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ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT Proceedings of a Conference VOLUMEI CeSAS,.0t i0RiI,./ ~ ~N~RD~,~ CENTER ! , l, '..JUN . /a ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT ATA ONEt Proceedings FOMTIO CENT" ER of a Conference VOLUME I s\oe srv U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY OFFICE OF WATER PLANNING AND STANDARDS WASHINGTON, D.C. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413 cmCgs Property of CSC Library The contents of this publication do not reflect official policies of either the Environmental Protection Agency or any other governmental unit. Statements contained herein are to be ascribed solely to their authors. OVERVIEW PREFACE This report is designed to provide information Fla., from February 11 to 13. 1975. Numerous gov- that could be used to establish a national program ernment representatives were invited to attend. A for the prevention, reduction, and elimination of complete list of attendees appears in Appendix B. pollution in estuaries. The Environmental Protec- The meeting was organized to allow as much time tion Agency has attempted to identify important as possible for discussion. The intent was to provide estuarine problems by soliciting written state-of-the- contributors with additional information for inclu- knowledge reports from leading scientists working sion in the final version of their papers, and more in the field. During April 1974 EPA met with the importantly, to provide the conveners with a basis governing board of the Estuarine Research Federa- for preparation of a useful overview report. The tion (ERF), a professional society of some 1,500 symposium was divided into the following sessions: estuarine scientists. The purpose of this meeting was to request the Federation's participation in selecting Research Applications the most knowledgeable contributors. Estuarine Systems On May 30, 1974 an interagency ad hoc working Other Pollutants group was established to refine the reporting effort Dredging Effects approach and to establish the content and format Nutrients of the report. The group included representatives of Fisheries EPA, ERF, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Ports Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Industry the Smithsonian Institution, and various academic Power Plant Effects institutions. Public's Role From a list of possible contributors, 57 were Legal Aspects selected. Their efforts are included in the second Living and Non-Living Resources part of this report. A set of guidelines, developed Economics by the working group, was distributed to these Concluding Remarks. authors requesting a presentation of approximately 20 pages in a style aimed at a layman audience. In In order to capture the essence of the conference, selecting the authors, an attempt was made to pro- summaries of these sessions were prepared and vide a balanced representation from the academic, appear in this report. A committee was chosen governmental, and industrial communities, including from the participants to develop the conference differing or opposing points of view. format and prepare the summaries. This committee Additionally, a letter requesting information was included: sent to the National Association of Manufacturers, with specific letters to 23 member industries in the Dr. Robert Biggs, Assistant Dean, College of Marine Association. Further, those federal agencies with Studies, University of Delaware estuarine pollution control programs were formally asked to supply information for inclusion in the Dr. David Correll, Rhode River Program, Smith- study. With all requests for information, guidance sonian Institution in preparation was provided. All materials received are either summarized or included in tote as the Dr. John Costlow, Director, Duke University Individual Contributions section of this document. Marine Laboratory Each contribution was examined by a minimum Dr. L. Eugene Cronin, Associate Director for the of two outside reviewers selected by the Estuarine Research Center for Environmental & Estuarine Research Federation. Authors were provided with Studies, University of Maryland the reviewers' comments and encouraged to revise their manuscripts accordingly; however, revisions Dr. William P. Davis, Chief, Bears Bluff Field were not mandatory. Participating reviewers are Station, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency listed in Appendix A. Each contributor was invited to present a sum- Dr. David Flemer, Office of Biological Services, mary of his paper during a symposium at Pensacola, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service v vi ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Dr. M. Grant Gross, Director, Chesapeake Bay Dr. Albert Sherk, Office of Biological Services, Institute, the Johns Hopkins University U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service Prof. Jerome Williams, Associate Chairman, De- Dr. Thomas Hopkins, Chairman, Department of partment of Environmental Sciences, U. S. Naval Biology, University of West Florida Academy Mr. Kent Hughes, Special Assistant for Marine It is important to recognize that only a few of Science Environmental Data Service, National the individual authors had the opportunity to con- Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration tribute to or review the session summaries. It is hoped, however, that all points of view have been Mr. Robert Johnson, Office of Water Planning & accurately presented by the Committee. Standards, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency To more effectively popularize some of the con- cepts expressed in this report, a 28-minute motion Mr. Edward Langlois, President, Portland Harbor picture entitled "Estuary" has been prepared as a Pollution Abatement Committee, Portland, Ma in t production of NOAA and EPA. The film joint production of NOAA and EPA. The film illustrates aspects of estuarine pollution, associated ter, State University of New York at Stony Brook problems, and conflicts. It also attempts to describe ter, State University of New York at Stony Brook some approaches that have been, or could be utilized in addressing these problems. The film may be or- Dr. Joseph Mihursky, Chesapeake Biological Lab- dered from the NOAA Motion Picture Service, oratory, University of Maryland Rockville, Md. oratory, University of Maryland dered from the NOAA Motion Picture Service, Mr. Thomas Pheiffer, Annapolis Field Station, A compilation of all federally funded estuarine U. S. Environmental Protection Agency research projects is included in the index, prepared by the Technical Information Unit of EPA's Na- Dr. William Queen, Department of Biology, Mary- tional Field Investigations Center in Denver, Colo. land University The index, on microfiche, is presented as the third volume of this report. The size of the index neces- Mr. Kenneth Roberts, Resource Research Specialist, sitated this form of presentation to conserve space, Office of Living Resources, National Oceanic & paper, and printing costs. Atmospheric Administration Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Thomas Duke and his staff at the EPA Gulf Breeze Labora- Dr. J. R. Schubel, Director, Marine Sciences Re- tory, Pensacola, Fla., for their assistance in conduct- search Center, State University of New York at ing the symposium. Their efforts have contributed Stony Brook significantly to the success of the entire project. INTRODUCTION Estuarine systems often are politically, economi- Estuarine resources are demanded for many alter- cally, and ecologically complex, and major problems native uses such as waste assimilation, recreation cannot be solved by piecemeal action. Research, and esthetic enjoyment. Some 'uses complement planning and management of estuaries should be each other, many do not. In order to choose among strongly oriented toward the entire system, with competitive uses of estuarine resources, the benefits adequate consideration of the total watershed in- and the costs to society as a whole which arise from eluding land use and development as well as future alternative uses must be systematically evaluated. trends. vii SYMPOSIUM ISSUES A number of issues discussed at the EPA sympo- UTILIZATION OF ESTUARINE RESOURCES slum stand out as being particularly important in terms of effective estuarine management. These Utilization of estuarine resources was a concern issues are discussed in the summaries to follow and often expressed by the conference participants and are more thoroughly examined in the individual attendees. Generally, two areas of concern were papers included in the second part of this report. evident: (1) consumptive utilization of estuarine The three issues presented below are singled out waters and (2) discharges of nutrients, thermal because a number of the conference participants loadings, and fresh water to estuaries. Consumptive utilization of estuarine waters is a were motivated to discuss them at length in their nsupt untion o erin tria necessary support function for numerous industrial written and oral presentations. processes, and vast quantities are also required for municipal and public use. Adequate water quality DATA SYSTEMS must be maintained if this consumptive utilization is to continue. In few estuaries are the data sufficient to estab- However, concern was expressed regarding the lish historical trends in water quality. In no estuary concept of uniform discharge controls for all estu- is our knowledge of the prevailing processes adequate aries. A suggested alternative to this approach is to unequivocally assess the causes of any persistent to base effluent discharge controls on assimilative capacity of the individual estuary. The assimilative changes that may have occurred or may be occurring. capacity of the individual estuary. The assimilative capacity must be adequately defined in terms of the Therefore, monitoring programs are important and total flux of the estuary and the natural background must be continued, but they should be carefully levels of the pollutant being discharged. The objec- designed to provide data that will also be useful in tive should be to achieve the optimum use of each process-related studies. In light of our present inabil- estuarine system commensurate with the manner in ity to make quick assessments of existing estuarine which the system naturally functions. environmental quality and changes occurring in coastal areas, our present national data storage and DREDGING AND SPOIL DISPOSAL analysis systems must be re-evaluated. Additionally, it has become apparent that the utility of national Although estuaries are natural areas of rapid data repositories is questionable when large numbers sedimentation, man has dramatically increased the of users with many different needs are considered, sediment influx to many of them. Sediment inputs Multiple regional data centers are much more flexible associated with agricultural and construction efforts than a single system and therefore should be con- increase the need for maintenance dredging and sidered. The smaller size of regional centers would therefore should be controlled at the source. increase availability of regional data, increase the Because of the many different types of dredging Because of the many different types of dredging ficncr a y of regiomr sstes, ancrease t and disposal techniques, the different types of efficiency of the computer systems, and decreas dre dged material involved, and the great diversity dredged material involved, and the great diversity maintenance costs. On the other hand, increasing of estuarine environments, present chemical indices the number of computer centers necessarily increases for classifying dredged material must be expanded the work force, duplication of effort, and probably from simple numerical values for adequate nation- operating costs. wide application. viii RESEARCH NEEDS Particular research areas considered by the con- known. An accelerated effort to make these deter- tributors to require increased emphasis: minations is therefore required. 1. Estuarine Models-A review of estuarine 4. Microbial Populations-Research should be modeling programs, both mathematical and hy- supported to develop rapid techniques for detection draulic, identifying both their limitations and the of pathogens and for identification of more descrip- circumstances in which they can be most profitably tive microbial indicator organisms. utilized, is necessary. Greater emphasis should be placed on the formulation of conceptual models and 5. Natural Filters and Non-Point Sources-The on attaining a better understanding of the processes effect of natural ecological filters such as marsh that characterize the estuarine environment. areas on estuarine processes is not well understood. The possibility of practical application of this proc- 2. Identification of Toxic Materials-An increased ess in waste treatment, especially with regard to effort is needed to identify the toxic substances non-point sources, should be more fully investigated. introduced into the estuarine environment as a re- sult of man's activities. An assessment of acute and 6. Population Distribution Planning-A critical chronic effects of these substances and their behavior assessment should be made of the need to recom- in the estuarine environment is required. mend new types of controls required for population density in estuarine areas through appropriate zon- 3. Natural Abundance Variations-The effects ing and land use management. Zoning and land use of pollution on estuarine living resources cannot be planning may not be adequate to control population determined unless natural abundance changes are pressures in estuarine areas. . .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ SESSION SUMMARIES ESTUARINE SYSTEMS qualities of the shore zone (mixtures of land and seascapes) are as important in attracting people to Each estuary is unique and is a complete, complex the coastal estuaries as marine fish and shellfish, and unusually dynamic system, influenced by geo- waterfowl, and marsh furbearers. Potential aesthetic graphic location and seasonal variations. While impacts must be considered as well as biological, much useful knowledge has been gained from re- water quality and economic impacts. The conference search on the individual parts of estuaries and on participants recommend that regulatory agencies the separate processes which occur, some of the further develop criteria and guidelines to be used in most serious past failures in effective estuarine aesthetic assessments and institute research projects management have been caused by attempting to designed to provide information essential to these deal with problems as isolated events. Rather, the criteria (see Fig. 1). total estuarine system must be considered. Environmental protection policies and programs Recent research has made substantial contribu- are, for the most part, designed to prevent or mini- tions to our ability to analyze estuarine systems, and mize further environmental degradation. Unfortu- important progress is being made at several study nately, many estuarine areas became degraded before sites. Despite the diversity of estuaries, a study of these policies and programs were implemented. principal types, supplemented by local investiga- Recently, efforts have been made to rehabilitate tions to identify special problems can aid manage- some derelict areas. The participants suggest that ment of all estuarine systems. these rehabilitation efforts be continued and ex- Both estuarine management and estuarine system tended when possible, along with associated research research are hampered frequently by the political, on habitat rehabilitation. economic, and ecological complexity of the estuary. Piecemeal approaches are not as useful as a total approach, but cooperative attitude between govern- FISHERIES ments and business can produce beneficial estuarine management programs. Increased research on estu- Estuaries are an important part of the fishery aries as systems will prove to be of exceptional resource of the United States. Estuarine environ- practical value in our efforts to achieve a balance ments generally are biologically more highly produc- among the ever-increasing uses. tive per unit area than the open sea. About two- thirds of the commercial and recreational fish and shellfish of the United States spend important parts LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES of their lives, or their entire lives, in estuaries. Thus, management of these resources depends in large Serious public concern exists regarding the fate degree on maintenance of the quality of the estuarine of the nation's estuaries, and their attendant re- environment. sources. During the period 1965-1975, legislative Despite the acknowledged importance of estuaries and administrative bodies in coastal states acted to the fisheries of the nation, the effects of estuarine to protect living and non-living resources of estuaries pollution on the living resources are not well under- by banning indiscriminate destruction of estuarine stood. One complicating factor is that, although the marshes; by considering fish and wildlife values estuarine environment is rich biologically, it is also equally with economic, social and legal issues in a highly variable environment-a harsh environ- Federal decisions' affecting estuaries; andby recog- ment at times. This variability produces wide fluc- nizing living and non-living resource values in tuations in abundance of estuarine resources brought coastal zone planning. about by natural causes, and these variations usually Even though governmental authority to consider are impossible to distinguish from those caused by living and natural resources of estuaries has been human activities such as engineering works and strengthened, problems remain. As yet minimal con- fishing, as well as water pollution. As an example, sideration has been given to aesthetic values when Fig. 2 illustrates fluctuations in the abundance of the potential impact of; proposed actions within starfish in Long Island Sound for the years 1937 estuarine systems are evaluated. These aesthetic to 1961. x --(Selected)- l Resource Visual Intangible Managerial Institutional Type Attribute(s) Attribute(s) Implications Implications beach -sand qualities -molding by sea -exclusion or -town exclusionary -forms energy regulation of use vs. open public ...~, ~s ~-sweep -primordial state, structures use (visual access) geological -debris, trash, dune -public use of record buggy regulation private beaches as~-~~~~~~ ~l\~~ -user-capacity -maintenance funding determinations riverbank -landform -order given to -bank erosion pro- -conciliation of split configuration rural and urban tection jurisdictions over -vegetative land use -vegetative edge riverbank areas characteristics -natural corridor protection -administration of -space/closure provides physcho- -clearance and public access and patterns logical linkage planting management access acquisition to both source -urban area rehabili- region and sea tation bluff -landform face -impressiveness -exclusion or regu- -development of -crest patterns -sense of geo- lation of use on or legislative and -height logical process near crest and face administrative -sense of hazard -cautionary use of regulation of erosion protection bluff areas measures tidal -vegetative -sense of (urban) -prohibition of -development of marsh infrastructures endangerment dredging, filling legislative and -seasonal change -sense of sig- -regulation of administrative -wind imprints nificance in permitted, compatible regulation of -tidal changes estuarine eco- use marsh areas system FIGURE 1.-Selected aesthetic resource and problem definitions. xii ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 17i Undeniable direct proof probably will never be available. Results of experimental studies indicate 16 - that every possible effort must be made to control and, where possible, to mitigate estuarine water pollution. 14- DREDGING EFFECTS 13 - Although estuaries are areas of naturally rapid 12 - sedimentation, man has dramatically increased the 1- sediment influx to many estuaries through his activities, not only within the estuarine zone, but throughout the estuarine drainage basins. Increased 0o 10 -sediment inputs largely reflect increased erosion ~8 ( 1rates resulting from poor soil conservation practices associated with agricultural, strip mining, and con- c. v struction activities. Local production of biologically produced sediment within the estuary has been stimulated 'by discharges of nutrient-rich waste water and runoff from agricultural and urban areas. . 6 Coupled with this ever increasing sediment input is ,X the continuing requirement for deeper harbors to 5 - accommodate the newer, larger ships. The net effect has been a continual increase in dredging activity 4 - and cost as shown by Figure 3. While construction of reservoirs and other 3 - o engineering works occasionally has decreased the sediment inputs to some estuaries, the net effect 2 - \ l b has definitely been an increase in sediment loads. Significant progress has been made in controlling 1 - soil erosion in agricultural activities. Similar efforts 1937 40 45 50 55 60 YEAR FIGURE 2.-Variations in Long Island Sound sea star abun- o DOLLARS dance, 1937-61. CUBIC YARDS 200- x CUBIC YARDS Z At the same time, the marked variability of this c so- / 450 highly productive environment illustrates the resil- Z 0 ience of living resources and underscores their ability -q a ) to recover from catastrophic events occurring natu- 160- -400 o rally or of human origin. Only by examining sessile I resources like oysters and clams can we assess the . 140- -350 adverse effects of environmental degradation. Exist- < ing knowledge must be fully utilized in this assess- ment and supplemented with estimates of standing 120- -300 crop, commercial and recreational catches, 'renewal -r rates, and natural mortality for most of these 00- 250 resources. Despite the lack of data concerning the effects of 6'4 65 6'6 67 68 6'9 p 7'1 7,2 73 74 estuarine pollution upon living marine resources of FISCAL YEAR comnmmercial and recreational value, the net effects of water pollution can be presumed to be adverse. FIGURE 3. OVERVIEW' ' xiii in other areas must be intensified so that sedimenta- proach, because estuaries are highly diverse in their tion may be reduced significantly within two decades. assimilative capacity. Until the influx of sediments can be curbed, main- Nitrogen and phosphorus are considered the most tenance dredging still must be employed; however, important nutrients (see Fig. 4), but their relative disposal of these dredged spoils is also a problem influence varies within an estuary, both spatially compounded by the difficulty in defining "accept- and temporally. Some geographical areas (notably able" spoil for appropriate disposal sites. Alaska) are relatively free of nutrient problems, but Because of the many different types of dredging complacency can lead to future complications as and disposal techniques, the different types of experienced in many areas of the coterminous states dredged material involved, and the great diversity and isolated estuaries of Hawaii. of estuarine environments, present chemical indices Denitrification-nitrification, natural ecological for classifying dredged material must be expanded filters (frarshes and farm green belts), methods of from simple numerical values for adequate nation- fertilizer application, and processing of urban runoff wide application. are important research areas; however, drainage The conference participants advise that criteria basin needs must be dealt with on a regional or for classification of dredged materials should not be individual basis. based on concentrations of contaminants-neither total concentrations, nor reactive fractions. Rather INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS the guidelines should be based on the total amounts of contaminants actually available for biological As the United States evolved into an industrialized uptake-i.e. the concentration of the reactive frac- society, our ports became the hubs of industrial tions multiplied by the quantity of material to be activity in coastal regions. We now find ourselves dredged for any particular project. The suite of with major industrial centers dependent on water biological contaminants considered must be extended transportation but located on estuaries neither deep to cover all potentially toxic substances and patho- enough for modern ships, nor large enough to genic organisms. assimilate associated wastes. At the same time these estuaries are incredibly valuable as a biological- recreational natural resource. NUTRIENTS Industry depends on the estuary for waterborne tiransportation, for process water, or for products Most estuarine ecosystems are considered natural derived from estuarine waters or bottom sediments. nutrient storehouses. When the capacity of estuaries Refineries and petrochemical plants, crude oil to assimilate nutrients is exceeded, over-abundance handling, power utilities, iron and steel production, of nutrients can cause nuisance accumulations of paper manufacturing and sand and gravel extraction algae and rooted plants resulting in degradation of are the more important industries, most of which water quality. Natural sources of nutrients are project increased production during the next several mainly from upland drainage, while freshwater decades. Up to the present time, control of industrial streams are a source of dissolved and particulate effluents has been through the adoption of water forms of nutrients. Major manmade point sources of quality standards and/or daily load limitations. high nutrient concentrations include domestic sewage Another equally important consideration requires and- industrial wastes. Non-point sources typified that we reduce the impact of industrial pollution in by farms, forests, and urban runoff provide a our estuaries by assisting industrial centers to find high net yield of nutrients, adding significantly new, more environmentally acceptable sites. Re- to the total. More work is required to define the gional groups must initiate work on the identifica- relative importance of point and non-point nu- tion of the areas that can better accept the industrial trient sources as an aid in management control wastes now discharged into our estuaries. The decisions. Coastal Zone Management Act, P.L. 92-583, may A realistic nutrient management program should serve as an excellent vehicle to achieve this long- be based on factors that control the individual term objective. capacities of estuaries to assimilate nutrient inputs. These factors include physical processes such as the POWER PLANT EFFECTS rate of flushing and. biological prpceses such as nutrient cycling. A countrywide application of * Electrical energy production from the steam elec- standards to control maximum permissible nutrient tric station (SES) industry results in the need to concentrations may be a counterproductive ap- dissipate large quantities of heat. On the average, xiv ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL NO MACA "MA C Mt WAST"JI 1? MATER U. MASSIVE IANAT I NVASION f$fR9ST[NT SAIAIML LOCAL kuE - _BEUL-NCW (REEN ALGAlL ALGAL BLOOMS I0,000- 21.000- -100.000 4000- 10,000- A-. 0ooo- o000- /' -o.ooo FIGURE 4.-Phosphorus, nitrogen and organic carbon in the upper Potomac River from 1913-70. The top line gives plant nuisances (from Jaworski, Lear and Villa, 1972, Fig. 7). for every i megawatt of electricity produced, 1.7 5. Pumped-entrainment, pumped-entrapment megawatts of heat are rejected by an SES. This problems. corresponds roughly to a 33 percent energy conver- sion efficiency for a typical fossil fuel plant. Effi- Experience has indicated that at any given site, ciency of new fossil units is somewhat better, about one design or operating feature may be responsible 40 percent, while nuclear units achieve efficiencies for the most undesirable effects while at a different around 32 percent. site an entirely different design or operating feature Eventually, all of this heat must enter the atmos- is the problem. To achieve the best solutions and phere. Due to its large heat capacity water tradition- most effectively address the recognized problems, ally has been the "middle man" used to carry away the minimal acceptable impact must be determined. the heat. Water requirements for a single power In order to quantify any undesirable changes and plant installation have increased greatly in the last assess impacts, a standardized methodology for decade, due primarily to the increased size of new measurement and evaluation must be developed plants. and used. These quantitative effects and predictions Research has documented a number of undesirable must also be considered from a cost-benefit stand- site-specific, environmental and socio-economic im- point. Such predictions, incorporated into an eco- pacts from SES operations. These impacts have nomic model, would provide a powerful tool for been produced by a multiplicity of factors in addi- decision makers. The data also must be readily tion to temperature. The following factors have been retrievable or the major portion of its usefulness identified: will be lost. These step-by-step methodologies must be designed to achieve siting and operational pro- 1. Temperature cedures with the best environmental and socio- 2. Heavy metals leached from the power plant economic compatibilities (Fig. 5). heat exchangers 3. Biocides used to prevent fouling of the heat OTHER POLLUTANTS exchangers 4. Changes produced by the effect of large vol- A toxicant is any compound present in sufficient umes of water being discharged at high speeds. concentration to interfere with normal biological 1 OVERVIEW XV antifouling biocide or as a disinfectant in waste I NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY treatment still represents an area requiring addi- tional research effort. _W ; Another group of toxicants is represented by petroleum products which include a wide variety of NATIONAL SITING POLICY complex substances with an equally wide variety of impacts on estuarine systems (Figure 6). These im- pacts, aside from obvious aesthetic effects, range from immediate smothering to more subtle, chronic genetic modification of marine organisms. The REGIONAL PLAN estuary is most vulnerable to extreme impacts from petroleum because of bioaccumulation through the food chain. In addition, oils act to concentrate other pol- lutants such as metals and pesticides, thereby in- MATRIX OF SITING AREAS creasing the ecological hazards. Field studies must 1. Ocean 4. Lake be done in conjunction with laboratory investiga- 2. Estuary 5. Reservoir tions to determine the importance of these synergistic 3. River 6. Cooling Pond effects. The potential threat of carcinogenic petroleum 9*k substances transmitted into the human food chain from contaminated seafood products remains to be SPECIFIC AREA scientifically demonstrated. The rates of transfer and long range fate and effect of water soluble com- ponents of petroleum are also poorly known. Metals, too, pose complex problems in marine ecosystems, especially the estuaries. Although the SPECIFIC SITE Isediments can sometimes act as a sink for entrap- ment of metals, many times man's activities, _____ dredging for example, release metals back into the marine ecosystem potentially contaminating fisheries' |~SPECIFIC DESIGN |resources and possibly entering the human food SPECIFIC DESIGN chain. 1. COATING - | A. DIRECT KILL B. REDUCE RESISTANCE TO J OP ER. ATI IO N:N S*L ~- OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL . _ STRESSES. e.g. TEMPERATURE, DISEASES. OTHER POLLUTANTS PARTICULATEOIL SOLUBLE ' 2. OIL INGESTED OR INCORPORATED OIL j EMUSIFIED OIL ACROSS MEMBRANES. e.g. GILL SURFACES A. DIRECT KILL FIGURE 5.-Flow diagram for power plant siting consider DIOLVED PLANKTON B. SUBLETHALD FAILUREECTS (after nw l tg 2ACCOMODATED . PLANKTON 1. REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE tions (after Committee on Power Plant Siting, 1972). INTO WATER t/2. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS I [ / FAILURE 3. STRESSED AT DISADVANTAGE TO OTHER SPECIES e~g. functions. One of the major toxicant groups, the ABILITY TO AVOID PREDATOR f ~ [ ~/ ~ AND TO CAPTURE PREY. organochlorine compounds, enters the estuarine 4. DISRUPTION OF MIGRATION e ronen compo s, te SEDIMENTS -.-SHELLFISH e.g. SALMON environment primarily as a result of pest and weed control activities. Recent restrictions imposed on WORMS specific pesticides have triggered increased rates of EFFECTS ON MARKETING OF new herbicide and pesticide development and use. COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE SPECIES Unfortunately, the result has been that the produc-ATETCALLY UNPLEAANT I. TAINTING,ASTHETICALLY UNPLEASANT tion and application of these organochlorides has 2 HUMAN HEALTH HAZARD - POTENTIAL HAZARD: LITTLE KNOWLEDGE outpaced research to identify their harmful effects. Additionally, the significance of organochlorine FIGURE 6.-Pathways of oil incorporation into marine life compounds resulting from the use of chlorine as an and effects on marine life. xvi ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Fate and effect studies of metals and toxic corn- courage further development of taxonomists while pounds must be complemented with effective carefully conserving the human and material sys- monitoring efforts in the marine environment for tematic resources already existing. conclusive results. Only then can "safe levels" be established for elements in sediments, sludges, PORTS effluents, and edible species. Ports must meet environmental demands during RESEARCH APPLICATIONS a period when they are faced with abrupt changes in terminal design and operations. While increased Since microbial indicators are an "early-warning" costs affect the economic productivity of our ports, system of changes in an ecosystem, presently known port development will affect estuarine environmental microbes should be more efficiently utilized while quality. additional indicator organisms are investigated. An abundance of legislation with resulting guide- Early or chronic environmental effects may be lines, policies and regulations, is specifically focused detectable if the microbial indicators are employed on port and estuarine areas. In fact, 53 federal wisely and carefully. Increased emphasis should be agencies and bureaus administer the 69 different placed on the development of methods for the direct port-related activities. This partition of administra- measurement of pathogens. Combinations of indi- tive responsibility can require up to 550 individual cator organisms might be employed. The advantages steps in a permitting procedure. This tedious per- and disadvantages of each indicator organism should mitting process often causes confusion, delays and be determined so that each may be applied more additional expense. intelligently to environmental assessment. This is Studies indicate marked increase in port traffic, only one facet of a complex problem involving such as shown in Figure 7. This fact, coupled with changes mechanisms as genetic transfer of resistance factors in ship and terminal design has increased the need to potential human pathogens. Additionally, im- for dredging with its associated environmental im- proved methods for virus isolation and identification pacts. Therefore, environmental concerns associated and an understanding of virus survival in estuarine with ports are increasing and a study of the regional and coastal waters and sediments is required to port concept and the impact of offshore deepwater determine their usefulness as indicators. ports is essential. Another aspect of understanding estuarine systems involves identifying the interrelationship of the [] DOMESTIC physical, biological and chemical processes within O the system. Once understood, incorporation of these FOREIGN factors into numerical models would allow the prediction of trends and the effect of various abate- E TOTAL OF DOMESTIC & FOREIGN ment procedures, along with the establishment of 1 B-500 M appropriate monitoring sites. Unfortunately, at present our computational capabilities far exceed g g our knowledge of many of the required input ro ' parameters. Much research, therefore, is necessary e in the area of the fundamental processes for char- 1 B acterization in the models. Short-term efforts should o be directed toward field testing of the validity of existing models. g Assessment of the significance of persistent chemi- - cal residues in estuaries necessitates monitoring their 500 M existence, magnitude, and seasonality in the en- vironment. At the same time, information on the effects of various chemicals on significant species must be determined under controlled laboratory H conditions. 1 The data of systematics form the essential founda- 1947 1957 1962 1972 tion of all other biological disciplines, but the in- adequate number of taxonomists in the country is FIGURE 7.-Waterborne commerce in U.S., calendar years crucial. Thus it is important to support and en- 1947-72 in million of tons (2,000 lbs.). OVERVIEW xvii The participants and attendees at the conference LEGAL ASPECTS expressed appreciation of the importance of the National Environmental Policy Act and the value Over the past decade, the population of the United of the environmental impact statement required States has been rapidly shifting to the coastal areas therein. However, the following administrative areas of the nation. This movement, coupled with changing were identified as needing clarification: life patterns and progressive industrialization, urbanization, and development have influenced the 1. Permit application process-eliminate duplica- quality of estuaries along much of the coastal margin. tion of effort for the applicant. Efforts should be made to develop a set of national 2. Coordination among agencies administering population distribution guidelines which would serve the permitting program as a framework for regional, state, and local planning 3. Analysis of cost-benefit relationship-evalua- and development of land use management. tion of the economics and environmental impact. An improved level of coordination and planning among all levels of government could be effected by Where ports and ships are involved and the issue the establishment of a federal interdepartmental is clean water, the continuing problem involves estuarine task force, conceivably as an adjunct to proper disposal of ship generated oily waste, ballast the federal coordination responsibilities of the De- water, and sanitary waste. Additionally, oil spills partment of Commerce as provided for within the plague port operations and continue to degrade U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act. This task force estuarine ecology. This situation will continue so would be expected to identify existing federal laws long as vessels transport petroleum products within and policies affecting estuarine management and to the estuarine area. In spite of efforts to regulate synthesize them into a single federal policy for vessel traffic and train oil spill response teams, more uniform application throughout the federal estab- research on methods and operational procedures for lishment. spill prevention and control is necessary, including This is especially true with respect to the present the development of criteria for disposal of collected method of granting permits. A thorough examina- oil spill residues. tion of the present system should be implemented with an eye to the possible substitution of an inter- agency-state-federal panel that reviews the permits THE PUBLIC'S ROLE at all activity levels simultaneously. The task force should further examine the current administratively established federal wetland policy An important aspect of the total effort in de- and determine the need for legislative programs for creasing estuarine pollution is the active participa- wetland protection applicable to all federal activities, tion of the public. They not only are an integral grants-in-aid and regulatory programs. Investigation part of any attempt to maintain the health and use- should be made of the need for more specific legisla- fulness of estuaries, but also their health and welfare tion to provide federal impact aid assistance to are the keystone on which the entire anti-pollution coastal states, primarily in minimizing adverse en- program is constructed. vironmental effects and providing some degree of The public performs three important functions in control over the associated social and economic im- support of the estuarine environmental program. pact caused by the development of federal energy The first of these is to make their wants and needs resources. known to those who can translate these require- Concurrently, effective research and analytical ments into action. The second is to help in the setting support must be continued. This could still come of priorities in the use of estuarine resources. The from private institutions which have developed third is to accept the role of responsible citizens in expertise on the dynamics of entire estuarine sys- reporting violations to the proper authorities and reporting violations to the proper authorities and tems, or specific portions, and are thus in a position demanding appropriate response. To basic aproblems face the public. One is in to present specific information on proposed projects. Two basic problems face the public. One is inThreuaoygncsowvsoldotb the area of education and communication, while the The regulatory agencies, however, should not be other involves money. However, most public interest eitirely dependent on the presentation and analysis groups seem to be able to raise some funds when an of facts by outside parties. There also should be a important issue develops. Educating the public to continuing use of regulatory agency laboratories to the important issues may be the greater problem, produce an articulate program for the protection since some of the issues are not well understood. of estuarine systems. xviii ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ESTUARINE ECONOMICS CONCLUDING REMARKS One aspect of management resulting in continued One of the products of the Federal Water Pollu- degradation of the estuarine environment is that tion Control Act, Amendments of 1972, is the the major portion of the estuary is common property. National Pollution Discharge Elimination System, Since there is no individual ownership, there is no a permit system designed to control the flow of individual responsibility for protection and each harmful wastes into the nation's waters and elimi- user tends to consider his needs to the complete nate the introduction of all pollutants by 1985. disregard of all other users. This situation can be Because the issuance of permits has begun only improved by establishing an appropriate set of con- recently, and since all permits contain compliance trols to bring the private costs of using estuarine schedules to reduce waste flows, no evaluation can resources into line with their social costs, thus be made at this time of the immediate impact of preventing the estuary from being abused and this program. overstressed. Of equal significance in this nation's effort to An effective set of management techniques can control the degradation of estuarine areas is the be established by applying environmental standards. development and implementation of coastal zone Implementation could be effected by either rezoning management programs and procedures. This course or by legal regulations and ordinances. Another pos- of action has been effective in certain areas, but sibility, however is to levy an emission charge. It again, due to the recency of the program, there is can be demonstrated that the establishment of an not enough information available to quantitatively appropriate level of emission charge is a potentially evaluate its impact. effective device for limiting the discharge of waste To ensure that environmental protection efforts residuals into the estuary. A clear understanding initiated over the past decade retain public support, that the polluter must pay in proportion to the the impact of the programs must be well publicized amount of waste discharged is a strong incentive with concrete, understandable evidence. Aggressive to prevention of damage. educational programs, using all available media, A national policy on estuarine management is must be recognized as a fundamental and' top- based upon the principle that the federal govern- priority need. The wide gap between science and ment establishes minimum environmental standards, public policy in all environmental matters is most but that local areas should be encouraged to estab- likely to be closed, or at least narrowed, by an lish environmental quality standards more stringent educated and public-spirited constituency, oriented than the federal minimum. In keeping with this logically rather than emotionally toward environ- premise an attempt should be made to restrain mental management. irreversible estuarine development and to keep open The general consensus of the workshop was that as many options as possible for the future. Changing uniform application of water quality standards is technology plus increasing demand for recreation impractical and from an economic point of view, areas will probably increase the future value of un- undesirable. The participants support the viewpoint spoiled recreational resources and reduce the present that water quality standards, when developed from value of technology-intensive activities. existing criteria and information, should be based The value of estuaries to U.S. commercial and on specific locational parameters. These should in- sport fisheries cannot be overestimated. Despite this clude important biological species, climatological important life support function, estuaries have lost and hydrological features, hydrodynamic character- more than 7 percent of their fish and wildlife habitat istics of estuaries, and the existing quality of the to commercial and housing development over the environment. last two decades. In many coastal areas these In order to develop a multiple-use management developments proceeded without any evaluation of program within an estuarine area, it is essential the socio-economic impact. Examination of the large that the impact of pollution on one use be evaluated number of estimates of commercial and recreational as it affects other possible uses of the area. Figure 8 benefits associated with U.S. estuaries, reveals that presents, in general fashion, a description of impacts practically all are conceptually invalid since they arising from multiple usage. The table is intended measure private rather than public welfare gains, as a management tool strictly from the standpoint It is misleading and unjustified from the perspective of making early decisions with regard to evaluating of economic theory to value estuarine resources potential usage of an estuarine area. and defining solely in terms of market prices and not the public some of the possible conflicts arising therefrom. It welfare cost. could also assist significantly in the development OVERVIEW XiX Pathogens L __ A g A4 Sediments Color Sources Odor - Taste Sources 'Floatables O - . 0 0 t Heat g *- Fresh Water X X Toxic Inorganics Toxic Organics Petroleum Nutrients Radioactivity Oxygen Demand R Damage d Caution ' No Effect i Benefit FIGuRE 8.-Probable effects of pollutants. XX ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL of adequate water quality standards specific to a ten environmental regulations, standards, criteria geographic location. and guidelines at both the state and federal levels. In the final analysis, the participants agreed that Every effort must now be made to assess current the Nation has been partially successful over the conditions and capabilities and to use potential re- past 5-year period in retarding degradation of our sources and existing legislative tools to effect a estuarine zone. This has largely been accomplished national program for the prevention, reduction, and through the application of new waste treatment elimination of pollution in estuaries. technologies, and the implementation of newly writ- . b .. . .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~i APPENDIX A LIST OF REVIEWERS Abbott, Marie--Marine Biology Labs, Gray Mu- Douglas, Peter-State Capitol Center, California seum Edwards, Robert L.-North Atlantic Fisheries Re- Abbott, R. Tucker-Delaware Museum of Natural search Center History Evans, Evan C.-Kanohe, Hawaii Able, Robert-Director, National Sea Grant Pro- Ferguson, Randolph L.-U.S. National Marine gram (NOAA) Fisheries Service Alexander, Timothy-Office of Coastal Zone Fisher, Anthony C.-University of Maryland Management Flemer, David A.-Deptartment of Interior Armstrong, Neil-University of Texas Fruh, Gus-University of Texas at Austin Bailey, Wilfrid C.-University of Georgia Gross, Grant-Johns Hopkins University Banta, John S.-The Conservation Foundation Hansen, Peter J.-U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Baptist, John P.-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Hartman, Michael R.-Bechtal Power Corporation, Service Maryland Bardach, John-Hawaii Institute of Marine Bi- Hedgpeth, Joel-University of Pacific ology Henry, Vernon-Skidaway Institute Bauer, Ernest T.-U.S. Maritime Administration Hersh, George-Berkeley, California Becker, Paul-Waterways Experiment Station, Mis- Herz, Michael-Fort Mason sissippi Herzog, Henry W., Jr.-University of Tennessee Bender, M. E.-Virginia Institute of Marine Science Higgins, Robert P.-Smithsonian Oceanographic Bennett, Harry-Louisiana State University Commission Bodovitz, Joseph-California Coastal Zone Conser- Ho, Clara L.-Louisiana State University vation Commission Holland, A. Fred-Martin Marietta Laboratories Bookhout, C. G.-Duke University Hubbell, David-U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Boyer, Walter C.-Port of Maryland Huggett, Robert J.-Virginia Institute of Marine Bromley, Daniel-University of Wisconsin Science Bruce, Herb-Auke Bay Laboratory, Alaska Hunt, John M.-Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- Bunting, Robert-Texas A & M University tute Burbank, William-Emory University Huntsman, Gene R.-U.S. National Marine Fisher- Butler, Philip A.-Environmental Protection Agen- ies Service cy, Gulf Breeze Laboratory Huntsman, Susan-Duke University Marine Labo- Carpenter, Edward-Woods Hole Oceanographic ratory Institute Jennings, Anne R.-South Carolina Environmental Chave, Keith-University of Hawaii Coalition, Inc. Chestnut, A. F.-University of North Carolina Jones, Galen-University of New Hampshire Clark, John-The Conservation Foundation Jones, James I.-Florida State Division of Planning Copeland, B. J.-North Carolina State University Ketchumn, Bostwick-Woods Hole Oceanographic Costlow, John D.-Duke University Marine Lab- Institute oratory Kirby, Conrad J.-U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coull, Bruce C.-University of South Carolina Kjerfve, B.-University of South Carolina Coutant, Church-Oak Ridge National Laboratory Kuenzler, Edward J.-University of North Carolina Cronin, Eugene--Chesapeake Bay Marine Labora- Lammie, James L.-Harding-Lawson Associates, tory California Dame, Richard-Coastal Carolina Lewis, Robert-Bonneville Power Commission, Or- Davis, Jackson-Virginia Institute of Marine egon Science Lippson, Robert-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Davoren, William-California Coastal Zone Con- Service servation Commission Liston, John-University of Washington de la Cruz, Armando-Mississippi State Litsky, Warren-University of Massachusetts xxi xxii ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL McErlean, Andrew-Environmental Protection A- Scott, Carleton-Union Oil Center, California gency, Washington, D.C. Sharp, James M.-Gulf University Research Con- Maturo, Frank J.-University of Florida sortium Menzel, R. Winston-Florida State University Slanetz, L. W.-University of New Hampshire Metcalf, T. G.-University of New Hampshire Smith, Roland F.-U.S. Department of Commerce Morita, Richard-Oregon State University Stead, Frank M.-Environment Management, Cali- Murphy, Donald G.-National Institute of Health fornia Nadeau, Royal J.-Edison Water Quality Resources Stinner, John E.-California Department of Fish Center, New Jersey and Game Nakamura, Eugene L.-U.S. National Marine Fish- Stone, Richard B.-U.S. National Marine Fisheries eries Service Service Nichols, Maynard-U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Storrs, Phil-Engineering/Science Inc. Olcoh, Harold-University of California at Davis Stutzman, Carl-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pacheco, Anthony-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Thayer, G. W.-National Marine Fisheries Service Service True, Howard-Environmental Protection Agency, Pilkey, Orrin-Duke University Athens Laboratory Power, Garrett-University of Maryland Watling, Leslie-Univetsity of Delaware Pritchard, Don-Johns Hopkins University Wilce, Robert-University of Massachusetts Reese, Charles-Environmental Protection Agency Williams, Austin B.-U.S. National Marine Fisher- Ropes, John-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service ies Service Rosenfield, Aaron-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Windom, Herbert-Skidaway Institute of Oceanog- Service raphy Ruzecki, E. P.-Virginia Institute of Marine Science Wolfe, D.-U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service Schubel, J. R.-State University of New York Zaneveld, Jacques S.-Old Dominion University APPENDIX B LIST OF ATTENDEES EPA CONFERENCE ON ESTUARY Robert B. Biggs POLLUTION CONTROL College of Marine Sciences University of Delaware February 11-13, 1975 Newark, Dela. 19711 (302) 738-2842 Ken Adams Environmental Protection Agency John W. Blake 401 M St., S. W. (WH-448) United Engineers' Washington, D. C. 20460 421 Old State Road (202) 245-3045 Berwyn, Pa. 19312 (215) 422-3880 A. Spence Autry Tampa Electric Company Lawrence Blus P.O0. Box 111 .LarlMd P. O. Box III . . Patuxent Wildlife Res. Ctr. Tampa, Fla. 33601 Laurel, Md. (813) 876-4111 (301) 776-4880 Alston C. Badger Frank C. Boerger P. 0. Box 368 San Francisco Dredging Committee Johns Island, S. C. 29455 World Trade Club, Room 303 (803) 559-0371 San Francisco, Calif. 94111 ~~~Yates M. Barber ~Frank H. Bollman Yates M. Barber National Marine Fisheries Service Devel opment & Resourcs Corp. NOAA 455 Capitol Mall, Suite 675 Sacramento, Calif. 95814 Washington, D. C. (916) 444-6540 (202) 6 3 4 ~~~~~~~~~(916) 444-6540 (202) 634-7490 Patrick Borthwick Richard J. Barlow EPaiGulf Breeze Lab. State of Connecticut Sabin e Island Department of Environmental Protection Gu lf Breeze, Fla. 32561 Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 Hartford, Conn. (904) 932-5326 (203) 566-3282 Gordon C. Broadhead Bert H. Bates, Jr. Living Marine Resources, Inc. 2318 Center Street 11339 Sorrento Valley Road Dear Park, Tex. San Diego, Calif. 92121 (713) 479-5981 (714) 453-4871 John C. Belcher Lewis R. Brown Dept. of Sociology Assoc. Dean, College of Arts and Sciences University of Georgia Mississippi State College Athens, Ga. 30602 P. 0. Drawer CU (404) 542-2706 Mississippi State, Miss. 39762 (601) 325-2644 Peter Bibko Westinghouse Envir. Systems W. D. Burbanck P. 0. Box 1899 Dept. of Biology Pittsburgh, Pa. Atlanta, Ga. (412) 256-5919 (404) 377-2411 xxnl xxiv ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Philip A. Butler John Costlow EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Duke University Marine Lab. Sabine Island Beaufort, N. C. 28516 Gulf Breeze, Fla. John A. Couch Clyde S. Carman, Director EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Energy Technology Center Sabine Island University of Arkansas Gulf Breeze, Fla. (501) 575-2853 Allan M. Crane James H. Carpenter Bears Bluff Field Station University of Miami 10RieUniversity of Miami Johns Island, S. C. 29455 10 Rickenbacker Causeway Miami, Fla. 33149 (305) 350-7211 L. Eugene Cronin University of Maryland Melbourne R. Carriker Chesapeake Biological Lab. University of Delaware Marine Laboratory Bay Ridge Lewes, Dela. 19958 Annapolis, Md. 21403 (302) 645-6674 ; (301) 326-4281 James Cati John Clark The Conservation Foundation 401 MEPA Headquarter St., S. 1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. 401 M St*n S. W. Washington, D. C. 20036 Washington, D. C. 20460 (202) 265-8882 (202) 245-3040 John H. Cumberland Department of Biology Bureau of Business & Economic Research The American University University of Maryland Washington, D. C. 20016 College Park, Md. 20742 (202) 686-2177/2091 (301) 454-2304 Rita R. Colwell Earl Waltar Davey Department of Microbiology EPA Lab. University of Maryland Narragansett, R. I. 02882 College Park, Md. 20752 (401) 789-3346 (301) 454-5377 William P. Davis Gary Cook Bears Bluff Field Station EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Johns Island, S. C. 29455 Sabine Island Gulf Breeze, Fla. William S. Davis EPA Headquarters B. J. Copeland 401 M St., S.W. (WH-449) N. C. Sea Grant Program Washington, D. C. 20460 N. C. State University (202) 245-3030 1235 Burlington Labs Raleigh, N. C. 27606 Carole L. DeMort (919) 737-2454 University of North Florida David L. Correll Thomas W. Duke Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. RR# 4, Box 622 Sabine Island Edgewater, Md. 21037 Gulf Breeze, Fla. Robert Corey William H. Espey Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies Espey, Houston & Assoc., Inc. RR#4, Box 622 500 West 16th Street Edgewater, Md. 21037 - Austin, Texas 78701 OVERVIEW XXV Fred S. Farr Philip S. Goodman % Horan, Lloyd, Dennis & Farr 411 West End Avenue Camino Aquajito at 5th Street New York, N. Y. Monterey, Calif. 93940 (408) 373-4131 Seymour P. Gross Delaware River Basin Commission Hans A. Feibusch FWillingboro, N. J. Environmental Impact Planning Corporation 319 11th Street M. Grant Gross San Francisco, Calif. 94103 Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, Md. John H. Finucane Bartlette Hague National Marine Fisheries Service EPA-Region I Panama City, Fla. 2203 J. F. Kennedy Bldg. Boston, Mass. 02203 Hugo B. Fischer Dept. of Civil Engineering John B. Hall, Jr. 412 O'Brien Hall NASA Langley Research Center University of California 217K Hampton, Va. 23665 Berkeley, Calif, 94720 (804) 827-2717 (415) 642-6774 John R. Hall David A. Flemer National Marine Fisheries Service/EAD US Fish & Wildlife Services P. O. Box 4218 Department of Interior Panama City, Fla. Washington, D. C. 20240 (202) 343-8032 Roy W. Hann, Jr. Texas A&M University Paul L. Fore College Station, Tex. 77843 EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. (713) 845-3011 Sabine Island Gulf Breeze, Fla. William Hargis, Director Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Jerrold Forester (804) 642-2111 EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Sabine Island Ivan Harjehausen Gulf Breeze, Fla. Fish & Wildlife Service 19th & C Sts., N.W. Robert C. Foster Washington, D. C. Bureau of Land Management (202) 743-4397 1001 Howard Avenue New Orleans, La. Tom Hart Florida Coastal Coord. Council Gary Gardner 1823 Wales Drive EPA-Region III Tallahassee, Fla. 6th & Walnut Sts. Philadelphia, Pa. 19106 Jeff Havel (215) 597-9390 3830 Forest Drive Columbia, S. C. Joe Gill, Jr. Mississippi Marine Resource Council Joel W. Hedgpeth P. O. Box 497 256 Alma Avenue Long Beach, Miss. Rohnert Park, Calif. 94928 (707) 475-8734 Robert C. Glassen Dept. of Oceanography Tom Heitmuller Florida State University Bionomics Marine Lab. Gainesville, Fla. Pensacola, Fla. xxvi ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Marc J. Hershman Loren Jensen 56 Law Center Ecological Analysts, Inc. Louisiana State University 600 Wyndhurst Avenue Baton Rouge, La. Baltimore, Md. 21210 (301) 435-4000 D. Heyward Hamilton, Jr. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission Freia K. Kershow DBER-ERDA RFD, Box 419 Washington, D. C. Annapolis, Md. 21403 Jeff Kirkpatrick C. E. Kindsvater P. 0. Box 13246 U. S. Geological Survey Cap. Station Reston, Va. 22092 Austin, Tex. 78711 (512) 475-6331 Edward Langlois Maine State Pier Terry Hofstra 40 Commercial St. EPA-Region VI Portland, Maine 04111 1600 Patterson St. (207) 773-5608 Dallas, Tex. 75201 G. Fred Lee C. George Hollis University of Texas at Dallas Memphis State University P. 0. Box 688 Memphis, Tenn. Richardson, Tex. 75080 (214) 690-2111 Terry Hollister Bionomics Marine Lab. Eldon Levi Rt. 6, Box 1002 National Marine Fisheries Service Pensacola, Fla. Route 11, Box 318 Pensacola, Fla. Donald W. Hood Institute of Marine Science Larry Lewis University of Alaska Mississippi Marine Resources Council Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 P. 0. Box 497 (907) 479-7531 Long Beach, Miss. Mary A. Hood Robert C. Lewis University of West Florida P. 0. Box 3621 Pensacola, Fla. Portland, Oregon (503) 234-3361 Ext. 5124 Sewell Hopkins Texas A&M University Jeffrey L. Lincer Bryan, Texas 77801 Mote Marine Lab. (713) 845-6131 9501 Blind Pass Road Sarasota, Fla. 33581 Thomas S. Hopkins (813) 921-6661 Dept. of Biology University of West Florida Mark Lindberg Pensacola, Fla. 32504 Bionomics Marine Lab. Kent Hughes Pensacola, Fla. Environmental Data Services James E. Lipe Room 555 Monsanto Textile Co. Department of Commerce P. 0. Box 12380 Washington, D. C. 20235 Pensacola, Fla. 32575 (202) 634-7393 Robert J. Livingston Harold D. Irby Dept. of Biological Science Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. Florida State University John H. Reagan Bldg. Tallahassee, Fla. 32306 Austin, Tex. 78736 (904) 644-1466 OVERVIEW XXVii Norman Lovelace Kumas Mahadevan EPA Headquarters Department of Oceanography 401 M St., S.W. Florida State University Washington, D. C. 20460 Tallahassee, Fla. (904) 644-6700 Jack I. Lowe EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Roy Mann Sabine Island Roy Mann Associates, Inc. Gulf Breeze, Fla. 180 Franklin Street Cambridge, Mass. 02139 John Ludwigson (617) 492-2050 Nautilus Press 1056 National Press Bldg. Norman Meade 2020 F St., N.W. EPA, CM #2 Washington, D. C. 401 M St., S.W. (RD-690) o(202) 347-6643 Washington, D. C. 20460 (202) 557-7480 Maurice P. Lynch Virginia Institute of Marine Science Wston Menzel Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Dept. of Oceanography (804) 642-2111 Florida State University Tallahassee, Fla. Angus MacBeth (904) 644-6700 Natural Resources Defense Council 15 West 44th St. llaB.Mres William B. Merselis 15 West 44th St. Y1707 E. Vermont Avenue ~New York, N. Y. 10036 ~Anaheim, Calif. 92803 Victor T. McCauley (714) 772-2811 EPA (WH-449) 401 M St., S.W. Joseph Mihursky Washington, D.C. C20460 Chesapeake Biological Lab. WsiC(202) 245-3030 University of Maryland Solomons, Md. 20678 Andrew McErlean EPA-OES D. K. Mitchell EPA-OES ~~~~~~~Monsanto Company 401 M St., S.W. Monsanto Company Washington, D. C. 20460 P. O. Box 12830 Pensacola, Fla. J. L. McHugh (904) 968-6311 Ext. 7803 Marine Science Research Center James C. Moore State University of New York EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Stony Brook, L. I. 11790 Sabine Island (516) 246-3449 aieIln ~~~~~(516) 246-3449 ~Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 (904) 932-5326 R. Merrill McPhearson (904) 932-5326 P.O. Box 158 P. 0. Box 158 Robert E. Moore Dauphin Island, Ala. f State of Connecticut Dept. of Environmental Protection Ming-Yu Li Durham, Conn. Department of Environ. Tox. (203) 566-5760 University of California Davis, Calif. 95616 Frank Moseley (916) 752-2562 P. 0. Box 2121 Corpus Christi, Tex. Elliot A. Macklow National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Alan I. Mytelka Administration Interstate Sanitation Commission 6010 Executive Blvd. 10 Columbus Circle Rockville, Md. 20852 New York, N. Y. (301) 496-8921 (212) 582-0380 xxviii ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Eugene L. Nakamura William H. Queen National Marine Fisheries Service Dept. of Botany P. O. Box 4218 University of Maryland Panama City, Fla. 32401 College Park, Md. 20752 (904) 234-6541 (301) 454-3824 Frank P. Nelson Ben Ribelin 3830 Forest Drive 325 John Knox Road Columbia, S. C. Suite C-135 Tallahassee, Fla. Gary L. Nelson (904) 488-8281 National Marine Fisheries Service P. O. Box 4218 Stanley Riggs Panama City, Fla. 32401 Dept. of Geology East Carolina University Larry Olinger P. O. Box 2751 EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. Greenville, N. C. 27834 Sabine Island (919) 758-3636 Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 (904) 932-2204 Kenneth R. Roberts Living Marine Resources Office Rod Parrish (MR-2) Bionomics Marine Research Lab. NOAA Rt. 6, Box 1002 6010 Executive Blvd. Pensacola, Fla. 32507 Rockville, Md. 20852 (904) 453-4339 (301) 496-8471 Sam R. Petrocelli Reginald G. Rogers Bionomics Marine Lab. EPA-Gulf Breeze Rt. 6, Box 1002 Sabine Island Pensacola, Fla. 32507 Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 (904) 456-4579 (904) 932-2204 Thomas H. Pheiffer Pete Rogerson Annapolis Field Office EPA-Marine Water Quality Lab. Annapolis Science Center Narragansett, R. I. 02882 Annapolis, Md. 21401 (401) 789-7604 (301) 268-5038 William Seaman, Jr. Harriette Phelps Florida Sea Grant 1331 H St., N.W. 2001 McCarty Hall Washington, D. C. 20005 Gainesville, Fla. 32011 (202) 727-2744 (904) 392-1806 Frank X. Phillips Douglas B. Seba Fla. Dept. of Pollution Control EPA-NFIG Tallahassee, Fla. Box 25227 (904) 488-6221 Denver Federal Center Denver, Colo. 80225 J. T. Pittman (303) 234-4884 N. C. Dept. Admin. 217 W Jones St. Robert Schoen Raleigh, N. C. U. S. Geological Survey (919) 829-2290 Reston, Va. 22092 Stephen Purvine William W. Schroeder U. S. Coast Guard University of Alabama 400 7th St., S.W. Dauphin Island Sea Lab. G-WEP Box 386 Washington, D. C. Dauphin Island, Ala. 36528 (202) 426-9573 (205) 861-3702 OVERVIEW XXiX Jerry R. Schubel Bruce Turner Marine Sciences Research Center Conrad Bldg. State University of New York Florida State University Stony Brook, N. Y. 11790 (904) 644-3700 (516) 246-6543 George Valiulis Jay Shapiro Westinghouse Environ. Systems University of Alabama P. 0. Box 1899 Dauphin Island Sea Lab. Pittsburgh, Pa. 15230 Box 386 (412) 256-5858 Dauphin Island, Ala. 36528 Charles P. Vanderlyn Charles P. Vanderlyn Leonard W. Shaw EPA Headquarters Bureau of Outdoor Recreation 401 M St., S.W. Dept. of Interior Washington, D. C. 20460 Washington, D. C. 20240 (202) 245-0581 (202) 343-7554 ~~~~(202) 343-7554 ~Peter Van Slyke EPA Headquarters J. Albert Sherk 401 M S S.W. U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service W hi t., D. C 20460 Washington, D. C. 20460 Office of Biological Services (202) 245-0581 Dept. of Interior Washington, D. C. 20240 John Vernberg (202) 343-8032 University of South Carolina Belle W. Baruch Institute Bill A. Simco Columbia, S. C. 29208 Department of Biology Memphis State University William W. Walker Memphis, Tenn. 38152 EPA-Gul f Breeze Lab. (901) 454-2955 ~~~~~EPA-Gulf Breeze Lab. (901) 454-2955 Sabine Island Sabine Island Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 Joseph L. Simon Dept. of Biology David C. White University of South Fla. 310 Nuclear Science /n 1 o\ no X no no ~~~~30 l N uclear Science (813) 974-2686 Florida State University Tallahassee, Fla. Vernon Smylie (904) 644-5027 902 600 Building P. 0. Box 1414 Robert D. Wildman Corpus Christi, Tex. 78403 425 13th St., N.W . (512) 882-2762 Washington, D. C. (202) 967-4562 J. Kevin Sullivan Rt. 4, Box 622 Jerome Williams Edgewater, Md. 21037 Environmental Sciences Dept. (301) 261-4190 U. S. Naval Academy Annapolis, Md. 21402 Dennis P. Tihansky (301) 267-3561 EPA Headquarters 401 M St., S.W. Sam Williams Washington, D. C. 20460 EPA Headquarters (202) 557-7480 401 M St., S.W. Washington, D. C. 20460 Howard A. True (202) 245-3012 Surveillance & Analysis Div. EPA-Region IV John Winn Athens, Ga. 30601 P. 0. Box 2288 (404) 546-3139 Mobile, Ala. 36628 xxx ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL James F. Wright 1384 Shoreline Drive Delaware River Basin Comm. Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 Willingboro, N. J. (904) 932-3161 (609) 883-9500 John R. Yearsley Program Manager EPA-Region X 1200 Sixth Avenue Seattle, Wash. 98101 Robert J. Johnson (206) 442-0887 EPA (WH-449) 401 M Street S.W. William T. Young Washington, D. C. 20460 Fla. Dept. of Poll. Control (202) 245-3030 APPENDIX C LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS A. Spencer Autry Lewis R. Brown Tampa Electric Company College of Arts & Science P. 0. Box 111 Mississippi State College Tampa, Fla. 33601 P. 0. Drawer CU Mississippi State, Miss. 39762 John C. Belcher Dept. of Sociology Philip A. Butler University of Georgia EPA Gulf Breeze Lab. Athens, Ga. 30602 Sabine Island Robert B. Biggs Gulf Breeze, Fla. 32561 College of Marine Studies R. J. Callaway University of Delaware Univewarsity, Delawae 1Coastal Pollution Branch Pacific Northwest Environmental John W. Blake John W. Blake ~~~~~~Research Laboratory (EPA) U~nited Engineers Corvallis, Ore. 97330 421 Old State Road Berwyn, Pa. 19312 James H. Carpenter 10 Rickenbacker Causeway Lawrence J. Blus University of Miami Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Miami, Fla. 33149 Laurel, Md. 20810 Melbourne Carriker Frank Boerger University of Delaware Marine Laboratory San Francisco Dredging Comm. Lewes, Dela. 19958 World Trade Club, Room 303 San Francisco, Calif. 94111 Michael A. Champ Department of Biology Frank Bollman The American University Development & Resources Corp. Washington, D. C. 20016 455 Capitol Mall, Suite 675 Sacramento, Calif. 95814 John Clark The Conservation Foundation John J. Bosley 1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. 8412 McGruder Court Washington, D. C. 20036 Bethesda, Md. 20034 Rita R. Colwell Morris L. Brehmer Department of Microbiology Virginia Electric Power Company University of Maryland P. 0. Box 2666 College Park, Md. 20752 Richmond, Va. 23261 B. J. Copeland Gordon C. Broadhead North Carolina State University Living Marine Resources, Inc. 1235 Burlington Labs 11339 Sorrento Valley Road Raleigh, N. C. 27606 San Diego, Calif. 92121 David Cori-ell Ralph H. Brooks Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmetltal Studies Pacific Gas & Electric Co. RR #4 77 Beale Street Box 622 San Francisco, Calif. 94106 Edgewater, Md. 21037 xxxi xxxii ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL L. Eugene Cronin J. E. Hobbie 12 Mayo Avenue North Carolina State University Bay Ridge 1235 Burlington, Labs Annapolis, Md. 21403 Raleigh, N. C. 27606 John H. Cumberland Donald W. Hood Bureau of Business and Ecological Research Institute of Marine Science University of Maryland University of Alaska College Park, Md. 20742 Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 William P. Davis Sewell H. Hopkins Bears Bluff Field Station 709 Garden Acres Johns Island, S. C. 29455 Bryan, Tex. 77801 William H. Espey Espey, Houston & Assoc., Inc. Thomas S. Hopkins 500 West 16th Street Box 615, Rt. 3 Austin, Tex. 78701 Clear Creek Drive Pensacola, Fla. 32504 Fred S. Farr % Horan, Lloyd, Dennis & Farr HaroldD. Irby Camino Aquajito at 5th St. 6907 Grove Crest Drive Monterey, Calif. 93940 Austin, Tex. 78736 John W. Farrington Loren D. Jensen Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst. Ecological Analysts, Inc. Woods Hole, Mass. 02543 600 Wyndhurst Ave. Baltimore, Md. 21210 Hans A. Feibusch Environmental Impact Planning Corporation Robert J. Kalter 319 11th Street Cornell University San Francisco, Calif. 94103 445 Warren Hall Ithica, N. Y. 14850 Hugo B. Fischer Dept. of Civil Engineering J. A. Kerwin 412 O'Brien Hall Patuxent Wildlife Research Ctr. University of California Laurel, Md. 20810 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Edward Langlois J. J. Goering Maine State Pier Inst. of Marine Science 40 Commercial St. University of Alaska Portland, Maine 04111 Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 G. Fred Lee Roy W. Hann - ; University of Texas at Dallas Environmental Engineering P. O. Box 688 Civil Engineering Dept. Richardson, Tex. 75080 Texas A&M College Station, Tex. 77843 Ming-Yu Li William J. Hargis - Dept. of Envir. Tox. Virginia Institute of Marine Sci. University of California Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Jeffrey L. Lincer Joel W. Hedgpeth - Mote Marine Lab. 256 Alma Avenue 9501 Blind Pass Road Rohnert Park, Calif. 94928 Sarasota, Fla. 33581 Marc J. Hershman Robert J. Livingston 56 Law Center Dept. of Biological Science Louisiana State University Florida State University Baton Rouge, La. Tallahassee, Fla. 32306 OvERVIEW Xxxiii Maurice P. Lynch Erman A. Pearson Virginia Institute of Marine Sci, University of California Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Dept. of Civil Eng. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 J. L. McHugh Marine Science Research Center Sam R. Petrocelli State University of N. Y. Bionomics Marine Lab. Stony Brook, N. Y. 11790 Route 6 Box 1002 Angus MacBeth Pensacola, Fla. 32507 Natural Res. Def. Coun. 15 West 44th Street Stanley Riggs New York, N. Y. 10036 Dept. of Geology East Carolina University P. 0. Box 2751 Roy Mann Roy RM/ann Assoc., Inc. Greenville, N. C. 27834 180 Franklin Street J. R. Schubel Cambridge, Mass. 02139 JMarin Science Re Ctr. State University of New York Norman F. Meade Stony Brook, N. Y. 11790 EPA Headquarters 401 M Street., S.W. (RD-690) Stephen V. Smith Washington, D. C. 20460 Hawaii Inst. of Marine Bio. P. O. Box 1346 Robert H. Meade Kaneohe, Hawaii 96749 U. S. Geological Survey Water Resources Division Vernon Smylie Denver Federal Center 600 Building Denver, Colo. 80220 P. O. Box 1414 Corpus Christi, Tex. 78403 D. F. Middaugh Bears Bluff Field Station R. C. Stendell Johns Island, S. C. 29455 Patuxent Wildlife Res. Ctr. Laurel, Md. 20810 Joseph A. Mihursky University of Maryland L. F. Stickel Chesapeake Biological Lab. Patuxent Wildlife Res. Ctr. Solomons, Md. 20678 Laurel, Md. 20810 Letha F. Miloy Dennis P. Tihansky 3503 Spring Lane EPA Headquarters Bryan, Tex. 77801 401M St., S.W Washington, D. C. 20460 Frank N. Moseley F. John Vernberg Central Power & Light Co. Belle W. Baruch Inst. P. 0. Box 2121 University of South Carolina Corpus Christi, Tex. 78403 Columbia, S. C. 29208 Columbia, S. C. 29208 H. N. Ohlendorf S. L. Wicmeyer Patuxent Wildlife Res. Ctr. Patuxent Wildlife Research Ctr. Laurel, Md. 20810 Laurel, Md. 20810 CONTENTS VOLUME I The Extractive Industries in the Coastal Zone of the Continental United States - - ----------- 121 OVERVIEW Stanley R. Riggs Preface -------------------- v FISHERIES Introduction -----------------Vii Symposium issues ................----.------ Vil.l Status of Estuarine Ecosystems in Relation to Symposium Issuesi Sportfish Resources -------------------------- 139 Research Needs-ix . ..........................John Clark Session Summaries ------------------ x Limiting Factors Affecting Commercial Fisheries in the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area - - ------- 149 List of Reviewers xx--------x. i J. L. xxMcHugh List of Attendees -------------- ---- xxiii Our Estuaries and Commercial Fishing Trends___ 171 Gordon C. Broadhead List of Contributors - - ----------------------- xxxi Limiting Factors Affecting the Commercial Fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico _ .- - ----------- 177 ESTUARINE SYSTEMS Sewell H. Hopkins, Sam R. Petrocelli Resource Management and Estuarine Function with Application to the Apalachicola Drainage System -- 3 Man's Impact on Estuarine Sedimentation ----- 193 Robert J. Livingston J. B. Schubet, R. H. Meade The Rhode River Program ---------------------- 19 The Rhode River Programe19 Significance of Chemical Contaminants in Dredged Sedimnent on Estuarine Water Quality_-. 211 Characterization of the Natural Estuary in Terms G. Fred Lee of Energy Flow and Pollution Impact - --- - --------29 Limiting Factors That Control Dredging Activities F. John V/ernberg in the Estuarine Zone ----------------- 217 James H. Carpenter LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES Environmental Aspects of Dredging in the Gulf Coast Zone with Some Attention Paid to Shell Problems, Advancements, and Factors Control- DredgingW H.---- - 225 ling Estuarine Wildlife Management Programs__ 43 William H. Espey, Jr. Harold D. Irby Impact of Estuarine Pollution on Birds_ .- . ..... 57 NUTRIENTS L. J. Blus, S. N. Wiemeyer, J. A. Kerwin, R. C. Stendell, H. M. Ohlendorf, L. F. Stickel Nutrient Loading in the Nation's Estuaries - - --- 237 Estuarine Land Use Management: the Relation Michael A. Champ ship of Aesthetic Value to Environmental Quality 73 Effects and Control of Nutrients in Estuarine Roy Mann. Ecosystems ---------------------------- 257 Recreation Activities in the Nation's Estuarine John E. Hobbie, B. J. Copeland Zone --------------------------- --- - - 83 Estuarine Wastewater Management: Design Con. Robert J. Kalter cepts and Considerations --------------------- 275 Erman A. Pearson, S. D. The Value of Estuarine Fisheries Habitats: Some Basic Considerations in Their Preservation - - - - - 95 Pollution Problems in the Estuaries of Alaska .... 285 Frank H. Bollman Donald W. Hood, John J. Goering xXXv xxxvi ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Environmental Status of Hawaiian Estuaries - --- 297 The Impact of Offshore Petroleum Operations on Stephen V. Smith Marine and Estuarine Areas -- ---------------- 467 Keith G. Hay INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS The Effects of Industrialization on the Estuary_-- 309 Robert B. Biggs The Effect of Estuarine Circulation on Pollution Dispersal -------------------------------------- 477 Industrial Waste Pollution and Gulf Coast Hugo B. Fis chersal- - Estuaries31 ..........Hugo B. 319Fischer Roy W. Hann, Jr. The Crucial Role of Systematics in Assessing Pollution Effects on the Biological Utilization of, Estuaries -.--------------------.--, 487 POWER PLANT EFFECTS Melbourne R. Carriker Impact of Waste. Heat Discharged to Estuaries Bacteria and Viruses-Indicators of Unnatural When Considering Power Plant Siting - - -----.333 Environmental Changes Occurring in the Nation's J. W. Blake Estuaries 507 Rita R. Colwell Thermal Discharges and Estuarine Systems - 341 Joseph A. Mihursky National Estuarine Monitoring Program - --- 519 Philip A. Butler Effects of Thermal Discharges Upon Aquatic Organisms in Estuarine Waters with Discussion of A Brief Assessment of Estuary Modeling-Recent Limiting Factors ----------- ---------.359 Developments and Future Trends - - ----------523 Loren D. Jensen R. J. Callaway Effects of Selected Power Plant Cooling Dis- chargers on Representative Estuarine Environ- PORTS ments ---------------------------------- 373 R. H. Brooks, A. S. Autry, M. L. Brehmer, F. N. Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in U.S. Ports Moseley Located in Estuarine Areas --------------------- 529 Edward Langlois Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in West Coast Estuarine Ports -------------------...__ 545 VOLUME II Frank Boerger OTHER POLLUTANTS THE PUBLIC'S ROLE Oil Pollution inthe Coastal Environment - - --- 385 John W. Farrington Sea Grant Estuarine Studies ------------------- 555 Leatha F. Miloy Consequences of Oil Pollution in the Estuarine Environment of the Gulf of Mexico -- ----- -------401 Escarosa: the Anatomy of Panhandle Citizen In- Lewis R. Brown volvement in Estuarine Preservation - ---------- 567 Thomas S. Hopkins Solid Waste Disposal and its Relationship to Estuarine Pollution 409 The Role of the Public in Texas Estuary Protec- Hans A. Feibusch tion 581 Vernon Smylie Impact of Chlorination Processes on Marine The Role of Citizen Action Groups in Protecting Ecosystems- ------------------------------------415 and RestoringWetlands in California - ----------- 593 William P. Davis, D. P. Middaugh Fred S. Farr The Impact of Synthetic Organic Compounds on Estuarine Ecosystems .-------- .............. 425 Jeffrey L. Lincer LEGAL ASPECTS Trace Metals in the Oceans: Problem or No? - --- 445 Land Use Controls and Water Quality in the Earl W. Davey, Donald K. Phelps Estuarine Zone ------------------------------ 607 Marc J. Hershman Pollution in Nation's Estuaries Originating from the Agricultural Use of Pesticides - ------------ 451 Structuring the Legal Regulation of Estuaries..-- 617 Ming-Yu Li Angus MacBeth d ONTE4.NTS XXXVil Estuarine Management-the Intergovernmentai CONCLUDING REMARKS Dimension -------------------- 629 John J. Bosley Organizational Arrangements for Management of Basic Factors of Population Distribution Affecting Atlantic Coast Estuarine Environments - .:_- 687 Demand for Water Resources -- 637 Maurice P. Lynch John C. Belcher Evaluation of Water Quality in Estuaries and Coastal Waters --------------------------- - 701 ESTUARINE ECONOMICS William J. Hargis, Jr. Economic Analysis in the Evaluation and Manage- Seven Ways to Obliteration: Factors of Estuarine ment of Estuaries -.-- ------- 659 Degradation ---------------------------- 723 John H. Cumberland Joel W. Hedgpeth Establishing the Economic Value of Estuaries to Interactions of Pollutants with the Uses of U.S. Commercial Fisheries -_ . ............... 671 Estuaries -- 739 Dennis P. 'Tihansky, Norman F. Meade L. Eugene Cronin , . ESTUARINE SYSTEMS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND ESTUARINE FUNCTION WITH APPLICATION TO THE APALACHICOLA DRAINAGE SYSTEM ROBERT J. LIVINGSTON Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida ABSTRACT Problems encountered in the management of an estuarine system in north Florida are discussed with respect to existing programs and laws in Florida. The often difficult decisions concerning re- source development depend on the availability of baseline scientific and socio-economic data. Information is needed concerning the basic energy relationships of estuaries and the long-term effects of pollution on such systems. Realistic estuarine management practices involve an inter- disciplinary approach at both the local and regional levels. Federal programs should be aimed at the translation of scientific information into the planned development of the entire drainage area of a given estuary. Based on successful and unsuccessful attempts of resource management in the Apalachicola drainage system, a generalized plan for estuarine development is given. INTRODUCTION Apalachicola) and numerous creeks, streams, and marshes. Florida is presently a major growth area with Drainage from Lake Seminole, an impounded res- respect to residential and tourist development. In ervoir formed from the Flint and Chattahoochee, addition to a population of more than 8,000,000 becomes the Apalachicola River in Florida. This people, as many as 25,000,000 tourists visit this river, together with the Chipola, is the major source state each year. The population pressure, extreme of fresh water for the Apalachicola Bay system in southern and western portions of the state, is (Fig. 2). concentrated in coastal areas where up to 75 percent This is the largest river system in Florida with of the people actually reside. Since estuarine areas monthly mean discharge rates of approximately provide the environmental basis for tourism,, sports 25,000 cubic feet/second (cfs) and seasonal highs and commercial fisheries, and other related indus- approaching 100,000 cfs. The drainage area includes tries, there has been increasing interest, both at the a multifold complex of interlocking wetland systems local and regional level, in the development of work- (rivers, creeks, marshes, swamps) bordered by hard- able resource management programs for the major wood floodplain forests which provide habitats for drainage systems in Florida. Although there have a variety of organisms. The naturally high turbidity been serious environmental problems in a-pnumber of the water reflects significant levels of nutrients of estuaries such as Escambia Bay, Apalachee-Bay, and detritus that form the basis for the highly pro- Hillsborough Bay, Tampa Bay, and Biscayne Bay, ductive Apalachicola Bay system (Estabrook, 1973; the variability ofcontributing factors (e.,g., .popu- Livingston et al., 1975A). During periods of high lation size, industrialization, natural estuafine func- flow (usually late winter or early spring), submerged tions) has precluded a uniform approach to the area becomes extensive due to river flooding. It is problem. This paper will describe various problems thought that massive exchanges of various elements of one estuarine system in north Florida, and, based occur between terrestrial and aquatic systems at on such experience, will attempt to develop .arealistic this time. Nutrients and detritus are flushed into approach to estuarine management. Apalachicola Bay (Estabrook, .1973; Livingston, 1974). The river-influence can be detected 160 miles The Apalachicola Drainage System to the south in the Gulf of Mexico (Curl, 1959). The Apalachiqola,.Bay system, roughly 212 square The Apalachicola.system includes an area of over miles, is a shallow lagoon-barrier island complex 19,500 square miles (Fig. 1), and is composed of situated along an east-west axis. Around 500 square four major rivers- (Flint, Chattahoochee, ,Chipola, miles of swamps are located above the bay; approxi- 3 4 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Representative organisms found in the Apalachicola Bay System C TT E CM TTA 0 M { AE iFishes Invertebrates FLINT ," X'LJ M ;=FLI ;Gymnura micrura (Butterfly ray) Crassostrea virginica (Oyster) L~f BL AKE t \ C v Dasyatis sabina (Atlantic stingray) Callinectes sapidus (Blue crab) Sphyrna tiburo (Bonnethead) Penseus aztecus (Brown shrimp) 4 7 / SElINOLE Anchoa hepsetus (Striped anchovy) Penaeus duorarum (Pink shrimp) CH IP LATAS ISPCJ 27- VArius felis (Sea catfish) Penaeus setiferus (White shrimp) Bagre marinus (Gafftopsail catfish) Palaemonetes vulgaris Eucinostomus gula (Silver Jenny) Palaemonetes pugio Eucinostomus argenteus (Spotfin mojarra) Rhithropanopeus harrisii Mugil Cephalus (Striped mullet) Neopanope texana Lagodon rhomboides (Pinfish) Tozeuma carolinense Bairdiella chrysura (Silver perch) Periclimenes longicaudatus {43APA<AC H t~A Micropogon undulatus (Atlantic croaker) Palaemonetes intermedius Leiostomus xanthurus (Spot) Pagurus bonairensis Cynoscion arenarius (Sand seatrout) Cynoscion nebulosus (Spotted seatrnut) CM C KONE Sciaenops ocellata (Red drum) Brevooria patronus (Gulf menhaden) Menticirrhus americanus (Southern kingfish) sJ g 4 f ~ NEW < < 0 Orthopristis chrysoptera (Pigfish) Lagodon rhomboides (Pinfish) Centropristis melana (Black sea bass) Lucania parva (Rainwater killifish) Synodus foetens (inshore lizardfish) 0 \ IGATOR Lutjanus griseus (Gray snapper) PO INT Monocanthus hispidus (Planehead filefish) Syngnathus scovelli (Gulf pipefish) Syngnathus floridae (Dusky pipefish) - > 4 ~ Syngnathus louisianae (Chain pipefish) _ PALACH ICO LA Sphoeroides nephelus (Southern puffer) BAC Y Lactophrys quadricornis (Scrawled cowfish) FIGURE .--The lower half of the Apalachicola drainage Cheilomycterusschoepfi (Striped burrfish) system showing the major rivers contributing to Apalachicola Paralichthys albigutta (Gulf flounder) Bay in North Florida. Paralichthys lethesitigma (Southern flounder) Symphurus plagiusa (Blackcheek tonguefish) mately 20 square miles of marshes are associated Pinotustribulus (Bighead searobin Caranx hippos (Crevalle Jack) with the bay. Much of this region is too wet in its Scomberomorus maculatus (Spanish natural state for traditional forms of agriculture mackeral) without the use of diking, ditching, and draining. Gobiosoma robustum (Code goby) A series of barrier islands enclose the bay, and this Hypsoblennius hentzi (Feather blenny) thin line of land, together with the freshwater runoff from upland areas, provides the ecological basis for the very productive estuary (e. g., numerous oyster fishery in Florida. It has been estimated that over bars). The major connection of Apalachicola Bay 75 percent of the commercial landings for the county with the Gulf of Mexico is St. George Sound, with depend on species which utilize this estuary as a lesser outlets consisting of a dredged pass (Sike's nursery or feeding ground (Menzel and Cake, 1969). Cut) and two natural openings (Indian Pass, West Such organisms depend directly or indirectly on Pass). The bay bottom consists of a sandy-shell detritus, nutrient supplies, and reduced salinities mixture and silty sand (Menzel and Cake, 1969) provided by freshwater runoff. The entire watershed with little development of benthic macrophyte system is interconnected; the estuarine functions growth. depend on upland drainage features and a complex Apalachicola Bay is a primary source of income series of energy exchanges and feedback reactions for the people of Franklin County, Fla., (Colberg within the bay system itself. et al., 1968; Rockwood, 1973; Livingston et al., 1974A). A representative list of organisms, includ- ing various species of commercial and sport fishing FORMS OF POTENTIAL IMPACT importance, is shown in Table 1. The Apalachicola oyster industry ranks high in One of the important questions related to estu- the state (Table 2), and is the fifth most valuable arine management concerns the long-term (chronic) *~~~ V --.*~~---- apalachicola river c~~~~~~attle : 4 ~'~~'A ranch law ea j 50~~~~~~~(tmarM are gulf o rnexiO kioetr palachico~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a bay .*!i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~u* '1-oyster ~~$~pala~~hIQOI3 6 - * reef U ;N~~~~~~ d'P N~~~~~~h marSh FxG-unp 2.-The~palachicola`ay system showintra. waterway study e gulf of mexico kilom~eters ae 0 3 6 FIGURE 2.--The Apalatchicohi. Bay system showing the distribution of major oyster bars, upland swamps and marshes. 6 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 2.-Oyster landings in Franklin County and the State of Florida (1950-70) Corps of Engineers to improve the navigability of and percent contribution (County/State) the Apalachicola River by the construction of a Year Franklin County State of Florida Ratio series of four dams. Serious questions have been (1000 lbs) (1000 lbs) County/State X 100 * 1* 1 .1 1 (1000 s) (1000 s) County/State X 100 raised concerning local habitat destruction by flood- 1950 ......696.0 895.2 777 ing, interruptions of migrations by anadromous 1950 -------------- 696.0 895.2 ~~77.7 1951 ------ - 546.6 735:3 74.3 fishes such as shad and striped bass, reduced nutrient 1952 ------ - 451.1 563.0 80.1 and detritus flow, and alteration of the temperature 1953 . ... ....459.2 585.4 78.5 ** 1953- ------459.2 5585.4 780.5 and salinity regimes in Apalachicola Bay. 1954 --------------- 553.9 685.5 80.8 1955 ------ - 542.9 649.6 83.6 During the past three years, thousands of acres 1955 ....... 7208878. 1956 ------ --722.0 888.7 81.2 of swamps and marshes have been altered by various 1957 ------ - 624.2 734.9 84.9 1958 ------ - 713.2 824.7 86.5 agricultural interests (Fig. 3). 1959 ------- 1,268.8 1,455.0 87.2 About 10 miles up-river from the bay, a 33,000 1960 - 2------1,744.8 1,975.'4 88.3 acre cattle ranch has been established. This has 1961 -------- ------- 2,947.1 3,326.6 88.6 1962 ------- 4,366.7 5,019.8 87.0 involved clearing, ditching and draining the land 1963 ------- 3,810.5 4,362.8 87.3 and the construction of an extensive system of dikes 1964 2,252.4 2,885.1 78.1 1964-5- - --- 2,377.52 2,954.7 80.4 to prevent periodic flooding (Fig. 4). 1965 --------------- 2,377.5 2,954.7 80.4 1966 - - ----- 3,809.9 4,291.9 88.8 In addition to periodic pumping of turbid, low 1967 -------4,195.9 4,761.1 88.1 quality water into surrounding creeks, the natural 1968 ------- 4,825.7 5,568.8 86.7 1969 ------- 4,350.4 5,125.7 84.4 interactions between terrestrial and aquatic systems 1970 ------- 3,044.4 3,786.5 80.4 c ranc 74 1972-73 ch 1974 effects of individual and collective upland develop- ment on estuarine systems. This includes toxic ef- 1968-71 fects, habitat destruction, and changes in nutrient , ditch_ and detritus relationships. Synergism and inter- actions of pollutants with natural modifying factors such as temperature and salinity complicate evalu- ation of potential impact (Livingston et al., 1974b). The extreme variability from one estuary to another precludes broad generalizations concerning natural ! estuarine functions. Thus, it is generally recognized that each estuarine system should be approached on '/ an individual basis with -such factors as latitude, i drainage area, river Mow, offshore circulation, and M: depth taken into consideration. Physical Alterations Maintenance dredging has contributed to local 5 habitat destruction, simplification of the fauna, andst low productivity in some portions of the Apalachi- cola River (Cox, 1969, 1970; Cox and Auth, 1971, 1972, 1973). It is possible that dredging of the intracoastal waterway and the opening of Sike's Cut P L P in Apalachicola Bay has altered salinity relation- ships by directing surface runoff out of the bay and by allowing saline (subsurface) water of gulf origin into the bay (Livingston, 1974). Such salinity in- creases can lead to reduction of oyster crops due to FIGuRE 3.-Wetlands areas recently cleared by cattle and predation by organisms that are normally prevented pulp mill interests in an attempt to utilize the lower Apalachi- entry to the bay because of low salinity (Menzel cola valley for agricultural purposes. The lower portions of the cattle ranch have been cleared, ditched, and diked while pulp et al., 1957; Menzel et al., 1966). mill areas have been cleared, ditched, and drained into East Another concern is a proposal by the U.S. Army Bay. ' ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 7 bay (Fig. 6). This water, characterized by low pH and altered physical and chemical characteristics, is avoided by shrimp in laboratory experiments (Liv- ingston, 1974). This corresponds to reports by com- mercial fishermen that shrimp no longer enter areas of "black" water runoff. Questions remain concern- ing alterations in the salinity structure of the bay and long-term changes caused by the introduction of various chemical agents such as tannins, humates, and fertilizers. DRAINAGE DITCHES Industrialization The ultimate aim of dredging and damming the Apalachicola River is to provide a corridor for logis- tic support and maintenance of upland industrial interests in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama. Accord- ing to a report by the Northwest Florida Develop- ment Council and Economic Development District (1974), the Apalachicola River could serve as a major functional transportation route for industrial concerns in Alabama and Georgia. A dam and lock system would be utilized and adjacent corridors would be strengthened; this would lead to increased barge traffic and expansion of industrial interests along the river. Plans for an industrial park just below the Woodruff Dam have been activated. According to the Tri-Rivers Waterway Development DITCHED AREA Association, over 5,000 jobs in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama are dependent on navigation along the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint waterway. These jobs are associated with paper mills, fertilizer fac- tories, construction activities, sand and gravel opera- tions, and barge facilities. By 1976, it is estimated that 1,700 new jobs will be created by such activities. Problems associated with increased turbidity and heavy metal concentrations, petrochemical spills, and municipal wastes could be anticipated with such industrialization. Residential Development DIKE FIouRE 4.-Cattle ranch activities include digging of an St. George Island is an integral part of the extensive system of drainage ditches and the diking of the Apalachicola Bay System (Fig. 7). Development lower portions of the property to prevent flooding. of this barrier island is considered the most impor- tant single factor in the growth of Franklin County have been interdicted. Recently, thousands of acres (Colberg et al., 1968). With the construction of a of upland timber above East Bay (Fig. 5) were bridge connecting the island to the mainland, St. clear-cut by local paper mills. George has essentially been opened for development. After removal of trees, the land is plowed, ditched, The Northwest Florida Development Council has and drained into creeks that empty directly into proposed an expansion of the financial base of the nursery areas of East Bay. During periods of Franklin County by the development of a tourist/re- heavy rainfall, highly colored water washes into the tirement community around Apalachicola Bay. 8 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL NATURAL SWAMP NEWLY CLEARED PLOWED 6 MONTHS AFTER PLANTING 3 YEARS AFTER PLANTING 6 YEARS AFTER PLANTING FIGURE 5.-Pulp mill activities in Tate's Hell swamp. Areas are cleared, ditched, plowed, and replanted with slash pine mono- cultures. Growing trees are fertilized periodically. Highly colored water, characterized by low pH, is drained directly into the bay from the cleared aieas. The potential impact of such drainage on the bay organisms remains unknown. However, the narrowness and relatively limited in St. George Sound would be vulnerable to con- drainage capacity of St. George Island presents a tamination from septic tank drainage, storm water difficult situation for residential development if the runoff, and pesticides. Public health standards for ecological integrity of the bay is to be maintained. approved oyster growing areas set a limiting (MPN) The productive oyster beds proximal to the island value of 70 for group coliform organisms. With ES'TUARIgE SYSTEM 9 '~- '-.. "~t:..~. ]3 A, OUTGOING TIDE \HI . ...... COLOR X 10 SEPT. U LEVEL ..:- ;WIND 10 ESE OUTGOING TIDE FIGURE 6.-Observations of drainage from the upland ditched areas in East Bay after periods of heavy rainfall. Highly colored water from drainage ditches can be traced as it moves into the bay. increased numbers of people in the bay area, pest be developed as the population of the area increased. control (dogflies, sandflies, mosquitoes) would in- Tourist-oriented development is not without serious creasingly become a problem. Pesticide programs problems for the oyster-based economy of Franklin and other methods' such as ditching and biological County. Before the population grows to an un- control (e.g., mosquito-eating fishes) would have to manageable size, strict controls of such development 10 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL should be adopted if the seafood industry is to remain viable. The Apalachicola drainage system is presently at a critical stage of development. In this respect, the magnitude and complexity of the social, eco- nomic, and environmental problems are typical of various other estuaries in the United States. As yet, Apalachicola Bay is relatively unpolluted. Studies have shown that there is relatively little contamina- tion of the bay from pesticides and other forms of contamination (Livingston, 1974). Nutrients and SOLID WASTE phytoplankton studies have shown comparable levels of productivity with other areas of the Gulf of Mexico; there are no signs of cultural eutrophication "'-~~~~ A E i k a(Estabrook, 1973; Livingston et al., 1974A). Oyster contamination appears to have remained stable over a considerable period with no significant difference between present coliform group MPN values and imll *m l l l G = data taken during the 1940's (Livingston et al., lo1ll 1_ 1974). The epibenthic fauna appear stable (Living- ston, 1974). Overall, the Apalachicola drainage system represents an important natural resource that is coming under increasing developmental pres- sure. An equitable solution to the inevitable conflict over resource development would rest in a manage- NICK'S HOLE ment program based on objective scientific investiga- tions. Some approaches to this problem have been made through the Florida State University System Sea Grant Program. ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT A growing number of laws and administrative regulations are being designed to promote manage- ment and conservation of aquatic systems. The State of Florida has developed a sophisticated sys- tem of legal and administrative procedures regarding development in wetland and coastal areas. A list of environmental laws and regulations (federal and state) along with the agencies responsible for their DEVELOPMENT implementation is shown in Table 3. Several of these laws have been used by Florida Sea Grant investi- gators in applying management practices to the Apalachicola system. Land Conservation Program The Florida Land Conservation Program involves the procurement of endangered lands by the state FIGURE 7.-St. George Island: Solid waste disposal near the bay with increased residential development in already platted portions of the island. Such problems often accompany residential development of coastal areas. Marshes (Nick's Hole) and beaches are sensitive portions of island systems that should be protected from destructive land development BEACH practices. I;' ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 11 without eminent domain power. During the course B. Florida Water Resources Act of 1972 (chapter 373, Florida statutes) of a monitoring program in Apalachicola Bay it Relating to all state waters (except with respect to water quality), conservation was found that during certain periods of excessive and control programs for management and conservation of such related resources (fish, wildlife, et cetera). Utilization of surface and ground water, prevention of overflow of the Apalachicola River into associated damage by flooding, soil erosion, excessive drainage, et cetera. Administered by wetland areas, considerable quantities of terrigenous Florida Department of Natural Resources with delegation of powers'to five regional detritus (leaves, branches, and so forth) w, ere depos- water ma nagement districts. Presently involved in generation of a state water use ited in Apalachicola Bay (Livingston, 1974). Leaf c. Florida Environmental Land and Water Management Act of 1972 (chapter matter from various types of trees that grow along 380, Florida Statutes) the river (oak, pop ash, river birch, water hickory, the river (oak, pop ash, river birch, water hickory, Establishment of an Area of Critical State Concern (ACSC) program and the develop- et cetera) accumulated in certain areas of the bay. ments of regional impact (DRI) evaluation process. Areas of critical concern qualify The importance of allochthonous detritus to other for such designation by having environmental, historical, or archeological im- estuarine systems has been established (Darnell, portance, or being affected by major development. The purpose is to formulate state decisions establishing land and water management policies for the guidance and 1961; Teal, 1962; Heald, 1969; Odum, 1971). Two coordination of local decisions concerning growth and development. This does not apply to more than 5 percent of the land of Florida as an ACSC, and agricultural activities are exempt from its provisions. A DRI is a report filled out by the developer Table 3.-Partial annotated list of laws and regulations (federal and state) according to specified questions that are to be answered concerning the overall pertaining to environmental problems in navigable and tidal waters and the impact of the development on the region's environment, natural resources, economy, et cetera. The Division of State Planning, Department of Administration implements this act; review of DRl's are considered by the appropriate regional planning agency with the local government conferring final approval, approval with conditions, or 1. Federal denial. The overall purpose of this act is to promote the creation of principles to guide development on the local level within specified state-sanctioned guidelines A. Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 U.S. Code, Sections 401, 403,404, 406-417) so that any major development in a given area is compatible with the local environment. Applies to filling, excavating, or altering navigable waterways, also regulates dis- charge of pollutants, refuse, and dredge spoils into navigable waters. U.S. Army D. Florida State Comprehensive Planning Act of 1972 (chapter 23, Florida Corps of Engineers is responsible for permitting (in cooperation with Florida Board Statutes) of Trustees and Department of Pollution Control). o Trustedesrandl W ater o f Pollution Control)Ac S. CProvides plan for long-term guidance for staff growth by establishing goals, objec- B. Federal Water Pollution Control Act (33 U.S. Code,Section 1141 et seq.) tives, and policies. This includes coordination of planning efforts among local, state, -amendments of 1972. (Title 33, U.S. Code, Section 1251 et seq.) and federal agencies. Division of state planning is responsible for implementation Aims to restore and maintain chemical, physical, and biological integrity of all of this act. waters of U.S. Calls for elimination of pollutant discharges by 1985 and achievement E. Land Conservation Act of 1972 (chapter 259, Florida Statutes) of water quality for protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife by 1983. Responsible agencies include U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), U.S. Environmentally Endangered Lands Program (EEL Program) based on analysis of Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Coast Guard, with help from Florida Department of available ecological information to determine priorities of environmentally en- Pollution Control. dangered land. An EEL plan will be developed to guide the purchase by the state of endangered lands. In such purchases, there is no eminent domain power to imple- C. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S. Code, Sections 4332, 4344) ment land acquisition; this precludes identification and priority listing of endangered Establishes environmental protection and restoration as national policy with provi-etween acquisition and regulation depends on level of protection sions for generation of environmental impact statements concerning any actions of necessary to achieve the desired environmental aims. Emphasis is on ecological significance, the importance of submerged lands, and appropriate evaluation. Ad- federal agencies that may impinge on the en'vironment, The Council on Environ- mentalQualityestablishedbyNEPAprovidesguidelinesforsuchimpactstateents. ministration is by the Department of Natural Resources with input from other state mental Quality, established by NEPA, provides guidelines for such impactstatements. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is primary agency involved in enforcement agencies and a panel of experts on environmental and planning concerns. This a ou.S m fed s nwithalProte ction Agen. includes interagency planning and advisory committees with final approval by the although most federal, state, and local agencies operate within NEPA. Governor and cabinet. D. Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (33 U.S. Code, Section 10 sF. Beach and Shore Preservation Act (chapter 161, Florida Statutes) Section 1401 qt seq.) Concerned with protection of oceans from pollutants discharged from vessels in- Provides for beach nourishment, erosion control, regulation of coastal construction, Cluding dredg e spoils, chemicals, etc. Responsible agencies include U.S. Environ- and establishment of setback lines along beaches. Administered by the Department eluding dredge spoils, chemicals, etc. Responsible agencies inaclude U.. Environ- mental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. E. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (16 U.S. Code, Section 661-666C) 3. Applications to Apalachicola Bay Requires consideration of effects of work in navigable waters on fish and wildlife. A. Resolutions designating Apalachicola Bay as an aquatic preserve in accordance U.S. Army of Engineers coordinates with other federal and state agencies. with management policies governing such areas. F. Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205) B. St. Vincent Island is a National Wildlife Refuge that is controlled by the Depart- Provides conservation measures for endangered and threatened species. Adminis- ment of Interior. trated by U.S. Department of the Interior. C. Endangered lands along the Apalachicola River have been approved for purchase by the Governor and Cabinet. 2. State D. The area is bordered by the Apalachicola National Forest and several parks. A. Florida Air and Water Pollution Control Act (chapter 403, 011, Florida E. A coastal setback line (state) has been established for the gulf side of St. George statutes) Island. A county wide setback line (Franklin County) for all lands bordering aquatic Public policy to conserve quality of state air and waters, provided that no wastes areas is presently under consideration. are discharged into water without proper treatment, et cetera. Administered by the F. The Apalachicola drainage system is presently under consideration for designa- Florida Department of Pollution Control with help from the Division of Health of tion as an Area of Critical State Concern. thf Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services. 12 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL years of experiments were carried out in which LOWER baskets of leaves were dropped into different parts APALACH ICOLA of the bay and checked regularly for possible asso- RIVER PURC-A'SES ciation with assemblages of estuarine organisms (Livingston, 1974). The leaves were found to be associated with various food webs in the bay. Al- though little was known concerning the exact origin of the leaf matter and its actual quantitative con- apalachicola tribution to the bay energy budget, the potential importance of such a source had to be recognized. Deciduous hardwood forests border the river; such swamps, in addition to providing a habitat for a wide variety of terrestrial organisms, are con- sidered to be a focal point for exchanges of nutrients and detritus which eventually become part of the estuarine energy system. In addition to serving as filters for various inorganic and organic substances, such swamps are thus an integral part of the ecolog- ical balance of the lower Apalachicola wetlands. acquired Activities such as clear-cutting, ditching, diking, and draining could interrupt such exchanges; in addi- tion, changes in the form of available leaf matter under could have an effect on the water and energy budgets negotiation 0 15 3 4.5 of local aquatic areas as well as downstream estu- i " km arine systems. This has been shown in various studies km (Egglishaw and Mackay, 1967; Woodall and Wallace, FIGURE 8.-Purchases of portions of the lower Apalachicola 1972). Recent evidence (Swank and Douglass, 1974) River basin by the state of Florida under the Land Conserva- indicates that replacement of deciduous forests by tion Act of 1972. Those listed as "acquired" have been coniferous monocultures can seriously alter the water approved by the Florida Cabinet and now await resolution of legal boundary lines and actual purchase. Those listed "under budget of upland areas. Woodall and Wallace (1972) negotiation" are still being considered as part of a trade with considered that watershed vegetation is a major less sensitive upland areas. determinant of aquatic species composition and abundance. Comprehensive quantitative determination of nu- difficulties have been experienced with this program. trient and detritus exchanges in bay systems is Removal of the land from local tax rolls has stirred not available; the nutrient-detritus budget of the some opposition. Without eminent domain powers, Apalachicola bay system remains unknown. How- bargaining can become difficult, with higher prices, ever, the leaf data supplied by the Florida Sea Grant bureaucratic confusion and delays often accompany- project (Livingston, 1974) provided the scientific ing the deliberations. On the whole, however, this support for the purchase of $4.4 million of river program has been successfully carried out and is swamp along the lower Apalachicola river (Fig. 8). presently a powerful (though limited) method for Soil analysis contributed to the identification of the preservation of sensitive endangered lands. flooded areas; this was used in the determination of the endangered areas. i Areas of Critical State Concern At this time, while much of the land is designated i for immediate purchase, negotiations are under way The Apalachicola drainage system is presently for other lands that border the Apalachicola river being considered for designation as an area of critical (Fig. 8). State agencies are presently considering state concern (Table 3). Although this would allow the trade of less sensitive upland areas (above the more state involvement in the management of the drainage system) for hardwood swamps (owned by system with respect to specific forms of development pulp mills) bordering the river. In this way, under such as municipal waste, drainage programs, and the Land' Conservation Act of 1972, sensitive por- industrialization, agricultural practices such as mas- tions of the lower Apalachicola river valley will sive clearing and drainage operations (cattle ranch, eventually be set aside by the state of Florida as a pulp mill operations, et cetera), and fertilization preservation area to remain in a natural state. Some programs would remain exempt from control. How- ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 13 ever, the ACSC program and the DRI Evaluation Barrier Island Development process (Table 3) have promoted an effective means of control at the local level. In addition to the The situation on St. George Island is a classical provision of a legal means of implementation of case of the dilemma of residential development county-wide planning programs, the expertise of within estuarine systems. St. George Island is one various state agencies is made available to local of three barrier islands that form the Apalachicola governments. All too often, such governing bodies bay system (Fig. 2). The island is 30 miles long are inexperienced in zoning and subdivision regula- (7,340 acres of land; 1,200 acres of marshes) and tions that promote orderly growth. Franklin County, averages less than Xg mile in width. It conforms in for instance, has recently taken steps in this direc- geological and biological terms to classical barrier tion by soliciting and passing a county-wide plan. island characteristics (Fig. 9) and is an integral In addition, at the urging of Sea Grant investigators -part of the bay system (Livingston, 1974). and local seafood interests, a group is presently It is entirely surrounded by salt water, and any looking into the development of county zoning regu- freshwater runoff comes entirely from rainfall which lations to promote protection of the bay system. filters through the sandy soil and undergoes dis- Such activities are not without considerable opposi- charge. This water eventually ends up in the bay tion. Reaction includes demands for reimbursement or the Gulf of Mexico. The proximity of oyster bars by property owners in such state or county controlled in St. George Sound to the island adds to the areas, requests for more specific scientific informa- sensitivity of this situation. In other words, because tion concerning designation of critical areas, and the of its length, position, and unique ecological fea- establishment of tax relief provisions for counties tures, St. George Island is a key to the continued with high percentages of setback lines and critical viability of the Apalachicola bay system. Several lands. years ago, a bridge from the mainland was con- structed; this added to the prospects of residential Negotiations With Individual Developers development on the island. There has already been a relatively rapid rate of growth although this has Another approach has been attempted by the occurred without zoning restrictions, sewage treat- Florida Sea Grant Program (Livingston, 1974). Sea ment facilities (septic tanks are generally used), Grant scientists are presently initiating a research solid waste disposal, and storm water runoff control. effort in conjunction with pulp mill interests (the The island is presently in a state of flux with various Buckeye Cellulose Corp.). A cooperative research interests vying for its use. program has been developed whereby all clear- The major landowner on the island (Leisure cutting, roadbuilding, and drainage operations in Properties, Ltd.) proposed a test area for develop- the East bay system have been suspended. In ad- ment of about 800 acres which would be carried out dition to indepth, long-term field monitoring opera- under the developments of regional impact (DRI) tions in this area to determine potential impact guidelines provided under the Florida Environmen- (Livingston, 1974), experimental ecological research tal Land and Water Management Act of 1972 will be carried out in conjunction with a compre- (Table 3). This law places control of development hensive terrestrial-aquatic sampling program. An solidly in the hands of local (county) interests. experimental area will be cleared and ditched and There are both positive and negative features to the physicochemical and biological factors in adja- this approach. Local control is favored because it cent areas will be continuously monitored to deter- allows more immediate feed-back to those who will mine the potential impact of storm water runoff on be most affected by the proposed development. On the aquatic biota. Also, new ways of land utilization the other hand, county commissions in Florida will be tested; this includes the setting aside of rarely have the expertise at their disposal to evalu- extensive fringe areas, direction of runoff to holding ate the DRI, and consequently must depend on ponds before release into surrounding areas, and so state agencies, regional planning agencies, and local forth. It must be pointed out that this is due in experts for guidance. This can be confusing, espe- large part to the enlightened environmental policies cially when there is little scientific data on which to of the Buckeye Cellulose Corp.; it does emphasize base a far-reaching zoning or subdivision plan. In a growing willingness among private concerns to the case of St. George Island, scientists associated experiment with alternate methods of development with the Florida Sea Grant Program in Apalachicola When such efforts are based on objective scientific Bay have w'orked with county and state agencies, data. The importance of local contact should not and the developers to provide a plan for the long- be underestimated. term management of St. George Island. :Included in 14 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL - ----gulf Yr'' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' slough dune 4sea oats tidal slough veg lmetto oyster creek oniferous bar trees shrub \J4 Juncus deciduous trees thi, Spartina .oSalicornia-Batis Bacchaislv FIGURE 9.-Idealized cross section of a barrier island with special application to St. George Island (modified from Clark, 1974). this plan would be the provision of an advanced The Role of Research and sewage treatment plant, storm water runoff and Education in Resource Management nutrient control, a regulated pest control program, protection of sensitive portions of the island-bay There is a growing realization of the importance system, and so forth (Livingston, 1974). A baseline of long-term scientific monitoring programs in the study would precede any development and would management of estuarine systems. Such research continue throughout the various phases. Any impact should be coordinated with state and local adminis- determined by the scientific studies would be re- trative bodies so that such knowledge can be utilized ported to state and county officials and the source in the planning process. This should involve local of the problem would be eliminated before develop- interests so that control remains realistic and com- ment could proceed. The DRI would make this a patible with user concerns. Such research can be legal necessity. Funds for such studies would be pro- coordinated with educational processes to accelerate vided by the developer and administrated by the this process. For instance, local high school classes county commission to avoid conflicts of interest. have been taken on field trips by Sea Grant re- Such a plan is not without liability. It is possible searchers in the Apalachicola bay project and under- that chronic pollution such as heavy metal contami- graduates from Franklin County (enrolled at Florida nation could escape detection and build up to levels State University) are presently employed in the that would eventually have an impact on the bay research effort (Livingston, 1974). As part of the ecosystem. Another possibility is that increased de- program, the principal investigator also acts as an advisor to the board of county commissioners and velopment would lead to other forms of expansion serves as a member of several committees that that are not as susceptible to control. Such a pro- formulate county and city ordinances to protect the gram also depends on the economic viability of the Apalachicola system. The interaction of estuarine developers, which is not always assured. scientists and county personnel has also resulted in An alternative to this plan would be a restrictive the generation of county funds for the research zoning ordinance that would severely reduce the effort. Thus, using the federal Sea Grant Program population on the island. In this case, there still as a base of support, matching funds have been would be no support facilities (sewage plant, storm provided by local, private, and municipal interests water control, et cetera), although the population for baseline studies so that answers can be found to increase would not be as rapid. Whether or not such the problems of the bay. The research and educa- a plan would work over the long run is also doubtful. tiona] effort should not be underestimated in any Another possibility is the purchase of large portions management program, and actually forms the basis of the island by private foundations and/or munici- for understanding that is fundamental to the success pal and state agencies. Presently, all these alterna- of any planning effort. There should be increased tives are being examined by various groups. This is incentives for scientists to interact with local inter- a good example of the difficult types of decisions ests and state agencies to apply basic biological that must be made in any comprehensive planning research to the problems associated with develop- program. ment in natural drainage areas.- / ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 15 The Future of the Apalachicola System impact on the aquatic energy systems have not been adequately researched. The imminent deter- The Apalachicola drainage system is presently the mination to industrialize the river and develop focal point of development by various interests. On broad new residential areas on the barrier island the one hand, it is still in a relatively natural state system of the bay will demand considerable plan- with Apalachicola Bay providing the basis for ex- ning if the Apalachicola Bay system is to remain tremely productive sport and commercial fisheries, productive. Increased cooperation and interaction On the other hand, various agricultural, commercial, of federal, state, and local agencies will be necessary and industrial interests are beginning to utilize the to develop successful management schemes. system in ways that will eventually come into con- fiict with present usage. The Apalachicola system is actually a microcosm of what is occurring in the APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS estuaries all over the country, with conflicting inter- ests competing for the use of terrestrial and aquatic 1. The successful development of an estuarine resources. A number of state and federal agencies, resource management plan would depend on a com- responsible for the administration of a welter of new plete environmental resource analysis. This would environmental laws and regulations, are also in- include baseline scientific data, and comprehensive volved in this situation. There are indications that economic and land inventory information so that long range planning and resource management based decisions can be made concerning resource utiliza- on extensive scientific data will be necessary if such tion by conflicting interests. systems are to remain productive. However, despite 2. Based on the available information, decisions a serious promotional buildup by industrial interests should be made concerning how the system is to be and the Army Corps of Engineers to promote dam- utilized. This would depend on population distribu- ming and industrialization of the Apalachicola River, tion, the extent and form of industrialization, im- no move has been made to fund a research program portance of sports and commercial fisheries, aesthetic to answer the serious questions concerning the effects considerations, and so on. Thus, at an early stage of such actions on the aquatic system and those of development, the actual functional use of the who depend on it. Various approaches have been system should be determined (industrial, sports or attempted to promote the planned usage of the commercial fisheries, recreation, et cetera). Apalachicola drainage system. Land that is consid- 3. Following the initial determination of use, crit- ered environmentally sensitive and endangered has ical or sensitive areas in the system should be identi- been purchased by the State of Florida for preserva- fled. This would include an assessment of the impact tion while land swaps of upland forested areas for of point and non-point sources of pollution. Equally endangered wetlands are presently under considera- important should be the protection of the basic tion. An estuarine management program, funded by energy system of the estuary. Although various the Florida Sea Grant program, has served as a forms of pollutants can harm an estuarine ecosystem, platform for the development of an educational and it is possible that through improper land use, the research program designed to promote an orderly sources of energy for such a system are altered. This approach to the development of the Apalachicola can ultimately be translated into a decrease in useful aquatic system. Various private interests such as productivity. The significant relationship of the estu- pulp mills and land developers have contributed to ary with its associated upland drainage system this effort to determine sensible ways of utilizing should be determined so that basic productivity at the wetlands without having an impact on the bay all levels remains intact. productivity. Various actions by the State of Florida 4. Based on a scientific assessment of the entire have aided in this effort. Preservation, conservation, drainage system, a broad management scheme should and development areas have been determined, and be developed whereby critical areas are preserved. new laws and regulations have enabled a new ap- This should be done through the purchase of such proach for planning at the local level. County areas by state and federal agencies; this could be governments can now utilize various state and fed- patterned after the Florida Land Conservation Act eral resources to help them in the effort to plan for of 1972 where public funds are used to purchase future development. When combined with scientific environmentally endangered land. Other areas that research teams from various disciplines, these inter- are considered important should come under some adtions can lead to constructive action. In spite of form of conservation and management program. all this, major unresolved problems exist. Non-point This could be approached in various ways such as sources of pollution and activities relating to an areas of critical state concern, state and local set- 16 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL back ordinances, and restrictive zoning programs. Cox, David T. and Dennis Auth. 1973. Stream Investiga- tions. Annual Progress Report, Florida Game and Fresh The federal government should promote advisory Water Fish Commission (1972-1973). services on the local level so that various concerned interests are involved at the decisionmaking level. Curl, Herbert Jr. 1959. The hydrography of tlhe inshore It is not a matter of doing basic or applied research. northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. 6: Significant questions should be asked, and sound scientific data should be used in the development Darnell, Rezneat M. 1961. Trophic spectrum of an estuarine of an overall management scheme. community, based on studies of Lake Pontchartrain, 5. Because of the individual nature of the eco- Louisiana. Ecology 42(3): 553-568. logical functions and problems of each estuarine system, no uniform or generalized scheme of ere- Egglishaw, H. J. and D. W. MacKay. 1967. A survey of the system, no uniform or generalized scheme of re- bottom fauna of the streams in the Scottish highlands. source management is possible. Administrative func- Part III: Seasonal changes in the fauna of three streams. tions should be regional and interdisciplinary in Hydrobiologia 30: 305-334. nature. The regional approach would be based on the extent of the individual drainage system. Estabrook, Robert J. 1973. Phytoplankton ecology and the extent of the individual drainage system. In hydrography of Apalachicola bay. M. S. Thesis, Florida addition to representation of the various local inter- State University, Tallahassee, Fla. ests within the decisionmaking process, an admin- istrative mechanism should be developed for the Heald, Eric J. 1969. The production of organic detritus in a translation of scientific data into management and south Florida estuary. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Miami. Miami, Fla. planning concepts. Again, the federal government should provide programs that encourage scientists Livingston, Robert J. 1974. Field and laboratory studies on to participate at the local and regional levels so that the effects of pollution on north Florida estuaries. Final information is readily available when needed. This report, Florida Sea Grant. would include educational training programs and coordination of resource inventory analysis. Livingston, Robert J. 1976. Diurnal and seasonal fluctuations coordination of resource inventof estuarine organisms in a north Florida estuary: sampling The ultimate goal of a resource management pro- strategy, community structure, and species diversity (in gram for any given estuarine system should thus press). provide a plan that would be based on objective scientific data and would allow the application of Livingston, Robert J., Thomas S. Hopkins, John K. Adams, Michael D. Schmitt, and Laura M. Welch. 1972. The effects intelligent alternatives to a given local or regional of dredging and eutrophication on Mulatto Bayou (Es- situation. Only in this way can the often difficult cambia Bay; Pensacola, Florida). Report for Florida decisions be made which concern resource use in Department of Transportation. our estuaries. Livingston, Robert J., Richard L. Iverson, Robert H. Esta- brook, Vernon E. Keys, and John Taylor, Jr. 1974A. Major features of the Apalachicola bay system: Physi- REFEREi~[~i NCES ography, biota, and resource management. Fla. Acad. Sci. 37: 245-271. Clark, John. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological considera- tions for management of the coastal zone. The Conserva- tion Foundation; Washington, D. C. Livingston, Robert J. et al, 1974b. Synergism and modifying effects: Interacting factors in bioassay and field research. Colberg, M. R., R. S. Dietrich, and D. M. Windham. 1968 Publ. Mar. Tech. Soc. The social and economic values of Apalachicola bay, Florida. Final report to: Fed. Water Poll. Cont. Admin. Menzel, R. W., N. C. Hulings, and R. R. Hathaway. 1957. Causes of oyster depletion in St. Vincent Bar, Apalachicola Cox, David T. 1969. Stream Investigations. Annual progress Bay, Florida. Proc. Natl. Shellfish Assoc. 48: 66-71. report, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (1968-1969). Menzel, R. W., N. C. Hulings, and R. R. Hathaway. 1966. Oyster abundance in Apalachicola Bay, Florida, in relation Cox, David T. 1970. Stream Investigations. Annual Progress to biotic associations influenced by salinity and other report, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission factors. Gulf Res. Rep. 2(2): 73-96. (1969-1970). Cox, David T. and Dennis Auth. 1971. Stream Investiga- Menzel, R. W. and E. W. Cake, Jr. 1969. Identification and tions. Annual Progress Report, Florida Game and Fresh analysis of the biological value of Apalachicola Bay, Flor- Water Fish Commission (1970-1971). ida. Report to F.W.P.C.A. Cox, David T. and Dennis Auth. 1972. Stream Investiga- Odum, William E. 1971. Pathways of energy flow in a south tions. Annual Progress Report, Florida Game and Fresh Florida estuary. Sea Grant Tech. Bull. #7, University of Water Fish Commission. (1971-1972). Miami Sea Grant. 'I ESTUARME SYSTEMS 17 Rockwood, Charles E. 1973. A management program for the Teal, John M. 1962. Energy flow in the salt marsh ecosystem oyster resource in Apalachicola Bay, Florida. Res. Rept. of Georgia. Ecology 43(4): 614-624. Florida Dept. Nat. Res. Swank, W. T. and J. E. Douglass. 1974. Streamflow greatly Woodall, W. R. Jr., and J. B. Wallace. 1972. The benthic reduced by converting deciduous hardwood stands to pine. fauna in four small southern Appalachian streams. Am. Science 185(4154): 857-859. Midi. Nat. 88(2): 393-407. THE RHODE RIVER PROGRAM DAVID L. CORRELL Smithsonian Institution Edgewater, Maryland ABSTRACT An intensive study of the interactions of the Rhode River, a subestuary of Chesapeake Bay, with its watershed and airshed is being conducted at the Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies. Rainfall is a major source of nitrogen nutrients for the watershed and the estuary. Very little of the nitrogen in the rain falling on the watershed or that applied to cultivated croplands reaches the estuary. Almost all of the phosphorus loading of the estuary is from watershed runoff. Using land use analysis and watershed runoff studies, seasonal area yield loading rates have been calculated from land use categories. Freshwater wet areas are effective traps for nitrogen, phos- phorus and mineral suspended matter, while residential areas and cultivated croplands are major non-point sources of these parameters. Neither the upland soils, nor the tidal marsh sediments can be considered long term sinks for phosphorus. Most of the organic matter which fuels the food chains of the estuary is produced by the phytoplankton, rather than upland forests, tidal marshes, or mud flat benthic plants. The phytoplankton productivity peaks in an area of the estuary in which the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus is between 5 and 20. Net productivity also peaks in this zone. Thus this estuary, which has no point sources of pollution, is maintained in a eutrophic situation by nitrogen loading from rainfall and distant sources of water pollution in the bay, and from phosphorus loading from residential and agricultural diffuse sources. Where the ratio of these nutrients is maintained within a biologically useful range intensive phytoplankton blooms develop. INTRODUCTION U.S. Geological Survey, and from nearby universi- ties, principally The Johns Hopkins University and The Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental the University of Maryland. The broadly based Studies, established in 1965 by the Smithsonian interdisciplinary effort begun in the mid-1960's, has Institution, is a 2,600-acre research facility on the grown to a major research program during the last Rhode River. This subestuary on the western shore four years. of the Chesapeake Bay just south of Annapolis was The research at Rhode River has been concerned chosen for a long-term research program because it with (1) gaining an overview of the current status is small enough (two square miles of open water) of the estuarine-watershed system, and (2) attempt- to be studied in detail, yet large enough to have the ing to dissect the system in order to understand characteristics of an estuary. the function and quantitative importance of each Although the estuary is near major research cen- component. ters, its shoreline had not been completely developed The components have been considered from two when the Center was established. Portions had been points of view: bulkheaded or filled and developed for marinas and Spatial components.