10,907 13,170 10,209
Tuna 2,100 3,OG5 60,784 27,112 83,110
Groui-Tish 13,678 10,503 34,287 22,843 10,037
Other 1,630,588 559,430 1,205,671 542,074 617,739
Total 2,259,161 1,18@,373- 1,787,@@85 1, 852 1,172,952

Ilwaco:
Salmon 2,771,436 1,622,530 939,83). 1,539,425 1,426,251
Sturgeon 7,300 15,876 8,112 28,046 32,349
Tuna 1,796,514 5,695,937 6,602,236 11,333,827 9,226,048
Groundfish 8,593 10,062 20,19B 410,338 202,533
Other2 1,406,151 1,919,S79 711,114 1,448,667 439,039
Total 5,989,99@ 9,163,984 8,281,491 14,760,303 11,326,220
Puget Island
Salmon 12,042 18,398 20,963 4,388 -
Sturgeon 260 94 434 51
Tuna - - - -
Grounjfish - - -
Other 2 235 79,087 -
12,TCF4 78-,49i -21,632 83,526 -

Skamokawa:
Salmon 61,699 5,500 84,750 233,973 800
Sturgeon 258 707 866 12,265 -
Tuna - - - - -
Groun5 fish - - -
Othpr 25 1,511 - 2,013 -
Total 61,982 7,718 85,616 248,251 800
1 Zones 1 and 2 include the Columbia River to the Eastern Boundary of wahkiakum
County, zone 7 is Youngs Bay
2 Includes Stuelhead, Shad, Smelt, and Shellfish
From: Oregon Department of Fish arid Wildlife
Washington Department of Fisheric-s

404-3

Table 404-2

Estimated Value at Fisherinan's Level of
Commercial Food Fish Landings
1971-1974*

Oreon: 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975*

Columbia River
(Zones 1,2,7) 1 -
Salmon $ 1,310,000 $ 1,589,000 $ 4,246,000 $ 1,855,000
Sturgeon 28,000 22,000 42,000 52,000
Tuna - - - -
Groulfish - - 5,00,0 8,000
Other 61,000 139,000 100,000 45,000
Total $ 1,399,000 $ 1,750,000 $ 4,393,000 $ 1,960,COO

Astoria:
Salmon $ 322,000 $ 242,000 $ 206,000 $ 340,000
Sturgeon - - - -
Tuna 3,086,000 6,805,000 6,490,000 9,982,000
Groun5fish 865,000 1,009,000 1,134,000 1,475,000
Other 1,410,000 1,934,000 11189,000 2,20-7,000
Total $ 5,683,000 $ 9,990,000 $ 9,019,000 $14,004,000
Washington
Cathlamet:
Salmon $ 152,734 $ 206,134 $ 566,108 $ 168,091 $ 344,443
Sturgeon 3,595 4,933 5,800 2,370 13,481
Tuna - - - - -
Groulfish - - - - -
Other 7,563 16,257 25,437 1,966 5,995
Total $ 163,892 $ 227,324 $ 597,345 $ 172,427 $ 363,919

Chinook:
Salmon $ 220,992 $ 314,848 $ 467,957 $ 340,581 $ 379,358
Sturgeon 731 7,i7l 2,931 1,564 2,342
Tuna 641 1,070 24,494 9,539 27,425
GrounIfish 183 162 3,719 1,287 840
other 348,326 212,490 286,359 277,IG2 197,669
Total $ 570,883 $ 535,741 $ 735,4150 $ 630,133 $ 607,634

Ilwaco:
Salmon $ 1,049,S95 $ 929,856 $ 832,199 $ 1,220,958 $ 1,157,519
Sturgeon 969 3,990 1,978 6,055 9,307
Tuna 556,938 1,936,643 2,707,433 4,155,339 3,110,426
Groundfish 1,193 1,131 2,395 71,067 38,828
Others 2 272,012 621,132 182,886 543,991 230,742
Total $ 1,880,707 $ 3,492,752 $ 3,726,891 5,997,420 $ 4,546,822

Puget Island:
Salmon $ 4,485 $ 10,598 $ 19,727 $ 2,362 -
Sturgeon 64 24 1,16 12
Tluna - - - -
Groundfish -
Othcrs2 1 76 7,007
$ --@, -5w $
Total 10,622 $ 19,949 $ 9,381 $

Skamokawa:
Salmon $ 19,137 $ 4,357 $ 80,529 $ 141,374 707
Sturgeon 49 172 300 3,202
Tuna - - - -
Groundfish -
Other2 6 526 51.0
Total $ 19,192 $ 5,055 $ 80,329 $ 145,086 $ 707

for wa@ihington includo data for 1975.
1 Zones I and 2 include the Columbia River to the Eaqtei:n Boundary of wahkiakum
County, Zono 7 is Youngs Bay.
2 111!,Judes SL(@(Ahead, Shad, "mclt, aivl Shellfish
Frcln: Orc(lon M-partmont of Pish arid Wildlife
Wash.bicj(@on Department of Fisheries

404-4

With regard to local supply, it is important to note that most
companies attempt to operate on a sustained yield basis. However, the
sustained yield harvesting patterns are based on company holdings, rather than
county boundaries. Therefore, while these companies may manage their total
timber reserves on a sustained yield basis, there is no assurance they
operate on such a basis in a specific county. Without sustained yield
operations, it may become necessary to import timber from outside the county
to maintain employment levels in local mills.

Another factor involves the export of logs. Currently, there is a
large foreign demand, particularly from Japan. Forest owners and harvesters
generally favor export because the value of the timber tends to be higher
when foreign buyers are involved. However, other wood product users
generally favor fewer exports; they feel that the local area would benefit
more from the expansion of local manufacturing and construction industries.

C. Tourism

While tourism grows, it continues to be diffcult to'study and measure.
It is a diffuse activity and has many participants. Motel operators sell
services to tourists on a full time basis, while grocersand service station
operators may provide goods and services to tourists without even knowing it.
Because tourism overlaps the service and retail trade, statistics related to

it are not easily identified. The majority of the tourist trade in the
estuary occurs in Clatsop and Pacific Counties. Wahkiakum County enjoys a
moderate tourist industry, based upon an abundance of natural hunting and
fishing areas. Wahkiakum County is primarily a stop-over place for tourists

on the way to other Washington coastal county destinations.
The tourist industry in Pacific and Clatsop Counties is concentrated
on the Pacific Ocean. Major tourist attractions in the estuary area include
activities associated with charter fishing and Fort Stevens and Fort Canby
State Parks. Figures for the two parks indicate a combined total of 226,174
camper nights for 1976. Assuming an average expenditure of about $5.00 per
person per day results in a total value of $1,132,155 (Fort Canby: 39,257
camper nights, $196,285; Fort Stevens: 187,174 camper nights, $935,870).
Figures on average expenditures for sport fishermen are not available.

In 1973, information for Clatsop County indicated that the tourist
industry had an annual value of about $26,000,000. Table 404-3 provides more
detailed information on the annual value of the industry. This type of
information has not been compiled for the other two counties.

404-5

TABLE 404-3

Clatsop County Tourism

Percent of
Visitors Visitor Days Value value

Commercial Lodging
Visitors 335,000 670,000 $ 17,575,000 67%

Day Visitors 1,765,000 1,765,000 7,000,000 27%

State Park Overnight
Visitors 105,000 210,000 1,050,000 4%

Second Home Visitors 56,000 135,000 675,000 2%

Total 2,260,000 2,780,000 $ 26,300,000 100%

From: Meyers et al., 1973

404@6

For the Pacific Northwest as a whole, tourism is the fourth

largest industry (in terms of employment), and it is also one of the

fastest growing.
Beneficial economic impacts resulting from increased tourist

activity include increased tax base, with consequent increase in tax
revenue to local government and increased property values in the estuary

area, with consequent returns to local owners.
There are several less desirable results expected to accompany
tourist development including:
-jobs in the tourism industry tend to be low paying;

-employment in tourism is subject to greater seasonal fluctuation

than the rest of the Clatsop County economy and tends to raise

the off-season unemployment rate;

-increased property tax revenue may be offset by increased demand
for public facilities and services to accomodate the volume of

tourists, particularly sewers, water and roads;

-much of the financial return from tourist development will go

to investment centers outside of the county;

-there are likely to be conflicts with other land uses such as

local industry and residential areas;

-rapid or excessive development of tourist facilities could

adversely affect the environmental attractiveness of the area

and ultimately cause a decline in volume and dollar value of

the tourist industry.

D. Agriculture

The estuary area has limited agricultural resources. Production

has been concentrated in the bottom lands and tidal areas, where soil and

moisture conditions have been most favorable. Agricultural activity is
limited even in those areas, since much of the land requires the
construction and maintenance of dikes to maintain productivity.

Table 404-4 summarizes the agricultural characteristics for Clatsop,
Pacific and Wahkiakum Counties. As noted, the three counties are following
0 the national trends of fewer farms. Each county experienced a decrease in

4.04-7

TABLE 4G4-4

Agricultural Characteristics

CLATSOP COUNTY PACIFIC COUNTY WAEKIAMM COUNTY
1969 1974 Change 1969 1974 % Change 1969 1974 % Change

"u
--er of Farms 258 254 -2% 298 290 -3% 198 163 -17%
Land in Farms (acres) 23,745 26,706 13% 38,945 34,570 -11% 20,849 16,848 -19%
Percentage of County
Land Area 5% 6% 10%
Value of

Acrricultural Products
$ 2,136,000 $ 2,523,000 18% $3,230,000 $3,473,000 8% $2,145,000 $2,940,000 37%
All Crops $ 189,000 $ ' 204,000 8% $1,500,000 $1,297,000 14% $ 21,000 $ 36,000 71%
Forest Produczs $ 44,0G0 $ 227,000 416% $ 133,000 $ 227,000 71% $ 82,000 $ 165,000 126%
;v=stock, Poultry
and their products $ 1,902,000 $ 2,093,000 10% $1,597,000 $1,949,000 22% $2,042,000 $2,719,000 33%
ar,.-. Czerators 258 254 -1% 298 290 3% 198 163 -18%

From: 1974 Census of Agriculture, Clatsop County
1974 Census of Agriculture, Pacific County
1974 Census of Agriculture, wahkiakum County

the number of farms, especially Wahkiakum County. The largest decrease,

however, occurred in Clatsop County between 1959 and 1969. During this
period, there was a decrease of 43.5% in the number of farms and 56.9% in
the amount of land in farms. As can be seen from the percentage of county
lands that are in agricultural production, agriculture is not a large part

of the local economy; of thirty-six counties in the State of Oregon,

Clatsop County ranks last.
Agricultural employment, as with employment in the tourist industry,

is difficult to assess since it is combined with other sectors. The

accompanying table uses the number of farm operators as an indicator of

employment.

Several factors contribute to the relatively low economic importance
of agriculture in the estuary. To begin with, there is relatively little
land suitable for farming. Most of the small amount of agricultural land
is also highly desirable for residential and roadside commercial development.

Non-agricultural uses can afford to pay more for the land, and have forced
some out of farming. outside employment of farm operators is another factor
which has contributed to the decline of farming in the area. Many farmers

work part of the year at other jobs, and as the financial returns of the
outside job increase, less effort is expended in farming.

Although Clatsop County appears to be losing land in agricultural use,
there is a pattern of small farms, producing a low income stream, with the
operator working in other employment for part of the year that continues. This

complements the seasonal employment cycles of some of the county's industries.
E. Port Activities

There are five port districts in the Columbia River estuary: the Port

of Astoria, the Port of Ilwaco, the Port of Chinook, and Port Districts One
and Two in Wahkiakum County. While they are all ports by legal definition,
the port activities commonly associated with maritime shipping are limited to
the Port of Astoria. The other ports are primarily concerned with boat

moorage and commercial and sport fishing.
The Port of Astoria satisfies a demand for water transportation
services in the estuary and beyond. The demand for this service comes from
economic activities such as industrial and commercial operations with final
products which are exported beyond the estuary region. These operations use
port services for receiving raw materials or intermediate products and
for the shipment of their products. The majority of the port's transportation

404-9

services are related to such activities. Additional water transportation

demand comes from transshipment activities. These include demands generated
from outside the area for transportation services which require a shift in

the mode of transportation being used to move a given commodity; for example,

grain is moved to the port by railroad and transferred to an outgoing vessel.

Benefits generated by the port's activities include: employment;

income produced by the transportation activities; and those savings (compared

with the use of the next most efficient mode of transportation or alternative

port system) by the county business sector to which service is provided. A

recent study done for the Port of Astoria estimated that each dollar of

payroll expenditures by the Port of Astoria generated approximately $1.60 of

income in the county.

The recently completed plan for the Port of Astoria suggests that the

next five year period will be critical in determining whether the port grows

or not. Expansion of port facilities and shipping activity offers a potential

for future economic development; its location at the mouth of the Columbia

River offers a natural passageway inland to a large market area.

Most of the shipments which cross the Columbia River Bar continue

upriver to Portland. However, with the trend toward larger, less maneuverable,

and deeper draft vessels, the Astoria area becomes more attractive as a point

for cargo transfer (to barges for shipping to a distribution point further

upriver). If an upcoming study shows that it is feasible to deepen the
channel across the bar and upriver for a f ew miles, such transshipment activity

may occur in the near future.

The development of more shipping activity will have significant
economic benefits by itself, but it will also tend to attract certain process-

ing and manufacturing activities which advantageously locate away from
large population centers. The wood products industry at Longview, Washington
is an example of this; logs are trucked into the port complex and either

loaded as they are or processed into lumber and distributed to world or

national markets by ship, rail, or truck.