-Airshed and weather, uplands, suburban housing, but large areas are still relatively tidal marshlands and mud flats, open water tidal undisturbed. The land in the watershed of the river creeks, the main basin of Rhode River proper, and still falls into a mixture of land use categories typical the spine of Chesapeake Bay. of the western shore of Chesapeake Bay. Functional components.-Physical-chemical condi- The research program at the Center is concerned tions (temperature, nutrients, soil or substrate, et largely with the interaction of the Rhode River cetera), primary producers, primary consumers, sec- estuary with its watershed and man's impact on ondary consumers, and decomposers. this system. The effects of air pollution from the Each spatial component will have a series of Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area, land use functional components. In the case of tidal marshes, practices, and the disposal of sanitary waste waters for example, we have asked the following questions: generated by a rapidly growing population are being What is the primary productivity per unit of surface studied. The research program is being conducted area? What organisms carry out this productivity by scientists from the Smithsonian Institution, the at each season of the year? How much of this pro- 19 20 ESTUARINE-POLLUTION CONTROL ductivity is used to support the primary consumer Table I.-Nutrient loading rates from rainfall on the Rhode River watershed and decomposer components of the marshes, and how much is exported to the Rhode River basin Total-N Total-P N/P spatial component? Season (lb/acre day) (lb/acre day) (wt ratio) The purpose of this report is to summarize the Winter (Dec., Jan., Feb.)___ 0.0133 0.00049 27.0 more important research results of the program, i.e., Spring (Mar., Apr., May)___ 0.0277 0.00183 15.1 those relevant to "The National Estuary Study," Summer (June, July, Aug.)_ 0.021 0.00160 13.0 and to outline research which I anticipate will be Fall (Sept, Oct., Nov.) 0.0106 0.00046 23.1 Entire year -.. ...... 0.0182 0.00110 16.6 carried out at Rhode River in the next few years. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AREAS Upland Interactions We lack intensive, long-term measurements of the The watershed of the Rhode River is composed key parameters on which to base a better under- of many small drainage basins, some of which drain standing of the functional role and significance of into discrete creeks that can be monitored by instru- each component of an estuarine ecosystem. mented sampling stations. Five such stations have We also lack sufficient data processing and data been in operation for one year. Water discharged utilization from ongoing estuarine research programs. from each of the five basins is recorded, and volume- As a result of problems above, we do not possess integrated water samples are taken automatically the perspective necessary to see the relationship of for analysis of sediment and nutrient concentra- each component to the system as a whole. Until we tions. Each of these drainage basins contains a obtain this perspective, efforts towards optimum different proportion of five land use types: culti- management of estuaries are certain to be arbitrary vated cropland; wet areas such as ponds, swamps, and often counterproductive. and marshes; pasturelands; natural areas such as forest and brushland; and residential areas plus REVIEW OF RESEARCH RESULTS FROM roads and bare areas. The average land use on these RHODE RIVER PROGRAM watersheds was 23.5 percent cultivated crops, 0.5 percent wet areas, 57.2 percent natural areas, 13.6 Airshed interactions percent pasturelands, and 5.2 percent residential, plus others. The total watershed area monitored was Rain falling on the Rhode River and its watershed 2,100 acres. The data gathered on water discharge contributes significant amounts of nutrients, espe- and concentrations of sediments and nutrients have cially nitrogen. A network of rain gauges has been been used to determine mathematically the area established on the watershed and rainwater is col- loading rates delivered from each of the five land lected routinely in a special receiver for chemical use categories to the Rhode River at different times analysis (Correll, 1973). of year. Some of these rates are given in Table 2. In the 1973-74 hydrological year rainfall on the Although they are subject to refinement in precision Rhode River watershed deposited 0.40 lb of phos- as the project acquires a larger data inventory, these phorus per acre year, mostly as free phosphate, the rates are of considerable interest in predicting the form most biologically available. This is a relatively effects of land use change upon the turbidity and small amount compared to an average fertilizer nutrient loading of an estuary on a seasonal basis. application rate of 29.5 lb/acre year on the culti- Equivalent data has not yet been processed for the vated crops of the watershed (Correll, 1973). How- fall season. ever, the rainfall also deposited 6.6 lbs. of nitrogen The area yields from cultivated cropland are con- per acre year (2.84 lb nitrate-N and 3.79 lb organic sistently higher than from natural areas for all three plus ammonia-N/acre year). Most of this nitrogen parameters. The ratios of area yields for nitrogen to came down in forms readily utilized biologically. phosphorus for cultivated croplands decreased from The average fertilizer application rate on cultivated 21 in winter to about three in late spring and summer. crops on the watershed is 57.3 lb N/acre year Wet areas such as swamps and marshes obviously (Correll, 1973). trapped large amounts of all three components per The daily rainfall area loading rates for each acre and are therefore very important with respect season are given in Table 1. Of course, it must be to estuarine pollution. (A negative value in the table remembered that the rainfall loading is applied to indicates the removal of the material from runoff the entire watershed and the Rhode River itself, water and shallow groundwater as it flows through while fertilizer is not. land in this category.) In general, loading from ETUXARINE SYSTEMS' :21 .Table 2.-Nonpoint source area loading rates from upland land ise' categories tibn of sewage effluents (Correll and Millas; 1974). to the Rhode Ri-ver estuary Phosphorus loading rates of up to 3.8 lb/acre day Land use Total-N Total-P Mineral suspended were used. Neither the leaf litter zone:nor the soil category (lbs/acre day) (lbs/acre day) matter column were able to bind and store significantly greater 'amounts -of phosphorus, than 'Were present Winter initially. Applied phosphate was rapidly assimilated Cultivated cropland .- ----- +0.0052 +0.00036 +0.31 by microorganisms in the leaf litter zone and then -Wet areas a- - --------------.0.095 -0.014 -4.6 Natural areasb - . ......... +0.00033 +0.00021 +0.088 moved into the soil column. Within the soil, the Grasslands ..- . ...... ..... +0.016 +0.0020 +0.087 phosphorus, still packaged within microbial cells, Residential and others d.--. -0.0034 -0.0025 +0.44 moved laterally in the interstitial waters and was Spring lost from the, forest as shallow groundwater runoff Cultivated cropland .. ..... +0.0080 +0.0026 +0.80 in the local streams. Wet areas a____- _.______. -0.38 -0.088 -26 Natural areas b-.... .... +0.0029 +0.00054 +0.026 Grasslands .- .. . ..... -0.0087 -0.0051 - +0.41 Residential and others a... +0.031 +0.026 +3.3 Tidal Marshes and Mud Flats Summer Cultivated cropland - --- +-0.023 +0.0098 +1.4 Many of the tidal marshes and mud flats bordering Wet areas --------------. - -0.36 -0.16 -36 Natural areas b-........... +0.00085 +0.00021 -0.080 the Rhode River today are located in or adjacent to Grasslands c------------- -0.014 -0.0098 -0.023 Muddy Creek, a headwaters tidal channel. These Residential and others d.... +0.014 +0.018 +1.2 areas function as filters and thereby alter the water Includes open water, freshwater, marshes and swamps. quality of the tidal waters. It is estimated that the b Includes forest and brushlands. Muddy Creek system, which drains 66 percent of e Includes primarily pastureland. the watershed, discharges about 16 tons of suspended d Others include bare areas, paved areas, dumps, roads. particulates per year into these mud flats. Most of this load is precipitated as a result of aggregation grasslands tends to shift from high positive values and reduced water velocities before it passes into in winter to negative values in summer. In spring the Rhode River proper. Thus the mud flats and and summer, the land categorized residential was a tidal marshes act as sediment traps. major source of nitrogen and phosphorus. The tidal marshes also assimilate phosphorus and Residential land was always a major source of nitrogen nutrients at a high rate. These marshes mineral suspended particulates. In contrast, natural have large surface areas in contact with the tidal areas usually had area loading rates of nearly zero waters. These surface areas are covered with peri- for nutrients -and low rates for mineral suspended phyton, a community dominated by algae and matter. Rainfall area loading rates for nitrogen and bacteria. The bacteria in this surface microbial film phosphorus (Table 1) usually exceeded area loading are responsible for most, of the nutrient uptake rates from natural area uplands (Table 2). (Correll, Faust and Severn, 1973; and, Bender and Stream samples were taken at times of known Correll, 1974), following which the nutrients are water discharge and analyzed for total and fecal transferred down or laterally in the interstitial coliform bacteria as indicators of potential.pollution waters of the sediments by the pumping action of with human pathogens. Not enough data has been the tides until they reemerge in the water draining obtained to calculate reliable area yield rates for into the tidal channels at low tide. No significant each land use, but some conclusions seem justified 'net accumulation of mineral nutrients occurs under for the watersheds overall. Progressively higher aver- natural or increased mineral nutrient loading in the age area discharge rates for coliform bacteria were high or low tidal 'marshes of the Rhode River observed on February 21, March 18, -May 13, and (Correll, Faust and Severn, 1973, and, Bender and June 17, 1974 (1.9 X 101, 4.5 X 103, 4.5 X 104; and Correll, 1974), but many organic forms of phospho- 7.7 X 104 total coliforms/acre min, respectively). rus and nitrogen ate mineralized in the overall This was despite the fact that progressively lower process. Thus, incoming tides contain a higher pro- water discharge rates were measured for the same portion of organic and particulate forms of mineral time periods. No one watershed had obviously dif- nutrients than ebbing tides. ferent emission rates. - - - Experiments with periphyton on artificial sub- Radioisotope studies were conducted of the phos- strates in the mud flats indicated average phospho- phorus cycling and flux occurring in natural wood- rus -uptake rates of 0.18 ton P/acre year -and an lands subjected onlyto rainfall loading or to increased - average turnover time for total periphyton phospho- mineral loading designed to simulate land applica- rus of 29 hours. The primary production of tidal 22 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL marshes and mud flats is due to the activities of food chains of the marsh, rather than being exported submerged and emergent higher plants and the by tidal currents to the estuary. periphyton microbial community on the underwater Another question concerning the role of tidal surfaces. marshes and mud flats is, how effective are they at The productivity of tidal marsh emergent plants removal of bacteria carried into this area by the (commonly called grasses) is usually considered to runoff from the Muddy Creek system? Preliminary be high. In the Rhode River, the productivity of data suggest that once the bacteria are discharged various marsh communities, as estimated from stand- into tidal waters, most of them survive until they ing crop at the end of the growing season, varied are exchanged into Chesapeake Bay proper. from 1.4 to 5.0 ton dry wt/acre year (Correll, 1973). The most prevalent communities had productions Rhode River of about 2.6,ton dry wt/acre year. Actual carbon dioxide uptake measurements in high marsh com- The chemical and physical properties of the estu- munities gave values which ranged up to 222 lb/acre ary have been studied extensively. Gradients exist day as a maximum during the peak of the growth for the concentrations of most parameters due to season, but that season only lasts about two months. freshwater runoff from Muddy Creek at one end of Thus, these figures are within a factor of 2 of the the estuary and the exchange of brackish water standing crop values. In the mud fiats the productiv- from the bay at the other. These gradients undergo ity of the beds of submerged vascular plants as seasonal changes which must be understood if the judged by standing crop in July, was 0.18 to 0.23 biological components of the estuary are to be ton dry wt/acre year. analyzed. The underwater surfaces of both marshes and mud The surface water of the bay adjacent to Rhode flats are covered with periphyton. Studies of peri- River typically reaches a minimum salinity (4-5 phyton growth on artificial substrates gave an aver- percent) in May or June due largely to flushing by age rate of 0.18 ton of ash-free dry wt/acre year the Susquehanna River. It then increases steadily (Correll, 1973). Actual rates of periphyton net to about 12-13 percent by November or December primary production, as determined by radioisotope (Correll, 1973). This cycle controls the rate of ex- methods, averaged 1.1 tons ash-free dry wt/acre change of the waters in the lower Rhode River. year (Correll, 1973). Because this value does not Local watershed freshwater runoff is usually highest account for losses due to grazing, death, et cetera, in winter and spring, while it often reaches values it is much higher than the biomass growth rate of essentially zero in late summer or fall. value on artificial substrates. Even so, the produc- The total load of suspended particulates in the tivity of the mud flats (submerged vascular plants estuary varies from about 60 tons in the fall to 300 plus periphyton) was lower than the productivity tons in the spring and summer, of which organic of the tidal marshes (about 1.3 vs 2.6 tons dry matter comprises an average of about 60 percent wt/acre year, respectively). Periphyton carries out (Correll, 1973). The turbidity decreases from up- primary production in the marshes all year, but the stream to downstream. These particulates are im- rates within the marshes have not been measured at portant as sites for microbial attachment and for Rhode River. This primary production has the binding of organic matter and phosphorus com- potential for making two significant contributions pounds. They are also important because they to the Rhode River: (1) providing a food supply severely limit light penetration and thus primary for spawning and nursery grounds, and (2) providing production. the estuary with dissolved and particulate organic The nutrients (P, N, organic matter) also decrease matter carried by tidal currents. toward the mouth of the estuary. An exception is There is little doubt that the first is a bona fide nitrate nitrogen, which in the spring has a minimum role for this component of the system. However, concentration in the middle of the river (Table 3, experiments at Rhode River tend to deny the im- and Correll, 1973). Thus, phosphorus in the estuary portance of the second. Carbon dioxide exchange derives almost entirely from the watershed and de- measurements on one meter square experimental creases in concentration toward the bay due to plots in high marsh communities indicate that, due exchange-dilution with waters of lower phosphorus to the metabolism of the microorganisms within the content. Phosphorus also is deposited in bottom bottom sediments and the surface litter layer, most sediments through sedimentation'' of particulates of the organic material produced in these marshes during normal conditions when bottom waters are is respired away again while still in the marsh. Thus, not anaerobic. Massive pulsed releases of phos- most of the grass productivity actually fuels the phorus from bottom sediments occur when bottom ESTtA)RINE SYSTEMS 23 Table 3.--Mineral nutrient concentrations in Rhode River surfacewaters The primary production, supplemented with exog- enous organic matter, drives a complex and very (ug P 1Ortho-P (ug N/i Ammoniarti productive food chain in the estuary. This food (ug P/1) (ug N/) (NP) chain has two other components important to the i April 17 (1973) dynamics-primary consumers and decomposers. 6 625 669 i49.8 They assure efficient utilization of the energy stored 13 . . .... 28 6 483 684 41.3 by the primary producers and the rapid recycling 12 - ---- -- 32 3 357 769 35.2 and reuse of mineral nutrients (N and P). Another 11n .... 37 3 78 838 24.8 <i 56 23 78 838 2416.8 important component, from man's point of view, is 10 .... . . 56 2 l0 931 16.8 X - 9 70 2 13 808 11.7 the secondary consumers. �-E-----II 43 319 362 6.1 First, let us consider the primary consumers. These August 1 43 (1973) 319 362 6.1 consist of filter feeders of all sizes from ciliate proto- 187 126 -1381 7.. . zoans to shellfish. In terms of energy flow and re- 14 . . 187 1 1 181 1 7.4 cycling, the most important of these are the smallest, - -- 134 10 1141 8.5 12 . .. 166 43 6 910 5.5 for their metabolic rates, which are related to the 11 .. 166 43 5 894 5.4 ratio of the organism's surface area to its weight, 10 184 45 2 101l 51 5 are extremely high. Rhode River supports high popu- 9 - - 195 50 1076 5.5 8 - - -469 126 1 1658 3.5 lations of ciliate protozoans, rotifers, and shellfish. Equally important, if high productivity is to be maintained, are the decomposers (predominantly waters go anaerobic occasionally in the summer. bacteria). A high correlation has been found in A single such release of about one ton of phos- Rhode River between phytoplankton populations phorus into Rhode River was documented in 1973 and bacterial populations. Animals can eat only (Correll, 1974). The occasional occurrence of particulate organic matter, whether bacteria, phyto- transfers of phosphorus from anaerobic, phosphorus- plankton, detritis, or other animals. They never rich deep layers of the bay into Rhode River are completely assimilate that food, but release large also suspected but not well documented. Nitrogen proportions as dissolved organic matter. This dis- enters the Rhode River from the watershed and solved organic matter can be utilized only by bac- airshed in high concentrations most of the year and teria and thereby made into particulate matter from the bay in the winter and spring. again. Thus, carbon is recycled continuously by the Phytoplankton is responsible for most of the pri- phytoplankton, filter feeders, and bacteria. mary production in the Rhode River. The plankton Mineral nutrients are also rapidly recycled. In blooms usually result from bay phytoplankton being the case of phosphorus, the bacteria are responsible exchanged into Rhode River, where growth condi- for over 95 percent of the phosphate uptake in tions are more favorable and their populations in- Rhode River (Correll, Faust and Severn, 1973). These crease despite the continuous dilution with bay bacteria are attached to aggregated suspended par- water. The average net productivity of this phyto- ticulates (Correll, Faust and Severn, 1973). Total plankton in the Rhode River, as determined by phosphate uptake rates in Rhode River average radioisotope methods, was about 9 tons dry wt/acre about 1.2 tons of P/acre year. However, since most year (Correll, 1973). This value is very high, when of this phosphorus is recycled repeatedly, it is not compared with 1.3 for mud flats or 2.6 for tidal removed from the system at this rate. Apparently marshes. all the phosphorus which comes into Rhode River, Since very little of the carbon fixed in the marshes from a variety of sources, eventually moves on out is exported to the estuary, and since the surface into Chesapeake Bay proper. This phosphorus move- area of the estuary is greater than that of the mud ment probably occurs partly as infrequent pulses flats and marshes, most of the organic matter which (Correll, 1974) rather than at a steady rate. drives the food chains of the Rhode River is prob- Phosphorus loading of Rhode River from land ably also produced in the river. Loading rates for runoff in tons/year was estimated to be 0.67 from Rhode River for organic matter contained in runoff cultivated crops, 0.22 from natural areas, and 1.4 were estimated to be 25-35 tons dry wt/year on the from residential areas. On the other hand, it was basis of extrapolation from currently. available estimated that 0.46 tons P/year were trapped in watershed runoff data. Since the surface area of the wet areas and 0.36 tons P/year were trapped in Rhode River is 1,236 acres, the average loadirng rate grasslands. This phosphorus would otherwise have from watershed runoff is only 0.020-0.028 tons dry reached the estuary. The total loading from land wt of organic matter/acre year. runoff was about 1.5 tons of P/year. The direct '24 ESTUARINE POLLITTION CONTROL Table 4.-Nutrient sources for the Rhode River On April 17 a combination of rapid exchange of high nitrate bay water and local watershed runoff had Organic matter PhosphorusI Nitrogen Source (tons dry wt/ (tons P/year) (tons N/year) created a nitrate gradient with a minimum at station acre/year) 10, while total phosphorus showed the normal .de- crease toward the bay. The weight ratios for nitrogen Uplands - - - -. 0.020-0.028 P (15) M (3'7) to phosphorus also increased from upstream to down- Cropland _-- .. .. +0.67 +2.2 'Wet'areas .-- - ---- ------ - -0.46 -1.3 stream and were well over 10 for mnost of Rhode 'Natural' ...--....+.. ........ +0.22 +0.90 River. This resulted in a depletion of the pool of Pasture . .--- ---- - ------- -0.36 +0.36 available orthophosphate. Residential.....- ..... +1.4 +1.5 Rainfall ..........- ............... +0.25 +4.1 On 'August 9, the bay water was no longer high Phytoplankton ...9.2 ----------------------------------- in nitrate. Total phosphorus levels had increased in Mud flats ...- . low 0 0 Tidal marshes ....- . .. low 0 low Rhode River (normal for summertime), but were Chesapeake'Bay... 0 low high still decreasing toward the bay. Although nitrate levels were now very low, available-orthophosphate levels had increased due to lowered demand. Ratios f awas about 0.25 of nitrogen to phosphorus were now less than 10 loading of the estuary from rainfall throughout Rhode River. The presence of a zone tons P/year. Therefore, the total annual phosphorus th an optimum ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus input to Rhode River is estimated to be on the order o is at least one explanation for the fact that produc- of 1.7-1.8 tons. These sources are summarized in Table 4. A plsed release of o ton need occur tivity is currently higher in Rhode River much of Table 4. A pulsed release of on ton need occur the year than in the main spine of Chesapeake Bay. only very infrequently to be important. A sl1ow con- Is the Rhode River a reasonably closed system, tinuous release of phosphorus into Chesapeake Bay using most of its primary productivity internally to also occurs normally due to the exchange of water pr oduce primary and secondary consumers, or does masses along a phosphorus concentration gradient ,masses long a phosphorus concentrtion gradient iit export substantial amounts of primary productiv- (Tablge 3). ity to the open bay? Several approaches have been Nitrogen loading of Rhode River from land runoff followed in answering this interesting question. One in tons/year was estimated to be 2.2 from cultivated utilizes the diurnal change in dissolved oxygen to cropland, 0.90 from natural areas, 0.36 from pasture- overall commuty metabolism An excess lands, and 1.5 from residential areas. Wet areas of photosynthetic oxygen production over respira- are estimated to have removed 1.3 tons of nitrogen, tory oxygen consumption would indicate the system tory oxygen consumption would indicate the system which otherwise would have reached the estuary. Thus, the total loading from land runoff was about podues more than iT consumes 3.7, tons nitrogen/year. The direct loading of the The results for 1973 (Table 5) indicate that sec- tion 2 of Rhode River, in which blooms often occur, estuary from rainfall was about 4.1 tons of nitrogen/ year These loadings a'e summarized in Table 4 In did produce about 10 percent more than it utilized. year. These loadings are summarized in Table 4. In The other portions of Rhode River seemed to be a addition, some loading occurred in winter and spring nearly balanced, or closed, system. This data also wit a higher nitrate con ternt (able 3). Without indicated a net community production for the main with a higher nitrate content (Table 3). Without this input from the bay, nitrogen loading would have portion of the estuary of about 6 tons dry wt/acre been only 7.8 tons. year. Since this includes heterotrophic daytime res- !, 'piration, it is -in good agreemeniit with the 9.2 ton Biota require 10 times as much nitrogen as phos- phorus for maximum growth, according to generally A second method of examining productivity is to accepted ~stimates. The ratio of nitrogen to phospho- rus loading in Rhpde River, excluding bay exchange, is only about 4.5, indicating a 'short fall of 9 or 10 Table 5.-Rhode River productivity as measured by open-water oxygen toins of nitrogen per year or an excess of about one metabolism in 1973 ton of phosphorus. However, bay water with a high Rhode River Daytime net Nighttime Difference nitrate content contributes the needed nitrogen, and segment productivity respiratidn available .l...b Ilooms tyicll pa( th middle of (tons dry (tons dry for export plankton blooms typically peak in the middle of wt/acre year) wt/acre year) (tons dry Rhode River where the phosphorus to nitrogen ratio wt/acre year) is optimum. The times and locations of this occur- rence vary due to a number of factors, including - 4.43 4.22 +0.21 r2------- an. 6.62 6.09 +0.53 and -herate of chanlgein the bay's salinity. - 3- . _.. 6.01 6.33 -0.32 In Table 3, nutrient gradient data, which illus- '- 4 . 3.65 3.86 -0.21 trate these priinciples, are presented for two days. / .. . ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 25 measure the ratio of net photosynthetic- carbon sediments except in the winter. These results provide !uptake to total community phosphorus uptake. This a factual basis for concern over the effects of patho- 'ratiois called the autotrophy index (atoms inorganic gens on shellfish harvested in Rhode River. carbon reduced per atom phosphorus assimilated). It. should be about 100 for a population consisting entirely of primary producers and 0 for a population EVALUATION OF PREVIOUS consisting of consumers and decomposers only. This RESEARCH PROGRAM AT RHODE RIVER ratio had an annual average of 68 for the Rhode River plankton community, compared to an annual The research program at Rhode River has been average of 25 for mud flat periphyton on artificial based on three basic assumptions: (1) An estuarine substrates (Correll, 1973) indicating a greater pro- study must include investigations of the interaction portion of autotrophy in the plankton. Under the of the aquatic system with its watershed and airshed conditions prevalent in Rhode River the productiv- if the system is to be understood or intelligently ity is normally dominated by nannophytoplankton managed. Once pollutants have been introduced (algae in the 5 to 10 #m size range) (Correll, 1973). into the tidal waters, not much can be done. Unless In the summer and fall, however, dense localized we find the sources and magnitudes of these pollut- dinoflagellate blooms often occur. These organisms ants we cannot attempt to control them. (2) An are not utilized efficiently as food by filter feeders estuarine research program must include contribu- and are commonly associated with massive fish kills. tions of information from many scientific disciplines These blooms are closely correlated with high bac- if an overall understanding of the estuary is to terial populations and high levels of organic phos- emerge. (3) This information must be digested, and phorus in the water. The mechanism of the fish kills the conclusions must be made available to a broad is not clear. No clear proof of toxins has been demon- spectrum of people. Otherwise, the problems of strated. Low dissolved oxygen levels in bottom managing the estuary will not be alleviated. The waters at night are also associated with the blooms. scientific community, management people at each The actual causal relationships of these many factors level of government, citizens' organizations con- are still not known. cerned with the environment, and the general public The survival characteristics of coliform bacteria must have access to these conclusions. in Rhode River have been studied. In the spring The three programs of the Chesapeake Bay Center and early summer,, when land runoff is occurring, a for Environmental Studies are responsive to these strong correlation exists between fecal coliform con- assumptions. The research program focuses on the centrations throughout Rhode River and the factors Rhode River, its watershed, and its airshed. An for dilution of Muddy Creek water by bay water in information transfer program is underway to relay the various sections of Rhode River (r = 0.95 to results of the research to managers and other poten- 1.00). The correlation is much lower for total coli- tial users. The Center's education program is also form data (r = 0.5 to 0.6). Since Muddy Creek designed to inform the public about the functioniing drains most of the watershed, there is a clear indica- of the Rhode River ecosystem. In addition, the tion that the bacteria which give positive fecal Center's membership in the Chesapeake Research coliform assays originate from the watershed at Consortium helps to insure that its efforts will be those times. Conversely, many of the bacteria as- coordinated with those of other research facilities sayed as total coliforms did not originate from the concerned with the bay. watershed. Survival experiments indicated that high So far, I have stressed the 'positive side of our water temperatures and high salinity decreased the past effort. We have also encountered many prob- survival times of Escherichia coli while the pres- lems. We have accepted the necessity for maintain- ence of suspended Montmorillonite increased their ing an interdisciplinary, interorganizational program survival. in which data is gathered in a well planned, spatially A search for pathogenic bacteria in Rhode River and temporally coincident manner. This has been revealed the presence of fecal Streptococci at average very difficult to achieve, but we have made progress levels of 225, 130, and 1,050 per 100 mrl of surface towards this goal. We also have realized the need to water at the mouth, center, and upper end of the demonstrate the applicability of the findings at river, respectively (Correll, 1973). The numbers Rhode River to other estuaries and their watersheds present per 10g bottom sediment were usually over and airsheds. Some progress has been made in this 2,400. Clostridium botulinum was present in: the direction. For example, a one-year study is now bottom sediments in three cases out of 24. No underway which compares the Rhode River with Salmonella were found. Vibrio parahaemolyticus-like the South River, a larger subestuary of the Chesa- organisms were abundant in the water column and peake Bay. We have realized the need to test how 26 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL much stress different sections of the estuary can the complexity of the system and of the limited absorb without serious deliterious modification. Al- usefulness of isolated data. though some work has been done along these lines, In general, more research is needed on the cycling more is needed. Finally, we have encountered severe of nitrogen, the role of toxins in the system, and the problems in funding such an ambitious research dynamics of the primary and secondary consumers. program. So far, sufficient funds have been found to maintain a viable, but not optimum, program. RECOMMENDATIONS Overall, the program has just begun to produce FOR IMPROVEMENT OF the type of results it was initiated to produce- THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT information which could not have been obtained by individual scientists working alone or in groups on A systems analysis approach to the management a short-term basis or by studies of only one 3ompo- of the overall ecosystem is necessary. We need to nent of an estuarine ecosystem. be able to predict the impact of overall nutrient, sediment, pathogen and toxin loading from all RESULTS WHICH APPLY DIRECTLY sources upon various sections of and types of estu- TO ESTUARINE MANAGEM ENT aries. These waters have to be characterized with respect to their salinity regimens, flushing rates, ~Although preliminary, the area loading rates in and depths. The impacts will be calculated in terms this report from the airshed and watershed to the of effects upon biological productivity, balance of Rhode River are available to serve as a powerful oxygen production and utilization, presence or ab- tool for management (Tables 1 and 2). They provide sence of noxious species (such as pathogens, dino- an overview of total nutrient and sediment loading flagellates and blue-green algae, jellyfish, and asiatic on a seasonal basis from rainfall and five ty pes of milfi). e need to determine the acrage and land use. The effects, with respect to total loadings, types of mud flat and tidal marshes which should of land use changes resulting from development can be preserved as spawning and nursery grounds for now be predicted more accurately. The effects on fisheries. We need to be able to predict the effect the estuary of a shift from the sewage disposal that these areas exert upon estuarine water quality methods currently used to methods involving appli- through their function as biological filters. Not until cation of sewage to land can also be predicted we can do these things can we make intelligent, maximum use of our estuaries. (Correll and Miklas, 1974). On the basis of our research, the use of tidal marshes for spray irrigation of sanitary waste waters does not seem advisable REFERENCES (Bender and Correll, 1974). The productivity of an estuary has been quanti- Correll, D. L. and Miklas, J. J. 1974. Phosphorus cycling in a Maryland deciduous forest subjected to various levels fled and compared with the relative amounts of of mineral nutrient loading. Symp. Mineral Cycling South- biologically useful energy it receives from land run- eastern Ecosystems, Augusta, Ga. (in press). off, mud flats, and tidal marshes (Table 4). The role played by nutrients in the very high biological Correll, D. L., M. A. Faust, and D. J. Severn. 1973. Phos- ..-e played by nutrients in .phorus flux and cycling in estuaries. Second Internatl. productivity of Rhode River has been outlined Esthuarine Res. Conf., Myrtle Beach, S.C. (in press). (Table 5). Any management decisions concerning nutrient sources or the modification of tidal marshes Bender, M. E. and D. L. Correll. 1974. The use of wetlands as nutrient removal systems. Chesapeake Res. Consortium or mud flats can therefore be discussed in a quantita- Publ. No. 29. tive manner on a per acre basis with respect to these parameters. Correll, D. L. 1974. Indirect effects of tropical storm Agnes upon the Rhode River. Symp. Effects Tropical Storm Agnies on the Chesapeake Bay Estuarine System, College FUTURE TRENDS AND NEEDS Md. (in press). IN RESEARCH At RHODE RIVER Correl!, D. L. (Ed.) 1973. Environmental Monitoring and Baseline Data, Temperate Studies, Rhode River, Maryland. Publ. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Because of the need to generate data more directly useful to a' growing number of scientists and more easily adaptable to systems analysis and model con- ACKNOWLEDGM ENTS sb-uction, the research at Rhode River will probabiy struction, the research at Rhode River will probably The following sources of research data were used in pre- become progressively more programmatic. The par- paring this report (unless therwise noted, they are emin pre- ticipants already are becoming thoroughly aware of by the Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies): ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 27 Rainfall and Land Use Maps, DanieI Higman; Fertilizer Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; and Dr. J. Kevin Practices, David Miller; Suspended Particulates, Dr. Jack Sullivan (all members of the Rhode River Scientific Advisory Pierce, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, Committee) for their stimulating discussions over the last D.C.; Coliform, Total Bacterial and Phytoplankton Popula- several years. The detailed data upon which this summary is tions, Dr. Maria Faust; Marsh Grass Standing Crops and based can, in general, be found in the literature cited. The Marsh Community Carbon Dioxide Exchange, Dr. Bert research referred to in this report was funded in part by the Drake, Smithsonian Radiation Biology Laboratory, Rock- Smithsonian Institution's Environmental Sciences Program ville, Md.; Submerged Vascular Plants Standing Crops, and by a series of grants from the Program For Research Dr. Charles Southwick, The Johns Hopkins University, Balti- Applied To National Needs of the National Science Founda- more, Md.; Open Water Oxygen Metabolism, Robert Cory, tion (administered through the Chesapeake Research Con- U.S. Geological Survey (stationed at the Chesapeake Bay for sortium). I would like to thank Mrs. Dorothy Kinsman, Dr. Environmental Studies); Pathogenic Bacterial Populations, Francis S. L. Williamson, Dr. J. Kevin Sullivan, and Robert Dr. Rita Colwell University of Maryland, College Park, Md. Cory for their comments and suggestions on this manuscript. I would like to thank Dr. Eugene Small, University of Mary- This report was published with the approval of the Secretary land, College Park, Md.; Dr. Howard Seliger, The Johns of the Smithsonian Institution. . 4, 4i; . ,' . , , . , . ' . . t )'-. %...... . , i t ., , , : . . , : CHARACTERIZATION OF THE NATURAL ESTUARY IN TERMS OF ENERGY FLOW AND POLLUTION IMPACT F. JOHN VERNBERG University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina ABSTRACT An estuary is a complex ecosystem which is subjected to a wide range of environmental fluctua- tion in "normal" parameters, such as salinity, temperature, and rhythmical tidal action. In today's world more and more estuaries are being assaulted by man-induced factors. Many factors make estuaries an important biological and economic resource, but perhaps the most important of all is the amount of energy in these systems. In order for man to manage this habitat for the greatest benefit to man and the earth's ecosystem, a thorough understanding of the energy budget of estuaries is vital. Society has learned the necessity of "dollar" budget planning; it must now recognize the need and applicability for developing energy budget models of ecosystems for purposes of planning and management decisionmaking. Attempts have been made to develop these models for a few estuaries, but because of their com- plexity and relatively high cost, these studies are only in their early developmental stages. Comparative models must be developed for characteristic types of estuaries to assess their essen- tial common and distinctive features. This will enhance the ability of man to predict the effects of a proposed environmental change in other estuaries without the need for excessively costly environmental impact investigations. The computer and modeling techniques and the scientific-socio-economic expertise exist to initiate comprehensive studies. What is needed is recognition and continuing support to develop this potentially powerful scientific tool for predictive and management purposes. INTRODUCTION water may dramatically reduce the salinity of sea- water and influence numerous other ecological Our earth is a dynamnic, complex, interacting factors. Hence, the estuary may represent a rela- system of plants and animals living together in a tively unstable, dynamic environment. non-living, physical-chemical environment. Like all Great diversity in kinds and shapes of estuaries dynamic systems-whether it be a factory, a city, has been reported in the scientific literature (Lauff, or a living organism-planet earth needs energy to 1967; Odum et al., 1974). However, estuaries survive and maintain itself. The basic input of energy typically have certain characteristics in common. is from the sun, and this energy is used by plants to Briefly, the principal similarities are: 1) tidal photosynthetically produce organic material (food). fluctuation, 2) salinity changes, 3) high concentra- This production of organic material forms the tions of nutrients, and 4) a decrease in numbers of primary food source for all life. Thus, a knowledge marine species as salinity is decreased. In general, of how the environment influences both food produc- organisms inhabiting estuaries are adapted to live tion and the utilization of food and energy by all in a dynamic habitat where salinity, temperature, living organisms is fundamental to human society. oxygen, and other environmental factors change One geographically small, but extremely important markedly with time (Remane and Schlieper, 1971; ecological segment of our earth, is the estuary. An Vernberg and Vernberg, 1972). Although not typical estuary is a discrete ecological habitat where sea of all estuaries, most have human population centers water rhythmically ebbs and flows within a semi- associated with them. These strategic regions rep- enclosed coastal body of water. A variable amount of resent an excellent commercial site because they fresh water derived from land drainage enters offer a safe harbor for ocean-going ships and a estuaries; some have relatively little freshwater run- terminal for river traffic as well as being a highly off, while others receive tremendous quantities of desired recreational area. fresh water from large river systems. This fresh Despite the basic similarities common to all 29 30 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL estuaries, it is necessary to realize that each estuary for greater ease of study, this large ecosystem is has its own specific characteristics. These differences subdivided into subunits by establishing artificial, between estuaries may be quantitative, such as the but well-defined, boundaries. However, we must amount of freshwater runoff, the amount of wetlands remember these subunits interact with each other bordering the estuarine waters, and length and width and do not exist alone. Even by creating these of estuaries. Qualitative differences also exist. For discrete subunits, analysis is still complex, and to be example, some estuaries are bordered by rocky studied properly a multidisciplinary team of scien- shores, others by salt marshes. Differences in tists and sophisticated computer technology must be physical-chemical-geological characteristics have a involved. Although the general aspects of ecosystems pronounced effect on the kinds and number of are fairly well understood, the important step of organisms living in estuaries. As an illustration, a developing refined models for various kinds of low salinity estuary will typically have fewer marine ecosystems having predictive and management ca- species than a high salinity estuary. Since pollutants pabilities is not yet a reality. A generalized scheme may affect brackish water organisms differently of an ecosystem is graphically represented in Figure than marine species, water quality standards and 1. management procedures might be different in these The essential feature of an ecosystem is the estuaries. presence of organisms that are responsible for the To understand estuaries and to be able to predict production of organic compounds by photosynthetic the environmental impact of man on these critical activity using energy derived from the sun. This regions, similarities and differences must be care- process produces most of the food (energy) neces- fully considered. The view that "if you've studied sary to support the other biological components of one estuary you've studied them all" is dangerous the ecosystem and is called primary production. scientifically and is unfounded from a management In addition, some bacteria (chemotrophs) can pro- and legislative viewpoint. Pollution control regula- duce complex organic compounds from simple in- tions must be based on a sound scientific basis in- organic matter in the absence of sunlight. Herbivores corporating knowledge of similarities and dis- eat primary producers and energy is derived in this similarities between estuaries. manner to sustain the herbivore. In turn, some of this energy is incorporated into organic matter which ECOSYSTEMS is available to carnivores who feed on herbivores. The production of organic matter by herbivores is In recent years, sharp public focus on environ- called secondary production. In turn, carnivores may mental problems has popularized the long held view be devoured by other carnivores, which represent of ecologists that the environment is extremely still another level of organic production and exchange complex and difficult to study on a short-term of energy. Parasites extract their required energy "crisis-by-crisis" basis. However, rather than being from organisms at every level of production. overwhelmed by the complexity of natural ecological Scavengers feed on food scraps wherever available, systems, ecologists have proposed the somewhat while other organisms are responsible for the de- simplified concept of the ecosystem which can be composition of dead biological material. Decom- studied by systems analysis techniques and modeling position products may serve as nutrients for many procedures. different types of organisms including primary Various definitions of an ecosystem exist, but all producers. In estuaries, one of the important food include the concept that certain plants and animals sources is detritus, the debris resulting from the regularly interact as a unit called a community and breakdown of biological material which represents that this community exists in an abiotic (non-living) potential energy for consumer species. Organisms environment. Together the biotic community and the feeding on detritus are called detritivores. abiotic factors constitute an ecosystem which has a All of these biological activities take place in a specific characteristic structure (anatomy) and func- complex non-living environment which has a pro- tion (physiology). The structural anatomy of an found influence on plants and animals. For example, ecosystem is based on such features as the kind and temperature affects most physiological functions. number of species present at different times of the Extremely high or low temperatures may kill an year. In contrast, the functional characteristics organism, while non-lethal temperatures may in- include the rate at which the ecosystem functions, fluence the rate of photosynthesis or the reproductive such as food production levels and energy flow rates cycle. In brief, the ecosystem represents a complex to various ecosystem components. interacting system which is dependent on an external Our planet is an example of an ecosystem. But, source of energy from the sun and whose functional ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 31 s un /Light (energy) / Primary producers Transformengers FIGURE 1.--Generalized scheme of an ecosystem. Arrows represent directional flow of nutrients and/or energy (Vernberg and Vernberg, 1970). activities tend to be cyclic in nature, involving conceptual models which can graphically illustrate biological, chemical, geological, and physical features. the system in simpler terms. Such a model, the For an ecosystem to exist and to function, energy "universal" model of ecological energy flow, was is required. An important aspect of studying natural suggested by E. P. Odum (1968) (Fig. 2). This estuarine ecosystems is to determine the input of model can be used whether analyzing the energetics energy into the system and where and how this of an ecosystem or that of an individual organism. energy is transported to and used by the various Energy flow from one organism to another is rep- components of the system. H. T. Odum (1967) has resented in Figure 2 by coupling two units of the proposed a system of graphically representing the model. Because of energy loss due to such functions flow of energy by using specific symbols, while other as egestion, respiration, reproduction, and excretion, workers use different methods (specific examples the first unit is larger than the second. This relation- presented later). An accounting of the energy within ship is of importance and illustrates the obvious an ecosystem is called an energy budget and reflects fact that the amount of primary production of energy input and output of energy from the entire system will determine the ultimate size of the ecosystem. as well as partitioning of energy within the various Energy; input (I) is either assimilated (A) or components of the ecosystem. Energy may be returned to the environment and not used (NU). expressed in various units, such as kilogram-calorie Assimilated energy is used for respiration (R) or (Kcal), BTU, or grams of carbon, but all are inter- production (P) of new organic matter. Respiration convertible. results in a loss of energy from the system. Produc- To analyze complex systems, scientists develop tion energy may be used for growth (G), stored (S) 32. ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL NU estuaries associated with human habitation, organic B y materials resulting from man's activities are fre- �N AXE/ B equently added directly to the neighboring estuaries through sewage or industrial discharges. These organic materials represent an energy source for some organisms, but are toxic to others. _--- I P G l b The input of mechanical energy may result from various activities associated with winds, tides, and waves. Tidal energy is a principal factor in deter- mining the high degree of productivity of salt marshes. Its turbulence aids in mixing and distrib- I /X/ uting nutrients. Thermal additives as a result of R 2 / man's activities, such as heat from thermal nuclear --, / _ plants, represent still another source of energy. Energy export from estuaries results from a num- ber of processes such as river flow, tidal circulation, and sedimentation. Water exchange between the ocean and the estuary or between the: estuary and FIGURE 2.--A "universal" model of energy flow through biological systems (from Odum, 1968). freshwater streams may cause a net translocation of organic matter (energy) dissolved or suspended in the water. Energy may flow from the estuarine- as a reserve for future use, excreted (E) as wastes wetland ecosystem to the surrounding terrestrial of metabolism, or energy as used to search out new system by terrestrial organisms feeding in the energy sources. marshes. Man removes energy from estuaries when- A basic similarity between economic systems and ever he takes oysters, shrimp, fish, or other ecosystems can be readily observed. Economists use organisms. Also, migrating oceanic animals and some monetary unit, i.e., dollars, francs, or peso, birds periodically invade estuaries to feed and thus as the source which drives their system, whereas the they utilize the estuarine energy reserves. An basic ecosystem unit used by the ecologist is energy. estuarine energy flow study will analyze the dynamics To understand economic systems, the input and of where, how, how much, and how fast the energy distribution of money is analyzed, and the ecologist flows through the estuary-wetlands ecosystem. studies the input and flow of energy through an In recent years the ecologist has profitably adapted ecosystem. One obvious difference between the two the techniques of systems analysts to the study of systems is that an economic system is a manmade ecosystems (Watt, 1966, 1968; Patten, 1971). entity which depends on a monetary unit which Rapid strides in computer technology, cybernetics, may be changed; in contrast, the energy required to information theory, and mathematical modeling drive an ecosystem is derived from an outside source, have permitted a greater arsenal of tools to be avail- the sun, and is not a renewable resource. able for analyzing complex segments of the earth, Three main types of energy input are important such as estuaries. Specific examples will be presented in estuaries: 1) light, 2) organic compounds, and demonstrating attempts to express the functional 3) mechanical energy (Odum et al., 1974). qualities of estuaries in terms of energy flow models. Light energy from the sun is of paramount im- It should be- noted that these studies are in the. portance in the production of organic compounds preliminary, embryonic stage of developmentas is by plant photosynthetic activity (primary produc- the entire field of ecosystem analysis. Further, tion). Phytoplankton (small green plants living experimental data will be presented which will serve in the water), attached large and small algae, and as a basis for predicting the possible impact of various species of flowering plants living underwater environmental manipulation of energy flow in and in marshes- and wetlands bordering estuarine estuaries. waters are the principal primary producers. Not all Estuaries are important ecologically and economic- of the organic matter produced in an estuary is ally because of their naturally high level of energy retained; some is exported to adjacent ecosystems. productivity. For example, estuaries serve as nursery Organic compounds are introduced into the grounds for both migratory oceanic species, such as estuary by rivers, water runoff from adjacent land shrimp, blue crabs, and menhaden, and resident areas, and from the sea. Some, of these compounds commercially important animals,. such as oysters and provide energy for various groups of organisms. In clams. An important research problem which has ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 33 great implications for environmental management is flow of energy is much more complex and values are the need to analyze the flow of energy through the higher during the summer than in the winter. Thus estuarine ecosystem. Once known, estuarine energy pollutants introduced at different times of the year flow patterns could be manipulated and managed might not only have a greater differential seasonal to permit their maximum utilization for man's effect on northern marshes, but northern marshes activities and still prevent the destruction of an might respond differently than those in more south- estuary as a biologically productive ecosystem. Since ern regions. man is an integral part of this ecosystem, destruction To the south, the Newport River estuarine of ecosystems is not to his ultimate advantage. ecosystem is being studied by the Atlantic Estuarine Energy flow studies have another important func- Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, tion in that energy flow values could be converted Beaufort, N.C. Recently this group reported on the into monetary units so that an ecologic-economic interaction between the major plant producers and basis could exist for making environmental manage- the epifaunal and infaunal invertebrates and fish ment decisions rather than depending on political or populations comprising the eelgrass community, a emotional factors. part of the estuarine system not discussed by Teal or Nixon and Oviatt. Unlike the system studied by THE ESTUARINE- Nixon and Oviatt, there appears to be excess food MARSHLAND ECOSYSTEM energy for the consumers. Failure of the herbivores and detritivores to expand to the limits of their One of the first attempts to construct an energy food reserves suggests that the organisms may be flow diagram for an estuarine-marsh ecosystem was predator limited, fishes and shore birds being the that of Teal (1962) involving the marshes of Sapelo primary predators (Thayer, Adams and LaCroix, Island, Ga. Based on the data of various in- 1975). These authors suggest that the excess plant vestigators, Teal proposed the energy flow diagram production in the system is likely exported to the represented in Figure 3. During a year the input of adjoining estuary, thus providing food energy, in sun energy is 600,000 kcal/meter2. This energy was the form of detritus, to that system. This ecosystem estimated to be partitioned as follows. Most of the research program also includes detrital cycles, mi- energy (93.9 percent) was lost in photosynthetic crobial activity studies, export of materials from activity. The gross production was 6.1 percent, and grass beds, and trace metal studies. the net production was about 1.4 percent of the An ecosystem study of a relatively undisturbed incident light energy. Of the energy available to estuary, the North Inlet Estuary, Georgetown, S.C., secondary consumers, 55 percent was expended in was initiated by the Belle W. Baruch Institute for respiration, while 45 percent of net production was Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University exported to feed estuarine organisms. Since this of South Carolina, with support from the Environ- study was published more detailed energy budgets mental Protection Agency. Also, active studies are have been published for various individual species continuing in Georgia (Wiegert et al., 1975). found in the estuarine-marsh ecosystem (Dame, The dynamics of energy flow expressed as carbon 1972; Hughes, 1970). in an estuarine-marsh ecosystem, Barataria Bay, Recently a detailed study of a New England salt La., was described by Day et al. (.1973). This study marsh by Nixon and Oviatt (1973) expanded Teal's differs from the ones described above in that it work. The two studies differed in that Teal em- deals in greater detail with all parts of the estuarine- phasized energy flow in the marsh, while Nixon and marsh complex. Like other marshes, energy was Oviatt were concerned principally with energy flow available to be exported to the water, but unlike in marsh creeks and embayments. Since consump- the findings of Nixon and Oviatt, a net community tion for the embayment exceeds production based production in the water column was reported. on a yearly energy budget, this aquatic system must In brief summary, although estuarine-marsh depend on input of energy in the form of organic energy flow studies are relatively recent, some detritus from marsh grasses. Production values of initial progress has been made in both understanding marsh grass were similar to those from New York, the dynamics of this fundamental phenomenon and but markedly lower than that of southern marshes. providing information for management decisions. This finding may reflect the substantial difference Since the above studies were done on systems in climatic conditions between these geographical without regard to pollution effect, little information regions. Marked seasonal differences in energy flow is available on the impact of man-introduced, en- patterns of New England ecosystems were observed vironmental alterations on energy flow per se in an and are graphically represented in Figure 4. The entire estuarine-marsh ecosystem. One example is 34 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Respiratory Loss /& Pnotosynthetic 28,175 Primary Producers Loss 563,620 3548 3890 Bactriai' Respiratory Loss 3890 372 &=fInsects [ 224 25 aud Crabs Spiders 23 EXPORT FIGURE 3.--Energy flow diagram for a Georgia salt marsh (modified from Teal, 1962). given to emphasize how a pollutant (DDT) enters cellsfare in culture (Wurster; 1968) and reduce the an ecosystem. Woodwell et al. (1976) analyzed metabolism of the grass shrimp (Sansbury, 1973). DDT residues in estuarine organisms and found These studies suggest that the estuarine energy flow both an increased concentration of DDT residues could be adversely influenced by DDT. However, as the size of the animal increased and a greater it is not known if the energetics of all organisms in concentration in higher carnivores than in those this ecosystem are influenced in the same manner. at lower food (trophic) levels (Fig. 5). For example, Hence, generalizations based on a few species are the amount of total residues in plankton was 0.04 dangerous and probably incorrect., ppm while this value was 75 ppm in the ring-billed gull. The gull is at or near the end of the food chain, POLLUTION STUDIES Although the influence of DDT on energetics was ANtbENERGY FLOW not studied by Woodwell et al., effects of pesticides on' the low. of .energy are 'suggested by studies Any�-environmental factortwhich influences the involving single. species. DDT will reduce photo- physiology of an organism will-influence the flow of synthesis in a primary producer (algae) when few energy within an ecosystem;. Estuaries inherently ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 35 EMERGENT MARSH SUMMER DAY 1 1111r5nlr aIA MARIISH EN / ,>Bc _A ITLIr LAtl0 Ali /i~ /L~ I~ �~ FARS EMBAYMENLarus argenrazus (herring gulls) RIA =FI SKil / 18.5 ppm I K Plankton WI RDYLICHO 004 ppm zm1RwlP-z@$t rISEERYL Afercenariamercenaria (hardclam) -_ " D~l~lrUS^< \>? 0.42 ppm DISSOED/ FIGUR 5.-ANICal magnication of DDT IN STREAMS iI Dresidues (based on data from Woodwell et al, 1967). a measurable and generally detrimental effect upon WINTER DAY of a substance (or a factor) the eergetics of an entire ecosystem. Thisportionof the report will a\i' Oom. _ estuarine energetics since the primary producers are where man's activitidues are acutely obvious, as well knon at a fluctuation in naturaWoodwell etnvironmental., 1967). sT / oa measurable and generally detrimental effect upon dredging, thermal discharges, an observabnic'waste facdetrimental ineffect on the metabolism of phytoplank- Therefore, it is difficult to generalize on the influence disposal. Ketchum (1967) as defined viro f a substaon, inc e ( or a factor) synthe energetics of an mental polluentire ecosy stem. This e portion density. For example, if the report will SE environmentcite the results of a few s tudies to illustrate h ow - pollutants influence selected segments of the estu- FiGuRE 4.