404.2 LABOR FORCE AND EMPLOYMENT

Employment is a most important aspect of the total economic picture

because of the direct involvement of,a1.1 segments of the population. Tables

404-5, 404-6, and 404-7 show employment (by economic activity) for the three

counties in the study area, from 1970 to 1975. Table 404-8 shows the

404-10

TABLE 404-5

CLATSOP COUNTY RESIDENT LABOR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT AND EMPLOYMENT

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Civilian Labor Force 12,080 12,540 12,730 13,170 13,070 13,350 13,460
Unemployment 960 1,150 1,000 930 990 1,430 1,260
Percent of Labor Force 7.9 9.2 7.9 7.1 7.6 10.7 9.3

Total Employment 11,120 11,390 11,730 12,240 12,080 11,920 12,200

CLATSOP COUNTY NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT
(By Place of Work)

Total Wage and Salary 9,540 9,640 9,850 10,270 10,400 10,230 10,710
Manufacturing, Total 3,200 3,250 3,250 3,250 3,370 3,030 3,310

Food Products 1,360 1,370 1,450 1,330 1,440 1,080 1,370
Lumber & Wood Products 980 1,020 940 1,010 1,000 970 950
Other Manufacturing 860 860 860 910 930 980 990

Nonmanufacturing, Total 6,340 6,390 6,600 7,020 7,030 7,200 7,400

Contract Construction 350 310 300 340 240 260 340
Transportation-Comm-Utilities 560 490 600 630 650 660 630
Wholesale & Retail Trade 1,770 1,870 1,920 1,980 2,050 2,020 2,120
Finance, Ins. & Real Estate 280 260 270 300 320 340 330
Services & Miscellaneous 1,430 1,440 1,480 1,600 1,610 1,660 1,730
Government 1,950 2,020 2,030 2,170 2,160 2,260 2,250

From: Clatsop Economic Development Committee

TABLE 404-6

Pacific County Resident Labor Force, Unemployment and Employmen

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

647 6480
Civilian Labor Force 6400 6490 0 6330 6210
Unemployment 560 550 530 520 500 690
Percentage of Labor Force 8.8 8.5 8.2 8.0 7.9 11.1
Total Employment 5840 5940 5940 5960 5830 5520

Pacific County Non-agricultural Wage and SalarV Employment (By Place of work)

Total Wage & Salary 4650 4650 4730 4740 4720 4600
Manufacturing, total 1810 1790 1880 1860 1790 1680
Food Products 470 520 470 480 470 470
Lumber & Wood Products 1300 1230 1360 1330 1260 1150
other Manufacturing 40 40 50 50 60 60
Non-manufacturing, total 2840 2860 2850 2880 2930 2920
Mining & Miscellaneous 140 140 130 150 190 190
Construction 100 110 120 130 110 110
Transportation-Comm-Utilities 220 220 220 210 220 190
Trade 740 760 760 730 720 730
Finance, Ins., & Real Estate 70 80 90 110 110 130
Service 450 430 430 460 500 510
Government 1120 1120 1100 1090 1080 1060

From: State of Washington, Employment Securities

TABLE 404-7

WAHKIAKUM COUNTY RESIDENT LABOR FORCE , UNEMPLOYMENT AND EMPLOYMENT

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 19675

Civilian Labor Force 1330 1270 1310 1390 1350 13-20

Unemployment 60 60 70 so 60 LOO
Percentage of Labor Force 4.5 4.7 5.3 3.6 4.4 7.6
Total Employment 1270 1210 1240 1340 129D R'-)*20

WAHKIAKUM COUNTY NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY EMPLOYMENT
(By Place of Work)

Total Wage and Salary 880 810 860 920 900 8910
Manufacturing, Total 480 450 470 510 490 48K
Lumber & Wood Products 470 440 440 490 480 47K
Other Manufacturing 10 10 30 20 10 A

Nonmanufacturing, Total 400 360 390 410 410 4100
Transportation-Comm-Utilities 90 90 90 100 100 8(2
Trade 80 70 80 80 70 9C2
Finance, Ins., & Real Estate 20 20 20 20 10 NO
Service 50 40 50 60 70 7M
Government 160 140 150 150 160 116M

0
From: State of Washington, Employment Securities Department

TABLE 404-8

Employment Distribution, 1975

Clatsop Pacific wahkiakum

Food Products Manufacturing 11% 10% -

Lumber & Wood Products
Manufacturing 10% 25% 53%

Other Manufacturing 10% 1% 1%

Construction 3% 2% -

Transportation-Comm-Utilities 5% 4% 9%

Trade 20% 16% 10%

Finance, Insurance, and
Real Estate 3% 3% 1%

Service and Miscellaneous 16% 11% 8%

Government 22% 23% 18%

Other - 5% -

From: Clatsop Economic Development Committee

404-14

distribution of employment among the various categories for 1975.

The "Civilian Labor Force" has shown little fluctuation for several

years. The unemployment rate has also shown little change until 1975, when
there was a uniform increase of approximately three percent. The annual

average for unemployment does not demonstrate the changes during the year
resulting from the seasonal nature of many of the jobs. This is usually

represented by significantly higher unemployment rates during the period from
November to February, when the construction business, wood products industry,

and tourism have slowed.

Lumber and wood products have figured prominantly in the employment
history of the estuary area and will probably continue to do so. In Wahkiakum
County, the forest products industry employs over fifty percent of those
employed. There has been a slight decline in employment in recent years,
probably due to increased mechanization and more efficient harvesting methods.
Overall, employment in each sector of the labor force remained fairly
constant. The greatest change is in employment in the service sector. The

service sector includes activities such as nursery schools, recreational

facilities and security police.

The basic economy of Clatsop County relies on employment in the three
major activities: fish processing, lumbering and wood products, and tourism.

Each of these is important enough to exert a strong influence on the overall

economy. Each is fairly sensitive to changes in market conditions and subject

to unpredictable natural events such as unusually large or small runs of fish
for fish processing, periods of drought, storm, or fire for forestry,

extremely cold and wet summers for tourism. Consequently, overall employment

fluctuates considerably from year to year. A more diversified economic base,
including more stable employment sources, would tend to reduce the yearly

fluctuations.

404.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY

Each economic sector is linked to several others by purchases and
sales. These relationships can be analyzed by the use of an "input-output
model." Table 404-9 is a transaction matrix compiled for Clatsop County
during 1968, when the impact of a large aluminum plant which was considering
relocation in Clatsop County was being investigated. No attempt was made to
update this matrix. This matrix is included to show the kind of tools used

to analyze local economies. This type of study has not been completed for

Pacific or Wahkiakum Counties.

404-15

The transaction matrix shows the dollar amounts of actual sales or

purchases (transactions) made by the various sectors of the Clatsop County

economy. Included are the business sectors, sectors consisting of,local
government and the sectors that make up final demand. Final demand consists

of the households of the community, business and government outside of the

county, and those expeditures related to maintaining or expanding the capital

stock of the local economy (depreciation and investment). When reading the

matrix, it should be noted that all sectors are recorded twice, once across

the top and again down the side. By reading down a column from a sector

listed across the top, one can see where that sector made its purchases and

how much was spent for goods and services. In summary, one is able to
identify the magnitude and distribution of purchases by various sectors by

reading down th6 columns in Table 404-9. To discover the pattern of sales in
the community one engages in a similar exercise by reading across the row

Interpretation of the transactions in the public sectors of local
government (sectors 17-28) requires some additional explanation. Local

government purchases goods and services from local businesses (columns 17-28

with rows 1-16). However, the reverse is only partially true. Taxes may
be viewed as payments by the private sectors for the purchase of goods and
services from local government. But the purchase-sale analogy is not

perfect in this case of public transaction. To some extent, the tax goes

into a common coffer and the funds collected are disbursed through various
services provided by local government. Some of these services are quite
general, in that they benefit equally broad segments of the local community.