-Energy-flow diagrams for composite winter and estuarine energetics since the primary producers are at the base of the food web. In estuaries phytoplank- are regions where fluctuations in natural environ- ton are the main primary producers in the water, mental parameters occur but also they are regions while vascular plants predominate in marshes. It is where man's activities are acutely obvious, such as well known that fluctuation in natural environmental dredging, thermal discharges, and organic"waste factors will influence the metabolism of phytoplank- disposal. Ketchum (1967) has defined environ- ton, including the photosynthetic activity and the mental pollution as "any substance added to the population density. For example, if the light in- environment as a result of man's activities which has tensity changes, some species will change the amount 36 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL of photosynthetic enzymes in their cells while others and Weiss, 1972). Phytoplankton passing through alter the amounts of pigments (Steeman Nielsen the coifdenser coil of a generator plant are faced and Jorgensen, 1968). Also, in response to salinity with thermal stress, mechanical damage by impellers changes the internal osmotic concentration is higher of pumps, and chlorination of the coolant water. than that of the growth medium. As a result, the Chlorination reduces survival and productivity of range of salinity and the rate at which cell division all algae, and, if the condenser water temperature proceeds depends upon the metabolic rates as exceeds 14.5�C-16�C of the incurrent water, photo- affected by altered internal salt concentration synthesis is reduced (see review of Rice and Fer- (Guillard, 1962). In both of these examples, the guson, 1975). energy production of phytoplankton can be altered. Radioactive substances are rapidly concentrated Man-induced changes in estuaries can profoundly by the phytoplankton and the attached seaweeds and influence the phytoplankton and marine angio- are easily passed on to herbivores. Baptist and Lewis sperms. Dredging can increase suspended material (1969), when measuring the transfer of 65Zn and in the water with the result that light penetration is and 51Cr through a four-step food chain, found reduced and the rate of photosynthesis is decreased radionuclides readily transferred to the highest (Zingmark, 1973). Chemical pollutants can also trophic level, but the levels of concentration gen- influence phytoplankton in that sublethal con- erally declined up the food chain. centrations can inhibit metabolism. Also, since In addition to primary producers, consumer phytoplankton intensifies many substances to thou- organisms are also influenced by pollutants. When sands of times their concentrations in water, plankton young oysters, which are filter feeders, consumed serve to pass pollutants to higher trophic' levels zooplankton exposed to a mixture of DDT, toxo- when consumed by herbivores. This effect may be phene, and parathion, they exhibited a greatly more ecologically deleterious than reduced photo- reduced growth rate and a high incidence of path- synthesis (Walsh, 1972). Differential uptake and ological changes (Lowe et al., 1971). Another filter sensitivity to copper in species of phytoplankton feeder, the clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, showed has been demonstrated (Mandelli, 1969). Although abnormal metabolism when exposed to methoxychlor all the species tested were inhibited by copper, some and malathion (Eisler and Weinstein, 1967). species concentrated copper to a greater degree than Fiddler crabs ate detritus containing DDT for 11 others. Copper was more toxic than zinc and mercury days without any overt damage. But five days later in phytoplankton, but the toxicity of the latter two all had lost muscular coordination which for all heavy metals was increased when combined in ecological purposes is a sign of death (Odum et al., certain compounds used as pesticides (Ware and 1969). Although carnivores are also influenced by Roan, 1970). The large plants associated with pesticides, sensitivity varies greatly with the species marshes or living submerged and attached in (Butler, 1971). estuaries are also known to be influenced by pollut- The effects of organophosphorous compounds in ants, although specific effects are poorly known. For combination with thermal stress are just the opposite example, the common marsh grass, Spartina, con- to those of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, for survival centrates DDT in its roots, and when the plant dies is increased with decreasing temperature. There also this toxicant is probably released as part of the seems to be a wide range of relative toxicity of the detritus based food web (Woodwell et al., 1967). two types of pesticides in marine organisms; teleosts Environmental problems will arise if nuclear are less resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons than power plants are sited on estuaries. Thermal dis- molluscs, and about equal in sensitivity to decapod charges probably pose the greatest problem, but crustaceans. Crustacea, however, are highly sus- chlorine, heavy metals, and radionuclides also ceptible to organophosphorous compounds; molluscs accompany the waste in the effluent. Phytoplankton relatively resistant; and teleosts are intermediate cells respond to temperature by changing their rate between these two groups (Eisler, 1970). of cell division (Eppley, 1972). In general, with a Heavy metals, such as cadmium and mercury, 10 degree increase in temperature, the cell division also influence the survival and energy budgets of rate increases by a factor of two to three times estuarine animals. Studies on the fiddler crab will providing these temperatures are within the range illustrate this point. Mercury caused the respiration of temperatures favorable to growth. However, rate of adult and larval stages to decrease from the elevated temperatures may be lethal or increase normal depending on temperature and salinity. productivity depending on the season of the year; In contrast, cadmium markedly increased the meta- growth is adversely affected during summer months bolic rate of larvae. That animals do not respond but it is stimulated in the late fall and winter (Gurtz similarly to different heavy metals is further ob- ESTUARINE SYSTEMS 37 served in that mercury is most toxic at low tempera- critical data, but based on available information, ture and low salinity while cadmium is most toxic a preliminary analysis was proposed. Of the three at high temperature and low salinity (Vernberg proposed management plans for this area, the one et al., 1974). which would distribute water more widely would be The possibility of oil pollution is ever present. of the greatest energetic value to human society. Widespread death of estuarine and marine organisms The principal reason for this conclusion is that after oil spills has been well documented in the sci- man's economy (based on conversion of the ecol- entific literature, but the physiological effects of ogist's energy unit to the economist's dollar unit) will sublethal concentrations of the various oil derivatives be maximized when it fits itself into natural energy are poorly known. However, one study by Anderson systems. Thus purchased fuels will add value rather et al. (1974) demonstrated that the respiratory than using massive expenditures of capital to response of several estuarine species was different counteract natural system energies. when exposed to several concentrations of oil-water mixtures. These findings suggest that the energy SUMMARY flow patterns of estuarine communities would be differentially disturbed by oil spills or chronic low The estuarine-marsh habitat is extremely impor- level leaks. tant to the environmrental and economic health of Various field studies have been conducted in- the coastal region and the sea. Man, who is an volving pollution effects on estuarine communities. integral part of this habitat, has dramatically Some were done as an aftermath of a serious accident, manipulated estuaries without having an extensive such as an oil spill, while others were done before scientific basis for his actions and sometimes with and after construction of an industrial factory or serious consequences. power plant. Typically, serious spills cause wide- To understand the nature of the estuarine ecosys- spread mortality which would obviously curtail tem and to form a more rational basis for manage- the pattern of energy flow. ment decisions, ecologists have initiated multi- Most environmental management plans do not disciplinary studies on the energy flow patterns, involve consideration of ecosystem energetics. How- for no system can function and be biologically ever, one example will demonstrate a preliminary productive without energy. An analysis of the input, attempt at how management decisions involving distribution, rate of transfer, and output of energy an estuarine and coastal ecosystem can be based is necessary to develop sound management proce- on energy flow considerations. dures. Based on this information alternative en- Currently a management plan for development vironmental manipulative procedures can benefit and channelization of the Atchafalaya Basin of from receiving scientific input rather than relying Louisiana is under study. This plan involves estu- entirely on emotional, economic and/or political aries and wetlands. Young et al. (1974) contributed considerations. to this project by using models of energy relation- Production of food and the influence of pollutants ships on a regional and ecosystem basis to consider in estuarine and marine waters is interrelated with management alternatives. The plan with the largest energy flow studies. For example, an understanding energy flow values would be considered to be the of energy flow patterns is necessary if we are to be greatest contributor to economic vitality. able to divert energy into maraculture activities Estimates of the existing annual energy flow pat- without destroying this fragile coastal zone environ- terns were made and the influence of three different ment. It is also of vital concern to know the possible management plans on energy flow was projected. effects of pollutants on energy flow, since each level These different plans were grouped as follows: 1) of energy input may be affected differently by any distribution of water and sediments widely filling the one pollutant. present basin and then going further by planned Energy flow studies in conjunction with other diversions or by accidental overflows; 2) central investigations provide a better basis to equate a channelization which would shunt much of the water unit of ecological energy to an economic unit, and sediment directly to an estuary which would such as dollars. If this is done realistically, then a result in delta formation and filling in of low wet clear cost-benefit analysis of a proposed environ- areas to the south; and 3) a rotation plan of filling mental alteration emerges. one basin, such as the Atchafalaya, until levee costs This paper discusses the general concepts pertain- are high and then shifting to another basin for a ing to energy flow within an ecosystem and reviews period of time. various energy flow models of,estuaries. Further, Their approach pointed out the need for more specific studies are cited to illustrate how pollutants 38 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL affect various estuarine-marsh organisms and alter cedures involving estuaries. Continued support is energy flow patterns. Certain generalities need re- vital to assess and perfect this potentially powerful emphasizing in this summary. Pollutants represent scientific tool. many types of physical, chemical, and biological factors. Each pollutant may differentially influence REFERENCES the energetics of the myriad of plant and animal .: species associated with the estuary. A pollutant may Anderson. J. W., J. Neff, B. Cox, H. Tatem, and G. High- tower. 1974. The effects of oil on estuarine animals: toxicity, significantly inhibit the metabolism of an important uptake and depuration, respiration. In: Pollution and estuarine species thereby dramatically altering the Physiology of Marine Organisms, eds. F. J. Vernberg and "normal" energy flow pattern, while other species W. B. Vernberg. pp. 285-310; New York: Academic Press. "normal" energy flow pattern, while other species may be metabolically stimulated or unaffected. Baptist, J. and C. W. Lewis. 1969. Transfer of 66Zn and 5"Cr Therefore, we are unfortunately in the position of through an estuarine food chain. In: Symposium on Radio- needing to examine the effects of each pollutant on ecology. Eds. D. J. Nelson and F. C. Evans. Oak Ridge, numerous species. If this pollutant inhibits organisms representing a lower trophic level, the amount of Butler, P. A. 1971. Influence of pesticides on marine eco- energy available to the remaining organisms will be systems. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B. 177: 321-329. greatly curtailed, resulting in a low level of Dame, R. F. 1972. Ecological energies of growth, respiration, productivity. and assimilation in the intertidal American oyster. Marine It is conceivable that if energetic pathways were Biology, 17: 243-250. better understood, it would be possible to control the. Smith, P. Wagner, and W. Stowe. Day, J. W. Jr., We. G. Smith, P. Wagner, and W. Stowe. level and type of productivity by using selective 1973. Commiunity structure and carbon budget of a salt pollutants to block certain pathways. It is also marsh and shallow bay estuarine system in Louisiana. possible to divert energy along a different pathway Publication No. LSU-SG-72-04. Louisiana State University, leading to increased productivity of ecosystem seg- ments that man wants to manage. This application Eisler, R. 1970. Acute toxicities of organochlorine and of energy flow mechanisms could aid in aquaeulture organophosphorous insecticides to estuarine fish. U. S. Bur. Sports Fish Wild]. Tech. Paper, 46. practices or hastening the ecological recovery of environmentally disturbed ecosystems. Eisler, R. and M. P. Weinstein. 1967. Changes in metal We need to develop better predictive capabilities composition of the quahaug clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, to assess the potential effect of any environmental after exposure to insecticides. Chesap. Sci. 8: 253-258. to assess the potential effect of any environmental additives not only on important species, but also on Eppley, R. W. 1972. Temperature and phytoplankton growth the complete ecosystem. Two approaches are in the sea. U. S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull., 70: recommended: 5. 1) Comparative studies on energy flow patterns Guillard, R. 1962. Salt and osmotic balance. In: Physiology in disturbed and relatively undisturbed estuarine and Biochemistry of Algae. ed. R. A. Lewin. pp. 529-540. New York: Academic Press. ecosystems. An intensive research program dealing with this subject has been started and should con- Gurty, M. E. and C. M. Weiss. 1972. Field investigations of tinue to be funded. The goal of this research would the response of phytoplankton to thermal stress. School of be to develop the predictive capability, based on Public Health, University of North Carolina. ESE Publ. studies of various estuarine types, to assist in en- vironmental management decisions. Hughes, R. N. 1970. An energy budget for a tidal-flat popula- 2) Microecosystem systems-the goal of this tion of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana (DeCosta). J. Anim. research approach is to develop the scientific base Ecol., 39: 357-380. and technology to create small scale replicas of Ketchum, B. H. 1967. Man's resources in the marine environ- larger ecosystems so that the effects of manipulative ment. In: Pollution and Marine Ecology, eds. T. A. Olson activities can be studied without possibly damaging and F. J. Burgess. pp. 1-11. New York: Interscience. an entire estuary. This would not only preserve Lauff, G. A. 1967. Estuaries. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. valuable habitats but also would provide a relatively No. 83. Washington, D. C. inexpensive experimental approach to assess the inexpensive exper imental a ppr 1 oah toassessthe *Lowe, J. I., P.'D. Wilson, A. J. Rick, and A. J. Wilson, Jr. possible effects of a number of environmental 1971. Chronic exposure of oysters to DDT, toxaphene, and alternatives. parathion. Proc. Natl. Shellfish Assoc. 61: 71-79. Ecosystem studies are relatively new to science and results to date suggest that they could conceiv- Mandelli, E. F. 1969. The inhibitory effects of copper on marine phytoplankton. Contrib. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas, ably provide valuable tools for management pro- 14: 47-57. ESTUARINE SYSTEMS: 39 Nixon, S. W. and C. A. Oviatt. 1973. Ecology of a New Vernberg, W. B., P. J. DeCoursey, and J. O'Hara. 1974. England salt marsh. Ecol. Monogr. 43: 463-498. Multiple environmental factor effects on physiology and behavior of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. In: Pollution Odum, E. P. 1968. Energy flow in ecosystems: A historical and Physiology of Marine Organisms, eds. F. J. Vernberg review. Am. Zool., 8: 11-18. and W. B. Vernberg. pp. 381-426. Academic Press, New York. Odum, H. T. 1967. Energetics of world food production. In: The World Food Problem. A Report of the President's Vernberg, W. B. and F. J. Vernberg. 1972. Environmental Science Advisory Committee. Vol. III. U. S. Gov. Printing Physiology of Marine Animals. Springer-Verlag. New York, Office, Washington, D. C. Heidelberg, and Berlin. Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan. 1974. Walsh, Gerald E. 1972. Insecticides, herbicides and poly- Coastal ecological systems of the United States. The Con- chlorinated biphenyls in estuaries. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., servation Foundation. Washington, D. C. 62: 122-139. Odum, W. E., G. M. Woodwell, and C. F. Wurster. 1969. Ware, G. W. and C. Roan. 1970. Interaction of pesticides DDT residues absorbed from organic detritus by fiddler with aquatic microorganisms and plankton. Residue Rev. crabs. Science, 164: 576-577. 33: 15-45. Patten, C. B. 1971. Systems Analysis and Simulation in Watt, K. E. 1966. Systems Analysis in Ecology. Academic Ecology. New York: Academic Press. Press, New York. Remane, A. and C. Schlieper. 1971. Biology of Brackish Watt, K. E. 1968. Ecology and Resource Management: A Water. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Toronto, Quantitative Approach. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. Sydney. Wiegert, R. G. et al. 1975. A preliminary ecosystem model Rice, T. R. and R. L. Ferguson. 1975. Response of estuarine of a coastal Georgia Spartina marsh. In: Recent Advances phytoplankton to environmental conditions. In: Physi- in Estuarine Research. Estuarine Research Federation. ological Ecology of Estuarine Organisms, ed. F. J. Vernberg. (in press). University of South Carolina Press. Woodwell, G. W., C. F. Wurster, Jr. and P. A. Isaacson. Sansbury, C. 1973. The effects of sublethal concentrations 1967. DDT residues in an east coast estuary: a case of of DDT on oxygen consumption and temperature tolerance biological concentration of a persistent insecticide. Science, of the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio (Say). M. S. 156: 821-824. Thesis, University of South Carolina. Wurster, C. F. Jr. 1968. DDT reduces photosynthesis by Steeman Nielsen, E. and E. G. Jorgensen. 1968. The adapta- marine phytoplankton. Science, 159: 1474-1475. tion of plankton algae. I. General part. Physiol. Plant., 21: 401-413. Young, D., H. T. Odum, J. Day, and T. Butler. 1974. Evalua- tion of regional models for the alternatives in management Teal, John M. 1962. Energy flow in the salt marsh ecosystem of the Atchafalaya Basin. Rept. to U. S. Dept. Interior of Georgia. Ecology, 43: 614-624. from the Univ. of Florida. July, 1974. Thayer, G. W., S. M. Adams, and M. W. LaCroix. 1975. Zingmark, R. G. 1973. Effects of dredging on the phyto- Structural and functional aspects of a recently established plankton. In: Bioassay Studies, Charleston Harbor, South Zostera marina community. In: Recent Advances in Carolina. The effects of dredging harbor sediments on Estuarine Research. Estuarine Research Federation (in plankton. Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology press). and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES PROBLEMS, ADVANCEMENTS, AND FACTORS CONTROLLING ESTUARINE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS HAROLD D. IRBY Texas A&M University Jasper, Texas ABSTRACT Marshes and estuaries along our coastlines are among the most fertile and valuable land and water areas in North America. These areas provide habitats for some of our most valuable wild- life and fisheries resources, supplying livelihood, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment for a multi- tude of people. Wildlife usage of high quality estuarine areas is extensive. Wildlife management is an attempt to rectify past habitat abuses and then, hopefully, to bring about a positive en- hancement of the desired wildlife and their habitats. The wide variety of human activities which pollute estuarine wildlife resources is discussed along with recent progress in estuarine wild- life management programs. Finally, future trends and needs in estuarine wildlife management are discussed. INTRODUCTION and deep concern in their behalf. It is a part of the expanding conservation ethic of Americans who Our estuaries, the zones of interplay between the want to retain their heritage of natural beauty, margins of the sea and the land are environments for scenic values and the environmental qualities that a remarkable assemblage of terrestrial and aquatic support fish and wildlife resources. This attitude is life. The complex of estuaries includes extensive reflected in many plans and programs for conserva- bays, harbors, sounds, lagoons, and river mouths tion action-and among these, estuaries occupy a that are constantly flooded, and adjacent areas such prominent position. as tidal flats and semi-upland marshes, salt and brackish water flats, marshes, and mangrove swamps which may be flooded only by the highest moon and WILDLIFE HABITATS storm tides. Altogether they form an ecosystem-a IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE complex of different environments both aquatic and terrestrial. Wildlife usage of high quality estuarine areas is Marshes and estuaries along our coastlines are extensive. Waterfowl and shore birds find these among the most fertile and valuable land and water areas essential for nesting, resting during migration, areas in North America. These areas provide hab- wintering, and feeding. A wide variety of other itats for wildlife and fisheries resources, supplying birds make extensive use of estuaries. These include livelihood, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment for pelicans and cormorants, long-legged wading birds, a multitude of people. They serve as production eagles and ospreys, cranes and rails, gulls and terns, areas and nursery grounds for shrimp, oysters, and some passerines. The aquatic furbearers in- crabs and fish. They provide wintering areas for a eluding muskrats, minks, nutrias, beavers and otters major portion of the continental waterfowl resource, are seldom far from wetlands. Raccoons use wetlands and they are extremely valuable for the production heavily although they may range a considerable of fur animals and many species of game and non- distance from them. Other wild mammals including game animals. The following discussion will be deer, opossums, bobcats, foxes, weasels, skunks, concerned primarily with wildlife other than birds. and many small mammals use estuarine habitats But one thought must be kept always in mind-there extensively but are not restricted to them. Of the is a connecting webbing of interactions between all large sea-going mammals, some, such as the manatee, forms of wildlife occupying the same habitats. the dolphin (porpoise), and seals enter estuaries. While estuarine areas have always been important, None of the frogs, toads, and salamanders is recent years have witnessed growing public attention truly marine, although the larvae of a few have been 43 44 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL found in brackish pools, and adult toads and frogs Table -.-Description and acreage of estuarine types in the conterminous United States have been reported in estuaries. Among the reptiles, the alligator is an important member of the estuarine Estuarine category and types Water depth* Total zone. Along the Atlantic and gulf. coasts the most acres typical.turtle is probably the diamondback terrapin. - Coastal'fresh areas Of the some 130 fish and wildlife species considered 1. Coastal shallow fresh marshes. Up to 6 inches at high tide. 2,213,000 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife as rare and endangered, 2. Coastal deep fresh marshes .-.. Up to 3 feet at high tide 1,631,000 10 use an estuarine habitat extensively and most 3; Coastal open fresh water -----. Up to 10 feet; marshy border often would probably perish without it. These 10 species are the Florida manatee, key deer, great white-heron, 4 Coastal salt flatsMay have few inches at high tide 423,000 whooping crane, Eskimo curlew, Ipswich sparrow, 5. Coastal salt meadows .-- ------ May have few inches at high tide' 956.000; dusky seaside sparrow,. Cape Sable sparrow, brown . Regularlyfloodedsaltmarshess- Uew inches at wind tide 6981,57000 pelican, and the alligator. 7. Regularly flooded salt marshes-.- Up to 1 foot at high tide 1,576,000 pelican, and the alligator. 8. Sounds and bays - -..._l.-. Up to 10 feet at high tide 1,114,000 From the standpoint of wildlife habitats, the 9. Mangrove swamps .-.. ...... Upto 2 feet 523.000 estuarine zone may be divided into nine types-- three of which are coastal freshwater types and six, *Refers to averagec'nditions duringgrowing season. coastal saline water types. Following is a description of each of the estuarine types. Table I gives the Table 2.-Use of estuarine types by game and fur animals types, brief description, and acreages of estuarine areas along our coasts. Table 2 lists the kinds of Number of states reporting use in estuarine type wildlife using estuarine habitats 'reported by'wildlife agencies of our coastal states. Small game: Coastal Fresh Areas - Gallinules - ---------- '7 � 7 6 ' I1 1 Grouse. Sage- 1 ... .. 1 - -- 1 1 - S F RES MARSMourning dove . 1 1 - 2 SHALLOW FRESH MARSHES, . Pheasant'_:- .. ....' 7 2 - - 2 -2 1 - Quail, Bobwhite - 4 - - - 4 1 Soil always waterlogged during the growing Rails-------------- 12 11 4 5 9 8 10 - Rabbit, Cottontail .... 9 2 season; may be covered at high tide with as much as Rabbit, Swamp .-.... 4 3 - 1 4 3 3 - 6 inches of water. Snipe - . ............. 10 5 - 3 4 3 4 3 - Located on the landward side of deep marshes Woodcock - __.. 5 1 - - - - - along tidal rivers, sounds and deltas. -': : Big game: . . D Vegetation of grasses, sedges, and other plants Black-tailed deer- 'I 1 - '1 ' 2 -- 2 2 - such as phragmites, giant cutgrass, big cordgrass, White-tailed deer ---. 6 5 -- 1 : 1 2 - - maidencane, jointed spikerush, threesqciares,: saw- Funimas: grass, cattails, arrowheads, smartweeds, and arrow- arum. Beaver4 4 1 _ 1 2 1. Bobcat_............. 1 1 Much used by feeding ducks, geese,' and herons; Fox (Red and G7ay): _ 10 5 - I 2 7 1 -- very much by muskrats; some use by nutria, mink, Mink 16 13 9 - 4 4 7 3 raccoons, woodcock, and snipe. 'Muskrat'- '---krat- 16 16 11 1 10 5 11 3 Nutria . .. . I - - I - - -] Opossum- 4 - - - - . 4 1 Otter .- --------. 13 12 :10 5-- 5 - -5 1 DEEP FRESH MARSHES Raccoon - - ---------- 17 12 11 2 11 6 10 5 Skunk - 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 Soil covered at-average high tide with 1/2 to 3 feet We2 2 of water during the growing season. Alligator3 3 1 Located along tidal rivers and bays, mainly on the Atlantic and gulf coasts. Vegetation made up of such 'plants as cattails, - turtles, and bullfrogs; some use by muskrats, mink, andiraccoons. wild rice, pickerelweed, and spatterdock; p6ndweeds and other submerged, plants, and surface mats of : i,, water hyacinth, alligatorweed, and' waterlettuce OPEN FRESH WATER prominent in openings. V ;, ....... - . Much used in fall and winter by feeding geese, Water of variable depth. ducks, sora rails, and herons; and by ish, alligators, Located in tidal rivers and sounds. LIvINGi AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 45 Vegetation (mainly at depths under 6 feet, but REGULARLY FLOODED SALT MARSHES scarce or absent in stained or turbid waters) of such submerged plants as sago pondweed, redheadgrass, Soil covered at average high tide with 1/2 foot or naiads, wildcelery, coontail, watermilfoils, and musk- more of water during the growing season. grasses. In many localities along the gulf, water Located along the open ocean in eastern Virginia, hyacinth forms mats on the water surface. southern South Carolina, Georgia, and eastern Much used by feeding ducks and geese and other Louisiana, and mostly along sounds elsewhere. water birds; and by fish,. turtles, and bullfrogs. Vegetation mainly of saltmarsh cordgrass. Open water in the marsh may support widgeongrass or sago pondweed. Coastal SalinelAreas - Used very much by feeding ducks and geese, especially where vegetation-filled ponds are present; SALT FLATS much used by nesting clapper rails and laughing gulls; also by feeding herons, mussels, snails, and fiddler crabs; some use by fish and shorebirds. Soil almost always waterlogged during the growing season; sites varying from those submerged only by occasional wind tides to others that are covered SOUNDS AND BAYS fairly regularly With a few inche -of water at high tide. Water of variable depth. Portions that are con- Located on' the landward side of, or as islands or sidered shallow enough to be diked and filled. basins within, salt meadows and salt marshes. Located in saltwater rivers, sounds, and bays and, Vegetation (often sparse or patchy) mainly of to some extent on the open ocean front. glassworts, seablite, saltgrass, Gulf cordgrass, salt- Vegetation (mainly at depths less than 6 feet) of flatgrass, saltwort, and seaside heliotrope. such plants as eelgrass (North Carolina northward), Rarely used except when flooded, then used ex- widgeongrass, sago pondweed, muskgrasses, shoal- tensively by feeding ducks, geese, and shorebirds. grass, manateegrass, and turtlegrass. Much used by oysters, clams, mussels; shrimp, blue crab, fish and diamondback terrapins; and by SALT MEADOWS feeding ducks, geese, and some other birds. Soil always waterlogged during the growing season; rarely covered with tidewater. MANGROVE SWAMPS Located on the landward side of salt marshes or bordering open water. Soil covered at average high tide with 1/2 to 2 feet Vegetation mainly of saltmeadow cordgrass, salt- of water during the year-round growing season. grass, and fimbristylis; and in fresher parts, Olney Located along the coast of the southern half of three-square and saltmarsh fleabane. Florida, but best developed on the west coast from Used a little by various mammals and birds, in- Cape Sable to Everglades City. eluding geese. Vegetation chiefly of red mangrove with some black and white mangrove. Used much by shellfish, fish, raccoons, and feeding IRREGULARLY FLOODED SALT MARSHES water birds. Soil covered by wind tides at irregular intervals PAST AND CURRENT during the growing season. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS Located along the shores of nearly enclosed bays, sounds, and rivers, and along open water on the Our estuaries have always been areas undergoing eastern side of the Gulf. changes-sometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly Vegetation mainly of needlerush, saltmarshl bul- and subtly. All these changes, whether occurring rush, dwarf spikerush, gulf spikerush, coast water- naturally- or caused by human activities, affect hyssop, and dogtooth-grass; often with widgeongrass estuarine wildlife habitats. Those changes which in ponds. - affect wildlife negatively may be termed pollutants Used very little ordinarily; but where broken by in that they contaminate or abuse wildlife habitats. ponds and creeks, sometimes used moderately by Essentially, wildlife management is an attempt to feeding ducks and nesting clapper rails, rectify past abuses of the habitats and then, hope- 46 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL fully, to bring about a positive enhancement of the and multiple uses. So it is that human activities to desired wildlife and their habitats. increase certain values and uses may destroy or at Most wildlife species discussed in this section least decrease other values and uses. Our history occupy positions high on the food chains of estuarine shows that wildlife values have usually decreased life. Most pollutants which indirectly affect wildlife markedly as a result of most of our engineering and species by directly affecting groups of organisms industrial activities. Until rather recently, wildlife lower on the food chains (plankton, shrimp, crabs, values received little more than lip service when new fish, et cetera) have been discussed in previous sec- activities were being planned for estuarine areas. It tions. Therefore, those pollutants will only be men- is encouraging to note that now many activities are tioned here, while problems directly associated with required by various federal, state, and local laws to the welfare of wildlife and their habitats will be consider wildlife resources before the necessary per- discussed in greater detail. mits are issued. It is also encouraging that many human activities that damage or destroy wildlife resources may, with proper planning and timing, ~~Natural Pollutants T~work toward the betterment of our valuable estua- rine wildlife habitats. Naturally occurring changes in estuarine areas The following brief discussion shows how a variety include coastal area land subsidence, floods, droughts, of human activities has polluted our estuarine wild- fires, and hurricanes and other high-intensity storms. life resources. These changes may be good or bad from the stand- point of their effects on wildlife habitats. The timing of these events, and the plant and animal succes- Dredging: Dredging is a frequent and widespread sional stages of the estuarine areas affected, largely activity in the estuarine areas. It involves the cutting determine whether the changes will be good, detri- of new channels, the removal of accumulated sedi- mental, or even disastrous. ments from existing natural or artificial channels The effects of the timing of natural events on and harbors, and the removal of material for beach estuarine wildlife habitats and populations are so nourishment or other special purposes. Dredging has complex that space limitations here will not permit also been used to create upland flood release channels an adequate discussion. It is usually not a single and to provide marsh drainage for mosquito control environmental factor which governs the physiologi- purposes. cal responses and population dynamics in an estuary, The principal ecological effects of dredging in but a combination of numerous factors counteract- coastal waters are: ing, supporting, and modifying each other's physio- logical effects. The effects of some natural changes 1. Removal of the original interface between the are discussed in various parts of the remainder of water and the bottom, which is frequently an area of this report. high biological activity. It must be kept in mind that many changes in 2. Creation of new deepwater areas which may estuarine areas are caused by both natural and affect, either positively or negatively, animal and human activities taking place far from the estuaries, plant populations. that is, on estuarine watersheds. The variables of 3. Increased upstream intrusion of salt water and size, climate, geology, and vegetation of these water- the chemical, physical, and biological conditions sheds constitute an important, sometimes critical, coincident with it. array of remote estuarine factors. They determine 4. Release of sediments, and of dissolved or ab- the volume and chemical nature of fresh water, the sorbed chemicals, into the water. kinds and particle-size distribution of suspended sediments, the quality and quantity of organic mat- The effects of dredging in estuarine areas can and ter and living organisms discharged into the estu- have been insidious. Dredging, although local as to aries, and the seasonal abundance of these properties. each operation, can become general as one poorly planned operation after another changes completely the face of an estuary. Compounding the situation Pollution from Human Activities is the problem of alternatives. Inland there are more sites for each land use than is typical for estuaries, An ever increasing range of human activities has, and choices are more abundant. In estuaries the is, and will affect the wildlife resources of our estu- alternatives are fewer. Even today, after years of arine areas. All concerned and knowledgeable citizens concern, we find that estuaries have little protection realize that our estuaries are areas of multiple values from physical destruction. This physical destruction LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 47 of estuarine wildlife habitats by dredging and other and thus affects all life in the bay, for the most part activities has significantly decreased our environ- adversely. mental heritage. In summary, estuarine dredging always affects wildlife habitats. The ecological effects may vary Levees and spillways: Construction of levees, from ephemeral and insignificant to permanent and especially along the lower reaches of rivers flowing to extremely important. the seas, has a great influence upon the adjacent Dredging and filling go hand-in-hand. Dredging estuarine environments. The direction, period, and creates a need to dispose of spoil, and filling demands extent of freshwater flows are modified and changed areas to be dredged. These activities, are carried out and so are the patterns of sediment deposition along an o r he poatenofseint dpsto ln in a variety of forms for a variety of purposes. the coast. The best example of the effects of levees in Amer- ica is the Mississippi River, which has been leveed Filling: Channel dredging necessarily creates increasingly since 1717 for flood control to improve spoil which must be disposed of. The three placement navigation. The hydraulic, geological, and engineer- methods generally in use (hopper dredges, pipelines ing aspects of this development have been treated in to distant sites, and spoil banks paralleling the chan- hundreds of reports and papers, but only a few people nel) have different ecological effects. have given attention to its vast biological impacts. Where hopper dredges are used to carry spoil to Fresh water and sediment have been shunted dumping sites, the areas affected (by increasing directly to the main mouth of the river and not local turbidity, smothering bottom organisms, and spread out over a wide delta through several dis- decreasing depth in- the dumping areas) are usually tributaries. As a result, Louisiana is now losing an so small in proportion to the total area available, estimated 16 square miles of coast land a year, most that the ecological damage may be trivial unless of it being marshland. Bays cut off from the river toxic chemicals are involved. Continued use of such sediment are deepening, and becoming saltier, with spoil area may, however, change the morphology vastlocal changes in biota. and biological value of the area. The flood plain of the Mississippi River covers Pipeline disposal in marsh or shallow bay areas some 35,000 square miles and about half of this has away from the channel may replace food-producing been cut off from the river by levees, with great areas or nursery areas with dry land which is of little changes which in general are damaging to wetlands or no use to aquatic life, however desirable it may be and wildlife. These changes and the general canaliza- for human habitation or industrial sites. Marshes tion of the river have also had various effects on the are a main source of food for estuarine animals, and estuarine area of the lower flood plain, most of them most juvenile fishes and crustaceans of coastal waters apparently harmful to wildlife. must have shallow-water "nursery areas",preferably In any case, the whole question of the handling vegetated, in which to feed and hide from predators. and control of the Mississippi River and other prob- Spoil banks bordering the channel on one or both lem river systems must be reexamined in the light of sides may have far-reaching effects on estuarine the increasingly recognizable need for the conserva- ecology. The most obvious effect is covering up any tion of wildlife and natural environment. Under- bottom plants and animals that live in the immediate standing the effects involved would assist in the vicinity of the channel. The economic loss may be management of riverine and estuarine environments considerable if valuable shellfish beds are involved. such as the lower Sacramento and San Francisco These effects are local and do not usually affect a Bay. large proportion of the estuary. Also they may be counterbalanced by beneficial effects, such as provid- ing new areas for wildlife (where spoil banks- are Mulnicipal and industrial wastes: Many of the above tide level) However, more subtle results may estuarine areas of the United States receive dis- seriously disrupt entire bays, especially the shallow charges of municipal and industrial wastes. The estuaries and lagoons of the gulf coast. The depth of effects of these waste loads on the receiving water- these bays depends on wave action and currents courses depend not only on the characteristics of the caused by wind. A line of spoil bands through the waste discharge themselves but also on the nature of middle of a bay has the effect of cutting the large the receiving water bodies. bay into two smaller bays, as far as wind -fetch and The south Atlantic and gulf coast regions of the water circulation are concerned. The end result is United States are in a period of rapid industrial ex- increased silting and shallowing of the entire bay, pansion and concomitant population growth. At which increases water temperature and evaporation, present the development of these areas has not 48 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL reached the magnitude of the megalopolis of the legion and widespread, and their numbers grow faster Northeast and population and industry are concen- than do our studies to learn of their effects. Our trated in generally scattered areas along these coasts. agricultural chemicals, known as pesticides, are more Within these areas are a wide variety of industrial appropriately listed as biocides. Many of these are operations: pulp and paper mills, oil refineries, food highly stable and some of them are among the most processing plants, chemical manufacturing plants, poisonous substances known. When many of these fertilizer plants, power generating plants, and mining get into our streams they are persistent and have operations, to name a few. Wastes from each of these caused serious loss of fish and their food chains. operations have their own peculiar characteristics, Some are synergistic in their effects and many are and each can have a profound effect on the estua- highly accumulative. There are examples of low level rine environment. applications of reportedly harmless chlorinated The estuaries along the south Atlantic and gulf hydrocarbon pesticides building up and concentrat- coasts have inherent characteristics which differ ing in fish and wildlife more than a hundred-thou- from those of the north Atlantic and Pacific coasts sand fold. and which play a large part in determining the effects The effects of pesticides on estuarine wildlife are of pollution on these waters and the means which primarily effects on lower-level wildlife food orga- can be used to dispose of wastes from cities and nisms. These are discussed in previous reports. We industries on their shores. are only now gathering enough information on wild- On the Pacific coast the continental shelf is very life species far up the food chains, such as many fish- narrow, deep water and strong coastal currents come eating birds and mammals such as porpoises and close inshore, and waste disposal practice has in- seals, to show that relatively large amounts of eluded the use of ocean outfalls as a common tech- pesticides are being accumulated by these species in nique. our estuaries. Many estuarine wildlife biologists feel On the north Atlantic coast the estuaries generally that pesticides are causing significant changes in have steep sides and good exchange of water between estuaries that are only moderately polluted. How- the estuaries and the open sea. Waste disposal ever, the interaction of the many physical and biolog- practices in these areas have, in most cases, taken ical factors makes the net effect unpredictable at this advantage of these good flushing characteristics and time. count on residual pollutants being rapidly carried away. The estuaries of the south Atlantic and gulf coasts, Dams: Dams on rivers have a number of biological on the other hand, have neither of these natural effects on estuarine biota. For wildlife species, the advantages. The continental shelf and shallow water major effect is caused by the resulting change in the extend for several tens of miles out from the coast, regime of freshwater flow into the estuary, A dam making ocean outfall waste disposal a very expensive built on a river, even far upstream, prevents or delays proposition. The estuaries themselves are almost all a large portion of flood waters from reaching the associated with extensive marshlands which serve as estuary. This causes an increase in salt-tolerant a trap for residual pollutants and negate any good species and a decrease in species that require low flushing characteristics the main stream of an estuary salinity either because of physiological need or may have. These coasts also abound in the offshore because they need low salinity to protect them from bar-built estuaries that are characterized by very their enemies (competing species, predators, or poor flushing properties, small tidal ranges, and parasites). In such a river-estuary system, even shallow depths which, in these latitudes, tend to reduction of the flooding that normally occurs result in elevated natural temperature. Prevention annually or every few years may radically change of water quality degradation from waste discharges the ecology of the estuary, either beneficially or in the south Atlantic and gulf coast estuaries must, harmfully. Each river-estuary system must be therefore, depend almost entirely on removal of considered independently in relation to the effects pollutants at the source of waste disposal rather than on desired wildlife species. An evaluation of the dispersion and flushing of partially treated wastes. effects of a specific dam on estuarine and marine life requires information on the physical effects, espe- cially on salinity, turbidity, and sedimentation in the Pesticides: An infinite number of poisons are estuary. dumped into our streams or washed in from the land and ultimately into our estuaries and the ocean. The number of chemical combinations is almost Other: Many other human activities taking place unlimited. Agricultural and industrial wastes are in estuaries and their watersheds cause pollution in LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 49 varying degrees. Activities such as oil exploration many kinds of wildlife, and is operated by the New and drilling, clear-cutting of large forested areas on York City Parks Department. Some towns and estuarine watersheds, water diversions, weed control, cities along the coasts of Florida and North Carolina hurricane barriers, and the whole gamut of con- have considerable acreages of estuarine areas that struction activities. Many of these activities cause are valuable wildlife habitats. only temporary and localized pollution and the It does not appear feasible to put into public affected wildlife resources recover quickly. But some, ownership all the estuarine areas necessary for such as water diversions and hurricane barriers producing and maintaining adequate wildlife popu- cause changes which are long-lasting. lations, nor to supervise all the aesthetic, scientific, and economic uses of estuaries. Publicly owned estua- rine wildlife habitats must be supplemented by areas RECENT PROGRESS IN owned by private groups, individuals, and founda- ESTUARINE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT tions. The National Audubon Society owns or leases a number of estuarine areas. These range in size from Wildlife management is, to a great extent, habitat 20-acre islands to a 27,000-acre brackish marsh. management. In order to manage habitat, some form The Society tries to acquire only those areas con- of control must be acquired-either direct ownership taining rare and endangered species of plants or or some lesser form such as a long-term lease. animals or strategic wildlife breeding areas. The Na- The Federal Wildlife Refuge System in the United ture Conservancy is a nonprofit organization which States began in 1903 with the establishment of the buys natural areas, including estuaries. Entirely Pelican Island Refuge in Florida by executive order supported by donations, it obtains natural areas as of President Theodore Roosevelt to protect a colony gifts, by purchase, and by assisting with the pur- of brown pelicans and other colonial nesting birds. chase. Proving to be a valuable tool in the preserva- Since then the Federal Wildlife Refuge System has tion of natural areas, the Conservancy can some- grown to include some 45 refuges which contain times purchase areas quietly and hold them until a significant estuarine wildlife areas. The total estua- governmental agency can obtain appropriations. rine acreage in this system is approximately 700,000 Private hunting clubs own and manage a number of acres. large estuarine areas. Although most of these areas The objective of our National Wildlife Refuge are managed for waterfowl, other estuarine wildlife System is to preserve and manage wildlife and its also benefit. An increasing number of private owners associated environment for the continued enjoyment of estuarine areas are managing their holdings with and social enrichment of the American people. The greater priority given to wildlife resources. attainment of this goal requires that lands, waters, Once control of an estuarine wildlife area is ac- and other natural resources of the system be man- quired, either by purchase, lease, or other agree- aged, rehabilitated, and developed for multiple uses ments, decisions governing wildlife management are and purposes. Basic goals of coastal and estuarine necessary. The conservation agencies may decide to national wildlife refuges, all integrated with national hold them as "estuarine banks" and manage them objectives, are: (1) maintenance of adequate popu- only when the need has been demonstrated. However, lations of migratory birds-rare; endangered, and few delay initiation of wildlife management prac- unique species, and other wildlife through (2) manip- tices. Historically, and at present, the number of ulation and preservation of land and water resources, estuarine wildlife habitats has drastically decreased. for (3) public use and enjoyment. Therefore, the need to manage them is becoming In 1937, the Congress enacted the Federal Aid in more urgent in order to maintain or expand the Wildlife Restoration Act (Pittman-Robertson Act), production of estuarine wildlife. Also, without active which provides financial help and has enabled many management, estuarine areas often cannot be main- states to finance significant wildlife restoration work. tained in the same ecological conditions as when they Under this Act, the 11 percent federal' excise tax on were acquired. the manufacturers' price of sporting arms and am- Nearly all estuarine wildlife areas are maturing munition is apportioned to state fish and game de- and changing in character and to maintain the wild- partments. A number of states have used these funds life values, the long-term problem is to arrest de- to acquire and manage estuarine areas. velopment or set back vegetative succession. With few exceptions, governments below the level Management may also be necessary to restore of states are not purposely preserving estuarine :habitats which have deteriorated through drainage, habitats. Jamaica Bay, 12,000 acres of shallow-water filling, or other pollutions. Management of an estu- marsh and small islands,'is on the doorstep of metro- arine habitat for wildlife is aimed at increasing the politan- New York: It furnishes valuable habitat for production of resident species or encouraging its use 50 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL by migratory species. This can be accomplished by disease. Fortunately, estuarine wildlife research and increasing food production, making food more management have progressed to the point where such available, and creating a desirable ratio of open water mismanagement is infrequent as managers now have and marsh. The objectives will determine whether broader knowledge of physical and biological char- an area is to be managed for maximum muskrat acteristics of individual marshes. Bottom topog- production, maximum waterfowl production, or raphy, soil characteristics, existing plant com- some combination of these and other objectives. munities, current wildlife use and productivity, and Management may also be needed when conflicting seasonal water supplies, are all important factors demands arise regarding use of estuaries: fishing, now being considered before the decision to use bird watching, swimming, waterfowl production or drawdown is made as a habitat manipulation hunting, furbearer production, preservation of rare technique. wildlife species, or other uses. Management tech- niques are improving and for specific objectives in specific estuarine areas, such as producing moist-soil Dikes and levees: Many extensive estuarine areas food plants, rather detailed management information have effective water control with simple dikes and is available. However, space limitations here decree levees which are used to hold water or to keep water that the subject of wildlife management techniques off the area being managed. It is often possible to will be treated only in general terms. flood or drain an area by gravity with simple control Most wildlife ecologists will agree on at least one structures. Thousands of acres of coastal marshes, important point-that wildlife is a product of the especially in Louisiana, have natural levees and land. The abundance and well-being of most animal barriers, which impound adequate amounts of water populations is an indication of the land's produc- in years of normal rainfall and tides, but except on tivity, misuse, or both. It is necessary for the wild- limited areas, control of water levels in these marshes life manager to know well those aspects of the en- is almost impossible. Dikes are used to stabilize vironment exerting the most influence on wildlife levels in marshes where water levels are drastically populations. Generally, vegetation and soils are the affected by tides and winds. Other segments of interacting components which must be compre- marsh are diked to provide optimum growing con- hended to produce the best understanding of wildlife ditions for desirable wildlife food plants. Marshes populations. . . .managed in this manner often yield three to five Following is a brief discussion of wildlife manage- times as many muskrats as undiked adjacent ment techniques used on estuarine areas. Significant marshes. forward strides have been made in recent years in gaining knowledge of the relationships of physical, chemical, and biological factors which have enabled estuarine wildlife managers to improve conditions Control structures: Most water control structures estuarine wildlife managers to improve conditions for desired wildlife species. used in marshes are simple, but effective. Critical factors for effective operation of control structures are the timing of flooding and dewatering, an' ad- Water control: Water-level control is probably the equate water supply for flooding, and no flooding most important technique in the management of during dewatering. estuarine wildlife habitats. Control of water levels Impoundments, although expensive, have been may be used to increase or decrease the salinity, to widely used in the southeastern United States. Also, stimulate germination and growth of desirable without pumping facilities, abnormally wet or dry moist-soil plants, to attract wildlife to an available conditions usually result in poor wildlife food con- food supply, to control undesirable plants and other ditions, and impoundments can be built only in organisms such as mosquitoes and wildlife diseases, areas that will support a levee. Thus, other less to provide a permanent water supply (as in ditches expensive methods that have a wider application are and potholes) for alligators and furbearers during being used to improve coastal marshes for wildlife. droughts, to enable trappers and hunters to move Two of these are weirs and earthen plugs. about the areas more easily, to clear up turbidity, to A weir is a structure placed in the drainage system recycle nutrients, and for a variety of other purposes. of a marsh and set about 6 inches below the level of Unwise manipulation of water can pose problems for the surrounding marsh. This permits the flow of wildlife. Wildlife habitat in the past was often tem- tidewater in and out of the marsh, but prevents the porarily destroyed by water drawdown; obtaining drainage of the marsh. Weirs are particularly valu- enough water for re-flooding at the proper time was able in producing desirable aquatic vegetation in difficult, and overcrowding favored the spread of marsh ponds and lakes, and have already been used LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 51 in managing over 250,000 acres of salt and brackish dense rough and provide more succulent food for marshes along the south Atlantic and gulf coasts. wildlife. Although it sometimes backfires or goes Earthen plugs in tidal marshes are being used for a astray this is the optimum goal of marsh burning. type of management similar to that obtained by the Prior to 1910 along the coasts of Louisiana and use of weirs; however, the plugs rise several feet Texas, intentional marsh burning was an unforgiva- above the surrounding marsh level. Thus, normal ble sin; however, by 1926 it was a fairly common tides are not permitted to enter the system and practice. The reason for this was the increased excess rainwater must run around the plug through interest in alligator hunting. To hunt alligators in the surrounding marsh or other depression. Most of those days it was necessary to burn off the marsh to the plugs appear to be ineffective for improving locate the alligator holes. Unknowingly, the alligator plant conditions for wildlife, but they do provide hunter was making way for the forthcoming muskrat permanent water for wildlife and greatly improve boom in Louisiana and Texas. Because some trappers access to the marsh by hunters, trappers, and were noticing an improvement in marsh conditions fishermen. after a burn, they adopted the practice until burning was commonplace on the gulf coast by 1940. Pumping: Pumping is used for flooding and In more recent years a number of people con- dewatering impoundments for wildlife management. cerned with estuarine management have recognized This method is usually the most expensive but is also that prescribed burning is another important method the most reliable. Pumping may be used as a standby of managing for desirable plants. Much of the ac- or supplementary method to simple inlet and outlet cumulation of plant growth in the northern marshes structures. The expenses of pumping are justified is removed by ice, spring floods, and grazing; how- in estuarine wildlife management when valuable ever, in the southern marshes the long growing season wildlife species and habitats are involved. produces a heavier growth, and drastic measures are needed to manage the vegetation. Hurricanes remove the vegetation from huge areas in short periods of Level ditches and marsh potholes: Level ditches and time; when storms do not remove unwanted vegeta- marsh potholes are constructed to improve estuarine tion, fire can be an effective tool. The major objec- habitat for wildlife. They may be built by draglines, tives of burning are to give some of the more valu- ditching plows and such devices as rotary tillers able food plants a competitive advantage, to remove which have been used experimentally in some Lou- the dense rough, to provide more succulent food isiana marshes. Blasting has also been used to create plants for wildlife, and to create open water areas ditches and potholes in extensive marshes. by burning into the marsh floor. Burning affects The purpose of these areas is primarily to open up both wildlife and plants. Nutrients, especially dense vegetation, to provide a permanent water potassium, calcium, phosphorus magnesium, and supply and easier access to the marsh. The latter two chlorides, are released from vegetation and added to SUP ~~~~~~~~~~~~chlorides, are released from vegetation and added to objectives are attained easily in most areas, but usage the soil and water. The warm temperatures of the by wildlife is not always assured. Along coastal south and the fertilization by the ash following fire marshes, ditches constructed with draglines are not stimulates new growth almost immediately, even in usually productive of wildlife until after the first few winter. years because turbidity may restrict growth of Burning has undesirable as well as desirable effects aquatic vegetation. ~aquatic vegetation. ~on marshes. An unburned marsh accumulates a very large amount of fuel; in this situation burning is Burning: The marsh has undoubtedly been burned dangerous. The timing of a burn is important. If a since its origin, first by natural fires caused by light- burn is made just prior to a high tide many nutrients ning and later by Indians as they occupied adjacent may be lost. Heavy Vegetation helps prevent erosion, high land. As white man settled in and near the thus, in coastal marshes subject to hurricanes, burn- marsh, he stepped up the tempo of burning to make ing should be delayed until about October 15 when his trapping, hunting and traveling easier and to the peak of the storm season is past. improve grazing conditions for livestock. As the Cover burns, usually made in the fall or winter to overall picture of periodic burning developed, many open up dense stands of vegetation, produce an people noticed an improvement in the marsh, until immediate change in habitat because they remove today all phases of marsh management include the standing vegetation, but they seldom produce a periodic burning. permanent change in vegetative type. Root burns, The major objective of marsh burning is to give made when the marsh is dry, damage or destroy the some of the more valuable food plants an advantage roots of the plants and can change the composition over those that are less desirable or to remove the of the vegetation. This type of burn is used to reduce 52 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL or remove climax vegetation. However, it can stimu- the surface, but an eatout by muskrats, which con- late undesirable as well as desirable plant species. sume roots and all, may require as long as 10 years to To maintain the same kind of vegetation, a burn revegetate. Because muskrats and nutrias are valu- made just prior to the growing season is the most able furbearers, control usually involves offering effective. ample opportunity for their legal harvest and pro- viding trappers ready access, by impoundments and level ditches, to all sections of the marsh. Herbicides: Large scale control of estuarine veg- Grazing by cattle is a well-established practice in etation is best accomplished by water level manipu- coastal marshes. Grazing is economical, usually lation, burning, cutting or by animals. When those effective, and does little damage to nesting wildlife. methods are not feasible, and especially on smaller High populations of fishes, especially bullheads areas and for special purposes, herbicides are useful. and carp, may create conditions in a marsh that Herbicides cause relatively little damage to animal eliminate desirable aquatic vegetation. Some estua- organisms in the marsh when those of low toxicity rine areas can be successfully managed for fish and to animals are used, when directions are carefully wildlife at the same time, but unwanted fish must be followed, and when care is taken to avoid spillage controlled. Undesirable populations of fishes can be and overdosing. removed by netting or poisoning. Even when a fish population is not detrimental, the trampling of Planting: On estuarine areas drained and later shoreline vegetation and the disturbance caused by restored, on created areas (such as spoil islands), the presence of an excessive number of fishermen and on natural areas where desirable water levels may harm wildlife values. have been restored, aquatic plants often return or The animal species which perhaps has had the occur naturally. Where desirable plants are absent or greatest effect on estuarine habitat in the United less desirable species are dominant, planting can be States, although indirectly, is the salt-marsh mos- an important management tool. Plantings range from quito. In attempts to control this species, people seeding cultivated grains to produce food for wildlife, have affected the wildlife values of many thousands to seeding exposed mud flats following drawdowns, of acres of coastal marshlands. In the early 1930's and setting out rooted aquatics. Wildlife prefer a the Civilian Conservation Corps, at the request of diversity so it is best to plan for a variety of plant local communities, began to ditch marshes for mos- species and a proper balance of open water and quito control. Nearly 500,000 acres of valuable plants. marshes from southern New England to Maryland Planting is inadvisable where a good stand of were drained and made nearly useless for waterfowl species exist, but a paucity of natural vegetation may and other wildlife. indicate habitat deficiences. In the coastal marshes Wildlife agencies and mosquito control agencies where "cat clays" pose a problem with cultivated have now devised methods of water management crops, similar problems are likely to affect plantings that both benefit waterfowl and other wildlife while for wildlife. In these areas only a quick maturing controlling mosquito populations. The eggs of flood- plant which does not require deep drainage is suit- water mosquitoes are laid only in temporarily de- able. watered sites. The eggs hatch when high tides or rains reflood the eggs. By diking marshes and keeping them flooded throughout the mosquito breeding Animals: Both wild and domestic animals can season, mosquitoes are effectively controlled, and control plants, but usually in different situations. the impoundments greatly enhance the value of the impoundments greatly enhance the value of Wildlife, especially when population levels are high, tidal marshes for many species of wildlife. Con- may exert undesirable control on the vegetation and struction costs for mosquito control impoundments may need to be controlled in order to maintain de- greater than ditching costs but the benefits are sirable plant communities. many times greater. These impoundments also pro- When populations of muskrats and nutrias are vide trapping, crabbing, frogging, and firebreaks high, their feeding activities may compete with ducks or other wildlife for food plants. At peak populations, the muskrats and nutrias make "eatouts" on some EVALUATION OF RECENT coastal marshes. Eatouts by muskrats, nutrias and WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS geese sometimes create muck-bottomed ponds in tidal marshes and create more open water than is To maintain and increase valuable estuarine wild- desirable. Eatouts by nutria normally revegetate in life resources in the face of growing pressures to con- one growing season because these mammals feed at vert estuarine habitats to other uses has necessitated LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 53 many activities. These include land acquisition, be more inclined to provide the cooperation and research investigations, and intensive management coordination that is essential to obtain the greatest programs. The objectives of these activities have dividends from a given amount of research funds been discussed previously. Thus, only results and and effort. indicated trends will be discussed below. Wildlife management: After acquiring (or estab- Wildlife habitat acquisition: National planning is lishing some control over) estuarine wildlife habitats, lacking for estuaries, including their fish and wildlife and after having the benefits of good research efforts, resources. Without national planning, acquisition the next step is to reach wildlife resource goals by of valuable estuarine wildlife habitats has proceeded proper management. But what is proper manage- with only uncoordinated, spasmodic, and piecemeal ment? This is the big question. The answer should efforts. Funds available nationally for acquisition be that level of management required to sustain of wildlife lands have been limited. Therefore, these optimum populations of wildlife and enable maxi- funds have been used on a priority basis, but without mum enjoyment by the public. We do not know, and national planning even the best intentions have have hardly started to fully determine, what manage- resulted in the acquisition of less valuable areas ment is essential for the welfare of many estuarine while extremely valuable estuarine wildlife lands wildlife species, or what criteria result in maximum have been lost to other land uses. Although acquisi-mproving knowledge of tion of less valuable wildlife lands is usually cheaper these requirements will better management policies than more valuable habitats, the initial monetary be established even though many of the necessary savings are soon nullified by the increased costs of tools and procedures are known. Although many necessary development and management activities. federal, state, and privately controlled estuarine Indications are that more comprehensive planning wildlife areas have accomplished much toward these for estuaries is in the making in order to more wisely goals, many instances of faulty management still identify, preserve and protect their fish and wildlife remain resources. The problem of splintered governmental Overmanagement, which wastes time, effort, and responsibilities and authorities which complicate money, exists in many forms, e.g., excessive diking, controlling use of estuarine lands held in trust for the pumping, farming, plant control, pothole blasting, public is now receiving much greater attention. and other practices. There are areas where most wildlife biologists concede that intensive manage- Wildlife research: Protecting, and even increasing, ment is not presently required by wildlife or the valuable estuarine wildlife resources requires re- public, but they have been pressured into putting search results to plan for proper management. the land to use. At times, the explanation is offered Unfortunately, good wildlife research usually takes that management activity is required to justify more time than land administrators are willing to retention of certain lands. This type of overmanage- take before initiating management practices. A ment is deplorable. It rejects the idea of a land bank large amount of good quality estuarine wildlife whereby the conservation agencies hold strategic research has been accomplished largely through the parcels of land, and manage them only when the need yeoman efforts of a relatively small cadre of wildlife has been demonstrated. This common fault of at- biologists. Unfortunately, the force of their recom- tempting to manage all lands under jurisdiction is mendations has not always carried enough weight costlyand unnecessary. when management decisions have been made. Undermanagement of lands administered by Past research on wildlife use of estuarine areas has wildlife agencies is probably less commonly encoun- been localized where important problems existed and tered than overmanagement. It is less costly in where a pooling of interest, effort, and finances made money and effort, but it adds little to our knowledge. an effective venture possible. The Back Bay-Cur- Probably the most common example of under- rituck Sound research project is an example of this management is the lack of water drawdown even type of productive effort. However, nationally there when adequate facilities are available. Apparently has generally been no provision for the more general the fear of failure or of causing irreparable harm if survey approach followed by more intense research stable water levels are not maintained, prevents on local problems according to a logical system of some managers from experimenting. priorities. Ambitious, high quality, research pro- Mismanageinient is a product of ignorance, or lack grams have been contemplated in the past, but of sufficient manpower, money, or incentive to do the funding and staffing deficiences have derailed them. job properly. Unfortunately, mismanagement is Encouragingly, wildlife administrators appear to widespread. 54 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Misdirected weed control programs can be found and nutrient cycles and food webs require greater throughout the country. In some instances eradica- understanding. tion programs have been directed to the control of Many of our present environmental problems useful wildlife foods, e.g., Hydrochloa or Myrica. result from plans executed project-by-project, with- Eradication programs such as the alligatorweed out relating individual actions to an entire estuary or program often operate more on fancy than on fact. watershed. This case-by-case approach is the genesis Early control of pest plants that spread rapidly and of many problems (including wildlife resources) persist, e.g., Eurasian watermilfoil, water hyacinth, plaguing estuarine areas. Broadly integrated, rather and water chestnut, is important, but there are than single purpose, planning is required for estu- examples of undue delay in action programs. The aries to designate where and what developments can ultimate value of control is concerned not only with be permitted without damaging the resource base. killing the target plant, but also with the plant Estuarine landscape must be recognized as one communities that follow. In areas where maidencane major ecosystem with interdependent components growth succeeds alligatorweed, little has been ac- and functions and not be subjected to insidious complished by control. destructive and resource-degrading activities. With Poorly planned plant introductions are probably our increasing population and associated demands not as common as they once were, when transplant- on resources, constructive national action is im- ing was in vogue 20 to 30 years ago. There are still perative. a few private individuals who purchase wildlife foods Communication, coordination, and cooperation and unwittingly plant them in habitats where they are the cornerstones on which science, industry, already occur naturally, government, and citizens must build to attain a In summary, wildlife management on estuarine viable solution to the multi-user problems involved areas is far from being an exact science. A detailed, in equitable and effective estuarine management. critical evaluation of all estuarine wildlife manage- Wildlife values are only a part of our total estuarine ment areas would probably show that most are being values, but they must be considered. Certainly, well managed with the funding and manpower broad-scale estuarine planning has been discussed available. However, there are enough examples of previously in this overall report. Thus, only the plea mediocre or poor management to indicate that there that our wildlife resources be justly considered will is much room for improvement. The knowledge be made here along with the thought that we stand bank of estuarine wildlife management techniques on the threshold of decision. Procrastination is no is increasing, yet there are enough knowledge and longer either profitable or possible. Our national communication gaps to cause many problems in estuarine problems must be solved with national trying to provide wildlife with the necessary variety planning and national efforts. and quantity of food, water, and protective cover. Following is a brief listing of some of the needs of Lack of overall, coordinated management among all estuarine wildlife research and management. interested parties hinders the most effective manage- � Initiate a comprehensive national survey of the ment of estuarine wildlife. On the brighter side, there fish and wildlife resources of estuaries and their now appears to be meaningful effort to correct this habitats. severe problem. � Identify 'and delineate those areas of special estuarine significance in need of federal, state, or local protection through land control and manage- FUTURE TRENDS AND NEEDS ment, or through another vehicle such as an "estu- IN ESTUARINE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT arine authority." Plan a program of research and experimental One crucial dimension of estuarine habitat re- management on coastal wildlife refuges and perhaps lationships must receive much more consideration on national parks and seashores as well. The basis if the future needs of wildlife are to be met. This is, of this approach is that the coastal wildlife refuges one wetland community may contribute nutrients to offer natural bases for inventory, research, manipula- another nearby, or to another distantly located. tion, experimental management, and rehabilitation. Highly productive estuaries and coastal marshes are These refuges have land, water, marshes, fish, birds, surely the lifeline of our entire coastline and adjacent mammals, and people with local knowledge, and a seas. Resource managers must be acutely aware of wide variety of problems associated with environ- these important relationships in order to avoid mental manipulation. Coastal national parks and misjudging the values of our dynamic estuarine seashores may also offer the same opportunities. communities. As we are painfully learning, energy � The entire field of habitat rehabilitation prom- LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 55 ises to yield great rewards but unfortunately has areas. Too many local areas have been destroyed been sadly neglected. We know that thousands of without thought or realization of the values being acres of estuarine habitat have been damaged and eliminated. destroyed and that the future promises an increase of � Revised procedures or legislation are needed to this problem. It is time now to stop, and if possible, permit adequate time to conduct wildlife studies, to reverse this destructive trend. Habitat rehabilita- analyze project effects and devise protective and tion certainly is one way to accomplish this goal. enhancement measures for all estuarine projects. � There is urgent need for an accelerated research * With the demands for fresh water diversion, program to give better understanding and better dams and more dams on all our rivers, it is apparent tools for management. Among these needs is a far that less and less fresh water is going to reach the better knowledge of the overall ecological relation- sea coast and the drainage water that does enter will ships of total communities of organisms. likely be polluted and contain concentrations of * More precise knowledge of the interrelationships salts and other minerals. The proposal to drain of the tidal flats, marshes and periodically inundated water from the Sabine down the Texas coast to the semi-upland is needed. To what extent are our lower Rio Grande Valley is expected by most people aquatic resources dependent upon these higher to prevent the "loss" of fresh water into the coastal elevated tidal zones? To what extent does the mis- estuaries and gulf. It is obvious that to the extent management of these higher zones affect the per- that fresh water is prevented from reaching the manent water areas and their productivity? To what gulf, the gulf seawater will encroach into the estu- extent does one wetland community contribute to aries and accordingly change them. We need to know another? the critical limits to which fresh water can safely be . The specific ecological requirements, degree of diverted. We need to know the salt tolerance of the adaptability, life histories, food, nesting and other various organisms-commercial, sporting and food habits, social behavior patterns, competition, ene- chain species in the estuaries, and we need to know mies, limiting population factors of abundance or what effects will result from diversion of fresh water population dynamics, and many other aspects of that normally enters the various estuaries. This is many wildlife species are known only in part. Re- an urgent research need and such studies should be search here surely is needed and some of it is ur- generously supported. gent. . Human population increases will require new . Research on the economic, recreational and approaches and intensive management of species sporting values were urgently needed on all estuarine now harvested or those little used. commercial products long before those resources * Lastly, perhaps there is urgent need for studies were eliminated by dredging, filling and pollution. to improve better public relations and people man- Research is now needed on how to safely restore and agement as they affect our estuarine system. effectively manage the potential resources that Much destruction of our valuable estuarine wild- remain. Socio-economic studies are needed to estab- life habitats has already taken place, and many lish more firmly public values of specific and as- estuarine uses now being planned will destroy or sociated renewable resources. Otherwise, we cannot damage a number of our remaining areas. Only a objectively appraise these renewable resources concerted national effort now will turn the tide. against other proposals for development of those Surely we have the desire and pride to do this. IMPACT OF ESTUARINE POLLUTION ON BIRDS L. J. BLUS S. N. WIEMEYER J. A. KERWIN R. C. STENDELL H. M. OHLENDORF L. F. STICKEL U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Laurel, Maryland ABSTRACT Pollution of estuaries affects bird populations indirectly through changes in habitat and food supply. The multi-factor pollution of Chesapeake Bay has resulted in diminution of submerged aquatic plants and consequent change in food habits of the canvasback duck. Although dredge- spoil operations can improve wildlife habitat, they often result in its demise. Pollution of estuaries also affects birds directly, through chemical toxication, which may result in outright mortality or in reproductive impairment. Lead from industrial sources and roadways enters the estuaries and is accumulated in tissues of birds. Lead pellets deposited in estuaries as a result of hunting are consumed by ducks with sufficient frequency to result in large annual die-offs from lead poisoning. Fish in certain areas, usually near industrial sources, may contain levels of mercury high enough to be hazardous to birds that consume them. Other heavy metals are present in estuarine birds, but their significance is poorly known. Oil exerts lethal or sublethal effects on birds by oiling their feathers, oiling eggs and young by contaminated parents, and by ingestion of oil-contaminated food. Organochlorine chemicals, of both agricultural and industrial origin, travel through the food chains and reach harmful levels in susceptible species of birds in certain estuarine ecosystems. Both outright mortality and reproductive impairment have occurred. INTRODUCTION and plants in the biotic community. For example, prior to the 1950's, the canvasback duck fed pri- Millions of people live in communities bordering marily on parts of submerged aquatic plants in the the estuaries. They deposit their wastes in the Chesapeake Bay. Since that decade, the canvas- oceans, bays, and rivers on the age-old assumption back's diet in the bay has changed completely, until that the ocean has an infinite capacity to remove, now it feeds almost entirely on small clams and store, and cleanse. The error of this assumption is occasionally on other animals that are part of the now evident. Kinds of pollution are numerous and detrital food chain (Fig. 1). Similar changes in the their sources divergent. They include agricultural Illinois River are believed responsible for the decline pesticides, industrial wastes, sewage effluents, ab- of the canvasback and other species in the area normal changes in water temperature, and soil (Mills et al., 1966). Different species of waterfowl eroded from disturbed lands. Even the hunters, have greatly different diets, including both animals concentrating on shrinking waterfowl areas, annu- and plants. ally increase the toxic burden of lead shot in the Herons, in contrast, feed only upon animals, but environment. We will take examples from a few of these may occupy several levels of the carnivorous these in relation to certain kinds of birds whose food chain, from aquatic insects, crustaceans, and lives depend upon the estuarine ecosystem. molluscs, to fish. Pelicans and ospreys feed almost Pollution of estuaries affects bird populations in- entirely upon fish, the top of the aquatic chain; and directly through changes in habitat and food supply; eagles eat both fish and birds (Fig. 2). Pollution- these changes are widespread, not immediately ap- induced changes in the populations of the food parent, and, in practice, may not be reversible. The organisms will inevitably change the food habits of kinds of pollution include turbidity, sedimentation, birds and may affect populations. eutrophication (enrichment by nutrients), and ab- Physical changes may destroy or drastically alter normal changes in water temperature. They also the estuaries. Dredge-spoil operations, for example, include pollution by oil and chemicals. These factors may have either detrimental or beneficial effects. cause changes in the kinds and numbers of animals For example, in the saline marshes of New Jersey, 57 58 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL I UNPOLLUTED ESTUARY I EUTiOPHIC ESTUARY CANVASBACK PLANKTON INVERTEBRATE I PREDATORS 'PREDATORS \ OOP KTON FILTER FEEDERS \ oOPLAiTON BROWSERS PHYTOPLANKTON "- FILTER FEEDERS lI i - .. PHYTOPLANKTON MACROSCOPIC WACROCOPIC PALGAE. PONDWEEDS PLANTS PLANTS ALGAE tAROCO~ ~ PONDWREDS l 11 DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND DETRITIS FIGURE 1.-Food chains of canvasback ducks in clean water and eutrophic estuaries. Multiple pollution of Chesapeake Bay has changed the entire biotic community. The canvasback duck has adapted by changing its diet, but the cost may be reflected in reduced wintering populations on the bay. EAGLES FISH - _ OSPREYS WADERS t t T -~ >MERGANSERS INVERTEBRATES / DIVERS MICROFAUNA - . _ DABBLERS MACROSCOPIC VASCULAR ALGAE VEGETATION -- GEESE MICROFLORA IGUTRE 2.-FlowofNTestuari foodchain. imifieddiagramshowthediversewater- FIGURE 2.-Flow of nutrients through the estuarine food chain. This simplified diagram shows the diverse food habits of water- fowl, and the successively more restrictive requirements of wading birds, ospreys, and eagles. valuable plant communities such as Spartina alterni- eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia, in New flora. may be destroyed by dredging and subsequent, Jersey, and on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, invasion by Phragmites communis, which is of only dredge-spoil operations on the inland waterway have small value to wildlife populations. In contrast, created habitat for gulls, terns, black ducks, willets, spoil deposits can increase plant diversity. On the herons, ibises, and egrets. Proper management of LIVING AND NON-LrVING REsOURCES 59 Typical Cross-Section (Dredged Material Disposal Area) Rails Willet Herons -,~~ . Sq,.,'~Estuary T idal Ditch |rgd /Is ati inaolternif Distichls sicatlex Iv/ f 1 rutes" cen FIGURE 3.-Plant succession and nesting cover on spoil banks on the eastern shore of Virginia. Dredge-spoil operations often destroy or drastically alter estuarine communities, with seriously detrimental effects on bird populations. Proper management can ameliorate damage in some areas. dredge spoil can be beneficial to wildlife, but develop- by bone is rapid and loss is extremely slow. Lead ment of the techniques is in its infancy (Fig. 3). levels in the bone, therefore, represent the bird's Pollution of estuaries affects birds directly through total history of exposure. Wingbones were used be- chemical toxication. High levels of chemicals may cause statistically planned samples of wings were kill birds outright but lower levels may have more readily available from other studies in which wings insidious effects, impairing both reproduction and of many species are obtained annually from hunters survival. Both may be critical to survival of pop- to assess reproductive success of the birds and to ulations. help measure the harvest. Young birds were sampled because they would be making their first southward migration and therefore would reflect the exposure LEAD of a single season. Mallards were the primary species sampled, because of their almost nationwide distri- Lead poisoning has been recognized as a cause of bution and availability. waterfowl mortality since the turn of the century. Lead in wingbones of immature mallards ranged Ducks that eat lead shot experience serious physio- from less than 0.5 ppm to greater than 400 ppm on logical disturbances of the digestive, circulatory, a dry weight basis. Levels were highest in states of and nervous systems, which may eventually result the Atlantic flyway, lowest in the Central flyway, in death. Waterfowl mortality from this cause has and intermediate in the Mississippi and Pacific fly- been estimated as 1.5 million birds per year. ways (Fig. 4). Levels in black ducks from the north- In 1972, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service initi- eastern states were similar to those in mallards. ated a study to examine the geographic distribution Mottled ducks from Florida, Louisiana, and Texas of lead levels in several species of waterfowl through- had the highest levels of any species from any area. out the United States. The survey was made by It was evident that a high proportion of the water- examining the lead levels in the wingbones of imma- fowl population is exposed to elevated levels of lead. ture ducks. Bone was selected because lead uptake Over most of the United States, there is strong 60 ESTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL. Pacific Central Mississippi Atlantic 9MN . . MA. ID 3NJD MI INJ OR aNE IL MD ~ CA E " A, ast CO. ' TN = VA West CO JOK JAR NC JUT a TX '|LA a GA _ I I ! ! I I I I I I I 1 2 4 6 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 t 8 10 Median Value (ppm lead) FIGaRE 4.-Lead in mallard ducks. Geographic differences in lead exposure are shown by. analysis of lead content of wingbones. Highest exposure 'is in the east, where marshlands used by waterfowl receive municipal and industrial lead as well as lead shot. evidence that the major source of lead in ducks is Mercury is a cause for concern in some areas and ingested shotgun pellets. Each year, 2 million water- :has. been most studied. Levels of mercury increase fowl hunters shoot more than 3,000 tons of lead through the various stages of the food chain. Ducks into marshes, lakes, and estuaries. Many of these that feed more upon animal matter (divers) have spent shot are eaten by the birds as if they were higher levels of mercury than those that feed pre- seeds or grit. The shot are ground in the gizzard, dominantly upon vegetation (dabblers). This is and much lead is absorbed by the'body~ Results of shown in the distribution of mercury in samples of a survey of lead shot in gizzards showed a geographic divers and dabblers from VWiscnsin (Kleinert and distribution very similar to that of lead in wing- DeGurse, 1972) and from Pacific flyway estuaries bones (Bellrose, 1959)? (Baskett, 1975)., Mergansers, because of their fish- However, lead from other manmade sources may eating :ihabits,: show the highest mercury levels account for some of the lead in the bones. This is (Fig. 5).. particularly true of mallards and black ducks from The eggs of wild mergansers often contain levels northeastern coastal states, where a large percentage of mercury that have impaired the reproduction of of the wingbone samples contained moderate to captive mallards and black ducks (Heinz, 1974; high levels of lead. In this region, hunting often is M,. Finley and R. Stendell, personal communica- .concentrated in areas that also receive lead as an tion), but it is not known whether the mergansers industrial or municipal .pollutant, and lead in the are affected, because neither field nor laboratory bone from the various sources is not easily sepaxa- studies have been made. ted. - , , Bald eagles, which eat bot fish and birds, occa- .sionally contain high levels of mercury (Mulhern OTHER HEAVY METALS 0 -et al., 1970; Belisle et al., 1972). Estuaries are repositoriei' for /nany other heavy OIL metals'besides lead, since these 'areas receive- the effluent' from numerous industrial areas. Heavy !'Spills of major extent mays oil and kill thousands metals are a part' of the complex of pollution that of birds and disfigure beaches. Spectacular accidents, 'alters the energy flow .and food chain composition. however, constitute only a small ,percentage of the The effects of heavy metals onibirds ared'6not at all 5 -rmlion metric' tons that ilb estimated to be the well understood. i ' A annual global input of oil to the oceans.' LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 61 Wisconsin Pacific Flyway Mergansers n = 3 Divers n 29 Divers n = 36 20- .y10 10 -: 50 S40- 30' Dabblers n = 76Dabblers n '44 30- 30 z20' 20 10s 7' ' 10 .' _ 'L .: i. . -. . . . . _ .01-.10 21F,30 A1-.0 .61i-.70' .81-.90 .01-.10 .21-.30 .41-.50 .61-70 .81-.90 >.00 .11-.20 .31-.40 .51-.60 .71.80 .91-1.0 .11-.20 .31-.40 .51-.60 .71-.80 91-1.00 ppm mercury ppm mercury FIGURE 5�.-Mercury in ducks from Wisconsin and from Pacific estuaries. Diving ducks which feed more upon animal material accumulate more mercury than do dabbling ducks which feed predominantly upon vegetation (Kleinert and DeGurse, 1972; Baskett, 1974). Birds may be affected by oil directly, through ORGANOCHLORINES feather-oiling, by exposure of eggs to oiled feathers, and by ingestion of oil. They may die as a result of Manmade chemicals have become an integral part direct exposure to oil even when the oil is essentially of estuarine ecosystems throughout the world. The gone from the feathers. The damage results from organochlorines of agricultural and industrial origin the ingestion of oil during preening or during intake travel through the food chains and follow the energy of food items that are coated with oil. Oil is found cycles of all living organisms. Species differ greatly in tissues of birds in oil-spill areas even when feathers in susceptibility to harm. Some species, such as are not oiled (Burns and Teal, 1971). In the San fiddler crabs, are so easily killed by DDT that they Francisco spill of 1971, grebes, murres, and loons may be lost from local faunas. Other species, such died more rapidly than other birds and the duck as snails, are less easily harmed and so serve as species appeared most hardy (Snyder et al., 1973). accumulators. Organochlorines enter the body of Various pathological conditions and signs of 4ebili- birds primarily through the foods they eat. Birds tation were present in oiled birds. Delayed feather that eat fish and other birds generally accumulate damage also may occur (Bourne, 1974). Oil ihgestion higher amounts than do birds that eat seeds and at levels obtainable from oiled plumage inhibited vegetation. egg laying of mallard ducks and had other physio- Predatory and fish-eating birds that live near the logical effects (Hartung, 1963, 1964, 1965)..A thin estuaries and depend upon the estuarine food chain film of oil will prevent eggs from hatching and could accumulate a wide variety of organochlorines in be introduced by the incubating hen (Hartung, their tissues and transmit them to eggs and young. 1965; Kopischke, 1972). Ingested oil may interfere The principal chemicals-those that occur most with the intestinal absorption of water by ducks frequently and in the greatest concentrations-in- that depend upon saltwater and result in death from elude DDE, dieldrin, and PCBs: (polychlorinated dehydration (Crocker et al., 1974). biphenyls). Many other kinds occur less frequently. 62 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The effects also are various. Those of DDE are best Table l.--Organochlorine residues in eggs of bald eagles from estuarine areas. The high residues in eagle eggs from Maine parallel poor reproductive success documented, for this compound in small amounts in that area. (Wiemeyer et al., 1972) thins eggshells and impairs reproduction of many kinds of birds, and these effects have been verified Residues ppm wet weight in numerous experimental and ecological studies. Area and year n DDE Dieldrin PCB The relationships of DDE and other organochlorines to different species of estuarine birds can best be Alaska Kodiak-1969 .....................-7 1.9 0.10 2.2 considered through examples. Admiralty-1970 ..-. ........... 5 2.9 0.06 1.1 Florida Bald Eagles Everglades-1968 .. ' 6 11.0 0.21 n.a., Lee County-1969 ..- . .. 2 18.0 1.1 12.0 Since 1947, eggshells of a number of species of Maine 1967-69,1974 ---. - ------------ 11 22.0 1.1 30.02 birds of prey have thinned both in the United States and in other parts of the world (Ratcliffe, 1967; 'Not analyzed. Hickey and Anderson, 1968)2. Bald eagle eggs from Only 1969 and 1974 eggs were analyzed for PCB, therefore the sample size is 6. Brevard and Osceola Counties, Fla., were among those whose shells thinned significantly; the bald Bald eagle eggs from populations near several eagle population was declining in the area as was estuarine or salt water areas have been collected for its reproductive success. Declines in populations and analysis of environmental pollutants (Krantz et al., reproductive success of bald eagles nesting on the 1970; Wiemeyer et al., 1972). Eggs from Kodiak west coast of Florida had been reported earlier Island and the Admiralty Island area of Alaska had (Broley, 1958). Thinned eggshells are less able to the lowest levels of pollutants (Table 1). Those from support the weight of the incubating bird and are Florida and Maine had considerably higher concen- more susceptible to breakage, so that fewer eggs trations. The poor reproductive success in many of are hatched. The hypothesis was advanced that the eagle nests in Maine probably is the result of the eggshell thinning was caused by the introduction of high concentrations of DDE, dieldrin, and PCBs in organochlorine insecticides. such as DDT, into the the eggs. Reproductive success of the eagle popula- environment. This hypothesis was substantiated in tions in Alaska (Sprunt et al., 1973; Robards and later years by the results of experimental studies King, 1967) and in Everglades National Park, Fla., with several species; these studies also showed that (Sprunt et al., 1973) appears to be adequate to even the unbroken thin-shelled eggs hatched poorly. maintain those populations, whereas the Maine American sparrow hawks (a species related to the population has been declining for a number of years. bald eagle and osprey) that were fed diets contain- Moderate eggshell thinning (about 10 percent) has ing DDT and dieldrin in combination, as well as occurred in each of the recent samples mentioned DDE alone, laid eggs with shells that were signifi- above, with the exception of those from the Admi- cantly thinner than those of undosed sparrow hawks ralty Island area of Alaska. Eggshell thinning has (Porter and Wiemeyer, 1969; Wiemeyer and Porter, also been reported for bald eagles in southern Texas 1970). (Anderson and Hickey, 1972). Bald eagles found dead in the field have been monitored for the presence of organochlorine insecti- cides since 1964, and for PCBs since 1969 (Reichel Ospreys et al,, 1969; Mulhern et al., 1970; Belisle et al., 1972; Cromartie et al., 1974). Their tissues contained The osprey population in estuarine areas along a wide range of concentrations of many different the coast of Connecticut, particularly at the mouth chemicals. Some contained high amounts. The most of the Connecticut River, has been one of the better notable finding was that 8 of 17 (47 percent) of the studied declining populations. Seventy-one active bald eagles from southeastern coastal states (Mary- osprey nests were present near the mouth of the land, Virginia, South Carolina, Florida) were sus- river in 1960 (Ames and Mersereau, 1964), whereas spected ,to have died of dieldrin poisoning. The four only five active nests remained in 1969 (Wiemeyer cases from Maryland and Virginia were from tide- et al., 1974). This population crash was accompanied water areas of Chesapeake Bay (Cromartie et al., by poor reproductive success. Results of studies 1974). Reproductive success of bald eagles in this conducted in 1968 and 1969 indicated that the most area has been poor (Abbott, 1973). Only 11 of 173 probable cause of the poor reproduction was the bald eagles (6 percent) from other areas of the contamination of the birds and their eggs (Wiemeyer United States had such high levels of dieldrin. et al., 1974). Dieldrin, ,DDE, and PCBs were sus- LIVING AND NON-LrVING RESOURCES 63 Table 2.--Organochlorine residues in eggs of ospreys from estuarine areas. Island (Emerson and Davenport, 1963), New York High residues in Connecticut eggs are associated with reproductive failure and population decline. (Wiemeyer et al., 1974) (Peterson, 1969), and New Jersey (Peterson, 1969; Schmid, 1966). DDT and metabolites and. PCBs Residues ppm wet weight were high in eggs collected in New Jersey in recent Area and year n DDE Dieldrin PCB years, and eggshell thinning averaged 12 percent. A small sample of eggs collected earlier had shells Connecticut that had thinned an average of 25 percent (Hickey 1964 . . -. . ............. 6.. . . .. 9.9 0.68 13.0 196-69 - -------------- 10 8.s9 0.61 15.0 and Anderson, 1968). Reproductive success of ospreys nesting at Martin 1972-Massachusetts 7 4.6 0.17 10.0 National Wildlife Refuge on Smith Island in Chesa- peake Bay has been excellent (Rhodes,'1972). Resi- 1970, 1972 -8 14.0 0.20 8.8 due levels in the eggs are generally low, with the exception of DDT and its metabolites, which were Smith Island similar to the levels in the eggs from the Potomac ("fresh") 1973 .- . ... . 10 3.5 0.06 3.0 River population. Eggshell thinning approached 20 Potomac percent in 1973 despite an apparently normal rate ("failed to hatch") 19688-69 ---------- 12 3.4 0.25 2.6 of reproductive success. Reproductive success re- ("failed to hatch") mains high for a population nesting in the Florida 1971-------------------------- 8 3.2 0.24 4.6 Bay area of southern Florida (Henny and Ogden, ("failed to hatch") 1972 ...- ..... 9 3.0 0.30 6.3 1970). Eggs collected there in 1973 showed no shell ("failed to hatch") thinning, and concentrations of pollutants in the eggs 1973 -------------------------- 13 3.2 0.15 9.9 ("fresh") 1973 - - ---------------- 20 3.7 0.16 11.0 were very low. Eggshell thinning was reported for small samples of osprey eggs collected in Florida in Florida Florida Bay 1973 -- ------------- 10 0.90 0.02 1.5 1949 and 1960 (Anderson and Hickey, 1972). Waterfowl pected of being important factors in the declines.- Eggshells from this population had thinned signifi- Organochlorine pesticides and industrial pollut- cantly, by about 18 percent, since the 1940's. One ants in ducks are periodically surveyed nationwide adult osprey from Connecticut was suspected of to identify trends of pollutants in time and space dieldrin poisoning, and another found dead in South (Heath and Hill, 1974). Approximately 5,200 wings Carolina had levels that probably contributed to were involved in the survey during the 1969-70 its death. hunting season. Pools of wings of adult mallards Ospreys nesting along the Potomac River in Mary- and black ducks from the 48 conterminous states land appeared to reproduce at a near-normal rate were analyzed for DDE, DDT, DDD, dieldrin, in the 1960's; these birds contained much lower PCBs, and mercury (Fig. 6). All except PCBs were residues of DDT and its metabolites, dieldrin, and highest in the two coastal flyways, intermediate in PCBs in their tissues and eggs than did the Con- the Mississippi flyway, and lowest in the Central. necticut ospreys during those years (Wiemeyer, PCBs exhibited a somewhat different geographic 1971; Table 2). Fish used by ospreys as food in the pattern; residues were highest in the Atlantic flyway Potomac River area also contained much lower and generally diminished westward. Black duck levels of pollutants than those in the Connecticut wings from New Jersey and New York that were River area (Wiemeyer et al., 1974). Reproductive analyzed individually showed that birds taken in success of ospreys on the Potomac River in the early coastal areas contained higher levels of DDE than 1970's fell to about one-half to two-thirds of the those from inland areas. Levels of DDE in duck success needed to maintain the population, although wings in the 1965-66 survey were similar to those no decline in number of breeding pairs was observed in 1969-70. (Wiemeyer, 1971; 1974). Eggshell thinning in the Populations of some species of waterfowl appear Potomac population in 1973 averaged about 15 per- to be declining. One example is the black duck pop- cent. PCBs residues in the eggs increased nearly ulation along the Atlantic coast that has been declin- four-fold between 1968-69 and 1973. Residues of ing since the mid-1950's. The cause of the decline DDT and its metabolites and dieldrin in eggs from is not known, but age ratios in the harvest suggest this area remained relatively unchanged during the that reproductive success is adequate. Black ducks same period. are characteristic of a wide variety of habitats from Osprey populations also have declined in Rhode freshwater impoundments to coastal salt marshes, 64 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL DDT era. The later survey in 1971 revealed that shells were only slightly thinner than those collected before DDT use, and residues were generally lower than levels found in eggs from the 1964 survey.: X A\ 1 + 1.6 An experiment to test the effects of DDE on salt- gland function suggested that this compound could be detrimental to survival of ducks in habitats of moderate or high salinity (Friend et al., 1973). Salt glands are the main route of sodium chloride excretion in marine birds. The experiment showed that sublethal levels of DDE suppressed salt gland secretion in immature mallards not previously ex- posed to salt. There were no adverse effects on mallards whose salt glands had been previously FIaGRE 6.-Nationwide distribution of DDE in mallard and black ducks. Residues in wings show geographic patterns, stimulated by low-level salt exposure. It is possible with highest residues in the coastal flyways (Heath and that young birds exposed to moderate levels of Hill, 1974). DDE, making their first migration from the breeding grounds to coastal estuaries where they experience their first exposure to salt. could face an inability including esturine river mrshes s well s fresh, to eliminate toxic levels of salt taken in while feeding. brackish, and salt estuarine bay marshes, and habitat changes seem insufficient to explain the decline. Several studies have been made to help determine Brown Pelicans whether DDE could have adversely affected popula- tions. In a 1971 survey of residues, black duck eggs The brown pelican has shown some of the most were collected from 61 nests along the Atlantic sea- interesting and meaningful relationships concerning board from Maryland to Nova Scotia (Longcore the influence of pollutants on eggshell thinning, and Mulhern, 1973). One egg from each nest was subnormal reproductive success, and population de- analyzed for organochlorine pesticides. DDE was dine (Fig. 7). detected in all eggs; residues ranged from a trace This colonial species nests in estuaries from North (<0.05 ppm) to 14.0 ppm on a wet-weight basis. Carolina to the Amazon River on the east coast and DDE in eggs from Maine, New York, New Jersey, from southern California to Chile on the west coast. and Delaware averaged greater than 1.0 ppm. Eggshell thinning occurred in every colony of brown Dieldrin (up to 0.81 ppm) and PCBs (up to 6.9 pelicans studied in the United States (Blus, 1970; ppm) were present in almost all eggs. The residues Blus, Neely, et al., 1974; Keith et al., 1970; Blus, of DDE were lower than those in eggs collected from Belisle, et al., 1974) and in most of the colonies Atlantic states in 1964. The lower residues may studied in Mexico (Keith et al., 1970; Jehl, 1973). reflect the reduced use of DDT in urban and agri- In 1969, a catastrophic situation was found in the cultural areas in the 1960's and the discontinuance only colony of the California brown pelican that is of the practice of spraying marshlands with DDT located in the United States. Eggshells of these for insect control. pelicans on Anacapa Island, located in the Pacific In an experimental study, black duck hens fed Ocean several miles off Los Angeles, were so thin dietary doses of DDE (10 ppm dry weight) laid that they would break soon after laying. Average eggs with thinner shells than those fed untreated eggshell thinning ranged from approximately 35 per- food (Longcore et al., 1971). A number of eggs with cent (Blus et al., 1971; Keith et al., 1970) to 50 thinned shells were crushed or cracked during incu- percent (Risebrough et al., 1971). In 1969, residues bation; such eggs rarely hatched. Embryonic mor- of DDE in the egg ranged from 40 to 140 ppm tality and early mortality of ducklings from dosed (fresh wet weight) (Blus, Belisle, et al., 1974). black duck hens were significantly greater. Similar These residues of DDE were some of the highest effects, although less pronounced, resulted from a ever recorded in wild birds. By use of stepwise dietary dosage of 3 ppm of DDE. The initial field regression analysis, it was shown that DDE ac- survey in 1964 revealed that the eggs of wild black counted for essentially all of the eggshell thinning ducks contained residues comparable to those found in the brown pelican (Fig. 8). Even small amounts in eggs of captive hens fed 3 ppm. The eggshell of DDE, such as those found in eggs from certain thickness of eggs collected in 1964 was significantly parts of Florida, were shown to induce eggshell thin- less than the shell thickness of eggs from the pre- ning (Blus et al., 1971; Blus et al., 1972a; Blus et al., LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 65 a 105 - Y = 96.410- 16.509 Ioglo X Z r = -0.96 (Po.01) M 100 - q 0- - F 70 - 'u65 "- 10 100 DDE (PPM) FIGURE 8.-Association of DDE residues in brown pelican eggs with changes in shell thickness. Data are from nine colonies in Florida (0), two colonies in South Carolina (a), and one colony in California (*) (Blus, Belisle, et al., 1974). At one time, Louisiana contained more pelicans than any other state, probably in excess of 10,000 breeding pairs. They disappeared in the 1960's and did not return until reintroduced from Florida in recent years. Birds in this small colony bred success- fully in 1971. In Florida, pelicans have maintained their num- bers over the past seven years, and seem to have normal reproductive success. Residues of organo- chlorines are generally low. FIGuE 7.-Two downy pelicans in a nest in South Carolina. In the small North Carolina colony, reproductive Brown pelicans are very sensitive to organochlorine pollutants, success has been excellent in the past two years and particularly DDE. Eggshell thinning and reproductive failure the birds may be increasing in numbers. were associated with these agents. Reproductive success has Although there are vast improvements in repro- improved as residues have declined. improved as residues have declined. ductive success of the brown pelican in most parts of the U.S., a normal level has not yet been attained 1972b). In Florida, eggshell thinning in most colonies in Louisiana or California. This species is especially was less than 10 percent and eggshell thickness in sensitive to certain forms of pollution, and its popu- some lightly polluted areas, such as Florida Bay, lations should be followed closely. was near normal. There also was a relationship be- tween low levels of DDE and dieldrin in the egg and Royal Tern hatching success (Blus, Neely, et al., 1974). Brown pelicans are a sensitive indicator of certain Species of birds differ markedly from each other forms of environmental pollution and have shown in susceptibility to organochlorines. The royal tern marked improvement in reproductive success within is an example of a relatively insensitive species. the past two years as residues have declined. For Although it lives in the same area of South Carolina example, about 0.92 young fledged per nest in the as the brown pelican, it showed no evidence of egg- California colony in 1974 compared to less than 0.01 shell thinning or lowered reproductive success. Resi- in 1969 when about four young were raised in the due levels of organochlorine pollutants in the tern entire colony. During the same period, residues of eggs were similar to those in pelican eggs. The royal DDT and metabolites in the estuaries near the tern breeds for the first time when it is three or colony and in the pelicans decreased dramatically more years of age and usually lays only one egg per (D. Anderson, personal communication). Residues clutch. It is a long-lived species and its reproductive of organochlorine pesticides and their metabolites success is very good in South Carolina. Pollution also have declined markedly and reproductive suc- effects have been suspected among other species of cess has vastly improved to an essentially normal terns, however. Hays and Risebrough (1972) found level in the South Carolina colonies. abnormalities in several species of young terns near 66 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Long Island, N.Y. These abnormalities seemed re- lated to the very high load of PCBs they were \ carrying. Only a few dozen of the thousands of tern young seemed affected by the abnormalities. In the Netherlands, heavy pollution by certain or- ganochlorine insecticides resulted in the virtual "-- elimination of Sandwich terns (Koeman et al., 1967). \ 5_._. i. rC Estuarine Waders7 , The nesting colonies of herons and ibises found near the nation's estuaries are typically aggrega- -i_ i --? ... tions of several species, which vary with local habi- tat conditions. Greatest diversity is in the Southeast, where 10 or more of these species may nest together ,. . in a single heronry, accompanied by wood storks, double-crested cormorants, anhingas, and perhaps also brown pelicans. Shell thickness of eggs of great blue herons, green herons, great egrets, snowy egrets, and black- crowned night herons has significantly decreased in some coastal areas since the mid-1940's (Ander- son and Hickey, 1972; Faber et al., 1972; Faber and FIGURE 9.-Black-crowned night heron eggs were collected at. Hickey, 1 973) 21 localities in estuarine and inland water areas in 1972 and l Hickey, o1973)f. 1973. Organochlorine residues are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Reproductive success of a colony of great egrets in California declined between 1967 and 1970 (Faber et al., 1972). Successful nesting attempts decreased feed on larger fish of different kinds than do other from 52 to 28 percent, and nests losing eggs increased birds (Bent, 1922, 1926; Palmer, 1962). Night her- from 30 to 54 percent. However, reproductive suc- ons are particularly active at dawn and dusk, cess of great blue herons in this colony did not decline whereas the other species feed more actively during during the same period. Egrets in the California the day. Cattle egrets and glossy ibis feed more colony were observed tossing broken eggs from their extensively on lower invertebrates. Cattle egrets nests, a behavior that at least partially explains the feed almost altogether in terrestrial sites whereas disappearance of eggs during incubation. Grey her- ibises feed exclusively in mud flats. Other species ons in England also have been observed tossing eggs feed primarily in aquatic areas, eating a variety of from their nests (Milstein et al., 1970; Prestt, 1970). organiiiyms including fish of various sizes. Thickness of the eggshells of the California egrets Differences related to geographic location proved was 15.2 percent less than that of eggshells in mu- to be greater than those related to the species. Both seum collections (Faber et al., 1972). Thickness of kinds' and quantities of residues in eggs varied great blue heron eggshells was 10.4 percent less than geographically. Distribution of residues in black- those collected prior to 1947. crowned night heron eggs is illustrative. Black- In 1972, extensive field studies were begun of crowdied night herons are one of the most widely waders in the estuaries of the gulf and Atlantic located species of waders. They have declined both coasts as well as freshwater habitats throughout the in :Michigan and southern New England (Wallace, eastern United States. Both species and geographic 1969; Hickey, 1969; Anonymous, 1971, 1973; Arbib, differences in pollutant residues were apparent. Of 1972). samples analyzed thus far, great egret eggs or black- Chemical residues were relatively higher in black- crowned night heron eggs contained the highest aver- crowned night heron eggs from northern Atlantic age amounts of DDE and PCBs at all localities estuaries (Fig. 9, 10, 11) than from gulf and southern where they were collected. Eggs of cattle egrets and Atlantic estuaries. Only mirex occurred more fre- glossy ibis generally had greater amounts of dieldrin quently and in greater amounts in the samples from than did the eggs of other species. the south. Residues were consistently highest in Dissimilar food preferences may belat least a par- areas where the population had declined. tial cause of differences in organochiorine residues A black-crowned night her"oi egg from Long Island in different species. Great egrets and night herons contained the greatest amount of DDE (61 ppm LIvING AND NoN-LivING RESOURCES 67 Black-crowned Night Heron Egg Relidues Locality N . MN 9 , Ml 7 Oil S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .OH 3 -I_ ; , Om 3 Manchester MA is Boston 12 Plymouth 9 . M. Vineyard 17 : X~RI 26 I Gardiners 1. N Y 1S Long I. 19 NJ 14 MD-VA 12 E I NC I . I. C 9 . I GA 6 'Merritt I. FL 9 . a 1' Darliwng 5 Izt z Chassahowitza S St. Marks 11 Atchofalaya LA 3 ;. Laccossine 104I Sobine 16 II I IIIIII1 I I I.IIIIII1 I I IIIIII1 I I I IIIIII .01 0.1 1.0 10 100 ppm DDE (Wet Weight) FIGURE 10.-DDE in black-crowned night heron eggs. Concentrations were highest in the northeastern estuaries. Vertical lines show the average values; enclosed bars show the limits within which 95 percent of the values are estimated to lie; horizontal lines show the complete range of.values, from low to high. Residues were consistently highest in areas where populations have declined. fresh wet weight). DDE exceeded 15 ppm only in 102 ppm in a sample from Rhode Island, and the samples from Long Island and Rhode Island. DDT highest average level in a clutch was 94 ppm in concentrations generally, were below 1 ppm, but samples from Boston Harbor. PCBs exceeded 25 measured 58 ppm in one egg from Long Island. The - ppm in samples from Manchester, Boston Harbor, highest level of dieldrinin a single egg was 7.8 ppm Rhode Island, Long Island, and the Detroit River. in a sample from Plymouth Bay, Mass.; the mean In six of the eight regions compared, shell thick- for that clutch was 6.7 ppm. Dieldrin exceeded 2 ness was significantly less in the 1972-3 samples ppm in samples from Martha's Vineyard, Mass., than in samples taken before the mid 1940's. The Rhode Island, and Long Island. Mirex (3.0 ppm) greatest decrease has been in New Jersey (10.6 per- was highest in a sample from South Carolina; it cent), Massachusetts (9.3 percent), and in New exceeded 1 ppm in two othler eggs from this locality. York, Rhode Island, and Connecticut combined Hexachlorobenzene was measurable in samples from (7.1 percent). The decline in eggshell thickness was Chappaquiddick, Mass. (the maximum, 0.48 ppm), significantly related to DDE contained in the eggs Manchester, Mass., Long Island, and western Lake (Fig. 12). Erie. The highest level of PCBs in a single egg was Patterns of chemical residue distribution are diffi- 68 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Black-crowned Night Heron Egg Residues Locality N MN 9 MI 7 , OH 3 i Manchester MA 18 Boston 12 Plymouth 9 M. Vineyard 17 RI 26 Gardiners Is. NY 15 Long Is. 19 NJ 14 MD -VA 12 - r NC 8 SC 9 : , : .- GA 6 Merritt is. .FL 9 Darling 5 Chassahowitza 5 St. Morks 11 I Atchafalaya LA 3 I Lacca sini 10 . Sabin e 16 I 11 1111 11111111 1 1111111 I II II llI1 .01 0.1 1.0 10 100 ppm PCB (tWet Weight) FIGURE 11.-PCBs in black-crowned night heron eggs. Concentrations were highest in the northeastern states, following the same pattern as DDE. cult to interpret because migratory birds that nest were higher, were recovered in Latin American coun- in a particular locality may have over-wintered in tries, showing that the higher residues in northern dissimilar areas. Also, some herons move northward birds should not be attributed to wintering in Latin after the nesting season, prior to migrating south- America (Table 3). ward. Some, however, remain along the Atlantic coast throughout the year, as far north as Maine. It has frequently been suggested that the greatest CONCLUSIONS pollution problems are in Latin America. The rela- tionship of residues of organochlorines in eggs to Bird populations should increase with the reduc- wintering areas was established by examination of tion of estuarine pollution. Improved conditions of all available recovery records of black-crowned night habitat and food suppl- 'will require reduction of herons that had been banded as (nestlings in eastern both chemical and non-chemical pollution. Improved North America. The records showed that fewer of survival and reproductiqn ;will require reduction of the birds from the northern coast, where residues organochlorine chemicals: Elimination of lead poi- LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 69 +10- r .-.431 Anonymous. 1971. Announcing-The blue list: An "early A warning system" for birds. American Birds 25(6) :948-989. Y=-1.57- 8.96X �� .9:* . --Anonymous. 1973. The blue list for 1974. American Birds ...� e e � 27(6) :943-945. � ' . . � * ' . '.: ' ' .Arbib, Robert. 1972. The blue list for 1973. American Birds , , :. * �:... 26(6) :932-933. . :... . -4. � Baskett, T. S. 1975. Mercury residues in breast muscles of ,....,,... ',"' '~~' � ' ~ wild ducks. Pestic. Monit. J. 9:67-78. e -10 . . *... �e * . a. . . .. . Belisle, A. A., W. L. Reichel, L. N. Locke; T. G. Lamont, - . . . ' B. M. Mulhern, R. M.. Prouty, R. B. DeWolf, and E. Cro- � � � � martie. 1972. Residue of organochldoribe pesticides, poly- 0 * - . .. chlorinated biphenyls, and mercury, and autopsy data for -20 - * * bald eagles, 1969 and 1970. Pestic. Monit. J. 6(3) :133-138. � ... Bellrose, R. C. 1959. Lead poisoning as a mortality factor in waterfowl populations. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 27(3) :235- 288. 1.0 2 .5 5.0 10.0 20.0 Bent, A. C. 1922. Life histories. of North American petrels, ppm DOE [wet weight) pelicans, and their allies. United States National Museum ....- . . - Bulletin 121. FIGURE 12.-Association of DDE residues in black-crowned night heron eggs with changes in shell thickness. Percentage Bent, A. C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh decrease in shell thickness relates to eggs collected prior to birds. United States National Museum Bulletin 135. DDT use. .-..... : D- ..;.. Blus, L. J. 1970. Measurements of brown pelican eggshells from Florida and South Carolina. BioScience 20:867-869. Table 3.-Wintering localities of black-crowned night herons that nest along Atlantic estuaries. Birds that nest in the north and have high residues in their Blus, L. J., A. A. Belisle, and R. M. Prouty. 1974. Relations eggs are recovered less frequently in Latin America, showing that the high of the brown pelican to certain environmental pollutants. residues should not be attributed to wintering in Latin America. Pestic. Monit. J. 7(3/4) :181-194. Location of Recovery - Blus, L. J., C. D. -Gish, A. A. Belisle, and R. M. Prouty. 1972. Logarithmic relationship of DDE residues to eggshell thin- Location of banding U.S.-Canada Lating. Nature 235(5338) :376-377. Americ ninE. Nature 235(5338):376-877. North Atlantic State~s' - --- ---------I -----147 13 160 Blus, L. J., C. S. Gish, A. A. Belisle, and R. M. Prouty. 1972b. Further analysis of the logarithmic relationship of DDE South Atlantic States'-2.~.~~..~~~. ~~~ 41 10U _ 51 residues to eggshell thinning. Nature 240:164-166. 188 23 211 Blus, L. J., R. G. Heath, C. D. Gish, A. A. Belisle, and R. M. Prouty. 1971. Eggshell thinning in the brown pelican: X New York to Massachusetts Implication of DDE. BioScience 21:1213-1215. 2 Florida to New Jersey a Significantly greater (P = 2.29) numbers than from birds banded in northern Blus, L. ., B S. Neely, Jr., A. A. Belisle, and . M. Prouty. 1974. Organochlorine residues in brown pelican eggs: Relation to reproductive success. Environ. Pollut. 7:81-91. soning of waterfowl will require the substitution of Bourne, W. R. P. 1974. Guillemots with damaged primary some less toxic metal, 'such as iron, in the manufac- feathers. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 5(6) :88-90. ture of shot-gun pellets. The ecological impact of most heavy metals on estuarine birds is unknown. Broley, C. L. 1958. The plight of the American bald eagle. Audubon Mag. 60(4):162-163. Burns, Kathryn A. and John M. Teal. 1971. Hydrocarbon REFERENCES incorporation into the salt marsh ecosystem from the West Falmouth oil spill. National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, COM-73-10419. p. 1-24. Abbott, J. M. 1973. Bald eagle nest survey 1973. Atl. Nat. 28(4) :158-159. , Crocker, A. D., J. Cronshaw, and W. N. Holmes. 1974. The effect of a crude oil on intestinal absorption in ducklings Ames, P. L. and G. S. Mersereau. 1964. Some factors in the (Anas platyrhynchos). Environ Pollut. 7(3) :165-177. decline of the osprey in Confiecticut. Auk 81(2) :173-185. Cromartie, E., W. L. Reichel, L. N. Locke, A. A. Belisle, T. E. Kaiser, T. G. Lamont, B. M. Mulhern, R. M. Prouty, Anderson, D. W. and J. J. Hi'dey. 1972. Eggshell changes in and D. M. Swineford. 1974. Residues of organochlorine certain North American birds. Proc. XVth Int. Ornithol. pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls and autopsy data Congr.:514-540. for bald eagles, 1971 and 1972. Pestic. Monit. J. In Press. 70 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Emerson, D. and M. Davenport. 1963. Profile of the osprey. Longcore, J. R. and B. M. Mulhern. 1973. Organochlorine Narragansett Nat. 6(2) :56-58. pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in black duck eggs from the United States and Canada-1971. Pestic. Monit. Faber, R. A. and J. J. Hickey. 1973. Eggshell thinning, J. 7(1):62-66. chlorinated hydrocarbons, and mercury in inland aquatic ' bird eggs, 1969 and 1970. Pestic. Monit. J. 7(1) :27-36. Longcore, J. R., F. B. Samson, and T. W. Whittendsle, Jr. 1971. DDE thins eggshells and lowers reproductive success Friend, M., M. A. Haegele, and R. Wilson. 1973. DDE: of captive black ducks. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. Interference with extra-renal salt excretion in the mallard. 6(6) :485-490. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 9(1) :49-53. Mills, Harlow B., William C. Starrett, and Frank C. Bellrose. Hartung, Rolf. 1963. Ingestion of oil by waterfowl. Pap. Mich. 1966. Man's effect on the fish and wildlife of the Illinois Acad. Sci., Arts Lett. 48:49-55. River. Illinois Natural History Survey Biological Notes No. 57. Hartung, Rolf. 1964. Some effects of oils on/waterfowl. PhD thesis, University of Michigan. Milstein, P. le S., I. Prestt, and A. A. Bell. 1970. The breeding cycle of the grey heron. Ardea 58:171-257. Hartung, Rolf. 1965. Some effects of oiling on reproduction of ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(4) :872-874. Mulhern, B. M., W. L. Reichel, L. N. Locke, T. G. Lamont, A. A. Belisle, E. Cromartie, G. E. Bagley, and R. Prouty. Hays, H. and R. W. Risebrough. 1972. Pollutant concentra- 1970. Organochlorine residues and autopsy data from bald tions in abnormal young terns from Long Island Sound. eagles 1966-1968. Pestic. Monit. J. 4(3):141-144. Auk 89:19-35. Palmer, R. S., editor. 1962. Handbook of North American Heath, R. G. and S. A. Hill. 1974. Nationwide organochlorine birds. Yale University Press, New Haven. and mercury residues in wings of adult mallards and black ducks during the 1969-70 hunting season. Pestic. Monit. J. 7(3/ loo ga16 . Peterson, R. T. 1969. Population trends of ospreys in the 7(3/4) :153-164. northeastern United States. Pages 333-337 in J. J. Hickey, ed. Peregrine falcon populations: Their biology and decline. Heinz, Gary. 1974. Effects of low dietary levels of methyl Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Madison. mercury on mallard reproduction. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 11(4) :386-392. Porter, R. D. and S. N. Wiemeyer. 1969. Dieldrin and DDT: Effects on sparrow hawk eggshells and reproduction. Science Henny, C. J. and J. C. Ogden. 1970. Estimated status of 165(3889):199-200. osprey populations in the United States. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1) :214-217. Prestt, Ian. 1970. Organochlorine pollution of rivers and the heron (Ardea cinerea L.). Papers and Proceedings, IUCN Hickey, J. J., editor. 1969. Peregrine falcon populations: Eleventh Technical Meeting, Vol. I. p. 95-101. Their biology and decline. Univ. Wisconsin Press, Madison. Rateliffe, D. A. 1967. Decrease in eggshell weight in certain birds of prey. Nature 215(5097) :208-210. Hickey, J. J. and D. W. Anderson. 1968. Chlorinated hydro- carbons and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish-eating Reichel, W. L, E. Cromartie, T. G. Lament, B. M. rulhern, birds. Science 162(3850):271-273. and R. M. Prouty. 1969. Pesticide residues in eagles. Pestic. Monit. J. 3(3):142-144. Jehl, J. R., Jr. 1973. Studies of a declining population of brown pelicans in northwestern Baja California. Condor Rhodes, L. I. 1972. Success of osprey nest structures at Martin 75:69-79. National Wildlife Refuge. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1296- 1299. Keith, J. O., L. A. Woods, Jr., and E. G. Hunt. 1970. Repro- ductive failure in brown pelicans on the Pacific Coast. Risebrough, R. W., F. C. Sibley, and M. N. Kirven. 1971. Trans. 35th N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf., 56-64. Reproductive failure of the brown pelican on Anacapa Island in 1969. Am. Birds 25(1) :8-9. Kleinert, S. J. and P. E. DeGurse. 1972. Mercury levels in Wisconsin fish and wildlife. Wise. Dep. Nat. Resour. Tech. Robards, F. C. and J. G. King. 1967. Nesting and produc- Bull. 52. tivity of bald eagles: Southeast Alaska-1966. U.S. Dep. Interior, BSF&W, Juneau, Alaska. Koeman, J. H., A. A. G. Oskamp, J. Veen, E. Brouwer, J. Rooth, P. Zwart, E. Van den Broek, and H. Van Genderen. Schmid, F. C. 1966. The status of the osprey in Cape May 1967. Insecticides as a factor in the mortality of the Sand- County, New Jersey between 1939 and 1963. Chesapeake wich tern (Sterna sandvicensis). Meded. Rijksfac. Land- Sci. 7(4):220-223. bouwwet. Gent. 32(3/4):841-854. Snyder, S. B., J. G. Fox, and O. A. Soave. 1973. Mortalities in waterfowl following Bunker C fuel exposure. Division Kopischke, Earl D. 1972. The effect of 2,4-D and diesel fuel of Laboratory Animal Medicine, Stanford Medical Center, on egg hatchability. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4) :1353-1356. Processed report. xxi + 27 p. Krantz, W. C., B. M. Mulhern, G. E. Bagley, A. Sprunt, IV, Sprunt, A., IV, W. B. Robertson, Jr., S. Postupalsky, R. J. F. J. Ligas, and W. B. Robertson, Jr. 1970. Organochlorine Hensel, C. E. Knoder, and F. J. Ligas. 1973. Comparative and heavy metal residues in bald eagle eggs. Pestic. Monit. productivity of six bald eagle populations. Trans. N. Am. J. 4(3):136-140. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 38:96-106. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 71 Wallace, G. J. 1969. Endangered and declining species of phenyls, and mercury in bald eagle eggs and changes in Michigan birds. The Jack-Pine Warbler 47(3):70-75. shell thickness-1969 and 1970. Pestic. Monit. J. 6(1) :50-55. Wiemeyer, S. N. 1971. Reproductive success of Potomac River ospreys-1971. Proc. N. Am. Osprey Res. Conf. Wiemeyer, S. N. and R. D. Porter. 1970. DDE thins eggshells In Press. of captive American kestrels. Nature 227(5259) :737-738. Wiemeyer S N P R. Spitzer, W. C. Krantz, T. G. Lamont, Wiemeyer, S. N., B. M. Mulhern, F. J. Ligas, R. J. Hensel, and E. dromairtie. 1974. Effects of environmental pollutants J. E. Mathisen, F. C. Robards, and S. Postupalsky. 1972. on Connecticut and Maryland ospreys. J. Wildl. Manage. Residues of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated bi- In Press. LU~~ ~~~~~~~�::::r::~::::~;i-: "~. ESTUARINE LAND USE MANAGEMENT: THE RELATIONSHIP OF AESTHETIC VALUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ROY MANN Roy Mann Associates, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts ABSTRACT Although advances in identification and management of aesthetic resources have been made possible through recent legislation and administrative guidelines dealing with the estuarine environment, new measures are needed if significant impacts on aesthetic resources and resulting effects on water quality are to be avoided. This paper recommends the adoption of expanded review responsibilities and standards on the part of federal and state agencies, and the creation of new funding elements to achieve improved estuarine aesthetic resource protection and manage- ment. INTRODUCTION The courts have often held aesthetics to be a secondary or peripheral issue, while recognizing Aesthetics has always been a hard word and diffi- health and safety as primary constitutional concerns cult concept for government. Until recently, scenic (Cerny, 1974). More recently, however, aesthetics or aesthetic resource protection often was more has been recognized as an economic consideration, notable by its absence than by its inclusion in legis- as in United Advertising Corporation v. Metuchen lation or administrative actions dealing with critical which found that "a discordant sight is as hard an coastal or estuarine concerns. The reasons for this economic fact as an annoying odor or sound."' In are generally four-fold: the noted case of Berman v. Parker the Supreme 1) unfamiliarity on the part of agency officials Court upheld the use of the power of eminent and planners with the subject of aesthetics; domain to achieve a more attractive community, 2) a traditional bias in systems-oriented planning stating that: "The concept of the public welfare is and engineering disciplines against aesthetic con- broad and inclusive. The values it represents are siderations and values as "soft" or "subjective" spiritual as well as physical, aesthetic as well as areas in contrast to such "hard" and "objective" monetary."2 areas as economic, biological, water quality, and In the future, hopefully, the courts should be ex- other factors more easily examined pected to increasingly support the recognition of systematic, and quantitative methods; aesthetics as a primary issue under the public wel- 3) a preference on the part of protection-conscious fare clause of the constitution If this happens, planners and legislators to achieve aesthetic protec- government at all levels will be able to better regu- tion under the guise of supposedly more legitimate late the appearance of natural and manmade re- objectives as recreation, ecological protection, shore sources in estuaries and their uplands. Government, cover retention, and public safety (as in flood plain however, must take the initiative in creating new and erosion zone prohibitions). legislation and administrative procedures to face the 4) a slowness of the courts to support government test of the courts. Now that full and open consideration of aesthetic alonstpre. rsucsoaettigondresources in the coastal zone has been legitimatized by the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, the As Cerny has pointed out (1974), the bulk of case lexicon of aesthetic resource management should law on aesthetics has been founded on the urban soon become more familiar to officials, planners and experience. Little has come from litigation dealing the public. Bias against aesthetic value determina- with non-urban resources, although the latter of tions should disappear, as criteria, standards, and course has been the subject of considerable attention in terms of health, hazard, and resource utilization. 