Others directed at some very specific groups. For a variety of reasons it
may be impossible or undesirable for local government (or any level of
government) to collect its revenue from various groups of the public, only
on the basis of the benefits which these groups may derive from the local

government's services. However, to interpret the numbers in the intersections

of columns 1-15 and rows 16-28 of the matrix would require such an assumption.

It would have to be assumed that goods and services provided by the local

government to the various sectors of the economy would be exactly equal to
the tax payments. of course, a much simpler explanation is called for: these

numbers simply represent tax payments.

404-16

Table 404-9

Direct and indirect effects of one dollar change
in bus ines s within Clatsop County, Oregon, 1968

Ill (2) [31 [41 (5) [61 [71 [8) 191 [10] [ill [12) [131 (141 [15) [161

11 Lumber 1.0830 0.0007 0.0008 0.0040 0.0021 0.0014 0.0008 0.0005 O.oon5 0.0141 0.0004 0.0004 0.0074 0.0002 0.0002 0.0051
2) Commercial fishing 1.0029 .0660 * .0001 * .0001 * .0002
3) Fish processing .0001 .0001 1.0007 .0002 .0009 .0001 .0001 .0002 .0001 .0004 .0012 * .0023
41 Agriculture .0001 .0121 1.0121 .1293 .0001 * .0001 .0002
1 51 Manufacturing .0001 .0004 .0934 .0003 1.0002 .0005 .0003 .00r)l .0001 .0002 .0001 .0002 .0043 .0018
1 61 Lodging .0001 .0005 .0001 .0003 .0002 1.0008 .0003 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0008 .0001 .0002 .0054 .0001
71 Cafes & taverns 1.0000 * .0012
8) Service stations .0085 .0577 .0060 .0373 .0193 .0016 .0006 1.0116 .0022 .0069 .0027 .0003 .0020 .0010 .0020 .0094
1 91 Automotive sales
and service .0026 .0250 .0060 .0067 .0165 .0050 .0014 .0074 1.0038 .0064 .0108 .0024 .0074 .0014 .0031 .0065
[10) Communication &
transportation .0359 .0473 .0590 .2894 .1458 .0971 .0277 .0328 .0334 1.0172 .0195 .0210 .0109 .0148 .0139 .0051
[11] Professional services .0216 .0371 .0031 .0029 .0015 .0029 .0050 .0016 .0012 .0017 1.0055 .0038 .0011 .0012 .0018 .0181
[121 Financial services .0121 .0058 .0144 .0383 .0292 .0036 .0024 .0021 .0605 .0007 .0021 1.0048 .0115 .0027 .0108 .0088
[13) Construction .0024 .0030 .0045 .0075 .0107 .0089 .0558 .0033 .0058 .0045 .0148 .0112 1.0470 .0030 .0040 .1056
(141 Retail & whole-
sale trade .0466 .0653 .0317 .1941 .0814 .0990 .1175 .1796 .0323 .0201 .0325 .0254 .0219 1.0333 .0138 .0457
[151 Retail services &
organizations .0108 .0950 .0142 .0539 .0158 .12D6 .0581 .0275 .0191 .0035 .0367 .0102 .0089 .0269 1.0173 .0063
[161 Port authority .0007 .0002 .0002 .0010 .0004 .0009 .0002 .0001 .0002 .0017 .0001 .0013 .0001 .0003 .0002 1.0000
[17] Education .0251 .0075 .0045 .0264 .0103 .0319 .0071 .0041 .0032 .0247 .0031 .0040 .0029 .0096 .0080 .0010
(18] County roads .0011 .0003 .0002 .0011 .0004 .0013 .0003 .0002 .0001 .0010 .0001 .0002 .0001 .0004 .0003
[19] Law enforcement .0014 .0004 .0002 .0014 .0005 .0016 .0004 .0002 .0002 .0013 .0002 .0002 .0001 .0005 .0004 .0001
[20) Health department .0005 .0001 .0001 .0005 .0002 .0006 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0005 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0002 .0002
[211 Welfare .0035 .0010 .0006 .0034 .0013 .0041 .0009 .0005 .0004 .0032 .0004 .0005 .0004 .0012 .0010 .0001
[221 General fund .0032 .0009 .0005 .0031 .0012 .0037 .0008 .0005 .0004 .0029 .0004 .0017 .0004 .0011 .0009 .0070
1231 City of Astoria .0005 .0006 .0011 .0012 .0027 .0091 .0014 .0030 .0010 .0013 .0012 .0006 .0003 .0036 .0019 .0030
[241 City of Warrenton .0001 .0002 .0003 .00()l .0003 OOn6 .0003 .0002 .0001 .0008 .0004 .0030
(25) Town of Hammond .0001 *
[261 City of Gearhart .0014 * .0001 .0001 *
[27) City of Seaside .0001 .0003 .0001 .0005 .0003 .0082 .0niB .0012 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0001 .0016 .0008 .0001
128) City of Cannon Beach .0024 * .0001 .0002 *
[291 Aluminum 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 1.2599 1.3523 1.3198 1.6859 1.4704 1.4071 1.2836 1.2773 1.1652 1.1124 1.1315 1.0900 1.1227 1.1058 1.0918 1.2307

Indicates a number too small to rouad up to Q.OQQI.

From: Collin et al. , 1969

Table 404-9 (cont.)

Ir" Direct and indirect effects of one dollar change
C in business within Clatsop County, Oregon, 1968

cc (171 [18) [19, [201 [211 [22j [231 [241 1251 [261 [271 1291 [293

1) Lumber 0.0004 0.0019 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002 0.0008 0.0007 0.0038 o.n034 0.0027 0.0006 0.0040 0.0002 1 1]
21 Commercial fishing [ 21
131 Fish processing .0001 OODI .0001 .0001 .0001 .0005 .0001 .0002 .0002 .0001 .0001 .0002 31
4] Agriculture .0001 .0032 .0001 .0003 41
5) Manufacturing .0001 .0001 .000i * .0003 .0001 .0010 .0250 .0004 .0022 .0002 .0001 .0001 51
6) Lodging .0001 .0001 .0001 * .0003 .0002 .0186 .0003 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0016 * 61
7] Cafes & taverns .0010 * .0001 .0025 .0007 .0007 .0002 * 71
8] Service stations .0116 .0408 .0049 .0166 .0009 .0074 .0092 .0127 .0012 .0195 .0101 .0063 .0023 8)
9] Automotive sales
and service .0136 .1142 .0006 .0003 .0032 .0014 .0077 .0366 n04O .0266 .0252 .0264 .0016 1 91
(10] Communication &
transportation .0106 .0097 .0197 .0198 .0094 .0516 .0132 .0202 .0073 .0197 .0109 .0102 .0022 [10]

111) Professional servicei .0044 . 0 4 3 5 .0246 .0001 .2753 .0219 .0116 .0260 .0047 .0262 .0792 .0336 .0022 [ill
[12) Financial services .0016 .0100 .0005 .0002 .0012 .0007 .0020 .0073 .0059 .0059 .0029 .0195 .0006 1121
(131 Construction .0297 .2483 .0015 .0012 .0043 .0124 .0573 .3436 .4695 .2466 .0712 .5619 .0044 [131
[14) Retail & whole-
sale trade .0920 .0922 .0529 .0531 .0323 .0745 .0831 .1062 .1359 .1357 .0986 .0719 .1166 [141
(15] Retail services &
organizations .0260 .0236 .0254 .0018 .0617 .0241 .0668 .0479 .0354 .0421 .0343 .0095 .0039 [151

-116] Port authority .0001 .0001 * .0001 .0002 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0254 [161
[17] Education 1.0156 .0021 .0012 .0010 .0015 .0022 .0041 .0072 .0027 .0030 .0018 .0024 .0173 [171
[18] County roads .0001 1.0001 .0001 * .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0007 [181
[19] Law enforcement .0001 .0001 1.0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0004 .()001 .0009 [191
(20] Health department 1.0000 * .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0003 (201

[211 Welfare .0002 .0()03 .0002 .0001 1.0002 .0003 .0003 .0004 .0003 .0003 n002 .0003 .0022 [211
[221 General fund .0002 .0003 .0001 .0001 .0002 1.0037 .0003 .0004 .0003 .0009 .0011 .0024 .0022 [221
[23] City of Astoria .0004 .0006 .0003 .0002 .0005 .0004 1.0460 .0007 ..0006 .0007 .0005 .0005 .0005 [231
[24] City of Warrenton .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0004 1.0001 .0103 .0,914 .0001 .0001 .0022 [241
(25] Town of Hammond 1.0000 [251

(261 City of Gearhart 1.0000 [261
1271 City of Seaside .0002 .0003 .0001 .0001 .0002 .0002 .0004 .0003 .0003 .0003 1.0002 .0002 .0002 [271
[28] City of Cannon Beach .0001 * 1.0189 1281
(291 Aluminum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0000 [291
Total 1.0271 1.5885 1.1340 1.0951 1.3919 1.2025 1.3264 1.6424 1.6837 1.6149 1.3387 1.7704 1.1862 Total

Indicates a number too small to round up to 0.0001.

From: Collin et al., 1969

404.4 REFERENCES

A. Chaney, Ed and Perry L. Edward. 1976. Columbia Basin Salmon and
Steelhead Analysis.

Description of the interrelated factors contributing to the
current status of the Columbia Basin's salmon and steelhead
resources. Suggests actions that can be taken to ameliorate
critical problems.

B. Clatsop County Economic Development Committee. 1976. Clatsop
County Industrial Potential: Summary.
Description of Clatsop County, detailed-information on sites
throughout the county that would be suitable for industrial
development.

C. Collin, Theodore, et al. 1969. Impact of a Major Economic Change
On A Coastal Rural EcJnomy:_A Large Aluminum Plant in Clatsop County,
Oregon.

Economic analysis of Clatsop County to anticipate the economic
impacts of new industry.

D. Columbia Pacific Resource Conservation and Development Project.
1972. Resource Action Program.

General description of physical and social characteristics of
Grays Harbor, Pacific, and Wahkiakum Counties. Emphasis is on
resources, both natural and cultural. Discussion of problems and
needs relating to each of the resources. Specific development
trend information includes housing, education, and transportation.

E. Harstad Associates, Inc. 1970. Wahkiakum. County Water and Sewer
Study, prepared for the Wahkiakum. County Commissioners.

General examination of existing physical and social conditions
and water and sewer systems in Wahkiakum. County. Information
includes population, water systems, and sewage disposal systems.

F. Human Resources Planning Institute. 1976. Draft Economic Base
Study for Pacific County.
Description of the economy of Pacific County. Industries
defined in terms of their employment, payrolls, seasonality, value,
and capital facilities. Characteristics of the unemployed labor
force also discussed.

G. Kuhn, G. Anthony, et al. 1974. Economic Analysis and Profile of
the Oregon Coastal Zone, prepared for the Oregon Coastal
Conservation and Development Commission.
Comprehensive inventory of the Oregon coastal zone by major
economic sectors. Includes demographic characteristics and an
analytical model with projections of possible future levels of
employment.

404-19

H. Little, Arthur D., Inc. 1976. The Port of Astoria: Present Trends
and Future Development, prepared for the Port of Astoria and the
Port Commission.

Inventory of county economic conditions, the environmental
setting of the Port of Astoria, and the economic activities of
the port. Considered development options and alternative
development sites for port expansion.

I. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar R. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase I,
prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and Board of
County Commissioners, prepared by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.
Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing
development and survey of public attitudes and goals. Development
trend information includes population, transportation, and
utilities.

J. Pacific County Department of Public Works. 1974. Water Quality
Management Plan, Willapa Basin, prepared for the Pacific County
Regional Planning Council.

Examination of natural, economic, and cultural conditions in
Pacific County. Development of a comprehensive plan for the
management of water and sewage collection and disposal. Specific
information on water systems and sewage disposal facilities.

K. Robert E. Meyer Engineers, Inc. 1971. Preliminary Land Use Plan,
Pacific County, Washington, prepared for the Pacific County Regional
Planning Council.
Inventory of natural, economic, and cultural conditions, exami-
nation of areas where further studies are needed, showing priority
areas for planning. Development trends information includes popu-
lation trends, housing, transportation, water supply, sewage dis-
posal systems, and solid waste systems.

L. Roberts, Kenneth J. and R. Bruce Rettig. 1975. Linkages Between
The Economy and The Environment.

Analysis of the potential economic growth and environmental
change in Clatsop County based on a proposed large aluminum plant.
Investigates direct and induced environmental change.

M. Schmisseur, Wilson E. and William Boodt. 1975. Oregon Coastal
Area, Including Southwestern Oregon Counties:. Economic Survey
and Analysis.

Generalized study of Oregon's coastal region. Presents an
overview of coastal resources and industries, projections of their
future importance, and their effects on other economic activity.

404-20

N. State of Oregon, Fish Commission and State of Washington,
Department of Fisheries. 1971 and 1975. Columbia River Fish
Runs and Commercial Fisheries, 1938-70.

Detailed information on Columbia River fish runs and commercial
fisheries. Includes size of runs and catches and species. Also,
1975 publication is an update (1974 addendum) to the original
report.

0. State of Oregon, Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1975.
Commercial Food Fish Landings (In Pounds) By State of Oregon
Administrative District.

Detailed data from 1972 through 1975 on fish landings by
species at various landing points.

P. State of Oregon, Department of Fish and Wildlife and State of
Washington, Department of Fisheries. 1976. Columbia River Fish
Runs and Fisheries 1957-1975.