2348 u.s. 26, 99 LEd. 27, 75 S.Ct. 98 (1954) 73 74 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL methods for accomplishing them come into accepted integrity of a foreshore, or waterfront high-rise use. Aesthetic resource protection and management buildings which are architecturally styled without will surely become recognized by the courts inde- recognition of the inherent qualities of the estuarine pendent of, although reinforced with, other legiti- zone within which they are placed. mate coastal zone concerns. Landscape management is a broad term which It is the intent of this paper, however, to demon- may be used to correlate four interdependent strate that new approaches and measures may be activities affecting estuarine or coastal zone aesthetic needed to ensure timely and effective achievement resources: of public aesthetic objectives in the coastal zone. Before proceeding further, a review of several 1) land use planning, including capability and pertinent definitions will help place the discussion area use priorities; in proper focus. The estuarine zone, with which we 2) site selection for development or conservation are directly concerned here, is defined under Section purposes; 104(n) (4) of the Water Quality Pollution Control 3) site planning of land modifications or facility Act Amendments of 1972 as an "environmental sys- development; tem consisting of an estuary and those transitionareas 4) architectural and landscape design. which are consistently influenced or affected by Each of the above four categores relates signifi- water from an estuary such as, but not limited to cantly to the wise management, protectien, and use salt marshes, coastal or intertidal areas, bays, har- of the estuarine and coastal landscape. bors...." Although the terms "transition areas" Resource priorities are the best purposes to which and "coastal... areas" may be broadly interpreted land and water resources may be put under the as extending considerable distances into adjacent wisest use rinciple. The full range of terms isem- upland, it is unlikely that "estuarine zone" under ployed in the Coastal one angement-Act: the present writing of the Act can be interpreted to preservation, protection, restoration, enhancement, extend to the full view of estuary-related aesthetic utilization, and development resources, that is, to inland coastal zone horizons One hitherto under-recognized fact is that aes- removed from consistent influence by estuarine One hitherto under-recognized fact is that aes- removed from consistent influence by estuarine thetic resources, under the definitions reviewed here, waters. pertain to all observable manifestations of estuarine The coastal zone, as defined under Section 304(a) or coastal physical resources, not simply to "scenic" of the Coastal Zone Management Act can be con- resources alone. The shift from scenic protec- sidered a more extensive entity, comprising coastal tion to aesthetic management implies a greater con- tion to aesthetic management implies a greater con- waters and adjacent shorelands "strongly influenced cern for the common or ordinary landscape, with by each other and in proximity to the shorelines." which most people are in contact most of the time. The zone "extends inland fromver, with the call fshor standards and criteria to the extent necessary to control shorelands, the under both the new federal legislation and growing uses of which have a direct and significant impact on state legislation, emphasis is increasingly on the coastal waters." Under this definition, virtually all need for aesthetic protection, maintenance, or en- coastal watersheds may be included, on the premise hancement in all actions. Whether a physical re- that runoff and water-borne pollutants and suspended source is altered for conservation-education activity, materials influence coastal waters. In many instances, for dense residential-marina development, or for coastal watershed divides also effectively define the large-scale facility construction, the same principle limits of aesthetic resources associated with the emerges: maximum maintenance or protection of coastal zone, although other topographic boundaries are often needed to delineate themappearance quality, i.e. safeguards even with de- Estar ine often ne aesthetic resourcesate features of velopment. The same principle is intended for al- ready altered or degraded resource areas; restoration estuaries and coastal lands which possess attention- and enhancemet planning is specifically called for arresting perceivable values. Intangible attributes in the CZMA, as is attention to potential, as well as may also be apparent and often strengthen the value existing coastal zone resources. of the resource. For example, common knowledge that marshes are essential to the estuarine food web and that they are endangered by man's activities AESTHETIC RESOURCES AND adds to the aesthetic esteem in which marshes are THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THEM held by the observer. Negative aesthetic factors are The aesthetic resource jroblem in the estuarine or elements which diminish the landscape value of coastalzoneistwo-fold: these resources: debris which mars a water surface, land fill encroachment which disrupts the visual a) identifying and evaluating valuable aesthetic LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 75 resources and deciding what may be done to maxi- searchers to date in assessing public opinion about mize their preservation and wisest use, aesthetic values, the fact that preferences vary b) identifying negative aesthetic factors and what frequently according to all these conditions makes may be done to restore the landscape-waterscape to their validity problematic as a base for public long- its fullest aesthetic potent "al. term land and water resource use policy. Furthermore, in light of the new status of all aesthetics in the coastal zone, the ordinary landscape The Aesthetic Resource Base will require careful attention along with the out- standing scenic assets or issue areas. The ordinary Figure 1 presents a condensed analysis of four landscape will seldom be ranked high in preference aesthetic resources of the estuarine zone, selected analysis, yet it is the landscape which is most attributes, and managerial and institutional im- frequented by people, and where many of their plications. It should be stressed that aesthetic re- aesthetic and recreational interests and satisfactions sources can be more accurately understood as are being met. With time and the greater concentra- aesthetic attributes of all perceivable resources. tion of population in the coastal zone, the ordinary The following selected resource descriptions will landscape will become increasingly important. demonstrate this. Qijen waters, offshore and estuarine, have im- portant aesthetic attributes. Ocean and other off- Problems and Impact Factors shore waters possess dramatic aesthetic value where a sea-sky horizon can be perceived without interrup- GENERAL CONFLICTS BETWEEN tion. Broad estuarine waters share some aesthetic NATURAL RESOURCE AESTHETICS qualities with offshore waters. Natural islands falling AND DEVELOPMENT within view may enhance the overall aesthetic, creating even greater visual drama, but artifical A careful distinction must be made between de- islands, offshore platforms) dredging and drill ships, sign quality and aesthetic comparability of man- and other point elements may diminish this view, in made modifications of land and water resources. A proportion to their randomness and proximity to modification of the terrain (e.g. a power plant, a shore. marina, a new town) may achieve a high degree of Estuarine foreshores and related edges possess design quality when examined independently of the many unique and uncommon visual characteristics. surrounding environment, but may fail to achieve The "sea-of-grain" qualities of broad marshes of aesthetic compatibility with the environment in one salt-marsh cordgrass or sawgrass and the flickering or more ways. The development may have been of breezes across the high marsh grasses are well- sited poorly in relation to the water's edge or to known features to even distant passers-by. Visual scenic background-instances of visual incompati- microcosms are also of aesthetic importance to both bilities. Or the development mnay have intruded serious and casual students of the marsh: the rushing into the last remaining unaltered reach of a coast- of a tide through a narrow inlet, or the fishing of line-an example which depicts incompatibility waterfowl for crustaceans, the nesting and feeding with visual as well as intangible aesthetic resources characteristics of all marsh wildlife. (the latter including the interest in wilderness or Nevertheless, attitudes toward marsh aesthetics, rurality and a respite from the urban environment). as toward all estuarine aesthetic resources, vary Aesthetic compatibility, is high, obviously, when considerably according to place of residence, oc- incompatibilities are avoided, either wholly, or to cupation, income, recreational preferences, age, edu- the maximum degree. The term aesthetic resource cation, sympathy with the conservation ethic, and protection can be said to mean the minimization or even the day of the week or season-in short, on all prevention of aesthetic imcompatibilities. the socio-economic and cultural factors that help To a degree, therefore, aesthetic resource protec- determine attitudes and preferences of people tion can be considered a preservationist mechanism. towards all environmental values. Standing opposite The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act is one example each other, to see it simply, are the foreshore de- of legislation to prevent incompatible alterations veloper and the estuary preservationist. All others to the nation's aesthetic resources. But aesthetic may stand somewhere between these two poles. resource protection is not exclusively an instrument Analysis of these individual preferences, however, for preservation. Employed in a management sense, will not necessarily contribute to a firmer under- protection of the environment against aesthetic standing of actions needed in the estuarine or coastal incompatibilites can be operative at every level of zone. Aside from the difficulty experienced by re- activity between preservation and intensive de- r--(Selected)--I .. Resource . Visual Intangible Managerial 'Institutional Type Attribute(s) Attribute(s) Implications ' implications beach -sand qualities -molding by sea --exclusion- or -town exclusionary -forms energy regulation of - use vs. open public TM~~Ffi A<<>< :l ' f '-sweep -primordial state,. structures ' - ' use-(visual access) geological -debris, trash, dune' -public use of record buggy regulation �- private beaches - user-capacity ., . : -maintenance funding determinations 6 - inch_ riverbank -landform -order given to -bank. erosion pro-' -conciliation of split configuration -rural,'and urban tection :urisdictions over - . -vegetative land use A : -vegdetative eedge - riverbank areas characteristics -natural corridor:- pirotection -administration of -space/closure provides physcho- --clearance and. :. public access and patterns logical linkage planting 'management", access acquisition to both source -urban area rehabili- region and sea ,. tation bluff -landform face -impressiveness -::-exclusion or regu- -development of -crest patterns -sense 'of geo- lation of use on or 'legislative and. -height 'logical process, near-crest and face administrative -sense of hazard : -cautionary use of regulation of erosion protection bluff areas .~_~.:_Maestri~ � ' ' ' -: ' measures tidal -vegetative- -sense of (urban)' .prohibition of -development of .marsh --infrastructures endangerment .- dredging, filling legislative and - seasonal- change -sense of sig- '-regulation of' administrative ?-jI ; -wind imprints nificance in. -permitted, compatible 'regulation of -ti'dal changes estuarine eco-,. use . marsh areas Fr . - phi" system - - - ' FIGURE 1.--Selected aesthetic resource and problem definitions. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 77 velopment. In practice, aesthetic resource manage- powers to secure appropriate siting and design within ment has often been meshed with other environmen- the overall site. tal management considerations, from public policies and guidelines for land use and development de- MARINA DEVELOPMENT cisions to state land use zoning (e.g. Hawaii), shoreland zoning ordinances (e.g. Wisconsin, Min- The aesthetic impacts of boating facilities in nesota), shoreline appearance and design regulations estuarine zones are complicated. On the one hand, (e.g. California), and strong land-use controls most boats are of great aesthetic interest, since they (e.g. Vermont, Maine). constitute functional design responses to the chal- With the above background distinctions in mind, lenges of moving on water. They are also generally the following conflicts should be recognized as being colorful, sometimes powerful, and always part of a of prime importance in the coastal or estuarine fascinating tradition that began with two of man- environment. kind's earliest livelihoods: fishing and navigation. On the other hand, the congestion in large marinas, exposed repair and storage structures, and parking RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT areas may constitute negative aesthetic factors to many people, including boaters. The preemption of Population growth, adequate disposable incomes, marshes or of water surfaces and shorelines in small increased- interest in water-related recreation, and estuarine areas may also damage the aesthetic value in seasonal or second-home acquisition have re- of such areas in the view of conservation-interested suited in enormous pressures for waterfront resi- users. Outboard engine noise has also been considered dential development in estuarine zones of the United offensive by many. Certain recreational conflicts, States. In Florida, and elsewhere, marshes and such as that between power and sail users, can also intertidal flats have been dredged and filled to be considered an aesthetic concern. create finger canal communities, resulting in severe damage to estuarine ecosystems, as well as significant COMMERCIAL PORTS AND MINERAL EXTRACTION aesthetic impact. In other areas of the estuarine or coastal zone Commercial navigation and ports also create densely set seasonal homes with insufficient sideyards mixed aesthetic impacts. Ships and dock facilities block views to the water and present walls of monot- arouse the interest of most people. Yet the total ony. Condominium, multiple unit, and cluster image of ports and port-related industry to users in development typically achieve better standards of the distance may not impart a sense of high aesthetic design and improved site layout than row develop- value. Very large crude carriers (VLCC's, or ment or tract housing, but also elevate densities and "supertankers") may be impressive as a design the impression of intrusion to suburban or near-urban aesthetic, but viewing them may also trigger nega- levels. In most cases public access to beach, bluff, or tive intangible reactions related to anticipations of water edges is precluded or greatly diminished with possible collisions and oil spills. a concomitant reduction in the public enjoyment Most port areas also have large warehousing, open or utilization of these aesthetic resources. depot, and sprawled service and equipment storage Bluff-top development often diminishes shoreline facilities which possess little of the interest that aesthetic value, since user desires to view water and characterizes the ships and docksides. Floating shoreline from the bluff are frustrated, as may be debris, polluted water, deteriorated wooden piers, the desires of users below the bluff or across the blighted waterfront commercial buildings, and water to view natural scenic heights and skyline. unattractive land uses that are unrelated to the Development on sand dunes, interdunal areas, water (e.g. scrapyards, utilities, parking lots) also and barrier beaches seriously reduces the aesthetic are present in many port-industrial waterfronts. value of beach and dune resources for even distant Mineral extraction presents an aesthetic concern users, since one key aesthetic criterion of such sys- to the extent that this activity exposes structures tems is the magnitud e of their uninterrupted and activities to view along non-industrial shores. "sweep" away towards the long-shore horizon.' The The present direction of Outer Continental Shelf and unique geometry of windformed dunes is also lost shore-area oil exploration, extraction, transfer, under development. The general answers to all land and processing may create intense conflicts with estu- and water use problems are two-fold: greater exer- arine aesthetic resources if caution is not exercised cise of powers to prevent the siting of development in preventing undesirable offshore or onshore pat- in sensitive estuarine Areas, and greater exercise of terns along scenic coasts. 78 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL URBAN CENTERS for coastal and estuarine access opportunities is the growth in the numbers of saltwater anglers in the High-rise urban development may introduce into U.S., up from approximately 8.3 million in 1965 to estuarine zones and coastal areas a number of aesthe- 9.5 million in 1970 and projected to as high as 29 tic effects other than those originating in density million in the year 2000 (Deuel, 1973). and land usage as such. Height, the principal visual All of the above described recreational access attribute, can be perceived by the viewer as a interests also possess aesthetic implications, in domihance of the structure over the surrounding terms of the visual quality of access points' and landscape. The higher the building, the greater the appurtenant facilities, of actual or potential user dominance, generally. Impact may be modified by congestion, or of the land usage barriers which block such factors as proximity to (or setback from) the effective access. shoreline or other vital user locations, degree of urbanization of the surrounding landscape, elevation of the site above surrounding terrain, building mass UTILITIES and exterior architecture, color, texture, and re- flectivity of exterior materials, and masking vegeta- Power plants, because of their physical size, in- tion and landforms. In shore areas of particularly dustrial appearance and unattractive edge qualities important scenic value, it is generally necessary to (e.g., high fencing, oil tanks, coal stockpiles, and exclude all prominent buildings or to keep the tops of equipment depots) areoften aesthetically displeasing buildings close to or within the vegetational canopy to large numbers of people. In the case of nuclear if dimunition of the existing aesthetic value is to be power facilities, safety questions can also be pre- avoided, sumed to adversely affect community attitudes Adverse community reaction to planned or com- concerning aesthetic fitness, apart from stimulating pleted high-rise projects on coastal margins can opposition on the grounds of hazard alone. In many be interpreted to be largely an expression of opposi- cases, cooling towers and their condensate plumes tion to the anticipated dominance of the project have been identified as negative aesthetic factors, as over the landscape, as well as to the presumed have been dredge and fill activities associated with preemption of public view-space by a small group of site development or cooling water processes. privileged users. The subordination of the Hudson River Palisades by high-rise apartment construc- LAND AND A RANPORTATION tion has prompted public reaction on both accounts. The unsuccessful 1972 San Francisco referendum bid to bring a halt to further high-rise construction Highways, railroads, bridges, causeways, and is another example of strong public concern on this parkin facilities have major aesthetic impacts upon issue. estuarine/coastal zones because of their size, linear encompassment or traversement of horizon or open areas, and vehicular effects (noise, motion, and PUBLIC ACCESS AND RECREATIONAL SHORELINES exhaust fumes). Some of these impacts may be benign, if not bene- The fact that recreational shoreline is severely ficial: awell-designed bridge span over a river mouth, limited indicates the lack of satisfaction many coastal for example. But many other instances are often zone or estuarine users presumably feel as they seek judged detrimental, particularly where new facilities out viewing or recreational access to the water, are introduced into sensitive or vital estuarine areas Public viewing points on coastal and estuarine shores in a natural state. are in short supply, while private ownership and Public transportation to shore points is an under- development mask many scenic vistas and other utilized alternative which may offer important an- aesthetic resources. swers in the future in decreasing vehicular conges- Public shoreline recreational facilities resolve the tion, suburban sprawl, and related impacts in lack of access, but may be afflicted with congestion estuarine uplands. by numbers of people that exceed the capacity of Airports likewise have mixed aesthetic effects. the resource to support them. Moreover, as the Jet take-offs and general aircraft activity may be Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission visually exciting, even spectacular to the observer. ably pointed out in 1962, the demand for beach and On the other hand, the airport itself may appear other shore recreation facilities is highest in proxim- visually dull to the observer from an opposite shore, ity to urban centers, where supply is most often or on the land side of the faeility. Aircraft noise and lowest. An indication of the intensity of the demand jet exhausts, airport structure visual qualities, and LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 79 airport expansion on filled marshes or mudflats may playing poor site planning; and d) sub-standard de- also elicit strong negative visual or intangible sign, i.e., in which development is characterized responses. by poor architectural'design quality. 9) Although some aesthetic regulation has been validated by court test cases, other questions of constitutionality have not yet been resolved. Tihe resource and impact definitions discussed 10) Permit and project review systems have not absolutely prevented development in coastal/estu- above suggest a summary of related managerial issuesas follows: arine zones. Whether the institutions responsible issues as follows:. fbr administering these systems will allow large aggregate development will'only be known in time 1) Aesthetic resources and values of estuarine and aggregate dvelpment wilonly be known in time coastal zones have not been well understood or systematically evaluated by the professional or. by the public as a whole. - Recommendations for improved estuarine zone landscape; management outlined below will be 2) Planning tools for surveying, ,inventorying, adresse to the above-definedproblems and evaluating estuarine/coastal aesthetic resources need to be- more carefully, explored and used, Direc- tion and, guidance for these are needed from federal PREVIOUS AND CURRENT and state agencies with responsibilities for coastal/ GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS estuarine management. . i - 3) Aesthetic resources and values may be perceiv- To date, a number of key federal and state pro- able (visual, auditory, or olfactory) or intangible. grams have established important measures or The latter is essentially an observer response to frameworks for dealing with the esuarne and social, cultural, economic, or physical factors which coastal landscape. affect his or her conceptualization of the resources or values concerned. . :. -Federal Programs 4) Important aesthetic resources of the estuarine/ coastal zone include some that are specific and The Water Resource Planning Act of 1965 pro- unique to vital or critical areas and some that are vided for consideration of aesthetic factors in com- common or ordinary within either the estuarine or prehensive water and related land resource planning. upland landscapes. The intangible or psychological Principles and Standards issued by the Water importance of the estuarine/coastal zone elevates Resources Council (1973) under the Act detailed a both beneficial or adverse aesthetic effects to a level number of criteria for weighing aesthetic values but of significance. did not provide guidance on appearance and design 5) Impacts may be effects on specific aesthetic of facilities in resource areas that are marked for resources (e.g. a power plant marring a scenic vista) development or on restoration and enhancement or effects on the general estuarine resource (e.g. a questions. power plant not marring any horizon or foreground, The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 but objectionable on the basis of the project design's provided for the identification and consideration of effect on the overall aesthetic value of the estuary). aesthetic values that might be beneficially or ad- 6) The magnitude of an aesthetic impact and versely affected by actions undertaken by or under whether it can be considered negative or beneficial the aegis of the Federal government. The require- or both will depend largely on the degree to which the ments for identification and evaluation of both observed area is urbanized-or conversely, retained direct and indirect effects of the proposed action, in anaturalstate. ' for consideration of measures that might mitigate 7) Even within highlymodified or urbanized areas, adverse effects, and for weighing all feasible alterna- however, objects or activities which are aesthetically tives provide an incentive to project planners to ex- displeasing may still not be exempted from observer ercise greater care for aesthetic values in early plan- disapproval. ning stages and a lever for adjustment under public 8) Aesthetic incompatibilities may be a ) endemic, criticism in the post-planning stages. NEPA, how- i.e., spread throughout.the estuarine/coastal region, ever, does not provide for set criteria or standards much as unregulated:,seond-home and recreational- that would predetermine project site selection, seasonal housing spread; b) intrusive, i.e., created by planning, or design. Each project is evaluated on a the introduction of noii-"'fitting" developments into case by case basis. local or specific resources; c) site abusive, i.e., dis- The Coastal-:Zone Management Act of 1972 80 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL expressed "a national interest in the effective man- by the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering agement, beneficial use, protection, and development and Resources (the Stratton Commission) in 1970. of the coastal zone." The coastal states are encour- Because of this omission, it may be difficult to en- aged and assisted to define and to propose means of courage large-scale facility or large private tde- control over permissible land and water uses in the velopers to provide for scenic-aesthetic or recrea- coastal zone and to give full consideration to aesthe- tional access joint objectives. tic as well as other values in the development and The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 implementation of management programs. The provides for potential beneficial aesthetic impact on Office of Coastal Zone Management, in the National estuarine waters. Many of the quality standards Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, is ex- required by the Act (relative to color, turbidity, pected to see that state Section 305 management floating solids, debris, oil film, odor) are in essence plans 'contain unified policies, criteria, standards, aesthetic quality standards and are at least as great methods, and processes that are adequate to deal a matter of concern to the public as the Act's with "land and water use decisions of more than strictly biological and safety standards. local significance" prior to continuing CZMA grant To secure desired water quality objec'tives, the assistance. Act and its 1972 Amendments provide for a number Under the Act, and with the guidance of OCZM, of measures designed to affect land use manageirient, constructive and specific new actions may be antici- particularly under Section 208 of the Act. The level pated on the part of the states to acquire and regu- of future growth that an area can accept and land late land and water resources of aesthetic impor- use densities may thus be adjusted, at least in theory, tance. Appearance and design regulations, permit with consequent possible aesthetic benefits. procedures, comprehensive planning, and protective Under the Act, the Corps of Engineers iq required local and state zoning will play important roles, The to apply EPA criteria in the disposal of dredge spoil CZMA, however, is permissive in nature, and will in navigable waters. Although adverse aesthetic be effective in improving individual states' policies impacts might be avoided indirectly by this re- towards aesthetic resource management only to the quirement, there is no direct attempt to guide the degree that the states are willing to adopt new Corps on aesthetic resource protection related to measures within their political and legislative spoil disposal. systems. . Section 201(f) of the Act provides for multiple The CZMA provision, under Section 306(c) (8), use for open space and recreational purposes of lands for adequate consideration of the "national interest" and easements acquired for waste treatment facilities in the siting of facilities "other than local in nature" and sewers. However, the selection of flood plains or was included in the Act ostensibly to satisfy mis- foreshores is not specifically excluded under the Act; givings of the electric power industry. But the the aesthetic impact of utility construction in such fortunate ambiguity of this clause should offer an resource areas can be considerable. opportunity for subjecting all large-scale facilities The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934, that are proposed for coastal zone locations to all the as amended, provides the basis for comment to the site selection, site planning, and design criteria en- Corps of Engineers on project permit applications, couraged by the Act, rather than exempting such by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National facilities from them. Which direction will be taken Marine Fisheries Service, and the state in which the will be seen only with time. project is funded. The Fish and Wildlife Service Section 306 administrative grants to the coastal issued guidelines in August 1974 to aid agency states will, of course, be central to the effectiveness personnel in reviewing applications for Corps of the Act. It may be predicted that a large part of permits. Here too, consideration, of aesthetic re- Section 306 funds will be used for acquisition pur- source protection is indirect, at best, even though poses, but it can only be speculated how much will maintenance of high visual' quality in marsh and be earmarked for "restoration and enhancement" estuarine environments can be considered significant purposes. Acquisition (fee title or scenic/access to the satisfactions of angler and hunter. easements) of presently undeveloped scenic areas is The Housing and Urban Community Develop- vitally necessary, but restoration and enhancement ment Act of 1974 will provide block grants to states efforts are in many areas no less urgent, particularly and communities for community and regional plan- where ill-planned development has already adversely ning and development purposes. No specific guide- affected aesthetic values. .lines, criteria, or standards for' waterfront develop- Another weakness of the Act is its omission of -ment, rehabilitation, restoration, or enhancement directives to specifically consider, multiple-use of are provided. The Act, as has the Housing Act since resources in the coastal zone, a concern recommended its initial passage, thus only weakly addresses the LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 81 need to distinguish development and redevelopment little state legislation exists which provides more areas on estuarine zone and urban waterfront lands significant guidance on waterfront aesthetics than from other urban areas. the minimal provisions of the Housing and Urban Community Development Act. State Programs RECOMMENDATIONS Recent legislative and administrative actions taken by the coastal states relative to aesthetic re- The character of estuarine and coastal aesthetic sources and impacts are diverse and in many cases resources, impact factors, planning and management highly'significant. Setback and frontage tree cover requirements, and shortcomings of existing legisla- requirements are included in the shoreland zoning tion point to the need for improvements in the ordinances of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Appearance following areas of estuarine landscape management and design regulatiois are presentlyrbeing developed concern: by California and'its' six regional coastal zone con- servation c6mniissions. Washington's shor6elinb' po- tecti6n legislation 'proides fo' the development of Land Use Planning/Area county policies and regulations (Whatcom: County Use Priorities; Planning Commission, '1972). The state zoning of Hawaii and'the strong land use control legislation of 1) A national policy -and program is needed for Vermont and Maine also are producing 'generally preservation of significant estuarine and coastal beneficial aesthetic impacts. landscapes that express their highest aesthetic, If the current programs of the coastal states were cultural, or historic value in their present state and assessed, it would appear that the're is a definite trend are not adequately protected under existing legisla- towards greater use of shoreline regulations, with an tion. Where states have not adopted legislation to emphasis on permit and approval procedures, some preserve or adequately conserve significant wetlands, emphasis on state-wide zoning, and little emphasis bluffs, islands, beaches, headlands, and other im- on acquisition. portant natural aesthetic resources; the Federal Since all televant federal legislation depends to one government should be empowered to consider direct degree or another on state programs for effectuation, action to protect them. it may be observed that some states may meet or ex- 2) The EPA should develop detailed aesthetic ceed expectations implicit in national legislation if criteria in review of discharge effects under the this trend solidifies. On the other hand, permit and Pollutant Discharge Elimination System so that it approval frameworks provide only partial, rather can better respond to visible water quality param- than absolute, protection to resource areas. The eters as well as invisible parameters which in- degree of effective area protection will depend on the directly affect estuarine aesthetic quality. degree to which permit applications are denied; even 3) Both the federal and state levels should be a low percentage of approvals can result in significant assigned specific responsibilities for aesthetic review incremental urbanization' of a presently natural area in connection with the Corps of Engineers permit in time. The degree of effective site planning and program, either under new amendment to the Fish design management, however, will be dependent on and Wildlife Coordination Act, or under new legisla- the degree to which permit approval conditions, tion. building codes, zoning ordinances, and related tools 4) New legislation is needed to express the na- are refined to reflect aesthetic resource protection tional interest in the protection and management needs, under any'management system. of aesthetic resources on a par with the national Both the CZMA and the anticipated national interest in other resources such as water, air, and land use policy legislation, 'the former with regard to land. The new legislation should assign primary "areas of particular conicern" and the latter with coordinating responsibility to a single lead federal respect to "critical environmental areas," urge the agency. Serious consideration should be given to states to adopt measures for the protection of naming the National Park Service to this post with unique areas, but there is no assurance that:these will an appropriate new congressional mandate. constitute large proportions of the estuarine/coastal 5) New policies and compensatory mechanisms zone, or that they 'iwill' constitute preservation- are needed to enable states to retain whole areas at priority areas ratherV 'than conservation-with-tole'- given levels of development or at no-growth. In some able-development areas. parts of some states, such areas may be regional in With regard to development within urban areas, character. Although the difficulties are severe, the 82 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL needs exist, if a diversity in coastal landscapes is to be enhancement points to the desirability of independ-' maintained. ent and earmarked program elements. 3) Provision should be made for further research, consideration, and adoption of landscape assessment, Site Selection site planning, and design criteria'and standards for the estuarine and coastal zone. Criteria and stand- 1) Legislation governing the selection of sites for ards for the management of aesthetic resources large-scale facilities should be amended to require which are of national interest should be granted specific consideration of alternate locations situated highest priority in federal, federal-state, and local inland of all significant estuarine landscapes, particu- programs. Further research and development of larly those which also possess important ecological methods for inventorying and evaluating aesthetic or cultural characteristics. resources should also be conducted: Federal programs 2) Federal legislation governing estuarine sanctu- should guide the states more specifically in develop- aries should be amended to provide for the acquisi- ing appearance and design guideliies, criteria, and tion or other protection of estuarine as well as re- standards to include variable setback and height lated upland areas of significant aesthetic, as well as- ontrols (var to relate tattography, shore con- scientific and educational, value. ' figuraton, and. other aesthetic considerations), 3) Under the CZMA, states should institute multiple-use concepts (use of utility and other facil- conditional permitting based on site planning and ity edges), aesthetic zone priorities (adjustment of design performance standards, for designated per- siting and design standards in relation ti the in-. missible uses. trinsic wildness or urbanization of a' given i''ource - area), and other concerns. Site Planning and FedeaI and stat6 aithorities 'with juirisdictidf Sitc Planning and Design over the siting and design of offshore struc'tures and artificial 'islands should: be 'encouraged through 1) Federal legislation governing housing, urban, legislatie amendment legislative amendment to 'develop suitable appear- community, and rural development should be tdd f hfcilits amended to require the adoption of guidelines, ans orsuc criteria, and standards for development, redevelop- ment, and rehabilitation of areas in proximity to REFERENCES waterfronts. Such legislative changes would relate to inland riverine as well as to estuarine zone lands. Cerny, J. W. 1974. Scenic Analysis and Assessment. In: Critical Reviews In Environmental Control. Chemical River corridor and estuarine zone boundaries should Rubber Company. be delineated within existing jurisdictions, urban and non-urban, to demarcate the areas within which Deuel, David G. 1973. The 1970 Salt-Water Angling Survey. the waterfront related provisions would apply. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Current Fishery Statistics. No. 6200. 2) Substantial funding for waterfront related re- habilitation, as well as for restoration and enhance- Principles and Standards for Planning Water and Related ment of natural or semi-developed areas within the Land Resources. Fed. Reg., Vol. 38. No. 174, Sept. 10, estuarine/coastal zone should be appropriated under 1973. U.S. Water Resources Council. government programs specifically earmarked for Whatcom County Planning Commission. December 1972. this purpose. Funding for these needs could be ag- Shoreline Inventory. Whatcom County, Wash. gregated with HUCDA block grants and CZMA Section 306 administrative grants, but the need for Aesthetic Resociates, Inc. March 1Z975. A Handbook on Aesthetic Resources in the Coastal Zone, Draft. National significant action in rehabilitationi, restoration, and Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. * . - Z ~0 ii; , I' ] , , , ~ -! , -,.l';J '.! RECREATION ACTIVITIES IN THE NATION'S ESTUARINE ZONE ROBERT J. KALTER Cornell University Ithaca, New York ABSTRACT Determinants of recreation activity are discusse'd and justification for the provision of recreation services by the public sector outlined. After reviewing the availability of data and other studies pertaining to recreational use, projections of recreation demand are made for selected activities. Economic imodels based upon a 1972 national recreation survey serve as the basis for this effort. The implication of these forecasts for the nation's estuarine areas is evaluated and policy recom- mendations, based on this analysis, are provided. INTRODFCTION ' :-:: - : tion by the private sector will often emphasize short term monetary returns at the expense of long run Significant portions of the nation's outdoor recrea- environmental or social considerations. Third, so- tional activity are either water based or water re- ciety's preferences with regard to considerations like lated. The latest National Recreation Survey found environmental quality may not be profitable for the that over 38 percent of total outdoor recreational private sector to provide. Consequently, govern- hours in the summer of 1972 were spent participating ments may be called upon to correct the situation. in water related activities (see Table 1). As a result, However, when public action to correct private recreation has become a major use of our nation's market failure means public provision, the self- water resources. balancing of supply and demand provided by the A substantial portion of the water area available private market is largely lost. Price incentives are for recreation is encompassed by the estuarine zone. weakened and, as a result, information feedback to Moreover, the location of the zone in relation to governmental decisionmakers is curtailed. Without major population centers has made it an increasingly information, public recreational programs may be valuable resource. Yet, 59 percent of the area, ex- no more responsive to social demands than the cluding Alaska, remains undeveloped and over 70 private market alternative. percent resides in private ownership. About 25 per- As a consequence, if public intervention is to cent is currently used for recreation (U.S. Depart- provide results which are socially more optimal than ment of the Interior, 1973). This is one reason the those obtained under conditions of non-intervention, nation's estuarine areas have become an important public decisionmakers require an adequate informa- consideration for public policy. Preservation of un- tion base and the appropriate utilization of that developed portions of this resource for future recrea- base for analytical purposes. Unfortunately, histori- tional use will require public action. The extent and cal data relevant to the estuarine zone-recreation mechanism for such action must be decided in the interface is almost nonexistent except for a few political arena. - geographic areas. Consequently, any analysis of the But why public and not private action in allocating problems and possibilities from a national viewpoint the use of a resource like our estuarine areas? A starts from a decided disadvantage. On the other number of factors are involved. We will review only hand, the literature on recreation economics has several of the principal features. First, because access continued to develop a sound methodological frame- to natural areas by the public is often difficult to work for public policy analysis (Kalter, 1971) and control (at cost acceptable to a profit making en- the data base of national recreation statistics has terprise), public provision and control may be re- continued to improve. From this background, im- quired. Difficulty in extracting a price for the use of portant factors determining recreational activity, some areas like estuaries has often discouraged both in general and for specific areas like estuaries, private sector action to develop or preserve. Second, can be adjudged. A discussion of these factors will because of the profit making motive, resource alloca- be the initial task of this paper. Then, available 83 84 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table I.-Percent of national recreation survey who participated, estimated Recreation demand DDI exhibits the normal in- total U.S. participation, average hours of participation, and estimated total hours of U.S. participation by water related activity in the summer quarter verse relationship between price and quantity (all of 1972' other factors taken as given). When recreation facili- ties are publicly provided and admission fees are Percent of NRS Estimated total U. S. Activity respondents who participation administratively determined, however, the average participated (millions of act. days) price, P, to a group of participants can remain stable during any given period of time. Since supply is also Other Swimming Outdoor (Non-Pool) . 34 487.1* publicly provided and the quantity available during Fishing .-.._. ...... . 24 278.2* a given period depends on budget considerations, Pool swimming - ---------------.-- 18 257.0* the recreation supply function can be shown as Nature walks -------------------. 17 148.9 Other boating -------------------- 15 126.1 inelastic with respect to price. Thus, if public in- Water skiing 5..... 5 -54.1 formation is accurate and budget decisions are Canoeing- -- --------------------. 3 18.3 responsive; market clearing can take place. The Sailing 32.5 supply function SS reflects this somewhat fortuitous Estimatedtotal hours circumstance. On the other hand, if government Activity Average hours of U. S. participation ' of participation (millions of activity planners have inaccurately analyzed the demand for hours) facilities at P, or if budget processes do not permit Other swimming outdoor investments in facilities to point S, then a situation (Non-Pool) ---- - ------------- 2.6 1,266.46 like that shown by the dotted line SIS1 will result. Pool swimming 4.4 1,224.08 With an administrated price of P, a facility shortfall Pool swimming .- . . ... . ............ 2.8 719.60 Nature walks .-.. .............. 2.0 297.80 of S-S1 will occur. Conversely, an over supply could Other boating- .-- -- - ------- 2.8 353.08 develop if facility supply is developed beyond -S. Water skiing --------------------. 2.6 140.66 Canoeing .-...... 2.3 42.09 Sailing .-......... 4.4 143.00 Demand ;. Total . ---------------------. 4,186.77 Recreation demand (the functional relationship *Statistically reliable within 10 percent. between quantity desired and socioeconomic factors) I Excludes wildlife and bird photography, hunting, camping and other activities that may be water related, is, for the most part, influenced by the same factors Total for all activities surveyed equaled 10,978.15 million activity hours. influencing the purchase or use of other goods and Source: Adams, R. L, et al., Outdoor Recreation: Appendix "A", An Economic services. Thus, an individuals demand for recreation Analysis, U.S. Department of the Interior, December 1973. relates to the costs (monetary or others, such as time) incurred to participate, his tastes and pre- empirical evidence will be used in an effort to evalu- ferences, his socioeconomic characteristics (which ate the role of the nation's estuaries as a component may affect preferences), and the availability and of recreation supply, and the impact this role has on cost of alternative goods, services, or uses of fixed the economy. D S' S DETERMINANTS OF i RECREATION ACTIVITY Actual recreational activity at any time is the \ result of interactions between consumer demand and available facilities. The resulting activity requires the participants to make outlays for associated I expenses. This cost (or price) includes items like P - _ t travel and lodging, as well as user fees at the recrea- tion site. Unlike a private market situation, however, \ the resulting conditions may not imply market clear- I ing in the case of publicly provided facilities. That is, some demand may not be satisfied (at a given quality level) even though consumers are willing to under- take the necessary costs. This stems from the lack of proper market signals and government response in adjusting the supply of public facilities. FIMURE 1.-Hypothetical recreation demand-supply relation- These conditions are illustrated in Figure 1. ships. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 85 budgets (money, time and energy). Demand for a capacity (at a given quality level) is related to the particular type of recreation or for a particular rec- activity mix at the site. The existence and timing of reation facility depends on these 'factors as they complementary and competitive activities can affect relate to a given population and to the size of that the overall capacity of a site. population. In addition, quality factors will in- Thus, site capacity has been an elusive concept fluence the shape of the demand function for specific from a definitional point of view. From a public sites and/or types of recreation. planning viewpoint, however, definitional problems Demnand functibns have been estimated, based on translate to analytical problems. The need to pro- past experience, for individual recreation sites as vide a linkage between demand and supply (ca- well as for market areas. Functions derived with pacity) is basic to decisions concerning public in- reference to specific locations have a variety of vestment in the quantity and quality of recreation- potential uses, such as developing and evaluating related facilities. Estimates of the value related to recreation expansion plans at the site (Clawson and provision of additional capacity or of changes in the Knetsch, '1966). They'i however,. do not uisually quality of existing capacity cannot be used in a provide adequate data' for comprehensive recreation benefit-cost decision framework without knowledge planning at the natioinal or regional level. Account of,the'relationship between capacity provided and needs to be taken'of.orall market demand d the various levels of resouce inputs. competition for t'hat demand from alternative sites Two techniques have been suggested and used for (iKalter and.-Gosse, 1969). As will be pointed o'it translating physical measures of area and facilities helow, the question of' alternatives may be critical into economic capacity. First, physical standards -in reviewirg policy decisions relating to recreational have often been used by public agencies. Such stand- se of eaies. ' ' ' ' ards identify the magnitude of physical areas and facilities needed to provide a recreation experience, pat.a given level of quality, for a given number of Supply sn '< H recreation or activity days. Because standards Facility supply, or more roadly, recreation site relate to average rather than marginal values, a preferred approach would take account of the non- capacity, isthe, balance whkee to0the demand side of linearities involved. Thus, the traditional production hdefine in a manner hoico tent'wbvnoermal meascures function has been suggested as a second means for 'define ina amanner consistent withknormal measures of use. Whereas recreation use has traditionally been relating capacity to the cost of resource inputs (land, of use. Whereas recreation use has traditionally been iabor, and capital). Empirically' estimating such defined in terms of time. (visitor days at a site: or lor, and capital). Empirically estimating such activity day.s of participation in a given type of functions, however, suffers from the same definitional problems raised earlier and the additional practical recreation),, capacity is basically the ability to ac- problems raised earlier and the additional practical commodate participants. Thus, capacity can varyfor problem of holding quality constant for estimation commodate participants. Thus, capacity can vary'for a given site due to intensity of'use. Moreover, since Progress in quantifying supply concepts, capacity canot be stored for futue ue, we can by either method mentioned, has not progressed as rapidly as work relating to demand. only speak of instant capacities (the ability to ac- commodate use at a given moment in time). Thus, we often encounter the phenomena in recreation of Recreational activity having capacity deficiencies on weekends and holi- and quality factors days while maintaining extensive surplus facilities during the work week. The role of quality in determining recreational Of equal importance in measuring capacity are activity was only referred to briefly in the previous two other factors. First, the quality of a recreation sections. The term "quality" is a subjective and experience offered by management of a given area somewhat elusive factor in the economic equation. can cause substantial variations in its capacity. For It relates to both the concepts of supply and demand. example, if one aspect of quality (crowding) is The economist normally considers separate demand permitted to deteriorate, capacity of an area can be relationships relevant for each level of quality of a increased, though not necessarily at a linear rate. given product or service. The'physical representa- Although "quality" is a subjective factor determined tiofi of quality, then, takes place on the supply side by individual preferences, that will not be its use of the equation. here. Rather, we seek to identify a set of character- The physical characteristics relating to the quality istics which can be usedcto group sites into categories of a water-based 'outdoor recreation 'site can be for analysis. Individuals may have different prefer- 'natural' or marmnade. Surroundings, facilities, in- ences among sich T''61assification. Second, site tensity of site uis6, and water quality, itself, all are 86 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL characteristics which permit a subclassification of policies since supply, as well as demand, data is water-based recreation sites by quality. Each of needed if the trade-offs among alternatives are to be these factors may, itself, be complex in makeup. properly evaluated. For example, water quality is usually considered a Because of the difficulties involved in quantifying composite of many factors (i.e., BOD (biochemical quality factors, many analytical efforts have as- oxygen demand), nutrient levels, turbidity, et sumed away these issues. Since quality considera- cetera). In addition, non-site quality factors can tions relate to more than just the site itself, this has affect oiie's perception of the overall recreation been an easy out. The complexity of adding elements experience. such as road conditions and other similar factors, which also affect the quality of the entire recreation Available studies experience, clearly has argued for this course of action by early researchers. Stuidies of �outdoor recreation demand relating to In pioneering research, Stevens (1966) attempted to alter this approach by investigating the relation- a given population area are relatively rare (Kalter ship between recreation uses and water quality. In and Gosse, 1969; Gicchetti, et al., 1969; Adams, et al., 1973). Unlike the demand for most goods and essence, his approach assumed that a change in services, the demand for recreation is heavily de- water quality relationship for a particular recreational activity :pendent on transfer costs costs of reaching and using a water resource. Thus, separate demand departing a recreation site) and is, thus, linked using a water resource. Thus, separate demand relationships would exist for different degrees :of spatially with the site of purchase. The site has, relatonshps would exist for different degrees of therefore, become the nateural fous for data collec- quality in a recreation experience. Recognizing that therefore, become the natural focus for data collec- tion and analysis. On the other hand, market or factors other than water quality are involved in the population oriented demand studies must be based quality issue, he, nonetheless, chose to ignore those on data collected from a sample of the entire relevant factors as a first approximation. Using quantifiable population, rather than those who visited certain variables: as proxies for water quality, he showed a (or even a sample of) recreational sites. Not only positionshp between water quality and are such data collection efforts normally not directed recreation use. at the immediate needs of a particular agency, they Subsequent studies have built upon this effort by are expensive to carry out. the addition of other variables as measures of water are expensive to carry out. The dilemma is obvious. For most policy work at quality and of environmental characteristics en- the national level, market oriented efforts are de- countered in other aspects of the recreation experi- sirable. Yet they are empirically difficult and ex- pensive. TMoreover, the resulting specificity often a relationship, which is not necessarily linear, exists turns o ut to be at a higher level of aggregation than between factors often felt to be proxies for recreation quality and the degree of recreation activity at a par- desirable for some applications. It is precisely this problem which plagues analytical work regarding cuar se dson, et al., 1966; Megi and recreational demand for the nation's estuaries. ame; a an, Individual estuary areas may differ to the point Yet no clear conensus emerges as to the exact where extrapolation from specific sitoe oriented relationships involved in all cases. For example, one where extrapolation from specific site oriented study indicates that thresholdlevelsof water studies can lead to erroneous conclusions for national study e dicates that threshold levels of a policy. Yet the market oriented studies which have quality exist below which no recreation use of a been arried out do not permit the isolation of given type will take place and that these threshold been carried out do not permit the isolation of 9 demand related specifically to estuarine areas nor levels may vary for different activities (Nathan show the trade-offs between these areas and alter- 1969). Another study was unable to confirm such a native supply possibilities. ~hypothesis (Megli and Gamble). As a result of such On the supply side, the data base is even thinner. issues, the technical literation on recreation quality has not developed to the point where it is useful in Supply inventories have been conducted as part of previous national'recreation surveys (ORRRC, 1962; a public planning context. It has, however, provided U.S. Department of the Interior, 1973). The con- insightstotherelationshipsinvolved. ceptual and definition problems discussed above, however, have made the data difficult to interpret in THE ECONOMIC VALUE practice. In one instance the data has not even been OF OUTDOOR RECREATION compiled or released by the government (-U.S. : Department of the Interior, 1973). The principle i Prediction of recreations attendance, although involved is critical to formulating proper public useful, does not give an indicationl of the economic LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 87 value derived from a particular resource or permit Unfortunately, this state of affairs represents much comparison with alternative uses of that resource. of our data base regarding estuarine areas. As a To fully evaluate the recreational use of resources, result, in order to derive quantitative estimates of governmental decision makers need value informa- the amount and likely changes in outdoor recreation tion. To realize recreational benefits, an economic demand in estuarine zones, this paper is forced to cost must be incurred for facilities and other in- depend on data which were not collected for this vestments. For example, water quality improve- specific purpose. Available data will allow us to ments normally require extensive capital investment observe changes in such patterns in only a most programs by the public and/or private sector. To generalized and cursory manner. ascertain which resource use provides the, greatest benefits and, thus, to determine which type of public policy is most desirable from an economic PATTERNS OF DEMAND efficiency perspective, the economic value of alterna- NATIOUTDOOR RECREATION IN NATIONAL ESTUARINE ZONES, 1972-1978 Measurement of. the primary economic. value Measurtement ofr theprimary ecrionamlc. .value . As indicated above, for nationally oriented policy stemming from outdoor recreational facilities or stemming. frm analysis demand functions relevant to population or services follows naturally from the attendance market areas would be: most germane. Given the prediction models discussed above. Both site oriented *, * and market oriented demand relationships can be availability of such estimates, a spatial allocation and market. o r id dn rp procedure which considers all potential recreation used for imputing monetary values to recreationalre a areas where the specific activity can take place activities undertaken as a result of a specific pub- must be used to isolate the impact on a given area lie policy action. In other words, methods have been devised for estimating the willingness of con-as estuar). The allocation procedures sumers to pay for participation, if it were actually permit forecasts of recreational travel patterns, given knowledge of site capacities, travel costs, and sold in a market place. For example, if public policy the factors affecting consumer demand (Tadros and the factors affecting consumer demand (Tadros and actions result in changes in water quality which in Kalt 1971 turn increase recreational uses of a particular site, Recent analyses provide information on the de- estimates of the value of that change to consumers estimates of the value of that change to consumers mand functions for specific outdoor recreation activ- could be derived from an appropriate demand re- ities in a market lties in a market context. Used in conjunction with lationship and compared to the costs necessarily lationship and compared to the chosts necessarily actual and forecast values of the independent varia- incurred to bring about the change. The potential bles which are assumed to cause changes in recreation demand, these functions can be used to forecast recreation use under the assumption that an ad- AVAILABILITY OF DATA equate supply of facilities will exist. Future growth INDICATING THE DEMAND rates under alternative assumptions concerning FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION price and other independent variables can, thus, be IN NATIONAL ESTUARINE ZONES obtained. These rates will pertain to the actions of population groups and not to specific facilities where Little has changed since publication of the 1970 recreation services may be provided. "National Estuary Study" which reproduced a When used in conjunction with data on facility quotation from an even earlier 1966 study by capacity and travel patterns, public decision makers Spangler: have information that can be used to formulate policies which would avoid serious misallocation of The present statistics on national expenditures on ocean limited investment capital. The result could be recreation are in such a sad state that estimates for these activities in the United States range from $50 million actions to provide additional facilities of a specific in 1964 according to one source to an estimated $3.86 type in a given geographic area or ones which would billion in 1964 for another. restrict the demand focused on such areas. Cost- ... part of this 72-fold discrepency is due to the fact that statistics on expenditures for fishing, swimming, benefit evaluations of specific proposals would be boating and related equipment do not distinguish be- facilititated by the data provided. Unfortunately, tween marine oriented activities and inland oriented activities in streams and lakes (U.S. Department Of the necessary data -and models pertaining to travel the Interior, 1970, pp. 25-26). patterns and facility utilization have not been i : .derived for activities pertinent to our nation's estu- The "National Estuary Study" goes on to point out aries. that secondary expenditures on outdoor recreation Consequently,,.we are forced to a second best in estuarine zones are even more difficult to assess. solution. Namely, we must use information on rele- 88 ESTUARINE, POLLUTION CONTROL vant demand functions to gain insight into future 2) which specific estuarine zones currently re- growth patterns and facility needs of estuarine areas. ceive the greatest demand; In a study by Adams, et al. (1973), demand equa- 3) which type of recreation services capable of tions were estimated, using recent (1972) data, for being provided by estuarine resources are' likely to 17 outdoor recreation activities. For each activity, receive the greatest growth in demand in the near demand relationships for three types of recreation future; and occasions (vacations, trips, and outings) were de- 4) which specific estuarine zones are likely to be rived. These equations were then used to estimate the focus of the greatest increases in demand in the demand during the summer of 1972 for each of the 17 near future. activities by the populations in 171 separate geo- graphic areas, called BEA economic areas, which The remainder of the analysis presented below re- together encompass the entire area of the contiguous fleets these assumptions. 48 states. The BEA economic areas are delineated by Table 2 provides a list of the 36 BEA areas which the Regional Economics Division, Bureau of Eco- ate adjacent to the estuarine zones of the contiguous nomic Analysis, United States Department of Corn- United States. The area surrounding the Great merce. Forecasts were then made of the demand Lakes was not considered to be an estuarine zone. generated by the 'population of each area for each Figure 2 is a map showing the location of each BEA activity in the summer of 1978. These forecasts were area listed in Table 2. All BEA areas in Table 2 are based upon projections of the 1978 value for inde- grouped into their respective census divisions. pendent variables, like population, income, age, et Table 2 shows, for each BEA area adjacent to an cetera, and the estimated demand coefficients for the estuarine zone, the population in 1972, the quantity activities. of each activity (days) demanded by the BEA area Of the activities analyzed, those which ate par- ticularly relevant to a study of recreation demand in Table 2.-Summer of 1972 and percentage increase by the summer of 19i8in the estuarine zones are "fishing," "water skiing," quantity of selected outdoor recreation activities demanded by populations in "other boating" (boating other than water skiing, BEA areas adjacent to national estuarine zones sailing, or canoeing), "other swimming outdoors" (all outdoor swimming not taking place in swimming 1972 Population Fishing pools), and "nature walks." Sailing or canoeing were BEA area (Thousands)2 Percentage Activity Percentage increase' days increases not studied because the estimated demand equations (Thousandsr were not statistically significant. Unfortunately, although the Adams, et al. study does permit estima- New England' IBangor, Maine - ------ 255.5 5 301.4 7 tion of the demand generated by specific population 2 Portland, Maine 599.7 10 692 1 s7 groups, it does not estimate where these people 4 Boston, Mass... ...... 