Detailed information on Columbia River fish runs and
commercial fisheries. Includes size of runs, and catches and
species.

State of Washington, Employment Security Department. 1975. Annual
State or Labor Area Work Force Report, Pacific County.
Employment information by economic sector for 1970 through
1975.

R. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1974. 1974
Census of Agriculture, Clatsop County, Oregon.

Census information on number and size of farms, and types and
amounts of various crops and livestock.

S. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1974. 1974
Census of Agriculture, Pacific County, Washington.
Census information on number and size of farms, and types and
amounts of various crops and livestock.

T. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 1974. 1974
Census of Agriculture, Wahkiakum County, Washington.
Census of information on number and size of farms and types
and amounts of various crops and livestock.

U. State of Washington, Employment Security Department. 1975.
Annual State or Labor Area Work Force Report, Wahkiakum County.
Employment information by economic sector for 1970 through
1975.

404-21

V. Wyatt, George L., et al. Clatsop County: Economic Structure,
Economic Change, a-nd @easonal Variabiliti In Employmen , prepared
for the Clatsop County Planning Department by the Oregon State
University Extension Service.

Investigation of the structure of the Clatsop@County economy
and the changing economic structure over the 1962-1972 period.

404-22

DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
@@Uu

COLUMBIA RIVER ESTUARY

DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

Robert E. Blanchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No.

405 DEVELOPMENT TRENDS ...................................... 405-1
405.1 POPULATION .............................................. 405-1
A. Historical Overview ...................................... 405-1
B. Population Characteristics .............................. 405-3
C. Projections ............................................. 405-3
405.2 HOUSING ................................................. 405-7
405.3 TRANSPORTATION .......................................... 405-7
A. Highways ................................................ 405-7
B. Railroads ............................................... 405-9
C. Air ..................................................... 405-9
D. Water Transportation .................................... 405-9
405.4 UTILITIES ............................................... 405-9
A. Water Systems .................. I ......................... 405-9
B. Public Utilities .... ................................... 405-10
1. Electrical Power .................................... 405-10
2. Natural Gas ......................................... 405-10
3. Sewage Systems ...................................... 405-13
405.5 SCHOOLS ................................................. 405-14
405.6 INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK ....................... 405-14
405.7 REFERENCES .............................................. 405-16

FIGURES

405-1 Population Pyramids for Clatsop County .................. 405-4
405-2 Population Pyramids for Pacific County .................. 405-5
405-3 Population Pyramids for Wahkiakum County ................ 405-6

TABLES

405-1 Historical Population Data .............................. 405-2
405-2 Housing Census .......................................... 405-8
405-3 Water System Summaries .................................. 405-11
405-4 Governmental Characteristics ............................ 405-15

405 DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

An inventory of the number of people in an area, their ages, where
they live, and future population projections is a basic requirement for
planning. These figures are used to determine future land use needs and
patterns. Together with the current utility and service figures, population
statistics provide a basis for prediction of potential needs for schools,
recreation, housing and other public facilities.

405.1 POPULATION

A. Historical Overview
Although county-wide figures and projections suggest a trend toward
a probable growth in population for the three counties bordering the Columbia
River estuary, there have been periods when the population decreased. Such
decreases accompanied a change in the'economic climate. The historical trends

are shown in Table 405-1.

Pacific County's population has experienced several periods of fluc-
tuation which have followed trends in the timber industry. The county's
growth reached it zenith in the 1900-1910 decade, when the first major logging
and saw-milling operations began. After this, population growth was slow. In

the 1950's the war-caused building boom and related lumber boom ended, and the
population in Pacific County declined. By the mid-1960's, the population

stablized and began to increase.
Population growth in Wahkiakum County decreased at a rate of one per-
cent per year over the twenty year period from 1940 to 1960. Since 1960, the
county has slowly been regaining its population. The relatively small
population in Wahkiakum County results from a combination of geographic, topo-

graphic, and economic conditions within the county. Poor agricultural soils

and steep terrain have limited a major portion of the county's land to tree

farming. As a result, there are few incentives for new industry to move to

the region and there is little to attract new people.

Growth of the lumber and fishing industries during the first two
decades of this century led to a rapid increase in population in Clatsop
County and Astoria. The minor decrease in population during the 1920's was
largely the result of the Astoria Fire of 1922 and the general economic de-
pression. Wartime activity and the postwar boom resulted in an increase in

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TABLE 405-1

Population Trends and Projections

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Clats.op County 12765 16106 23030 21124 24697 30776 27380 28.173 3260C 36100

Astoria 8381 9599 14017 10349 10389 12331 11239 10244

Pacific County 5983 12532 14891 14970 15844 16558 14674 15796 18555 22100

Ilwaco 584 66/4 787 750 656 628 518 506 1515* 2000*

Wahkiakum County 3472 3862 4286 3835 3426 3592 4369 5082
Cathl7met 621 501 615 647 1128

From: Harstad Associates, 1970
Meyers et.al@-, 1973

*This figure is for the Ilwaco-Chinook census division. This division showed
an historical population as follows: 1950 1172, 1960 - 1023, 1970 - 1187.

population during the 1940's and 19501s. Although a net increase is shown
from 1960 to 1970, the county's population actually fluctuated dramatically.

The closing of the Tongue Point Naval Station in 1962 caused a sharp
decrease in population. Construction work on the Astoria-Megler Bridge
and the pulp mill at Wauna brought an influx of people to the county that
continued to 1970, when the population returned to the 1950 level; since
then, the population has remained approximately the same.
Focusing on the portions of the counties adjacent to the estuary,
population figures are available for three incorporated areas. Cathlamet,
Wahkiakum County's only incorporated community, has had a fairly constant
population level since 1940. Ilwaco, Washington, after increases during the

first part of the decade, has been steadily losing population since 1920.

Astoria, since being ranked as Oregon's third largest city in 1920, has had
a fluctuating population, following the overall trend of Clatsop County.
B. Population Characteristics
The characteristics of the three counties are very similar. Figures
405-1, 405-2, and 405-3 show the population composition by age group and sex.

The date for these figures is county wide, and as such, take in far more

people than actually reside in the estuary area. Pacific and Clatsop Counties'
population pyramids indicate a higher proportion of people over 55 than
Wahkiakum County. This is probably due to the attractive retirement atmosphere
on the Long Beach Peninsula and the Oregon Coast. These figures also show a
lower overall proportion of people in the 25 to 45 year age group. Such
figures suggest an outmigration of people, when they reach an age to enter the

labor market.

C. Projections

Population projections, in general, are very uncertain exercises.
What will actually happen in the future is impossible to predict. For planning
purposes, the future is based on previous trends and anticipated futures.
Population projections are less reliable, as times further into the future are
considered. Major changes in the economic base could alter the population
greatly, as might many other changes.

Population projections to the year 1990 indicate continued growth for
all three counties and their incorporated communities. At present, growth
potential in the Hammond-Warrenton area is high, because of proposed industrial
development. Astoria is likely to be affected by this development also, but

405-3

Figure 405-1.

POPULATION PYRAMID
1970
CLATSOP COUNTY

MALES FEMALES

75 & Over

-@5

15
15 & Under
17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 % 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0
Fl

405-4

Figure 405-2.

POPULATION PYRAMID
1970
PACIFIC COUNTY

MALES FEMALES

75 & Over

5 & Under

17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 % 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

Figure 405-3.

POPULATION PYRAMID
1970
WAHKIAKUM COUNTY

MALES FEMALES

75 & Over

-15

5 & Under

17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 % 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

405-6

to a lesser degree. Ilwaco could possibly expect small increases in
population, as development pressures increase on the Long Beach Peninsula.

405.2 HOUSING
According to the last census, there were 12,240 housing units in
Clatsop County, 8,014 in Pacific County, and 1,267,units,in Wahkiakum County.
Table 405-2 shows how these units were broken down by single family dwellings,

seasonal homes, multi-family units, and mobile homes. As noted in the table,

not all counties determined the total seasonal and mobile homes.
There is a high demand for housing in the estuary region at this time.
This is primarily because of an unstable economy in the last few years which
has resulted in slowed construction. As new industry locates in the region,

the demand for housing is expected to increase in Clatsop County.
Along the shoreline of the estuary, the single family unit is the
most common housing. This type of housing, generally in a rural setting, pre-
dominates in the upper estuary. Except near Astoria and Warrenton, there are

few subdivisions in the area.

New building projects are limited to the shoreland area in Clatsop
County west of Tongue Point. Subdivisions are proposed for the Hammond- ,
Warrenton area. Condominium projects are also in the planning stages for

Warrenton and Astoria.

405.3 TRANSPORTATION

The Columbia River Estuary region is served by a full range of trans-
portation systems: highway, rail, water, and air. All of these systems have

been influenced by the natural features of the area, especially the Columbia

River. From the times of the earliest settlers, the river has been the major

access route to the inland areas. The railroad follows the Columbia's south

bank. The busiest access road on a year-round basis is U.S. 30, the Columbia

River Highway. Highways in portions of the Washington counties also follow

the river; ocean shipping and inland barge traffic utilize the Columbia and

the major airport is located on estuarine lands near its mouth.

A. Highways
Three roads constitute the basic framework for the highway network.
Highway 101 is the main north-south corridor, linking the estuary with other
coastal points. It also provides the only highway link between Washington

and Oregon, west of Longview.

405-7

TABLE 405-2

Housing Census

Single Multi- Mobile
Family Family Seasonal Homes Total

Clatsop County 9282 2541 417 12240

Pacific County 5825 525 1764 8014

Wahkiakum,County 1122 82 63 1267

From: Harstad Associates, 1970
Howard et al., 1972
Meyers a-I., 1973
Pacific County, Dept. of Public Works, 1974

405-8

U.S. 30 provides the major connection between Astoria and the

manufacturing towns up the river, including Portland. S.R. 4 is the main
access route between the Washington beaches and Interstate 5 and the

Longview-Kelso area.
Land transportation services include cargo and passenger service.

Both Washington and Oregon portions of the estuary region are served by
several freight services. Passenger service is available in Clatsop

County only.

B. Railroads

The estuary is served by the Burlington Northern Railroad. There

are approximately fifty miles of single line track located along the south
bank of the river, within the estuary area; branches extend beyond Astoria
to Warrenton, Hammond, and Seaside. At this time, there is freight service
only. There has been no passenger service to the estuary area since 1949.

There is no rail service in either Wahkiakum or Pacific Counties.

C. Air

The Clatsop County Airport, located on the shores of Youngs Bay, is
the major airport for the estuary area. It provides regularly scheduled
passenger and freight service to Portland, and it has facilities for small,

private aircraft. Charter service is also available. There is a small

airport east of Ilwaco, with facilities for small planes, but it has no
commercial service. There is no airport in Wahkiakum County.
D. Water Transportation
Water transportation activities are dominated by the Columbia River.
However, federal waterway projects, as discussed in the physical alterations
section, include most major tributaries throughout the estuary, as well as
the Columbia River ship channel. Waterborne commerce includes dry cargo
ships and tankers, barges, log rafts, commercial fishing vessels and

pleasure craft.

405.4 UTILITIES

A. Water Systems
Under normal conditions, the existing water systems in the estuary
area are adequate. There are situations that may occur from either natural
or cultural influence, in which the water supply for some of the systems

405-9

may become dangerously low. Nature can cause the water supply to dry up,

to be rendered unusable, or to flow at such a low rate that domestic

consumption would be restricted. Cultural problems include higher than.

normal consumption (because of the influx of summer residents and tourists)

or an unexpected increased use of water by industry.

One potential source of water is the Columbia River. Although it

has large quantities of water, there are problems associated with its use
as a water supply. First, considerable effluent, some raw, some with only

primary treatment, is discharged into the river upstream; second, salt

water intrusion could dictate a water treatment plant no further downstream

than the Wauna area; third, should,there be a significant diversion of

water from upstream, it could be more expensive to the consumer to process

Columbia River water.

There are twenty-three water systems that are serving people in the
estuary region. Water for these systems is taken from streams, rivers, lakes,
springs,and groundwater. Specific data regarding major systems are

summarized in Table 405-3.

B. Public Utilities

1. Electrical Power

Currently, all electrical power in the estuary area is supplied by
the Bonneville Power Administration (B.P.A). In Clatsop County, it is dis-
tributed by Pacific Power and Light (P.P. & L.); Pacific County Public
Utility District No. 2 is the distributor for Pacific County; and Public
Utility District No. 1 of Wahkiakum County distributes electrical power in
Wahkiakum County. Electrical power can be purchased directly from B.P.A,

as Crown Zellerbach does at its Wauna mill.

The Lower Columbia River has been. studied for possible nuclear power
plant sites. While no sites have been designated for actual construction,
there are two that have been proposed. One site is in Wahkiakum County on

the Elochoman River, about four miles from Cathlamet. The other is in

Clatsop County near Brownsmead.

2. Natural Gas

Natural gas is supplied to the three county area by two different
companies. The Cascade Natural Gas Corporation serves Pacific and Wahkia-
kum Counties, and the Northwest Natural Gas Company serves Clatsop County.

405-10

TABLE 405-3

Clatsop Count

Westport Water Association
Existing Source: West Creek
Potential Source: Gnat Creek Artesian Aquifer
Plympton Creek
Capacity: estimated 187,000 g.d. (gallons per day)
Treatment: Chlorination

Wauna Water District
Source: Unnamed springs and streams
Capacity: No data
Treatment: None

Brownsmead Water District
Source: Mack Creek, Rock Creek
Potential Source: Gnat Creek Artesian Aquifer
Capacity: No data
Treatment: Hypo-Chlorination

Knappa Co-op Water Company
Source: Mill Creek
Potential Source: Big Creek/Astoria System
Capacity: No data
Treatment: Chlorination

Carmen Creek Water Association
Source: Carmen Creek
Capacity: At capacity 12,926 g.d.
Treatment: No data

Wickiup Water District
Source: Little Creek
Potential Source: Astoria System
Capacity: No data
Treatment: Chlorination

City of Astoria
Source: Bear Creek, Big Creek, Young's River
Capacity: No data
Treatment: Chlorination and Flouridation

Young's River-Lewis and Clark Water District
Source: Barney Creek
Capacity: Near Capacity
Treatment: Chlorination

Warrenton
Source: Lewis and Clark River
Potential Source: Seaside water system for emergencies
Capacity: No data
Treatment: Chlorination/flouridation and lime

405-11

Pacific County

Chinook Water Department
Source: Freshwater Creek
Capacity: 200,000 g.d.
Treatment: Chlorination and filtration

Ilwaco Water Department
Source: Black Lake
Capacity: 1,200,000 g.d.
Treatment: Filtration and Chlorination

Wahkiakum County

Cathlamet Water Department
Source: Elochoman River
Capacity: 504,000 g.d.
Treatment: Filtration and Chlorination

Gray's River Valley School
Source: Spring
Capacity: 86,400 g.d.
Treatment: None

Skamokawa-Silverman System
Source: Spring
Capacity: No data
Treatment: None

Sleepy Hollow Water Company
Source: Spring
Capacity: No data
Treatment: None

Westside Water Company
Source: Spring
Capacity: No data
Treatment: None

Wahkiakum County PUD Number 1
Source: Elochoman River (Cathlamet Water Department)
Capacity: 216,000 g.d.
Treatment: Filtration and Chlorination

405-12

3. Sewage Systems

sewage systems include the collection, treatment, and disposal of
sewage. The widely varying natural conditions and population densities

found in the area preclude a simple solution for sewage disposal. Where
population densities are high, an area-wide sewer system is a necessary

solution to the problem. In low density areas, individual, on-site dis-

posal systems often may be used. while on-site systems are often satis-

factory, there are a number of physical,constraints that affect the pro-

per functioning of a septic tank system. These constraints include

shallow soil depth to an impermeable layer, a seasonally high water table,
low soil permeability, periodic flooding, and very steep slopes.

Sewered areas in the estuary include Astoria, Warrenton, Ilwaco,

Cathlamet, the Crown Zellerbach mill at Wauna and the Tongue Point Job
Corps Center. The existing sewage systems and their discharge points are

summarized here.

Crown Zellerbach Corporation
Treatment: Secondary
Discharge Point: Columbia River

City of Astoria
Treatment: Secondary
Discharge Point: Columbia River, Youngs Bay

City of Warrenton
Treatment: Secondary
Discharge Point: Columbia River

Tongue Point Job Corps Center
Treatment: Primary
Discharge Point: Columbia River

City of Ilwaco
Treatment: Secondary
Discharge Point: Baker Bay

City of Cathlamet
Treatment: Secondary
Discharge Point: Columbia River

Other parts of the estuary area rely on septic tank systems forsewage disposal.

405-13

405.5 SCHOOLS

Within the boundaries of the estuary area are all or parts of

eight school districts. Included are five in Clatsop County, two in Pacific

County, and one in Wahkiakum County.
In additionto the public schools, there is one private school in

Astoria, Star of the Sea. Clatsop Community College is also located in

Astoria; several Associate Degrees are offered, as well as preparatory
courses for four-year institutions.

405.6 AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

clatsop, Pacific, and Wahkiakum counties are all operated under a
commissioner system of government. All of the municipalities have a mayor
and city council, and Astoria and Warrenton have city managers for adminis-

trative tasks.

All of the individual governments have some form of regulation over

the use of land. All but Wahkiakum County have zoning ordinances. Each,
except Pacific County and Ilwaco, has an existing comprehensive plan as the
framework for managing natural and cultural resources. Wabkiakum and
Pacific Counties also have Shoreline Management Programs, as required by the
Shoreline Management Act of 1972, which serve as regulatory tools for

control of shoreline development. The governmental characteristics are

summarized in Table 405-4.

405-14

TABLE 405-4

Governmental Characteristics

Date of Population Comprehensive Zoning
Incorporation 1970 Census Government Plan ordinance

Clatsop County Estab. 1844 28,473 3 Commissioners Yes, 1968 Yes
Pacific County Estab. 1851 15,796 3 Commissioners No Yes
Wahkiakum County Estab. 1845 3,592 3 Commissioners No No
Astoria 1876 10,244 Mayor, City Council, Yes, 1971 Yes
City Manager
Cathlamet 1907 631 Mayor, City Council Yes No
Hammond 1918 500 Mayor, Town Council Yes, 1976 Yes
Ilwaco 1891 506 Mayor, Town Council Yes Yes
Warrenton 1898 1,825 Mayor, City Council, Yes Yes
City Manager

From: Meyers et al., 1973

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405.7 REFERENCES

A. Columbia-Pacific Resource Conservation and Development Project.
1972. Resource Action Program.

General description of physical and social characteristics of
Grays Harbor, Pacific, and wahkiakum Counties. Emphasis is on
resources, both natural and cultural. Discussion of problems and
needs relating to each of the resources. Specific development
trend information includes housing, education, and transportation.

B. Harstad Associates, Inc. 1970. Wahkiakum County Water and Sewer
Study, prepared.for the Wahkiakum County Commissioners.
General examination of existing physical and social conditions
and water and sewer systems in Wahkiakum County. Information
includes population, water systems, and sewage disposal systems.

C. Howard, Paul and Michael Nicholson. 1972. Interim Housing Report,
District One, prepared by the Clatsop-Tillamook Intergovernmental
Council.

Discussion of existing housing, populations, and market condi-
tions in Clatsop and Tillamook Counties. Attempt to project housing
needs to 1985. Includes census data, employment data, and housing
inventory.

D. Meyers, Joseph D., Richard T. Leonard, and Oscar T. Granger. 1973.
A Plan for Land and Water Use, Clatsop County, Oregon: Phase I,
prepared for the Clatsop County Planning Commission and Board of
County Commissioners, prepared by Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill.
Survey and analysis of natural environment and existing develop-
ment and survey of public attitudes and goals. Development trend
information includes population, transportation, and utilities.

E. Pacific County Department of Public Works. 1974. Water Quality
Management Plan, Willapa Basin, prepared for the Pacific County
Regional Planning Council.
Examination of natural, economic, and cultural conditions in
Pacific County. Development of a comprehensive plan for the manage-
ment of water and sewage cdllection and disposal. Specific infor-
mation on water systems and sewage disposal facilities.

F. Robert E. Meyer Engineers, Inc. 1971. Preliminary Land Use Plan,
Pacific County, Washington, prepared for the Pacific County Regional
Planning Council.
Inventory of natural, economic, and cultural conditions, examina-
tion of areas where further studies are needed, showing priority
areas for planning. Development trends information includes popula-
rion trends, housing, transportation, water supply, sewage disposal
systems, and solid waste systems.

405-16

G. U.S. Department of Commerce, Housing Division. 1973. Oregon State-
wide Housing Element.
Examination of the status of housing in the State of Oregon.
Specifically identifies the need parameters of low and moderate
income families, elderly households, and minority households. Also
deals with the age and condition of the state's housing stock.

405-17

NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CTR LIBRARY

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