5,182.3 10 5,954.0 12 would go to satisfy their demand (given available 5 Hartford, Conn.... 2,435.9 11 2,804.1 14 facilities and costs consistent with those used for 8,473.4 9,751.6 the demand forecast). Thus, we cannot say how Middle Atlantic' much of the demand is currently focused on estuary 14 New Yark, N.Y 15,010.6 9 12,688.1 12 15 Philadelphia, Pa...... 5,935.9 8 6,301.2 11 resources and how much utilizes alternative sites. Moreover, the optimal type and distribution of 20,946.5 18,989.3 South Atlantic' future supply locations is well beyond the scope of 17 Bltimore, Md.-- - 2,169.4 9 4,904.4 11 available data. 18 Washington, D.C ..... 2,501.11 12 5,814.1 14 Despite these shortcomings, useful information 21 Richmond, Va. 822.8 10 1,852.8 12 22 Norfolk, Va ..-... ... 974.1 4 2,256.5 6 can be gained by analyzing the present and future 23 Raleigh, N.C .. ..... 1,282.6 4 2,820.0 5 demand for outdoor recreation activities normally 24 Wilmington, N.C .... 380.4 3 883.2 4 associated with estuarine resources. Specifically, if 31 Charleston, SC.C . 306.4 4 642,4 5 31 Charleston, S.C....... 331.1 5 758.0 7 we assume that the existing pattern, and changes in 33 Savannah, Ga ....-.-.' 327.9 5 718.6 6 the future pattern, of demand generated by the 34 Jacksonville, Fla. 849.8 9 948.3 10 35 Orlando, Fla .......... 784.6 14 1,822.9 15 population groups immediately adjacent to the 35 Olando Fla.. . 784.6 1 4,70028 15 36 Miami, Fla....... 2,098.5 13 4,700.0 15 nation's estuaries will reflect demand for estuarine 37 Tampa, Fla .--.-.- - 1,533.3 10 3,392.7 12 resources, it is possible to arrive at a general picture 38 Tallahassee, Fla. 282.0 11 629.2 13 39 Pensacola, Fla...... 300.0 5 729.9 6 of: 14,964.0 32,872.9 1) which type of recreation services capable of East South Central' being provided by estuarine resources are currently 137 Mobile, Ala-561.1 8 1,265.7 9 in greatest demand; 561.1 1,265.7 LIVINrG AD NoN-LrnmG REISOURCS 89 West South Central' 164 San Diego, Cal . . ..... 574.3 10 935.6 19 138 New Orleans, La....-. 1,675.5 8 3,692.0 10 165 Los Angeles, Cal..-... 4,249.3 15 7,019.6 23 139 Lake Charles, La.___ 567.5 3 1,315.2 4 170 Eureka, Cal........ 44.6 5 77.6 14 140 Beaumont, Te-a -.. . 318.1 10 733.1 11 171 San Francisco, CaL .... 2,137.5 15 3,502.7 23 141 Houston, Tex ..--.... 1,895.5 13 4,499.5 14 142 San Antonio, Tex..... 958.3 5 2,341.3 7 8,826.0 14,602.6 143 Corpus Christi, Tex.__ 390.3 3 980.2 4 144 Me, Allen, Tex ........ 258.2 1 638.7 2 Total - - -------------- 24,802.9 49,045.1 6,063.4 14,200.0 VPaciCB~ 6,063.4 14,200.0 ~~~~~~~~~'Other swimming Nature walks Pacific, 155 Seattle, Wash .- - ---- 1,939.4 10 3,680.3 12 BEA area Activity Percentage Activity Percentage 157 Portland, Ore-.. -. ... 1,351.6 10 2,517.8 12 days increase3 days increase' 158 Eugene, Ore- - --------437.0 5 829.9 7 (Thousands)4 (Thousands) 164 San Diego, Cal....... 1,128.7 10 2,196.4 12 165 LosAngeles, Cal.s... 8,654.5 13 15,690.8- 15 Nw ngand New Englandt 170 Eureka, Cal --------~ 99.3 7 186.7 a 170 Eureka, C a ].... 99.3 7 186.7 8 1 Bangor, Maine -- 987.1 7 169.6 10 171 Sah Francisco, Cal.... 4,268.5 13 2,814.0 *' 15 2 Portland, Maine 2,351.2 12 414.5 15 2 Portland, Maine'. ----- 2,351.2 12 414.5 15 1',870.032,9159 ' 4 lBoston, Mass.-_ - ---- 21,656.4 13 4,029.1 17 17,870.0 32,915.9 5 Hartford, Conn._ .. 10,057.8 15 1,848.1 18 : 68,8784 '. 5.4 0995 35,052.5 64 35 052.5 ��: :�6,461.3i , : I� �'� ~Middle Atlantic, Water Skiing Other'Boaing. 14 New York, N.Y. ....- -48,353.4 15 9,125.4 19 SBEAurea: Activity, Percentage Activity Percentage 1 Philadelphia, Pa. .....- 23,068.0 13 4,248.9 16 days increase3 days increase' (ThouSands)' (Thousands) - . 71,421.4 13,374.3 South Atlantic, New England, 17 Baltimore, Md........ 6,234.4 13 1,460.2 16 I Banger, Maine ------ - 51.0 10 153.3 12 18 Washington D.C . -- - 8,438.2 18 1,988.4 20 2 Portland, Maine--.... 125.7 17 370.9 18 21 RichmondVa.- ---1,282.0 15 489.6 17 4 Boston, Mass ..- .--- 1,381.8 20 3,433.1 20 22 Norfolk, Va-- ----2,803.8 8 658.9 10 S Hartford, Coonu ___. 644.6 21 1,593.9 - 22 23 Raleigh, N.C ..... .... 3,230g.8 8 719.2 9 24 Wilmington, N.C.- .-.. 1,011.3 6 221.7 7 21203.1 5,551.2 30 Florence, S.C...... - - 679.6 8 147.4 9 Middle Atlantic, 32 Charleston, S.C..... 911.0 8 207.4 10 14 New York, NY...... 2,938.6 27 7,298.2 24 33 Savannah, Ga. . 822.4 . . 8 188.3 10 I5 Philadelphia, Pa::._.. 1,250.8 23 3,390.2 21 34 Jacksonville, Flu. .. ... 2,424.1 12 562.9 14 35 Orlando, Fla .-.. . ... 2,328.2 17 544.7 19 36 Miami, Fla.-- ..... 5,967.0 19 1,458.4 21 South Atlantic' 489.4 10,688.4 37 Tampa, Flu .. . ....... 3,957.5 14 949.2 16 17 Baltimore, Md........ 985.0 16 1,835.3 18 38 Tallahassee, flu_ 744.3 15 167.9 17 18 Washington, Y.C. .. . 1,366.0 20 2,483.8 23 39 Pensacola, Fla . . .... 926.5 8 212.0 10 21 Richmond, Va........ 341.9 17 652.4' 20 22 Norfolk, Va: - - ------ 418.5 10 788.8 . 13 42,661.1. 9,976.2 23 Raleigh, PN.0 - - ------ 476.6 9 925.5 13 Eat South entra 24 Wilmington, N.C. .. . 151.5 7 290.6 10 137 Mobile, Ala1,504.9 - 11 347.2 .13 30 Florence, S.C . ....... 98.8 9 194.9 13 31 Charleston, S.C. . ..... 134.5 10 254.2 13 1,504.9 347.2 33 Savannah, Ga ..... . . 120.5 10 234.9 13 West South Central' 34 jacksonville, VFlu.---- 366.7 14 703.3 17 138 New Orleans, La . .. .. 4,489.3 13 1,047.2 15 35 orlando, Flau---------- 364.9 19 711.6 22 139 Lake Charles, La.... . 1,500.6 7 343.2 8 36 Miami, Fla .- -- -----. 934.5 421 1,822.5 24 140 Beaumont Tex---. 899.7 14 212.0 16 37 Tampa, Flu a - ... ... 610.5 16 1,282.5 19 141 Houston, Tex ..-... . . 5,961.9 17 1,410.7 19 38 Tallahassee, Flu .- ... 111.4 17 216.7 .20 142 San Antonio, Tex.--,-- 2,987.2 9 705.2 11 39 Pensacola, Fla ...... 141.3 9 267.3 12 143 Corpus Christi, Tax. -_ 1,253.1 6 295.2 8 144 McAllen, Tex .a- -.... 774.7 4 171.3 5 6,622.3 12,664.3 East South Central' 17,866.5 4,194.8 137 Mobile, Ala._--. . .... 223.6 13 432.4 16 Pacific, 155 Seattle, Wash..- ..... 6,953.7 13 3,026.0 15 223.6 432.4I 223.6 432.4 157 Portland, Ore,.- ...... - 4;647.5 12 2,045.8 14 West South Central' 158.Eugene, Ore...... .. .. 1,469.9.. 7 644.5 9 138 New Orleans, La . .... 671.0 15 1,278.9 19 164 San Diego, Cal.- ---4,163.0 13 1,806.9 15 139 Lake Charles, La - ---- 224.3 8 420.1 12 165 Los Angeles, Cal..-.-- 30,796.6 17 13,653.9 18 140 Beaumont, Tex ....... 137.7 16 263.7 19 170 Eureka, Cal-- ---- 326.6 9 142.6 10 141 Houston, Tea- - --- --- 931.1 19 1,727.3 ' 22 171 San Francisco, Car.... 15,268.4 17 6,735.0 19 142 San Antonio, Tex..... 462.0 11 853.3 15 143 Corpus Christi, Tex. __ 194.0 7 352.5 11 63,625.7 28,054.7 144 Mc Allen, Teax .. . ... 118.4 5 210.4 10232,232.1 62,408.5 TOTAL ................ 232,232.1 62,408.5 2,738.5 5,106.2 Pacific .. Census Diyvision Name. L ., . 155 Seattle, Wash. . ....- 985.7 10 1,616.7 19 2 Adams et al.; p. 160. 157 Portland, Ore . ....... 636.1 8 1,101.3 16 , Ibid., p. 84. 158 Eugene, Ore. . ........ 198.5 3 349.1 11 4 Based on unpublished data from the 1972 National Recreation Survey. 90 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 1 7\\; '4 3. 1: .. .. 22 FIGURE 2.-BEA regions encompassing U.S. coastal zone. population during the summer of 1972 on all recrea- distribution of recreation activity, for our selected tion occasions, and the percentage increase in de- activities, in 1972 between different types of occa- mand forecast for the 1972-1978 time period for the sions. activities mentioned. Only activities relevant to the Table 4 shows the distribution of round trip miles estuarine zone are considered. In each case, the U.S. for the same activities and occasions. Note that a average cost for each activity and each occasion, as minimum of 60 percent of all participation in the calculated from the 1972 National Recreation Sur- selective activities takes place on trips and outings vey, was used in the analysis. No change in this price and that at least 60 percent of this amount occurs over time was assumed. Thus, by implication, within 400 miles of home. The figures are sub- patterns and government pricing policy were con- stantially higher for some activities. Even for sidered constant. vacations, 15 to 20 percent of the activity occurs What is not known or shown in Table 2 is the within a one day round trip of the participant's spatial allocation of the 1972 recreation use or fore- cast changes in such use patterns. Since the BEA Table 3.-Percent of summer participation in selected outdoor recreation regions differ in geographic size, individuals residing activities on vacations, trips and outings (1972) in a region are located at various distances from its boundaries, and round trip distances for travel on Percent n Percent on Percent on various types of recreation occasions differ, the Activity vacations trips outings distribution of recreation demand stemming from a given region cannot be proportioned between it and Water skiing -----2-- 19.4 15.6 64.0 other regions without indepth analysis. However, Other boating -...35.0 29.3 35.7 0 the 1972 National Recreation Survey data does Other swimming utdors 309 15.8 53.3 Nature walks ----- - ----------.40,2 22.3 37.5 provide some information pertinent to the issue of Average for all activities - - 31.8 13.9 54.2 recreation consumption in a given'BEA region which * -. contains an estuarine zone. Table 3 indicates the Source: 1972 National Recreation Survey LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 91 Table 4.-The distribution of round trip miles traveled on vacations, trips and area and "fishing" in the New York area. In all outings by activity* (June-August, 1972) areas, the demand for estuarine resources and facili- All activities Fishing ties appears to be greatest for those resources as- Round trip sociated with swimming and fishing. mileage Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent vacations trips day vaatin trip While it is important to know what type and where outing outing estuarine resources are currently in greatest demand, this information, by itself, is not enough for formu- 0-800 - , ... 17.8 60.0 100 21.8 66.9 100 801-4000 - ---51.9 33.4 57I.2 363. 0 lating public policy. It is of greater importance to 4001-8000+ - --- 30.8 6.7 25.4 0.0 have information on which demands for which types of estuarine resources will be growing most rapidly in Round trip Water skiing Other boating each estuarine zone in the future. The estimated mileage Percent Pernt Percent Percent ent Percent percentage increases in quantity demanded shown in vacations tripos day outing outing Table 2 indicate that the outdoor recreation activi- ties currently in greatest demand are not necessarily 0-800 ------21.5 85.4 10 16.6 73.6 100 those projected for the greatest future growth rate. 801-4000+ 37.5 14.6 47.36 26.4 For the United States as a whole and for the five activities under consideration in this study, "other Other swimming Nature walks boating" is expected to grow the fastest between Round trip peq, mileage r Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent 1972 and 1978 with a percentage increase of 18 vacations trips g tio trips ay percent. Following "other boating" are "water skiing" and "nature walks," each expected to grow o 0-80 19.6 68.0 100 14.0 61.4 100 by 15 percent, "other swimming outdoors" at 13 801-4000 - - ------- 45.6 19.4 46.5 28.5 percent, and "fishing" at 11 percent. 4001-8000�------ 34.9 12.7 39.7 80.0 A similar ranking of the percentage increases in demand for the five activities is reflected in Table 2 *Outing trips for all activities never exceed 150 round trip miles regardless of activity. for the individual BEA areas. The principal differ- Source: 1972 National Recreation Survey. ence is that "water skiing" and "nature walks" change places in the number two ranking, depending home. The implication is clear. Although cross- uponthe census divisionunderconsideration. Table 2 also shows that many of the BEA areas boundary movements of recreation participants may which show the greatest levels of demand are also not net to zero for a given region, demand for regional which show the greatest levels of demand are also facilities tends to be concentrated in the nearby the areas whch show some of the highest proected population. After taking account of cross-boundary percentage increases between 1972 and 1978. For recreation movements, the total demand for regional example, the projected 27 percent increase in demand facilities is unlikely to vary much from the total for "water skiing" in the New York BEA area is the demand forecast for the regional population. highest for all areas listed in Table 2. The New York Based on the total number of activity days de- BEA area also has the second highest level of demand manded in all 36 BEA areas for each activity, threas for "water skiing," surpassed only by the Los activity in greatest demand is "other swimming Angeles area. Likewise, the second highest of all outdoors" followed in order by "fishing," "nature growth rates shown in Table 2 is 24 percent for walks," "other boating," and "water skiing." When "other boating" in the New York and Miami areas. looking at the ranking of activities for each census division, "nature walks" and "other boating" the New York BEA area is the highest level switch positions in the ranking for the South At- (7,298,200 activity days) of all areas listed in Table lantic, East South Central, and West South Central 2. Even when a rapid rate of growth in demand. is census divisions. associated with lower initial levels, the growth rate Looking at the individual BEA areas adjacent to may be enough, by itself, to create significant strains estuarine zones, Table 2 indicates the greatest on the ability of the estuarine resources to absorb the amount of demand is generated by the population increases. It appears, from Table 2, that the greatest amutof dthe New York BEA area for "other p timon strain on any single type of outdoor recreation re- of the New York BEA area for "other swimming outdoors" followed in order by the same activity in sources in estuarine zones will be on "other boating" the Los Angeles and Boston BEA areas. The fourth facilities in the New York, Miami, Washington, greatest number of activity days demanded is for D.C., Los Angeles, and San Francisco areas. The "fishing" in the Los Angeles BEA area followed by "other boating" demands in all of these BEA areas "other swimming outdoors" in the San Francisco are projected to grow by 23 percent or more. 92 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS the facility. Assuming there is no equity (income redistribution) goal involved, if people are unwilling Through Table 2, we have provided a rough indi- to pay- a price which is sufficient to cover the full cation of the facilities and resources in specific estu- costs of the facility, the facility should not be pro- arine zones currently subjected to the heaviest de- vided since the costs to society will exceed the bene- mand, as well as those likely to face the greatest fits. future increases in demand. Current capacity' and, Adams et al., (1973), provide evidence that in- consequently, future facility needs cannot be identi- creases in the prices of the five activities considered fled from available data. More importantly, it is in this study will have a relatively small impact obvious that recreation sites other than those located upon the quantity of each activity demanded by in estuarine zones could serve as supply sources for people who participate. The evidence takes the form this demand. The role of these alternative sites, of price'elasticities of demand which are defined as for current and future policy actions, is critical to the percentage change in the quantity of an activity planning for the estuarine zones. Thus, only general demanded that is caused by a one percent change in recommendations for policy action can be given. the price paid for that activity. Table 5 provides the The principal issue involved relates to financing estimated price elasticities of demand for each of the any additional facilities and resources and' the policy five' activities consumed on each of the three tpes implications of the financing methods.-Many outdoor of outdoor'recreation occasions. For example, the recreation facilities and resources are provided by the price elasticity of demand for fishingg on vacations is .public sector at little or no charge to the facility estimated to be --.24. This means that a one percent users. In many cases this is a valid policy such as increase in the price of fishing will' cause only a :24 when there is no administratively feasible way to percent decrease in the quantity of fishing demanded collect entrance fees or when a level of government on vacations. makes a conscious decision'to redistribute' income A system of full cost pricing of estuarine resources by providing outdoor recreation facilities free of used for satisfying outdoor recreation' demand for charge. In the former case, the failure to collect fees fishing, other boating, other swimming outdoors, is justified because it would cost more to collect the water skiing, and nature walks can and should be em- fees than could be offset by the revenues from the ployed in those estuarine zones where such a policy fees. In the'latter example, free provision of outdoor does not now exist. Such a policy will assure that'the recreation facilities may be valid on the basis of benefits derived will at least equal the costs of pro- equity, if these portions of the population who war- viding additional estuarine resources. Table 5 in- rant free access actually make use of the facilities. dicates this policy of rational allocation of resources When reasons such as these are not involved in the can be employed with relatively little impact upon decision to provide free facilities, however, a serious the quantities of the recreation activities demanded. distortion in the allocation of resources arises. This policy will be especially crucial to the survival of those estuarine zones identified above which are Public investments, however, are often made with little attention to market prices. This is particularly true of facing the heaviest demands and the most rapid sport fishing and boating where the public often provides growth of future demands. hatcheries, public piers and marinas at artificially low Critics of this recommendation point out that costs to the user. This situation, in effect, may create an 'artificial demand,' with the attendant environmental project or investment economics are only one aspect pressures, and heavy use of estuarine and other re- of the possible implications which may be important sources.. public policy must weigh not only abstract politi'aly and socially. Equity effects, for example, 'demands' derived from proxy data, but attempt to more fully assess net benefits and costs of public recrea- were referred to briefly earlier in this section. Re- tional investments (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970, p. 28). ; - . Table 5.-Estimated price elasticities of demand for selected outdoor recreation One way to more fully assess net benefits and costs activities on vacations, trips, and outings of public recreational investments is to charge realis- tic entrance or user fees for the facilities provided. Recreation activity Vacations Trips Outings The price paid by the recreationalist is a measure of his willingness to pay and the value of the recreation Water skiing -.24 - - -.27 32 experience to him. When the users of a recreation Other boating .- - . ' !l -.23 -.18 * facility are willing to pay a price which is great Other outdoor swimming -.2 --.20 -.19 Nature walks .- --.. -' -'-.22 -.18 -.07 enough to cover the full cost of providing the facility, we have an indication that -the benefits to society Not statistically significant. are at least equal to the costs"to society of providing Source: Adams et al., 1970, p. 79. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RnSOURCES 93 gional impacts are one form of equity effect that has for government services may also increase (including traditionally been important to recreation develop- off-season unemployment benefits), causing in- ment considerations. Trade-offs may be implicit creased taxes. On balance, the regional implications between such impacts and the pricing recommenda- of increasing recreation demand and the provision tions suggested previously. Higher entrance fees of facilities to satisfy that demand is an empirical will have some effect on participation and, conse- question which must be answered for each specific quently, on regional expenditures. For example, region. Although net gains to one region can nor- recreation is often of interest to a region because of mally be considered as losses to other regions such its export characteristics (non-residents spend money distribution effects may be a conscious political for use of the region's resources). Such expenditures decision affecting facility location. From a national may create employment opportunities for the region- perspective, however, a uniform system of public ally unemployed and normally result in a multiplier pricing with respect to federally funded facilities effect on the sales and income of other economic sec- would not, in principle, give undue advantage to one tors in the region. region over another in terms of such regional im- Direct regional income impacts can stem from two pacts. In other words, a nationally imposed pricing sources. First, the regional impact in terms of system for use of estuarine areas would be expected facility construction and maintenance must be con- to affect all regions in a uniform way. Only if a dif- sidered. When such facilities are wholly br partially ferential pricing schedule between regions was in- financed by non-regional funds and some of these stalled could a contrary result occur. Although funds are spent on inputs supplied by the region, the differential pricing should not be rejected as a means economy of the area is benefitted (Nathan, 1966). for excluding peak demands for facilities, both- in On the other hand, if all construction funds were time and space, it is not currently a viable approach raised regionally or had to be paid back by regional to the nation's recreational problems. interests, only an internal transfer effect would occur. Second, increased expenditures in the region by REFERENCES recreationists who are non-residents or increased expenditures by residents thrdugh the interregional Adams, R. L. et al. 1973. Outdoor Recreation: Appendix reallocation of recreation consumption patterns can "A", An Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of the beneficially affect a regional economy. Of course, Interior. Washington. both of these factors must also be offset by reim- Cicchetti, C. J. et al. 1969. The Development and Supply bursement considerations, taxes due directly to con- of Outdoor Recreation. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers, struction, and increased taxes required to finance The State University, Bureau of Economic Research. additional public services in the region resulting Clawson, M. and J. S. Knetsch. 1966. Economics of Outdoor from use of the recreation area (i.e., increased police Recreation. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. and fire protection, et cetera). Knowledge of direct expenditures in a region Davidson, P. F. et al. 1966. The social value of water recrea- enables estimates of the multiplier or indirect im- tin facilities Delawaresulting from an improA K eese and S. Smith pacts to be made. The more economically self-con- eds. Water Research, RFF. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins tained the area, the greater will be the multiplier Press. value since less of the initial and subsequent round value since less of th initial and subsequent round Kalter, R. J. 1971. The Economics of Water-Based Outdoor expenditures will flow to other regions. Since in- Recreation: A Survey and Critique of Recent Develop- creased regional expenditures for recreation related ments. Institute for Water Resources Corps of Engineers, goods and services can be substantial, their impact IWR Report 71-8. Ithaca, N. Y. can be considered a real benefit to the region where Kalter, R. J. and L. E. Gosse. 1969. Outdoor Recreation a recreation -facility is located. From the national Projection for 1970-1985. Ithaca, New York: Cornell point of view, however, both direct expenditures University Special Series No. 5. and their subsequent multiplier implications are normally classified as transfer effects. That is, to Megli, L. D. and H. B. Gamble. An Analysis of the Relation- ship Between Stream Water Quality and Regional Income the extent the region is successful in attracting this Generated by Water-Oriented Recreationists. Institute type of expenditure, it will be detrimental to other for Land and Water Resources Research Publication areas. Moreover, regional gains must be offset by the Number 69. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University. problems created by the increased recreation activity. For example, employment in many economic sectors Nathan, Robert R. said Associates, Inc. 1969. Impact of servicing recreation is highly seasonal, low paid and Mine Drainage on Recreation and Stream Ecology. A Report by the Appalachian Regional Commission. often recruited from outside the area. Requirements Washington. 94 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Nathan, Robert R. and Associates, Inc. 1969. Recreation as Tadros, M. and R. J. Kalter. 1971. A spatial allocation model an Industry. A report prepared for the Appalachian Re- for projected water-based recreation demand. Water gional Commission. Resources Research. 7(4). Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission. 1962. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1973. Outdoor Recreation: National Recreation Survey. ORRRC Study Report 19. A Legacy for America. Washington, D. C. Washington: Government Printing Office. Stevens, J. B. 1966. Recreation benefits from water pollution U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. control, Water Resources Research. 2(2) :167-182. 1970. National Estuary Study. Washington. '?. ' 'A' "' A', 4'-,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1* '/ r: 5 � :r �1 v. i. ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' ' .?~ ~ �P:^. .~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .i;: * -:i :.[;� �.:S) *. THE VALUE OF ESTUARINE FISHERIES HABITATS: SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THEIR PRESERVATION FRANK H. BOLLMAN Development and Resources Corporation Sacramento, California ABSTRACT Comprehensive management of estuarine environments is confronted by the valuation issue- attaching relevant societal values to the degradation or improvement that accrues to fisheries and their habitats from manmade changes. The estimation of the social and economic costs and benefits due to change in an estuary should follow a careful appraisal of the ecological effects. The backwardness of the art of assessing damage is evident in the meager and piecemeal state of knowledge of what damages have occurred and are presently accruing. Tenets of economic good sense, however, offer useful guidance. The relative scarcity of the aquatic habitat and of critical natural features in the estuary support system cannot be overlooked. Availability of substitutes and substitute sites is a basic con- sideration. The full arsenal of economic reasoning has to be employed to provide insight to alter- native courses of estuarine management. Two broad sources of degradation of fishery habitats are foreseen as resulting from population growth and economic development. Direct pollution of nutrients and toxic materials is the first source. The physical alterations are the second source. Three intensifications of use are identified as compounding the difficulty of maintaining fishery resources in estuaries: (1) increasing loads of municipal and industrial wastes; (2) the leakage of petroleum and petroleum products into estuaries; and (3) upstream activities affecting freshwater inflows. Land and water use in the coastal zone is interrelated with that in the hinterland. There is an urgent need to improve environmental impact statements so that the full extent of the values is displayed for the decision makers. A major national commitment in training, research, and funding is involved in staffing state and federal agencies with the economic and biological expertise necessary for the informed management of the nation's estuaries. INTRODUCTION, OVERVIEW AND interim, there is little substantive and quantitative PERSPECTIVE evidence to confirm that the demands for many of the different services of the estuarine zone have The demands of society for fish and wildlife, the diminished or that their adverse impacts have demands for segments of their estuarine habitat for lessened. While some offsetting tendencies have other uses, and, last but not least, the total array of evolved and promise respite from the continuing spillover effects of agricultural and industrial produc- erosion of estuarine habitat, the negative impact of tion on fish and wildlife and their habitats are these forces of change is still substantial and in- compounding the problem of conserving their creasing as the competition for the uses of estuarine estuarine and coastal zone support system. resources responds to population growth and eco- This was one of the principal findings of the "Na- nomic development. tional Estuarine Pollution Study" and the "National In contrast to the 1960's a more populous and Estuary Study" in appraising the status and condi- wealthy society is now more environmentally alert tions of estuarine fisheries habitats in 1970.1 In the and presumably better informed as to the overall values of estuaries; legislation has been enacted to "The National Estuarine Pollution Study" was authorized by Sectiontion t 5(g) of the Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966, P.L. 89-753, approved permit their use for fish production among other November 3, 1966. The study was published March 25, 1970, as Senate purposes. Document No. 91-58, 91st Congress, 2nd Session. The Estuary Protection Act, P.L. 90-454, authorized the Secretary of the Interior to study estuary Nevertheless, a fundamental difficulty still con- conditions and report to Congress. The result was the National Estuary fronts comprehensive management of estuarine Study, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Wash- ington, D.C., January 1970. environments-relevant values have to be attached 95 96 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL to the degradation or improvement which accrues could be contemplated only with great reservations to fisheries habitats from changes in the estuarine and little certainty that they were least costly or environment. most effective. There is little concrete evidence that Logically, estimation of social and economic costs the faculty and facility for prognosis, diagnosis and and benefits from ecological change in an estuary remedy have improved in the interim. should follow a careful appraisal of the ecological "The National Estuarine Pollution Study" found effects. Is the planned change in the estuarine en- that "for the majority of the Nation's estmiarine vironment with its associated impact on the shell systems, there are little or no data to describe and fin fisheries worth it? Can benefits be increased existing water quality conditions .." 2 and.; that and detrimental effects reduced by modifying this while the effects of physical destruction of the habitat change? These questions obviously are best answered are also easy to assess at least in terms of immediate when the positive and negative [Impacts are identified damage caused, the more subtle related effects of and measured prior to assessing whether it is in organisms dependent indirectly on the habitat for society's interest to undertake the change, however food supply are more difficult, somhetimes impossible, small it may appear to be. to. deermine. In summary,. "it is not possible to The purpose of this paper is to deal with some say whether 38 percent of the Natins, estuarine aspects of the complex and perplexing evaluation systems are undamaged or merely present no identi issue as it relates to estuarine fishery habitat. Deg- fiable problerms at this time." 8 . radation, definable in quantitative terms pertaining The last intensive effort to inventory natinal to fishery productivity, .is also elusive. Only crude estuarine conditions in the late 1960's' resorted 'to indicators are available. There are significant f indicators to typify degradation-watr quality such as projected future depletion of freshwater of major rivers, and streams entering the estuarine flows in estuaries, buildup in pollutants from diffuse area, the area of wetlands lost, the area of finfish sources and pressures for the alteration of estuarine habitat affected by water pollution, the areas of lands. There is, consequently, an urgent necessity to shellfish lost or closed, and the number and type of review the performance of the ameliorative measures modifying structures.. taken to date, to make the required adjustments It might be concluded after reveiwing more recent and, where needed, to institute new management literature that assessment of the degradation of systems and practices. This paper attempts to give the total system for different estuaries and its likely an overview of the estuarine management problem effects on fishery productivity would prove to be as it relates to the accountability of fishery values equally difficult, for the same reasons. The inter- in the short and long term, and how they might be actions of basic. processes are still imprecisely under- afforded better protection by incorporating'sound stood; the complexity of ,interactions and rea.tions principles into the evaluation procedure. It does not defies the easy transfer of lessons learned in the presume to identify and assess the present status of laboratory or under actual field conditions to the estuarine habitat for fish production other than protect or improve fishery habitats. Usually they in broad terms. A comprehensive treatment of the deal with only a few of the critical variables and a latter will demand appraisal by competent authorities few states of nature of the total system. Advances in many specializations-a' herculean task outside in knowledge and the state-of-the-art in the last the terms of reference of the present paper. five years would have had to be substantial and significant to effect any improvement in the diagnosis and prognosis of the health of 'the. estuarine habi- DEGRADATION OF FISHERIES HABITATS: AN ELUSIVE AND COMPLEXtat. PH ENOMENON In. the late 1960's, .th rate of change brought about by economic activity in the estuarine zone The two earlier studies mentioned in the introduc-ologists at tion complemented each other, �emphasizing the that time was appraised as "generally concerned with paucity of reliable benchmarks for assessing the identification of. system types, the development of exact nature and extent of the damage to estuarine general theory, and the measurement of system fisheries habitats. These studies pointed to the in- characteristics and operating phenomena. Much is adequacy of knowledge (including techniques aniad known about certain elements of estuarine ecological instrumentation) to diagnose principal causes affect- systems, such as tempetaifres, salinities, abundance ing the health and productivty of 'this habitat. "- ''.. .. P "The National Estuarine ion Study," p. 269. Prescription "of remedial' 'ma~ures then, in 1970, Ibid., p. 272. .. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOUiCES 97 of certain biotic communities, but the specific crease the number of stressed systems and the degree processes and causal relationships of complex whole of stress.7 systems and interacting subsystems have only re- A crude network analysis of some of the impacts cently been partially understood." 4 and the changes brought about in an estuary as a A quantitative assessment of the trend in estuarine result of a single modification-dredging-is shown ecological system modification-degradation was not in Figure 1. It illustrates the complexity of the feasible; all that could be observed were three interactions which investigators have to identify and general effects and a qualitative trend. specify in tracing the effects on an aquatic ecosystem To the three principal forms of modification subject to many modifications of varying intensities brought about in estuaries as a result of man's diurnally and seasonally. activities-significant waste discharges, dredging and That considerable research is needed to adequately filling, and constructing physical structures on predict the effect of erosion, siltation, and sedimen- fresh water inflows or in the estuaries themselves- tation on an aquatic ecosystem in a farm pond were attributed three generalized effects: highlights the difficulty and the magnitude of the research effort which would allow us to predict the 1. Productivity of biotic communities is generally effects of many and simultaneous changes in an reduced due to many factors, including reduction or estuary. over-provision of nutrients, abrupt changes in tem- In summary, the complexity of the estuarine sys- peratures and salinities, changes in circulation pat- tems themselves and of the responses to man's terns, and destruction of physical components of the activities precluded any realistic attempt to assess system. national and regional trends in the estuarine en- 2. Specie diversity and organization are simplified. vironment. "At this stage of knowledge such trend- 3. Trends toward severely modified ecosystems ing based on scientifically tested information is are established.5 impossible."8 The present status of estuarine health for fish The assessment was made "that most, if not all, production eludes detailed specific diagnosis; how- major estuarine areas in the continental United ever, certain obvious symptoms can be detected. States are now or soon will be affected by distur- An attempt is made in Table 1 to classify selected bances of more than one identifiable type. These estuaries by the degree of modification, water qual- systems are characterized by heterogeneous patches ity, and reported effects on fish life as evidenced in of chemicals, fertilized waters, waters low in avail- finfish kills and shellfish areas closed. able oxygen, turbidities, acids and other conditions Only a partial, sometimes misleading, picture of alien to normal life of estuarine ecosystems. The the habitat's status is obtainable from these gross multiple stressed situation is possibly the nation's indicators. Fishery productivity measured in terms most urgent estuarine problem because the condi- of the catch of edible species presumably is a useful tion is a mixture and the causes several. The stress indicator of the estuarine habitat, But again there of many different kinds of wastes may be more is a difficulty in disentangling the effects of over- difficult for an ecosystem to adapt to than separate fishing and other natural causes from those stem- types of wastes acting alone." 6 ming from manmade changes in the area. Important estuaries such as Boston Harbor, New The decline of fishery productivity is not a new York Harbor, Raritan Bay, portions of Chesapeake or recent phenomenon. An underlying condition for Bay, Tampa Bay, Galveston Bay and San Francisco a century or more, in estuaries it has been especially Bay were subject to major sources of modificcentuated by the social and economic changes which resulted in identifiable stress in more than accompanying economic growth which has been cen- one of the estuaries' subsystems. Twelve major tered largely around the nation's estuaries. sources of modification were attributed to the And economic demands and the supply possibili- development of the petrochemical complex in Gal- ties chosen by society to turn out its products and veston Bay. These caused stress in seven identifiable services continue to create situations in the estuarine systems. Multiple-stressed systems characterized many estuaries, and man's activities tended to in- 7"A stress on an estuary is a process which drains available energy. Stress can be either direct as in the case of harvesting finfish or shellfish from the system, or indirect as happens when increased turbidities shade out light or when some substance such as phenol is added to the aquatic 4"The National Estuarine Pollution Study," pp. 305-306. These re- system, either causing mortality or demanding special adaptive work on marks should not be construed to indicate that there is the presumption the part of surviving organisms to sustain life. Energy drains on existing or the competency to assess the present state-of-the art. organisms may also occur when excesses of nutrients added to the system "6 The National Estuarine Pollution Study," p. 306. deplete the available oxygen necessary for respiration." Ibid., p. 305. ' "The National Estuarine Polldtion Study," p. 308. a "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," p. 308. cO 0o Remove 5.1 Commercial shellfish shellfish /sh;;;ta I General qullity / sludge Decreae .2 Sport and nutrient commercial pollution Destroy fishery fish habitat bottomInhibit m.Stops gwth. General quality eelgrass and nuisance growth Eelgrass water depth Improve _ .6 Marineidustr. Nv._o navigation Na / Changebottom /. \ . / 5 .2, S.3_ S.9.) . Change bottom Build new g .5.8 Dredging topography c/hannels "Ch ange Water Changesalii ty lgrcirctionl ( Reduce pollutants; General quality | Water at /Form Promote F/Develop offensive 5.5 Destruction of O :(Wd-qaiy)55.-kr pits odors oDergan wetlands wtad Beach maintenane " Land fillRecreation ctfacilities Production . /' of material Coast Spoil waste sand and GD : 'r5.4 S , \ osX t, FIGURE 1.-A network analysis of dredging. Source: National Shoreline Study, Shore Management Guidelines. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., August 1971, p. 36. Original source: Ellis, R. H., et al, 1969. The Development of a Procedure and Knowledge Requirements for Marine Resource Problems of Nassau and Suffolk Counties. The Travellers Research Corp., Hartford, Conn. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 99 Table .--Assessment of status of selected estuarine zones, Biophysical region Location Degree of mpdifications Water quality status Major reported effects North Atlantic .- .. ...... Penobscot Bay Moderately Modified Coastal industries are primarily textile, leather, and ma- chinery, No major water quality problems. Middle Atlantic .- .... Narragansett Bay Moderately-Severely Site of major naval base and various industries. A major port Prohibition of shellfish harvesting in Modified facility. Municipal sewage and industrial waste are major specified areas. pollution problems. Middle Atlantic . ......... Delaware Bay Severely-Moderately Extensive water quality problems exist resulting from the Modified inadequate treatment of municipal waste water com- pounded by sewer overflows. Chesapeake Bay .- . Susquehanna River Moderately-Severely Significant mine drainage in upper basin. Sediments are a Modified nonpoint source pollutant in the lower basin. Chesapeake Bay ...- . ... Potomac River Severely Modified Aclassicexample of theeffects of large quantities of munici- Waste discharge effects are meas- pal wastes on an estuary. During warm summer months urable for 20 miles along the river. dissolved oxygen levels approach zero. South Atlantic .- - ---- Savannah River Severely-Moderately The lower basin is sparsely populated. Only small quantities Modified of municipal and industrial waste are received. South Atlantic .- . ...... St. John's River Moderately Modified Large loads of domestic wastes are received. Algal andweed Fish kills have occurred on occasion. problems are frequent, in addition to high turbidity. Gulf of Mexico - - -------. Apalachicola Bay Moderately Modified Limited development emphasis on commercial fishing and Bacteriological problems have forced recreation; however, municipal wastes are a problem. closure of most shellfish har- vesting. Gulf of Mexico .-.. .. Mobile Bay Severely Modified Estuarine degradation resulting from municipal and indus- Highly sensitive shellfish industry trial wastes, in addition to extensive physical modifica- threatened byincreasing:pollution. tions. Gulf of Mexico .- . . ...... Mississippi River Severely Modified Phosphorusand nitrogensufficientforalgaegrowthandget- Elimination of commercial fishing ting worse. Phenols and hydrocarbons levels high:Munici- below St. Louis, Missouri and pal and industrial sewage a primary factor. Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Gulf of Mexico _...- - -. Galveston Bay Severely Modified Concentrated industry, along with extensive channeling, Shellfish harvesting limitations have dredging, and other modifications. Water quality has been existed in many areas for the past significantly lowered. 20 years. Pacific Southwest .- . .... San Diego Bay Severely Modified Site of large naval base, extensive land fill and other modifi- Loss of much of the marshlands. cations. Municipal wastes being cleared up. Pacific Southwest .-.. . .. San Francisco Bay Severely Modified Heavy concentrations of industry and population are the Shellfish harvesting restricted. Nu- source of large quantities of waste. Numerous areas de- merous fish kills. ficient in dissolved oxygen. Pacific Northwest .- . . ... Columbia River Moderately Modified Supersaturation of gases from dams along river. General Some fish kills from supersatura- water quality is good, with no overall changes in past six tion. years. Pacific Northwest .- . Puget Sound Moderately Modified Water quality affected mainly by municipal and industrial wastes, as well as by agriculture and silviculture. 1 Sources: Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Planning and Standards. August 1974. National Water Quality Inventory, 1974 Report to the Congress. EPA-44019- 74-001, Washington, D. C. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. August 1970. National Estuary Study, Volume II, Washington, D. C. National Estuarine Pollution Study. August 1970. Report to the Secretary of the Interior to the United States Congress, 91st Congress, pursuant to Public Law 89-753, The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966, Washington, D. C. I Relatively unmodified refers to an estuary approaching its natural state. Moderately and severely modified estuaries are defined as those areas undergoing limited and extensive development, respectively. None of the selected locations qualified as relatively unmodified. and coastal zones where fisheries (and wildlife habi- deductions and the deleterious external effects have tats) are, with few exceptions, subject to continuing exacted their full measure. encroachment and degradation. Fish and wildlife That economic activities could be conducted in a habitat in many instances become the residue of the way to reduce these impacts without incurring great present process-that is, what remains after all the costs underlies recent legislation to reduce the nega- 100 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL tive effects of these other production processes on brought about by other competing uses is difficult the estuaries' production of finfish and shellfish.9 to establish. Damage may be, and often is, difficult State and local governments have enacted addi- to detect. This'simply emphasizes that it is essential tional legislation aimed in general at reducing the to know what fish and wildlife and habitat values detrimental impacts of economic growth on the are being destroyed and when their value is sufficient estuarine resource. A summary of coastal and estu- to buy off further encroachment or deleterious side arine zone legislation is given in Appendix Table 1 effects of other uses.10 for the coastal states and Hawaii. The table shows that actual plans for coastal and estuarine manage- ment, with the exception of North Carolina for COMPETITION FOR USE which a preliminary plan was prepared in 1970, are AND THE VALUATION PROBLEM not yet in existence although legislation affording protection to coastal wetlands and tidal marshlands Increasing competition for the use of the estuarine protection to coastal wetlands and tidal marshlands habitat resources is central to their present and has been enacted in most of the states. habitat resources is central to their present and has been enacted in most of the states. future management concerns. The perennial chal- However, for reasons already given it is difficult future management concerns. The perennial chal- to assess the efficacy of these measures since they lenge to management is to allocate according to have been in operation only a relatively short time, value while avoiding irreversibilities. It takes time to repair delicate biological systems The crux of the problem in the estuarine zone is and to build up fish stocks. Besides, rehabilitation how to allocate its resources to obtain the highest of fish stocks is subject to fishing pressures and long-term net social value. The relative importance natural changes not directly attributable to man. of the various demands and t benefits to be re- Little is known about the relative significance of ceived have to be evaluated. Any manmade altera- man-caused stresses such as overfishing and natu- tion, development, or management should account rally occurring stresses on estuarine-dependent fin- for both market and extramarket values stemming fish and the productivity of their habitati from a productive fisheries habitat as well as for The backwardness of our skills in assessing the those essentially market products from other uses damage to estuarine biota can only be judged as of the estuary-cooling water, waste disposal, trans- serious when viewed against the increasing competi- portation, land fill, et cetera. tion for the uses of most of the nation's estuaries. The resources involved-land, tidelands, marshes, Failure to devise adequate monitoring and design wetlands, free flowing streams, et cetera-have alter- management to conserve the fisheries resource and native uses. The preservation of estuarine land and its habitat while equitably allocating estuarine re- water for fish production cani incur high cost in sources to various uses, increases the likelihood that terms of the proceeds from other uses that are for- degradation by gradual attrition will be the fate of feited. Benefits that society foregoes from not using many estuaries. this water and land to produce power, water supply, Damage assessment is fundamental to the valu- waste disposal, industry and home real estate, in ation issue. The value of a segment of estuarine some instances, are considerable; in other situations, fishery habitat may be defined as what an informed very few benefits are forfeited to retain healthy society would exchange for it in terms of the pro- stuarine fish production may require ceeds from a non-fishery use. ceeds from a non-fishery use. standard to retain fish production may require a It has been argued that the damage to the estu- very small insurance premium to avert what might arine fisheries habitat by the direct killing of com- prove to be substantial losses to society in the mercial and sport species, by the elimination of a long run. necessary food supply, or by damage to the repro- A comprehensive evaluation of these fish produc- necessary food supply, or by damage to theio resources is consequently urgent and funda- ductive capability of any link in the food chain m ental. Only then will society urgent able to see in mental. Only then will society be able to see in 9 The criteria and guidelines society adopts for the conduct of economic perspective the loss-benefit balance of the. many and social activities as they impinge on the estuarine environment are not resources. At this point, the neces- unalterable as major federal legislation relating directly or indirectly to uses of estuarie resources. At this poit, the neces- the preservation of the quantity and quality of estuarine fishery habitat that has come into force since 1969 clearly testifies. The conduct of economic 10 Environmental forecasting is still in its infancy although the National activity may be broadly interpreted to include the way people live, work, Environmental Policy Act has been in force some five years. Substantial recreate, and are housed and transported in the estuarine zone. The follow- effort is now under way in "an attempt to find methodologies for forecasting ing is a list of some of the more significant federal acts: the impact of man's activities on flood plains and coastal zones." The 1969-National Environment Policy Act Environmental Law Institute and the International Biological Program 1970--Environmental Quality Improvement Act of the National Science Foundation have focused their research efforts on 1972-Coastal Zone Management Act these two ecosystems. Environmental Quality, The Fifth Annual Report Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of the Council on Environmental Quality, December 1974, pp. 409-410. Marine Mammals Protection Act " The safe minimum standard as an objective of conservation policy Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act is discussed by S. V. Ciriacy-Wantrup in Research Conservation Economics, Pesticide Control Act Revised Edition, University of California Press, 1963, pp. 251-270, LIVING AND NON-LIVING REsoURCES 101 sity for effective management for maximum benefits each acre is not valuable by itself but the total and minimum losses will become clear. habitat is irreplaceable."'2 While an appropriate calculus surely should be While the guiding principle to evaluation is erudite devised, this has proved to be no easy task. The and socially sound-that net returns to society for admixture of market and extramarket values makes all uses of the estuary should be the greatest attain- reliable estimation difficult if not impossible. able-there is difficulty in translating this principle Many of the estuarine values apply to uses such into operational terms. The quantitative assessment as sport fishing, boating and aesthetic enjoyment- of all the real cost created by a proposed action to activities for which there are no formally organized alter estuarine conditions is almost unresolvable.13 market places where monetary worth can be meas- There are, however, important practical considera- ured. These are extramarket values for which at tions, tenets of economic good sense which can ensure best proxies may be devised. that alternative courses of action do not unduly Values established in the market place are not restrict future options. Useful proxies for the differ- available for all the services provided by a produc- ent pertinent measures supporting these tenets can tive estuarine fishery habitat; those extramarket be devised in quantitative or qualitative terms. benefits-days of sport fishing, clam bakes, et In deciding how much, if any, of an estuarine cetera-nevertheless are real, of worth to society resource should be developed, the relative scarcity and might be assumed to be increasing as natural of the aquatic habitat, the numbers of flora, fauna estuarine areas diminish. and fish it supports, and other critical natural fea- :i ,Values for estuarine resources are also set by the tures must be identified. The functions that certain non-market system as in the legislative process critical lands like wetlands serve in their natural state !it which expresses choices indicating social costs and should be rigorously delineated and documented.'4 benefits not measured in marketplace terms. The The relative scarcity of the fisheries resource is an acts of state legislatures to conserve estuarine marsh important consideration. It is demonstrable that and wetland habitat illustrate this process of social estuarine resources provide aesthetic and unique choice. services, in addition to the production of fin and Many of the "services" produced by an estuary shellfish which are increasing in economic value. are joint products-a commercial fish catch is de- Estuarine resources for fish production have appre- pendent on the estuarine habitat but the estuarine ciated in value as the demand for commercial and zone also provides safe anchorage for the fishing recreational fishing has responded to population fleet. growth and economic affluence and the diminution Where substantial benefits, in terms of commer- of estuarine habitats near large population centers. cial products and services, are forfeited to preserve A number of technological possibilities will moder- estuarine fisheries habitat, economic reasoning is ate the impact of the other uses on fisheries habitat; confronted by the following question: What is the water reuse and air cooling by diminishing the optimum amount of estuary to maintain today, demands for the intake of fresh water and/or brack- tomorrow and in the future for its various uses so ish water, desalting of brines and seawater, nuclear that the stream of net social benefits from all uses of power, and improved water treatment argue a rea- the estuary, present and potential, will be maximum? soned case for maintaining flexibility. A maximization of social welfare in the long term When the removal of aquatic habitat can cause is the goal. Quite probably, society can afford the irreversible consequences, there is a case for rea- first yard or the first mile of estuarine tideland with soned delay-time in which to demonstrate thor- much less loss in fish and wildlife than that involved oughly the need for this estuary development and in taking a subsequent segment; but to determine to acquire the knowledge that will allow its conse- the point at which values foregone are greater than quences to be predicted more reliably." An "insur- those gained is extremely difficult and demands a ~~~~~~~~good knowledge of the working o~12 "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," p. 289 good knowledge of the working of the total eco- -1 This is reimpressed if one asks what the loss to mankind is if by his system and its overall production possibilities and actions a species of fin or shell fish is rendered extinct. 14 The critical natural features theory was adopted in the decision of some informed estimates of the likely effect of the Wisconsin Supreme Court: "The Just vs. Marinette County (4 ERC, changing one or another of its physical, chemical 1941, Wisconsin, 1972) stands as an explicit judicial recognition that regulations preserving certain publicly critical features of land may be and biological characteristics. upheld without compensation despite great loss in economic development "The National Estuarine Pollution Study" stated potentil." See Environmental Quality, the fourth annual report of the Council on Environmental Quality, 1973, pp. 148-147. the valuation dilemma somewhat differently. "There 1" It is true that the filling of tidal marshlands, often termed irreversible, can be reversed by expenditure of large amounts of both time and money. are now (1970) about 5.5 million acres of important It is virtually impossible to obtain an exact replica of the ecosystem as it estuarine marsh and wetland habitat remaining in was prior to disturbance. An irreversible condition for present purposes is defined as one for which the time or cost of the reversion is so high that the estuarine zone of the United States. Perhaps in all likelihood it will not be undertaken. 102 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ance premium" is paid to keep such an option open and the particular fishery habitat are not the only when the benefits of the development use are de- practical considerations. The availability of substi- ferred. In some instances, these benefits may be tutes and substitute sites for the products to be considerable but so might the permanent loss of a obtained from estuarine resources is a basic con- critical segment of fishery habitat. These are sensi- sideration. Are there other opportunities including tive trade-offs; the benefits should be identified and technical possibilities for the development of prod- measured where possible. ucts which even though they make the product Analyses ascertaining the fundamental biological more costly are not so costly in terms of depleting relationships of the ecosystem show the relation of biological resources and aesthetic qualities? a part to the whole and are a necessary prerequisite The economic reasoning in following this tenet of to devising measures which are safeguards against the evaluation credo may be illustrated from an irreversibility. In other words, interest centers on actual case study for the San Francisco Bay. Pro- what happens to the whole when a part of the jected dredging and retrieval of aggregate (at low ecosystem is modified or converted to other than its operations costs) from an extensive and shallow natural use. aggregate source such as the Potato Patch Shoals, Investigation of the relation of the part to the immediately outside the Golden Gate, would very whole (of the role of specific estuarine habitat such likely jeopardize the support for the local supply of as tideland to the overall aquatic environment) pre- crabs in the bay area. In such a situation, the follow- sents the biologist and ecologist with a very complex ing questions should be answered. For what purposes problem-one which is further complicated by com- is the aggregate required? Is it to be used for con- partmentalized planning studies which frequently crete construction or for bay fill to create additional ignore or deemphasize these interrelationships. home and factory sites to further accelerate the The system's approach is violated when agencies diminution of estuarine habitat? If the former, are responsible for estuarine management are requested there other sources of aggregate; if the latter, what to evaluate a development. In many instances, these is the relative scarcity of homesites in the vicinity? agencies do not have the choice of proposing an In other words, have all the opportunities for the alternative to the development they have been asked projected homesites or supply centers for aggregate to evaluate, nor do they have the research capability for construction or fill been carefully explored? What and manpower to investigate and sponsor such alter- additional costs are involved in selecting alternative natives. Appropriate tenets of evaluation are of little sites both for aggregate and for homes or factories? use in estuarine management unless they receive These costs could prove to be not so great when institutional sanction and are activated by compe- compared with the benefits flowing from an appreci- tent technical and management staff. ating renewable resource. The present composition of research staffing in On the other side of the ledger, what would be many agencies, especially water resources and fish the economic repercussions of losing a valuable local and game, is largely oriented to a preponderantly seafood resource? The impact of losing the local engineering viewpoint even to the assessment of crab resource is not measured solely in the loss of social values. Biological, ecological, and social view- income to fishermen who forfeit all or part of their points should not be subservient to that of engineer- customary livelihood. There are the indirect or ing, efficiency or the constructionist: a partnership neighborhood effects which must be accounted for. is urgently required, and this will mean adequate, Fishermen's Wharf, a traditional center for seafood, competent staffing in these three categories. could experience a decline in expenditures by both The type of research advocated above and the local clientele and tourists, with further repercus- employment of sound tenets of evaluation would sions in the business sector. The costs enumerated serve to unmask "the tyranny of small decisions" are real and cannot be omitted in the tally of social. where one decision taken at a time is relatively costs occasioned by the loss. of a vital part of any unimportant but given time and additional decisions fish support system. the system is completely altered.' The cumulative In summary, many estuaries, in providing healthy effects in the future of many small irreversible com- fishery habitats, are appreciating assets and some mitments of the remaining 5.5 million acres of estu- development decisions are irreversible. And although arine marsh and wetland habitat (1970) were the current evaluation methods do not adequately quan- special concern of the "National Estuarine Pollution tify all social values, even a reasonably accurate Study."'7 picture cannot be obtained of the social costs and The relative scarcities of the fishery resource itself benefits of maintaining or improving estuarine fish 1 Kahn, A. E. 1966. The Tyranny of Small Decisions: Market Failures, production unless economic reasoning is fully em- Imperfections, and the Limits of Economics. Dkylos. 19 (1): 23-47. 17 "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," p. 289. ployed to provide insight to alternative courses. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 103 VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING: Table 2.-Fisheries: Quantity and value of catch 1930-72, INDICATOR OF SOCIAL IMPORTANCE For For Total human industrial Value Average While many extramarket uses of estuarine habitat Year use products2 (million price per remain unmeasured in strict quantitative market (million pounds) (cents) terms, the commercial catch can be valued in dif- ferent economic terms-its value to the fishermen, 1930------- 3224 2,478 746 109 3.4 1940 ------- 4,000 2,675 1,385 99 2.4 to the processor, or the final price paid by consumers. 1950 . ..... 4,901 3,307 1,594 347 7.1 In all instances, whatever value is adopted it is but 1960 ... ... 4,942 2,498 2,444 354 7.2 one indicator, an incomplete one of the worth of 196------ 4,777 2,587 2,190 4946 9.3 1...4,160 2,347 1,613 497 11.9 estuarine fisheries habitats. 1969 4,337 2,321 2,016 518 12.1 In broad terms, estuarine fisheries habitats are 1970 4,917 2,537 2,380 613 12.5 1971 - --- 4,969 2,400 2,569 643 12.9 highly valuable and significant assets; approximately 1972 4,710 2,310 2,400 704 14.9 65 percent of all commercial fish species and prac- tically all of the sports fish species are dependent , Does not include the value of fish harvested by foreign vessels off the U.S. coast upon the estuarine zone for one or more phases of 2 Manufactured into meal, oil, fish solubles, homogenized condensed fish, and shell their life development. products, and used as bait and animal food. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract The estuary is the ultimate source of food for some of the United States: 1973, 94th edition, Washington, D.C., 1973, Table No. 1072, continental-shelf species and most marine predators, p. 635, citing U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Fishery Statistics including tuna."8 of the United States, annual. The estuary is then the vital support system to a valuable renewable resource, fish, which supplies a and equipment and supplies used in catching and significant portion of the edible protein consumed landing fish. Sizable income would be lost to these by man. In addition, the estuary is an important suppliers and manufacturers if the commercial fish- source of fish meal, a high protein feed for another ery were to close important source of edible protein, poultry and It has been estimated that the multiplier associ- Two-thirds of the total landed value of commer- ine. ated with commercial fish harvesting is 2.96. This Two-thirds of the total landed value of commer- . . . cial fish and shellfish has been estimated as derived means that $2i96 of economic atuty (ocludeg from1~~~~~~~~ e ie. supportive industries, expenditures on fuel, equip- from estuarine-dependent species.l Other estimates ment, wages, et cetera) is generated from each dollar cite the annual landed value of commercial fisheries of additional income to fishermen.23 as being 75 percent estuarine-dependent or associ- Estimates of future market demand, coupled with ated fish.20 Regionally the values vary; in the Gulf the probable scarcity of future supplies, indicate a of ,Mexico, estuarine-dependent resources supply 90 continuation of rising values for estuarine-dependent percent of the commercial catch.21 fish. Estuaries as fishery habitats are rapidly appre- The 1972 commercial catch was valued at $704 The 1972 commercial catch was valued at $704 ciating national assets. Figure 2 illustrates the in- million (see Table 2). Estuarine-dependent species crease in future market demand, which is projected crease in future market demand, which is projected provided $470 million, a 57 percent increase in the to double by the year 2000. landed market value of $300 million in 1965. At an Further, income elasticities for different fishery interest rate of five percent, the capital investment required.t return .,70 million annually would be products attest to increasing demands for finfish and required to return $470 million annually would be appoxl .4 . Ti pe crustaceans basically dependent upon an estuarine approximately $9.4 billion.22 This provides an esti- environment. Income elasticities of demand for fish mate of the importance of the estuarine fisheries habitats for the United States commercial catch product in response to a change in consumer income. product in response to a change in consumer income. Another measure of the economic importance of Income elasticities for some important estuarine the commercial fishing industry is the income gen- fish have been estimated as follows: lobster, 2.1; crated by its demand for basic inputs such as boats shrimp, 1.8; fresh and frozen salmon, 1.6; crab, 1.3; IsEstuarine dependence is based on whether one or more phases of and groundfish (flounder being representative), 1.2.24 the species' life cycle is spent in estuaries. The estuarine dependence of Income elasticities are indicative of future consump- important sport and commercial fish is shown in Table IV.2.1 of The Na- tional Estuarine Pollution Study. tion. For example, a 10 percent increase in per .. The National Estuari ne Pollution S tudy,"p. 151. 3"The National Estuaryine Pllution tudy,Ad p. 1S6. capita income would be accompanied by an 18 "1 "National Estuary Study," v. 0, Appendix E, p. 16. It McHugh, J. L. November 1968. "Are Estuaries Necessary?" Cornm- percent increase in the quantity of lobster consumed, meeical Fisheries Review, 30 (11): 37-45. 22 The value of tidal marshes on the east coast has been deduced as a 16 percent irease i the quantity of shrimp $2500 to $4000 per acre per year; when these annual social values are consumed, and a 16 percent increase in the quantity income capitalized at five percent interest, the estimated total social values are $50,000 to $80,000 per acre. Gosselink, J. G., E. P. Odum and R. M. Pope. 1974. The Value of the Tidal Marsh. Pub. No. LSU-SG-74-03, 23 "National Estuary Study," v. 5, Appendix E. p. 17. Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 24 Ibid. 104 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 30 1 \<\\ffi\�P5 *<gothe estuarine environment as they relate to sport 30~ ~fishing.8 Not all uses of estuarine resources compete with 2 \> \ >5 \\ \ \ \\ A \\fishery production. There is a degree of compatibility ~\ ,\ 20 ,\ \ between fish production and the discharge of nutri- 20 K \\"\\ '\\ N\ \\ "ents or heated water. IS > 15\ The assimilative capacities of the estuarine zone | KN>'\ :)>~ \$\\<@ \\allow limited quantities of non-toxic waste to be Ao I11 I 1K1 \"\\ \ ' N, assimilated by the system. Small quantities of waste TIg n I Potrc, 1 l \N\ \X \\0 \\\ y\\ can even be helpful to fishery productivity by sup- o7,ME5TC CArTCH ,@ ~ plying necessary nutrients irn sufficient quantities. o950 /960 MO, " 980 W 2000 The economic contribution made by the assimila- (950 o960 1970 ,960 (990 2000 FIGURE 2.-U.S. market for fishery products. Source: U.S. tive capacity of five eastern estuaries (Delaware, Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. March East, Hudson, James and Potomac) was estimated 26, 1970. National Estuary Study 5, Appendix F. Washington, to be $5,903,000.29 This value relates only to a D.C.: 17. miniscule part of the total chemical and biochemical processes occurring within these estuaries. The en- of salimon consumed. The consumption of all: of the vironmental services in toto performed by an estu- species indicated above increases more than propor- arine zone defy meaningful calculation. The full tionally with income rises. extent of their value would become more compre- hendable if it were ever necessary to replace or substitute the complete range of these services. IMPUTED VALUES OF SPORT FISHERIES: ANOTHER USEFUL INDICATOR IMPORTANT SOCIAL AND Nearly every sport fish species is dependent upon ECONOMIC TRENDS the estuarine zone for one or more phases of its life cycle.25 It is concluded that "saltwater sport fishing Changing economic and demographic patterns is far more closely related to estuaries than com- have exerted developmental pressures which are the mercial fisheries.26 The estuarine zone offers a great most significant factors affecting the estuarine fish- diversity of environment and species to sport fish- ery habitat. Certain trends with implications for ing. For this and other reasons, sport fishing has degradation of the estuarine environment are pro- become an increasingly popular and economically jected to continue; population will grow rapidly in important aspect of estuarine fisheries use. coastal counties, with expansion in the urban-sub- By the year 2000 sport fishing is expected ito urban areas, and ports and the volume of commerce increase by some two to two and one-half times in will expand as these economic bases grow. Projected saltwater and the Great Lakes.27 All indications activities in the estuarine zone, consequently, will point to sport fishing's becoming an increasingly play a decisive and increasing role in determining valuable use of estuarine fisheries habitats. This the future productivity of the fishery habitat. value lies not only in the value of the actual fish Two broad sources of degradation of fishery habi- caught, but in the social value of recreational activ- tat are foreseen as resulting if these pressures are ity, as well as in the great variety of related goods not suitably countered by informed management. and services generated by the fishing activity. While The first source is constituted of direct pollution dollars can be imputed to estuarine sport fishing of nutrients and toxic materials from municipal and activities, and a number of useful refinements have industrial wastewater discharges and dumping; agri- been made in the art of economic measurement, as cultural runoff carrying pesticides, salt, nutrients yet the joint-products dilemma has not been resolved and silt; thermal heat and waste from power develop- satisfactorily. These values, computed either by ap- ,,The annual net benefits for recreational fishing in San Francisco plying an administrative price for user days or by Bay for 1966 and 1980 were estimated to be $9 million and $15.5 million using travel-cost imputation are useful to give an repectively. An administratively adjudged user day value varying from using travel-cost imputation are useful to give an $.50 to $1.50 per day was applied to fishing days to impute net benefit. order of magnitude assessment for a specific activity See Delisle, G. October 1966. Preliminary Fish and Wildlife Plan for San Francisco Bay-Estuary. Prepared for the San Francisco Bay Conservation in a specific location but are inadequate to encom- and Development Commission: 94. pass all the joint services-values stemming from 9 Economic and Social Importance of Estuaries. April 1971. Estuarine Pollution Study Series 2, Environmental Protection Agency, David Sweet, Project Director: 55-56. The dollar value was calculated as follows. The 26 "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," p. 115. pounds of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) that had to be removed to 26 "Economic and Social Importance of Estuaries," p. A-22. achieve a one mg/l increase in minimum dissolved oxygen was estimated. 27 "The National Estuary Study," v. 5, Appendix E., p. 32. The cost of removing a pound of BOD was assessed at $0.04. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 105 ments; storm water runoff and discharges from other diffuse sources; spills and leakages of hazardous materials into coastal zone, and pollution within the estuary from dredging, channeling and other alter- ations. The second source can occur through the non- pollutional damage of the fishery habitat through I n ur landfills, overfishing, and even depletion of marine life by excessive collection and study. Degradation : of the latter type is occurring in some parts of the tidal zone of California. The impact of the waste in all media-water, air | M and solid-from point and diffuse sources varies greatly from estuary to estuary depending upon the PLt pby . p combined concentrations that directly or indirectly find their way into a specific estuary. The geophysi- cal structure of the estuary, the physical processes of advection and diffusion, variations in freshwater inflow and many other major physical processes inflow and many other major physical processes FIGURE 8.-The fate and distribution of estuarine pollutants. which at present are only qualitatively understood Under favorable conditions, the pollutants are diluted, dis- determine the mixing of these various forms of persed, and transported by turbulent mixing, ocean currents, wastes at the freshwater-saltwater interface and and migrating organisms. The mixing is often restricted so throughout the estuarine area. that high concentrations of pollutants can exist in local areas. The characteristics that allow an estuary to con- In addition, biological, chemical, and physical processes con- centrate pollutants and lead the pollution back to man. centrate and reuse nutrients that sustain fish pro- Source: Patterns and Perspective in Environmental Science. ductivity also make the estuary a concentrator of Report prepared for National Science Board, National Science pollution and waste.30 Foundation. 1972. Figure VIII-8, p. 245. Compounding the effects of waste concentration is the vulnerability of estuarine residents. Many of the estuarine organisms are living near the limit of The future aquatic environment will be greatly their range of tolerance and any further alteration, influenced by the success of water quality control regardless of how slight it may be, has the potential programs not only as they relate to the estuary of excluding an organism from the estuary.3 Further- proper but to the freshwater streams flowing into more, the deposition of most of these wastes occurs the estuaries. offshore in the shallow areas of the estuaries, areas of highest productivity and necessary to the estuary MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL for the production of oxygen. WASTE DISCHARGES Figure 3 depicts the fate and distribution of estu- arine pollutants; only the elementary processes in- Since increases in population are usually accom- volved in what is a highly complex phenomenon volved in what is a highly complex phenomenon panied by increases in the loads of municipal and ~~~~~are indicated. ~industrial wastes, discharging and dumping of these An appraisal of the impacts of wastes on fishery wastes, (although greatly reduced from the levels productivity in different estuaries is a complicated of the late 1960) must be counted a major problem task and cat be aof the late 1960's) must be counted a major problem task and cannot be attempted in this paper for task and. c t ., a e in most estuarine zones in the populous areas of reasons already given. It is possible, however, to the nation. identify those intensifications of use of the estuarine the estuarine areas grew by 78 per- resources which are compounding and will compound cent from 1930 to 1960 while national population the difficulty of maintaining fishery resources. grew by only 46 percent. In 1970, 33.7 percent of 30 Duke, T. W. and R. R. Rice. 1967. Cycling of Nutrients in Estuaries. the United States population resided in the estuarine Proceedings of Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, (19):59:67. Pome- economic areas. The population residing in these roy, L. R., R. J. Reimold, L. R. Shenton and R. D. H. Jones. 1972. Nutrient Flux in Estuaries. Nutrients and Eutrophication, edited by G. E. Likens, areas as a percent of the national total is projected American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Special Symposium to 1:274-296; Schelske, C. L. and E. P. Odum. 1961. Mechanisms Maintain- grow to 34 percent by 1980, 36.9 percent by ing High Productivity in Georgia Estuaries. Proceedings of Gulf and 1990, and 38.8 percent by 2000, when 107 million Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 14:75-80. (The levels of phosphorus in estuarine water have been shown to be 10 to 40 times higher than in the people out of 275 million will be living in or close river-water flowing into the estuary.) to estuarine areas. ElOdum, William E. 1970. Insidious Alteration of the Estuarine Environment. Transactions of American Fishery Society, 4: 836-845. The projected populations for different estuarine 106 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 3.-Estimates and projections of population in the estuarine economic region and individual area (in thousands) Individual estuary economic areas' 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Maine coast ..- ...................... 471.7 499.7 531.5 576.7 633.6 688.2 Massachusetts-Rhode Island coast .- . --------- 4,355.4 4,794.3 5,194.3 5,729.2 6,390.6 '7,958.2 Connecticut coast . ..-. ... 761.2 934.9 1,057.0 1,184.8 1,343.9 1,492.2 New York-northeast New Jersey ..- . . - ---- 13,593.6 15,603.5 17,376.5 19,114.4 21,061.0 23,022.3 Philadelphia-New Jersey-Delaware ...- .. . .... 4,399.3 5,320.8 5,939.9 6,661.5 .7,567.1 8,505.8 Maryland-Virginia coast .......... ........ ........ 4,473.0 5,739.5 6,812.8 8,023.3 9,573.3 11,172.1 North Carolina coast .-... ....... 447.1 511.7 529.0 546.1 582.7 623.0 South Carolina coast ..-.. . ... - - 374.8 466.2 503.2 539.0 595.7 652.2 Georgia--eastern Florida coast .- . ........ 1,432,5 2,637.8 3,698.7 4,699.3 5,752.5 6,941.1 Southern Florida gulf coast - .. . . .... 547.7 1,058.7 1,369.0 1,663.1 1,931.0 2,302.7 Central Florida gulf coast - ............ . ....... . 98.0 126.5 134.2 150.2 171.0 198.1 Mississippi-Alabama-west Florida coast ..... ...... 563.0 818.5 977.0 1,135.3 1,363.3 1,603.2 Louisiana coast ..----.-.. .. ..------------ 1,177.8 1,535.3 1,814.7 1,974.4 2,168.6 2,930.0 Texas north gulf coast - .... . . - ---- 1,324.7 1,900.8 1,206.7 2,710.4 3,304.1 4,026.1 Texas south gulf coast ..- .... - 441.5 563.8 635.6 704.1 792.3 878.2 Southern California coast .- .---................... 5,233.5 8,224.9 10,826.2 13,586.9 16,906.1 20,331.0 Central California coast ..- . . ......... 2,944.2 3,972.6 5,084.6 6,280.3 7,696.9 9,150.2 Northern California coast .- . ...----- 78.0 122.7 151.0 188.1 230.1 273.8 Oregon coast ...-.. .. - -------- 1,091.4 1,276.8 1,389.3 1,602.7 1,849.6 2,087.7 Washington coast ---...- 1,493.7 1,837.3 2,165.5 2,536.8 2,972.6 3,444.1 Estuarine economic region total population .- - ----- 45,302.1 57,946.2 68,396.9 76;600.7 92,940.0 106,900.3 Total U.S. population . ..-.. .. - - 151,370 179,320 203,210 225,000 252,000 275,000 Percentage of U.S. population in estuary economic areas 29.9% 32.2% 33.7% 34.0% 36.9% 38.8% Source: Office of Business Economics, Regional Economics Division, and U.S. Bureau of the Census Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 1973. economic areas are shown in Table 3.32 In addition, effects of increased treatment had been virtually these populous coastal counties, while they contain cancelled by larger wasteloads. Other forms of water only 15 percent of the land area, have 40 percent pollution such as phosphates and nitrate nutrients (1969) of the manufacturing activities within their were on the rise. Fish kills, beach closings, algal boundaries. growths, oily scums, and odors were still prevalent. Information on the effects of municipal and indus- Sporadic upgrading of municipal treatment plants trial loads and their treatment on water quality are were often more than offset by nearby industrial not readily available for different estuaries, although effluents. In other cases, cleanings of industry were sampling of water quality parameters in a number offset by increasing municipal discharges."34 of estuaries is part of the ongoing effort. Overall The 1972 amendments to the comprehensive Fed- water quality trends have been assessed for the eral Water Pollution Control Act were designed to nation, but the water quality trends as reported correct these inadequacies, and set a course for a are insufficient indicators of the effects of changing sustained water quality improvement program. conditions for the biological communities in estu- For the period to 1977 the objective of the act, aries.33 They offer no high resolution of the status "to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and of water quality for fish production, but provide biological integrity of the nation's waters," has been useful information on water quality; estuaries are interpreted as requiring standards which will protect natural sinks for water pollutants so that the quality indigenous aquatic life and permit secondary contact of inflowing river water is of consequence to biologi- recreation such as boating and fishing. A quality of cal communities in estuaries. water which will protect aquatic life is considered In 1970, cleanup efforts to improve water quality adequate to ensure other uses such as public water under the federal-state program established by the supply, agricultural industrial use, and navigation." 1965 Water Quality Act were appraised as only To achieve the 1983 interim goal of Sec. 101 (a) holding the line on common organic pollution. "The of the act, providing for the protection and propaga- tion of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and for recreation 2 The estuarine zone economic region includes the coastal counties in and on the water, EPA has proposed water quality plus a few noncoastal counties included as part of estuarine zone Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Recent projections show U.S. population criteria defining maximum limits of acceptability to be slightly lower than those given in Table 3. See U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Kutscher, Ronald. December 1973. 34 Environmental Quality, The Fourth Annual Report of the Council Projections of GNP, Income Output and Employment. Monthly Labor on Environmental Quality, September 1973: 168; Environmental Quality, Review, 96: 3-42. the Second Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, 1971: as EPA National Water Quality Inventory, Report to Congress, Wash- 217-221. ington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. The major waterways s0 p. L. 92-500, Sec 101(a). See also EPA Water Quality Strategy eampled are shown in Appendix Table 2. Paper, March 15, 1974, p. 28. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 107 for chemical and physical constituents in United . Water Pollutants States waters.36 These criteria are based on recom- 600 mendations of-a National Academy of Science report i - - Uncon,,,llld munipal ,ewage and reflect current knowledge of the identifiable 00 Contolled munidpalsewage effects of pollutants on human health, fish and ."...con.treindindS lisandel:tnoililies aquatic life, plants, wildlife, shorelines, and recrea- 400 tion; concentration and dispersal of pollutants; and the effects of pollutants on biological community di- versity, productivity and stability, including factors E_ affecting rates of eutrophication and sedimentation7 200 - The National Water Quality Inventory allows an overview of water quality trends from 1963 to 1972 _---- for 23 waterways (a total of 35 major reaches) ....... draining 70 percent of the Nation's land. It has - | - . furnished some evidence that nutrient levels in- 1971 g95 1971 1985 1971 1985 197 198 creased. "In 84 percent of the reaches, phosphorus Suspended lids Disoedsolids Nu and phosphate (readings exceeded) reference levels FIGURE 4.-The base case of seas: generation of pollutants, associated with potential eutrophication.... 54 per- by sector. (1971 emissions = 100). Source: Council on En- vironmental Quality. Environmental Quality. The Fifth cent of the reaches showed increased phosphorus Annual Report: 295. levels in 1968-72 over the previous years (1963 to � 1968). Nitrate levels also increased in 74 percent of the reaches examined .... other pollutants with high the "uncontrolled" effluents if no pollution abate- levels were phenols that can affect fish palatability ment was undertaken. The result of the analytical and suspended solids which interfere with some tool SEAS, Strategic Environmental Assessment aquatic life processes."3s The major rivers included System, is shown in Figure 4.41 in the water quality analysis and the results are Municipal sewage treatment effluents are pro- set out in Appendix Table 2 and Appendix Tables 3 jected to account for virtually all of the "controlled" and 4, respectively. nutrients and 70 percent of the dissolved solids. Progress in the last five years, 1968 to 1972, is Under the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water evident for oxygen demand and bacteria. The data Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500), discharged available for heavy metals and pesticides showed waste loads from municipal and major industrial that drinking water levels for cadmium, lead, mer- sources (including electrical utilities) then can be cury, iron, and manganese were exceeded by one expected to decrease significantly with implemen- or more samples collected over the 1968 to 1972 tation of a responsive wastewater management period in more than half the reaches examined; nine program. pesticides were found to exceed reference levels in National projections of water quality, however more than half of the reaches."9 reliable and illustrative, are only indirectly meaning- One.indication of the extent and severity of water ful for specific estuaries. Projected waste loads from pollution at present is that to achieve the water municipal and industrial sources for the San Fran- quality target for 1977 approximately 1,600 of the cisco Bay place in better perspective the water 3,100 water quality reaches identified will have to go quality management problem that will confront beyond 1977 technology-based effluent standards.40 many "urbanized estuaries." Projections to 1985 of the state of water quality As in other estuarine zones, an increase in the have been made in an attempt to assess the likely degree of treatment and improvement in operations impact of measures taken under the Federal Water in recent years has kept waste loads discharged to Pollution Control Act. A comparison is made of the San Francisco Bay essentially constant although "controlled" effluents, the levels expected to result population and industrial activities have steadily pursuant to the standards and regulations estab- increased. Diffuse waste sources such as storm run- lished under current water control legislation, and off from urban and non-urban areas, however, are projected to increase as the San Francisco Bay 3a EPA, Water Quality Criteria, 1973. region continues to grow. Graphical comparisons of 17 National Academy of Sciences, Water Quality Criteria, 1972. the waste loads for BOD, heavy metals, and nitro- 3s Results of the National Water Quality Inventory conducted by EPA are summarized in Environmental Quality, 1974, the Fifth Annual Report gen from point and diffuse sources in Figures 5, 6, of the Council on Environmental Quality: 282-288. and 7 point to the necessity to develop a manage- 40 Ibid.: 142. See also EPA Water Quality Strategy Paper, March 15, 1974: 28. 41 Environmental Quality, Fifth Annual Report: 297. 108 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 12- 4.0 I 175 t 3.5 .. '1, e thi DIFFUSE SOURCES 150 " o3.0 %%o 0. X'| TOTAL MUNICIPAL & INDUSTRIAL ,.2 2, 50 U S S Q t.0 x~~~~~~~~~POINT SOURCES "-. MUNICIPAL WITH . %', 90s% BOT REMOVAL .......--- - e i[ 25 0-. -..- . J:"'- , % TOTAL MUNICIPAL & INDUSTRIAL DIFFUSE WITH FINAL EFFLUENT BODO 15mg/ sseo cn de f r o dSOURCES o o 25<F__ !____ ____ A--- �970 19Z5 980 o9a5 j -99 5 1970 1980 1990 1 'i's YEAR FIGURE 6.-Projected heavy metal loads discharged to San FIGURE 5.--Projected BOD loads discharged to San Fran- Francisco Bay. cisco Bay. The storm runoff from a moderate-sized city ment system to contain discharges from diffuse as has been assessed as contributing a heavy load of well as from point sources.42 The projected increase metals-100,000 to 250,000 pounds of lead and in the loads of heavy metals, oil and grease, nitrogen, 6,000 to 30,000 pounds of mercury each year.44 phosphate, and pesticides and in some estuaries The unabated discharge in storm water of heavy polychlorinated biphenyls from diffuse sources also metals, given the toxicity of these metals, is a cause are sufficiently great to alert management to their for concern for the "urbanized estuaries." The treat- implications for the retention of productive fishery ment of municipal and industrial discharges alone habitat.41 in the future will in most instances not be sufficient The importance of runoff in degrading water to insure a productive fishery habitat, one in which quality cannot be dismissed in any plan for compre- the end use-edible fish-is not denied to man hensive water quality management in the estuarine because of high levels of contamination from harm- zone. In urban estuarine areas runoff from storms ful and toxic substances.45 can contribute a major portion of the water pollu- Storm water runoff is but one source of the toxic tion load. In the intense discharge during storms from 94 to 99 percent of the BOD load can be 44 Total Urban Water Pollution Loads: The Impact of Storm Water, contributed by runoff and bypasses. (PB-231/730) is available from National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia, 22151. In July 1973 EPA designated cadmium and mercury used in manufacturing as toxic 42 These figures appear as Figures 7, 8, and 9 in Development of a water pollutants. EPA is currently developing effluent standards govern- Water Quality Control Plan, San Francisco Bay Basin, Workshop, March 5 ing the discharge of these two heavy metals. In addition, EPA is studying 1974, California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, Cali- arsenic, selenium, chromium, lead, sine, beryllium, and nickel for possible fornia: 12. Loads of heavy metals were calculated from available data on inclusion on the list of toxic pollutants. See 38 Federal Register 2434 concentration of cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and (1973), 40 CFR 129. Toxic pollutants are defined as those which "cause sine in existing municipal and industrial wastewater and in urban and death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutations, physi- non-urban storm runoff. ological malfunctions (including malfunctions in reproduction) or physical 48 In July 1973, EPA designated 12 chemicals used in manufacturing deformations in such organisms or their offspring," PL 92-500, Stat. 816, as toxic water pollutants, including cadmium, mercury and polychlorinated 1972. biphenyls, as well as the pesticides aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT and its 45 The minamata disaster reimpresses the gravity of high levels of derivatives DDE and DDD. The pesticide compound toxaphene was also toxic forms (mercury). The effects of low-level exposure over long periods- included. Other metals currently being studied for possible inclusion on genetic, mutagenic and tetragenicity, et cetera--are also legitimate reasons the list include arsenic, selenium, chromium, lead, beryllium, and nickel. for concern. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 109 e raoC.| I I in estuaries unless adequate storage or disposal is practiced. TOTAL POINT SOURCES There are other major sources of trace element contamination to water and land receptors in estu- _ o:...-~o~' arine areas, notably automotive exhaust (lead), leaching from municipal landfills, and incinerator - s o _ and land disposal of sewage sludge from municipal x -MUNICIP PL wastewater treatment.46 Agricultural chemicals con- 8 |I tribute to heavy metal loads as nonpoint water z 25 , pollution, especially mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, a: INDUSTRIAL7 zDIFFUSE SOURCES manganese, and chromium. I' T ILy_ _ /DI I aC The setting of air and water quality standards for t � the various trace elements related to point and dif- 2 1970 1975 1980 i985 1990 1995 2000 YEAR fuse sources of contamination requires the identifi- cation of sources, forms of pollutants, pathways, FIGURE 7.-Projected nitrogen loads discharged to San Fr an- d the effects of each substance on the biological communities in estuaries. Effluent guidelines have been promulgated by trace element contaminants (principally heavy met- EPA for some 29 industries up to June 30. 1974 als) and hazardous and toxic chemicals which are (see Appendix Table 5). Nevertheless, there is urgent distributed by complex pathways encompassing es- need for additional effluent limitation guidelines, for sentially all media and their associated ecosystems. EPA has identified a total of about 180 industrial In estuaries the biological conversion to even more subcategories and 45 additional variances as requir- toxic forms, e.g., organometallics and accumulation ing distinct effluent standards. in the aquatic ecosystems and sub-strates, under- In urban storm water discharges, PCB's and pesti- scores the importance of this pollution problem for cides have been identified as significant compo- estuaries. The potential hazard of certain trace ele- nents.47 Like the heavy metals, hazardous chemicals ments is demonstrated by the concentration factor -diethyl-stilbestrol, thalidomide, DDT, polychlori- for shellfish (see Table 4). nated biphenyls, vinyl chloride, pesticides, and Other sources of trace element emissions to the phthalic acid esters-find their way into the estu- environment are reasonably well identified; quanti- arine environment along a variety of incredibly tative estimates are available for air emissions from complex pathways from many sources.48 different industries and the trace element contents Of all chemical classes, pesticides would appear to of wastewater from lead-zinc processing have been pose the most difficult future pollution problem calculated. Sludges and solid residues (tailings) also since sources are diffuse and spread over millions constitute a source of trace element contaminants of acres in the 18 principal water regions of the nation. Pesticide use in urban areas has increased. Table 4.-Concentration factors for the trace elements composition of shellfish The widespread presence and buildup of persistent compared with the marine environment pesticides in water and in fish and marine mammals are well documented. These characteristics make Scallop Oyster Mussel pesticides and other hazardous and toxic substances a major problem to resolve for the protection of the Silver - - ----------------- Ag 2,300 18,700 330 health of man as well as for estuarine biological Cadmium -.. . d 2,26.......Cd 2,260,000 318,000 100,000 commnities. Chronium .- - ----------- Cr 200,000 60,000 320,000 Copper - - - - ---------------Cu 3,000 13,700 3,000 Iron .- . . . .......... Fe 291,500 68,200 196,000 46sYoung, D. R. et al. February 1973. Source of Trace Metals from Manganese ..- . . . .........Mn 55,500 4,000 13,500 Highly Urbanized Southern California to the Adjacent Marine Ecosystem. Molybdenum .-.. . ......... Mo 90 30 60 Proceedings of a conference on Cycling and Control of Metals, sponsored Nickel - - ---------------- Ni 12,000 4,000 14,000 by EPA, NSF and Battelle: 21-39. On December 6, 1973, EPA promul- gated regulations limiting the lead content of gasoline; allowable level of Lead - --- - -----------------Pb 5,300 3,300 4,000 lead is reduced to an average of 1.7 grams of lead per gallon in 1975, and Vanadium .- ..........V 4,500 1,500 2,500 0.5 grams of lead per gallon in 1979. This is the most significant and con- Zinc ..- . ..-Zn 28,000 110,300 9,100 trollable source of lead exposure. 38 Federal Register 33734, (1973). 47 Sartor, J. D., and G. B. Boyd. November 1972. Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants. 76-81 EPA-R2-72-081. Source: Ketchum, B. H., editor. The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal 48 The pesticides aldrin, dieldrin, endrin and DDT and its derivatives Zone. 1972. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., Table 7.2: 150; based on Brooks, R. R. DDE and DDD were designated toxic water pollutants by EPA in July and M. G. Rumsby. 1965. The Biochemistry of Trace Element Uptake by New Zealand 1973. Sevin, chlordane, lindane, methyl parathion and parathion are cur- Bivalves. Limology and Oceanography 10:521-527. rently being studied for possible inclusion in the list. 110 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL PETROLEUM LEAKAGE spills from blowouts.52 Coastal areas must provide IN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS the space for receiving increased quantities of oil carried by pipelines and tankers as well as additional Natural energy demand, even if stringent conser- refineries. vation measures are in force, is expected to double Annual incremental spill volumes in U.S. coastal between now and 1985. The development of new areas have been estimated for different levels of energy technologies such as coal gasification, coal daily oil imports. In the absence of superports liquefaction, oil, shale and tar sand processes, and and assuming continued deterioration of the U.S. nuclear reactors is likely to have effects on aquatic energy supply posture, approximately 800,000 bar- ecosystems in estuaries some 10 years in the future. rels of oil could be spilled by 1983.53 However, the impact of the increase in thermal Petroleum leakage to the ocean and coastal zone power stations could be expected to occur earlier is not confined to tanker spills or blowouts from while the increase in domestic offshore oil production offshore wells. There are many small chronic injec- and in oil imports can be expected to aggravate oil tions of oil and oil products into the marine en- leakage into the coastal zone.49 vironment near shore. Injections of oil and grease Within the next 10 years the United States' heavy result from sewage discharges and storm sewers, dependence on oil and gas to meet its energy de- filling station washdown operations, transportation mands is not likely to diminish. In 1972, oil and operations, and other domestic and industrial losses, gas accounted for nearly 78 percent of U.S. energy including hydrocarbons leaked from outboard consumption. Expanded total energy needs were motors.54 forecast to require 28 million barrels of oil per day in It has been concluded that petroleum from pro- 1985, nearly twice the consumption in 1970. Other duction, refining or transportation has penetrated the forecasts before the oil embargo indicated that oil marine food chain; however, an assessment of the imports would likely increase to 15 to 20 million biological effects of petroleum from different sources barrels per day by 1985.50 on the metabolism of organisms has not been National steps taken to reduce dependence on made.55 Little is known about the long-term effects foreign oil imports-federal legislation authorizing of oil in an estuarine environment. Spills and leaks construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline, expansion of oil cause a number of adverse effects in the estu- of the leasing program for the outer continental arine environment, not all of which are well under- shelf, and a proposal to authorize construction of stood. deepwater ports-all have implications for increased Oil and components of oil can be lethal to or- leakage of oil and petroleum products into the coastal ganisms or inhibit normal feeding. The effects of oil environment of states adjacent to offshore oil wells or pollution of shoreline in estuaries depend partly on that have large refineries.51 the nature of the oil and partly on the means by Approximately 60 percent of U.S. refining capacity which it reaches the shore. The coating of rocks, (seven million barrels per day, 1972) is concentrated beaches, marshes can cause significant plant and in the four coastal states of Texas, Louisiana, Cali- organism mortality. The nearshore marshes and fornia, and New Jersey. Production of oil from off- shore reservoirs (over 8000 offshore wells in the 62 Over 17,000 wells have now been drilled in waters off the U.S. coast. Gulf of Mexico alone) is expected to reach 30 to 40 The potential impact of outer continental shelf oil development depends in part on where oil released in the ocean travels and how it weathers. percent of total oil and gas production by the early The relative environmental risks of oil and gas development in the Atlantic 1980's. and Gulf of Alaska outer continental shelves have been analyzed by the 1980'S. Council on Environmental Quality in its report to the President, on Accelerated imports increase the risks of potential April 18, 1974, entitled, OCS Oil and Gas-An Environmental Assessment. 53Basic data contained in the National Petroleum Council's U.S. discharges from intentional or accidental tanker spills Energy Outlook, Report to NPC's Committee on U.S. Energy Outlook, outside or in port (estuary), while increased offshore December 1972, "Polluting Incidents in and around U.S. Waters, Calendar Year 1971," U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C., 1975. Estimates were production adds to the potential hazard of maj or oil obtained by James E. Flinn and Robert S. Reimers. March 1974. Develop- ment of Predictors of Future Pollution Problems. EPA Report 600/5- 74-005. 49 The problems of energy supply and the impacts of heat disposal s" An estimated 10 percent of outboard motor oil fuel mixture is un- from power plants in the coastal zone are discussed in Chapters 5, 7 and 8 burned. Mussels exposed to water containing 50 parts per billion of these of the Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone, edited by hydrocarbons showed gill damage after 24 hours of exposure; 66 percent Bostwick H. Ketchum, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and died although they were removed after one day and placed in fresh water. London, England. A major study to investigate the potential environ- Fourteen percent of oysters tested died during the test period of 10 days. mental effects of offshore nuclear power plants was initiated by the Council Clark, R. C., Jr., and J. S. Finley. November 1974. Environmental Science of Environmental Quality in 1973. Publication of this study is expected and Technology, Science News 106(21): 331. Since June 1973 Switzerland in early 1975. has outlawed ordinary motor oil in boat engines and requires instead a s Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session. special oil that is emulsifiable and biodegradable. Communication by 1974. The Nation's Energy Dilemma. Kohn, Henry H. January 4, 1975. Science News 107 (1):3. 51 Hypothetical drilling sites and development locations for the Atlantic 56 Sanders, H. L., J. F. Grassle and G. R. Hampson. 1972. The West outer continental shelves are offshore to Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Falmouth Oil Spilll Biology (Woods Hole, Mass.: Woods Hole Oceano- New Jersey, New York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. graphic Institute), Technical report No. 72-20. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 111 wetlands are the most biologically productive areas which importantly influence the iuantity and quality of the estuary and are most sensitive to oil spills."6 of fresh water entering- the estuary. Estimates of oil persistence indicate that oil Construction of dams, diversions of river flow probably persists much longer in salt marshes with within a basin and from one drainage area to another, soft sediments (up to 10 years) than on rocky shores control of 'floods, changes in land use such as in- or coarse sediments (a few months). Oil even at low creased irrigation, and clearing and channelization concentrations threatens fish populations; finfish and of forest and bottom land have in many instances shellfish are very susceptible if oil enters spawning direct and significant effects on estuarine aquatic and nursery areas. The cleanup procedure to hasten habitat. the dissipation of visible oil by the use of dispersant Modification of freshwater flows by dam con- and emulsifying chemicals can be more damaging struction, diversion, and 'consumption affects the to the shoreline environment than the oil. extent of saltwater intrusion, the degree of mixing In addition to the potential hazards from oil of fresh and saltwater and the plankton and fish spills, the development of superports to handle im- populations.58 Reduction in freshwater flow increases ports and of offshore oil and gas leases whether on salinity in former brackish water areas and can the outer continental shelves or in the shallow in- reduce the production of shrimp, oysters and other shore coastal zone (in Louisiana over 25,000 wells marine life. are operated in this productive fishery area) require In the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary the construction of major pipelines over coastal marsh- changes that can be expected with modification of lands. In Louisiana, coastal marshlands and estuaries normal flow patterns typify the effects that can be extend 20 to 40 miles inland from the Gulf of expected in many estuaries. Losses of fish eggs and Mexico. Physical and ecological effects in these un- young have to be minimized when water is diverted stable marshlands include erosion, release of toxic from the estuary; moderate net flow rates have to substances from dredge spoils, turbidity, salinity, be maintained to give positive downstream flows. and other ecosystem changes such as barriers to Maintenance of adequate freshwater flows from the nutrient flushing, to migration of estuarine organisms Delta into San Francisco Bay are required to main- and to tidal flow patterns that affect aquatic life. tain "suitable salinities for' striped bass spawning Canal erosion and pipelaying and marsh buggy and for Neomysis ... for good survival of young operations can destroy substantial areas of coastal striped bass ... for salmon migrations ... for suffici- marsh.? ent turbidity ... and for flushing pollutants from diffuse sources out of the estuary." 59 All these UPSTREAIIM ACTIVITIES AFFECTING requirements should be accounted for in plans for FRESHWATER INFLOWS upstream and delta water developments that would modify flows. Already outflow from the Delta is Trace element and toxic chemical contaminants "only about half the natural level due to the com- from production processes, municipal wastewater bined effect of upstream depletion storage and treatment, and diffuse sources have been identified pumped exports."60 as a major problem for the retention of productive Increased population, industrial and municipal fishery habitat in urbanized estuaries. Another pro- usage, and the development of irrigated agriculture, jected problem of national importance is the especially in river basins draining arid regions, will potential hazard from greater leakages of petroleum continue to increase demand for storage and diver- into the estuarine environment with the' develop- sion. The Texas Master Plan proposes to divert ment of offshore oil and increased imports. A third most of the flow of the Sabine, Neches Nucces, broad category of activity which will impinge on the Trinity, Brazos and Colorado rivers for irrigation estuarine fishery habitat might be termed "upstream use, while an even more ambitious scheme has been activities"-those removed from the seacoast but discussed-the diversion of water from the mouth of the Mississippi to the Texas High Plains. s6 For effects of oil on estuarine communities see Smith, Nelson. March 21, 1972. Effects of the Oil Industry on Shore Life in Estuaries. Proceed- ings of the Royal Sdociety of London, Series B. 180 (1061):287-296. Also, 68 Pritchard, D. W. 1955. Estuarine Circulation Patterns. Proceedings, IDOE. 1972. Baseline Studies of Pollutants in the Marine Environment American Society of Civil Engineers 81:1-11; Ketchum, B. H. 1951. The and Research Recommendations. New York: IDOE Baseline Conference, Flushing of Tidal Estuaries Sewage. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 23(2): May 24, 1972. 198-209; Ketchum, B. H. Relation Between Circulation and Planktonic a7 McGinnis, J. T. et al. December 1972. Environmental Aspects of Population in Estuaries. Ecology 35: 191-200. Gas Pipeline Operations in the Louisiana Coastal Marshes, Report to 5s California Department of Fish and Game. April 1973. Maintenance Offshore Pipeline Committee by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories. St. of Fish and Wildlife in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary in Relation Amant, L. S. 1971. Impacts of Oil on the Gulf Coast. Trans. 36th American to Water Development. Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference: 206-219; St. Amant, 1971. 60 California Department of Fish and Game. June 1972. Ecological The Petroleum Industry as it Affects Marine and Estuarine Ecology. Studies of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary: A Decennial Report, Trans. Society of Petroleum Engineers Meeting. 1961-1971: 18. 112 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 3500 - (38)* (2 (68) (328), (62)/ 400 300 Rural+ 300- 200 L (56) irrigation 200 - 100 -- (3.6) 2500- (473). - 90 - 80 (203)* x 70 - Industrial 2000- - 70 X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 50- (3.1) 1500- (259)~ - 40-- ' ~~~~~~30- (100)3) 1000 - 20- Pu (167) / irrigation 0- (100) (152) 1960 1980 2000 500- * Year (100) (199) FIGURE 9.-Estimated future water consumption in the (100) (137) $__ Public---- United States. Figures in parentheses give percentage of 0 - 1960 __estimated withdrawal. Source: Data of Murry, 0. R. 1968. 1960 1980 2000- U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 556; Piper, A. M. 1965. Year U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1797. FIGURE 8.-Estimated future water withdrawal in the United States. The figures in parentheses give percentage increase over 1960 values. Source: Data of Murry, C. R. 1968. U.S. problems of water quality and quantity at the inter- Geological Survey Circular 556; Piper, A. M. 1965. U.S. face between rivers and the estuarine zone can be Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1797. expected to be exacerbated. Projected future water withdrawals and con- MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS sumption represent substantial increases over pres- ent-day totals (see Figures 8 and 9). Total water Land and water use in the coastal zone is inter- withdrawal in the year 2000 is estimated to amount related with that in the hinterland, both in actuality to about 900 billion gallons per day, which compares and policy. The state land use plans should therefore to a runoff of 1,400 billion gallons daily. Assuming incorporate plans for managing the lands along the that consumption is 20 percent of total withdrawal, coast in such a way as to preserve the ecological we will actually be losing to the atmosphere 180 values of estuaries, other coastal waters, and marsh- billion gallons daily, a small fraction of the runoff. lands to the maximum practicable degree consistent Recycling procedures can be developed to reduce with essential uses for navigation, recreation, seafood even further the percentage of runoff required to production, power plant cooling, and other uses. be withdrawn. Consequently, there would appear to The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 ad- be enough fresh water to meet future demands. The ministered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric pertinent question, however, is whether there is Administration in its first year of operation has sufficient fresh water in different drainage areas to provided assistance to all but one of 34 coastal meet the respective demands and to maintain states and territories wishing to establish resource productive fishery habitats in downstream areas. As management plans in defined coastal areas. population pressures increase and urban activities The management plans of the coastal zone (in- grow in both the hinterland and coastal zone, the cluding estuaries) should incorporate the flexibility LIVING AND N6N-LvING REsouRCES 113 to be compatible with comprehensive land use for proper integration of water resources planning planning measures as set out in the new administra- and estuarine and coastal zone management. tion bill drafted by the Secretary of the Interior. Estuarine research programs of Federal and state Comprehensive plans for the use of the water and agencies should be strengthened to provide a better land resources of the coastal zone should be based basis for the establishment of water quality standards on a careful classification of the coastal zone with for estuarine and coastal waters. respect to uses and the degree of necessary public While programs of research have been initiated on controls over these uses. Provision should be made problems related to estuarine and coastal zone for public acquisition of lands and interests in lands management, they need to be accelerated and required to preserve ecological values and provide broadened to provide information so that effective other public benefits. means can be taken to monitor and predict the im- Land and water practices and programs upstream pact of upstream development and waste disposal in the drainage area of an estuary importantly on coastal zone waters and the oceans. Additional influence the quantity and quality of fresh water knowledge is needed to protect, enhance, and develop flowing into estuarine areas. Water management in the coastal zone environment, particularly estuaries. the estuaries and coastal zone must be integrated with High priority should be given and the necessary management of upstream water resources to achieve support found for research on the determination of comprehensive drainage basin management. The water quality requirements for various water uses planning of future developments and diversions up- and for the criteria which serve as the basis for stream must recognize this crucial interrelationship water quality standards. and provide facilities for mitigating losses and Additional investigations are needed to determine preserving values in the estuaries and coastal zones. the effects of waste disposal in estuarine waters Present Federal, state and local processes for and to determine the extent of pollution so that making land use and development decisions as they measures to cope with problems can be devised. apply to the total estuarine system, including fresh- These programs might be merged with and supple- water inflows, should be made adequate to the task. ment the ongoing and emerging programs of research Local governments cannot and should not be by- now under the auspices of the National Oceanic and passed. On the contrary, under an effective state Atmospheric Administration-Marine Ecosystem organization with strong regional bodies, local Analysis (MES) and Marine Monitoring Assessing governments should perform an indispensable role and Prediction (MARMAP). in coastal zone management.6" There is urgent need to improve environmental impact statements required by Section 102(c) of REFERENCES the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 (NEPA) for all the changes and activities affecting California Department of Fish and Game. April 1973. estuarine areas. Improvement of impact assessment Maintenance of Fish and Wildlife in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary in Relation to Water Development. procedures and analyses is required at all levels of Sacramento, Calif. federal, state and local governments. This will require a major commitment of resources to attain California Department of Fish and Game. June 1972. Ecolog- levels of competency and ensure that the evaluations ical Studies of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary: A Decennial Report. 1961-1971. Sacramento, Calif. are thorough. An early improvement in making the content of California State Water Resources Control Board. March 5 environmental impact evaluation more relevant 1974. Development of a Water Quality Control Plan, could be brought about by re-establishing a co- San Francisco Bay Basin. Proceedings of a Workshop. Sacramento, Calif. ordination arrangement between the Water Re- sources Council and the Interagency Committee on Ciracy-Wantrup S. V. 1963. Resource Conservation Eco- Marine Resources of the'Federal Council for Science nomics and Policies. Revised Edition. Berkeley: University and Technology, which is now responsible for the of California Press. policy coordination aspect of the National Marine Sciences Program. This would assure that research Clark, R. C. Jr., and J. S. Finley. November 23, 1974. En- vironmental Science and Technology. Science 106. programs are designed to furnish the information Council on Environmental Quality. 1974. Environmental 1 The principles drawn up by the California Advisory Commission on Quality. Fifth Annual Report. Washington, D. C. Marine and Coastal Resources propose a structure and function for coastal zone management organization which includes state, regional and local contributions as essential components; These principles are stated in Council on Environmental Quality. 1973. Environmental Appendix B. Quality. Fourth Annual Report. Washington, D. C. 114 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Council on Environmental Quality. 1971. Environmental Odum, William E. 1970. Insidious Alteration of the Estuirine Quality. Second Annual Report. Washington, D. C. Environment. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 4. Council on Environmental Quality. April 18, 1974. OCS Oil and Gas-An Environmental Assessment. Report to the Piper, A. M. 1965. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply President. Paper 1797. Delise, G. October, 1966. Preliminary Fish and Wildlife Pomeroy, L. R., R. J. Reinold, L. R. Shenton, and R. D. Plan for San Francisco Bay-Estuary. Prepared for the San Jones. 1972. Nutrient Flux in Estuaries. Nutrients and Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission. Eutrophication. Edited by G. E. Likens. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography. Special Symposium 1. Duke, T. W., and T. R. Rice. 1967. Cycling of Nutrients in Estuaries. Proceedings of Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Pritchard, D. W. 1955. Estuarine Circulation Patterns. Institute 19:59. Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers 81. Flinn, James E., and Robert S. Reimers. March 1974. De- St. Amant, L. S. 1971. The Petroleum Industry as it Affects velopment of Predictors of Future Pollution Problems. Marine and Estuarine Ecology. Transactions of the So- EPA Report 600/5-74-005. ciety of Petroleum Engineers. Gosselink, J. G., E. P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1974. The St. Amant, L. S. 1971. Impacts of Oil on the Gulf Coast. Value of the Tidal Marsh. Publication No. LSU-SG-74-03. Transactions 36th American Wildlife and Natural Re- Center for Wetland Resources. Baton Rouge: Louisiana sources Conference. State University. Sanders, H. L., J. F. Grassle, and G. R. Hampson. 1972. The IDOE. March 24-26, 1972. Baseline Studies of Pollutants in West Fallmouth Oil Spill! Woods Hole, Massachusetts: the Marine Environment and Research Recommendations. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Technical Report IDOE Baseline Conference, New York. No. 72-20. Kahn, A. E. 1966. The Tyranny of Small Decisions: Market Sartor, J. D., and G. B. Boyd. November 1972. Water Pollu- Failures, Imperfections, and the Limits of Economics. tion Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants. 76-81 EPA- Dykos 19(1). R2-72-081. Ketchum, Bostwick H. 1972. The Water's Edge: Critical Smith, Nelson. March 21, 1972. Effects of the Oil Industry Problems of the Coastal Zone. Cambridge, Massachusetts: on Shore Life in Estuaries. Proceedings of the Royal The MIT Press. Society of London. Series B 180 (1061). Ketchum, B. H. 1954. Relation Between Circulation and U.S. Coast Guard. 1975. Polluting Incidents In and Around Planktonic Population in Estuaries. Ecology 35. U.S. Waters, Calendar Year 1971. Washington, D. C. etchum, B. H. 1951. The flushing of Tidal Estuaries. U.S. Congress. Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. 93rd Sewage Industry Wastes. 23(2). Congress, 2nd Session. 1974. The Nation's Energy Dilemma. Washington, D. C. Kohn, Henry H. January 4, 1975. Letter to the Editor. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Technical Informa- Science News 107. tion Service. Total Urban Water Pollution Loads. PB- 231/730, Springfield, Va. Kutscher, Ronald. December 1973. Projections of GNP, Income, Output, and Employment. Monthly Labor Review U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 1973. 96:3-42. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973. 94th edition. Washington, D. C. McGinnis, J. T., et al. December 1972. Environmental Aspects of Gas Pipeline Operations in the Louisiana Coastal U.S. Department of the Army. Corps of Engineers. August Marshes. Report to Offshore Pipeline Committee by Bat- 1971. National Shoreline Study, Shore Management telle's Columbus Laboratories. Guidelines. Washington, D. C. McHugh, J. L. November 1968. Are Estuaries Necessary? U.S. Department of the Interior. August 1970. National Commercia Fisheries Review 30(11). Estuarine Pollution Study. Report of the Secretary of the Interior to the U.S. 91st Congress Pursuant to Public Law 89-753. The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966. Murray, C. R. 1968. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 556. Washington, D. C. National Academy of Sciences. 1972. Water Quality Criteria. U.S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, D. C. August 1970 National Estuary Study. Washington, D.C. National Petroleum Council. December 1972. U.S. Energy U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 1971. The Outlook. Report to NPC Committee on U.S. Energy Economic and Social Importance of Estuaries. Estuarine Outlook. Pollution Study Series 2. Washington, D. C. National Science Foundation. 1972. Patterns and Perspec- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 1973. Guide- tives in Environmental Science. Report prepared for lines for Developing or Revising Water Quality Standards. National Science Board. Water Quality Division. Washington, D. C. LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOuRCES 115 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Water U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. March 1974. Water Planning and Standards. August 1974. National Water Quality Strategy Paper. Washington, D. C. Quality Inventory, 1974. Report to the Congress. EPA- 44019-74-001. Washington, D. C. Young, D. R., et al. 1973. Source of Trace Metals from Highly Urbanized Southern California to the Adjacent U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Water Quality Marine Ecosystem. Proceedings of a Conference on Cycling Criteria. Washington, D. C. and Control of Metals. 4 rr' 'Q~ � �~ ~ ~~4, . .. -J-, A. ' O M l .. <,t i .. f ! 2'''i-4i..;tr ti APPENDIX A TABLES Appendix Table 1.-A summary' of legislation relating to coastal and estuarine zones Zone Comprehensive coastal zone Wetlands Industries and power plant siting Shoreline-recreation planning legislation Alabama- .. . . None at present-in the planning U.S. Army Corps of Engineers proj- Alabama Water Improvement Com- stage. ects deemed harmful are refused. mission regulates the location of industries and domestic pollution sources. Alaska - - --------------- None at present-in the study stage. California. - . ......... Coastal Zone Conservation Act A power plant siting bill was passed (1972)-to develop plans and in 1974. control development. Permits re- quired forany development in the coastal zone. The California Com- prehensive Ocean Area Plan was completed in 1972. Connecticut ....- . ....... $3.5 million study of Long Island Wetlands Protection Act-1969 Sound to develop a comprehen- -Inventory of all wetlands. sive plan for this area. -No dredging or construction on designated wetlands without a permit. Delaware-..... ........ Delaware Coastal Zone Act (1971)- Delaware Wetlands Act (1973)-per- The state has banned heavy industry An assessment of present and future to control the location, type, and mits required for virtually all ac- within two miles of the coast, with demands on coastal zone. extent of industrial development tivity in the wetlands. permits required for other uses. in coastal areas, prohibition of new heavy industries. Florida ...-. ....... Environmental Land and Water Land Conservation Act (1972)-to ManagementAct (1972):land de- finance the cost of recreation velopment regulations for "area lands. of critical state concern." Georgia ----------------- Coastal Marshlands Protection Act (1970): "No person may remove, fill, dredge, drain, or otherwise alter any marshlands within the estuarine areas without first ob- taining a permit...." Hawaii ..- .. . ......... Legislation requiring a coastal plan Shoreline Setback Areas (1971). passed in 1973. Construction within 20 to 40 feet from edge of vegetation growth is prohibited without a special permit. Louisiana - - ------------ No coastal zone plan. Maine.-. ......... "Coastal Development Plan" being Wetlands Preservation Act (1967>)- Legislation to limit heavy industry on prepared. State Wetlands Control Board can coast is now pending. impose any conditions regarding dredging, filling, etc., on coast if they feel it is in public's interest. Maryland .-.. . ......... Still being developed; A critical WetlandsAct(1970; amendment) no Shore'Erosion Control Act (1970 as areas bill(S.B.500) was enacted. dredgingorfillingwithout a permit amended)-provides loans for shore erosion protection devices. 116 LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES - 117 Zone Comprehensive coastal zone Wetlands Industries and power plant siting Shoreline-recreation planning legislation Massachusetts .......... A commission has been created to Power plant siting law was recently develop a comprehensive plan for enacted. estuarine area management. Mississippi - - ----------. Coastal zone management plan in Coastal Wetlands Protection Act review stage. (1973)-designates the Marine Re- sources Council as the regulatory agency for activities on wetlands. New Hampshire .-- ------ No plan at present. Wetlands Act (1967)-controls Power Plant Siting (1971)-sites dredging and filling of tidal areas. must be approved by PUC and not Dredge and Fill Act (1971) promul- environmentally detrimental. gates rules and regulations for dredging in tidal areas. New Jersey - -----------. Plan being formulated. Some Wetlands Act (1970) permit required coastal zone land uses regulated for any dredging, filling, polluting, by 1973 law. building, or otherwise altering wet- lands-wetlands being mapped. New York - - -----------. Plan beingformulated. Coastalzone New York Wetlands Act(1971)-mo- Power plant sitinglaw. Multi-year study begun in 1971 in- authority influences land use. ratorium on wetland alterations. ventorying Long Island Sound resources. North Carolina .- . ....... Coastal Areas Management Act Wetlands Protection Act (1971)- (1974)-also a preliminary, corm- authorizes the adoption of rules to prehensive plan prepared De- protect marshes and contiguous cember 1972. Land Policy Act lands. Dredgeand Fill Act (1971)- (1974). makes permits required. Oregon - .. .. Coastal Zone Management Plan Act State has a power plant siting law. Oregon Land Use Law (1973) (1971) provides for a comprehen- regulating land uses. Beach sive plan to be submitted to State Access Act (1967)-citizen's right Legislature by 1975. to unrestricted beach use up to vegetation line. Puerto Rico .-.--.-.-- As required under Federal Water Pollution Control Act, no new mu- nicipal or industrial discharges without special authorization. Rhode Island ... ....... Comprehensive plan being devel- Coastal Wetlands Act (1965), land Coastal Management Council Act oped. use restrictions in such areas. (1971) to administer management Some coastal zone activities regu- IntertidalSaltMarshAct(1965)-per- program for coastal areas. lated by state permit system. mits needed to fill, dredge, etc. t South Carolina .-- ------- No plan at present. No major legislation but increased study and survey of coastal areas. Texas -.. ... Coastal Public Lands Management Public ownership of state beaches Act (1976) provides for the com- up to vegetation line. prehensive management of state- owned coastal lands, and estab- lishes permit system for con- struction on coastal islands and submerged lands. The Texas Council on Marine Re- lated Affairs was created in 1971, to study and plan for marine re- sources. Virginia - - -------------. Plan being developed. Wetlands Act (1972)-a permit sys- A coastal zone management program temrn for wetlands regulation. is being undertaken. Washington . - . ........: Shoreline Management Act (1971) Marshes, bogs, swamps, floodways, Thermal Power Plant Siting Act -sets responsibilities of state and river deltas are regulated (1970)-environmental and bio- and local areas for permit system, under the Shoreline Management logical considerations will be main and inventories. Act. guidelines in location of sites. 118 ESTUAIrNE POLLUTION CONTROL Appendix Table 2.--Major U.S. waterways Appendix Table 4.-Major waterways: Reference level violations, 1963 to 1972 Percent of reaches 10 longest rivers 10 rivers with Waters of 10 largest exceeding frence Iexceeding reference (miles) highest flows urban areas Parameter Referencelevelandsource , levels (cubic feet per second) 1963-67 1968-72 Change Missouri (2,564) - - -------. Mississippi (620,000)'.' Hudson River-New York Sspended solids- mg/-aqatic life 26 14 -12 Suspended solids ........ 80 mE/I-aquatic life 26 14 --12 Harbor ~Harbor Turbidity - . .............. 50 JTU-aquatic life 28 28 ' 0 Mississippi (2,348) -......... Ohio (255,000)L Los Angeles Harbor Temperature - - ---------. 900 F-aquatic life 0 0 : � Color-.................. 75 platinum-cobalt units- Rio Grande (1,885) -....... Columbia (235,000)' Lake Michigan and other Cr spl 0 water supply 0 O 0 waters of Chicago area Ammonia .- - ------------ 0.89 mg/I-aquatic life 16 6 -10 Yukon (1,875) -. .......... Missouri (70,000)' Delaware River Nitrate (as N) ---- - 0.9 mg/I-nutrient 12 24 -+12 (Philadelphia) I 6 + (Philadelphia) Nitrite plus nitrate .-..... 0.9 mg/I-nutrient 1i 26 +8 Arkansas (1,450) -. ....... Tennessee (63,700) Detroit River and Detroit Total phosphorus -...... 0.1 mg/I-nutrient 34 57 +23 area tributaries Total phosphate - - ------. 0.3 mg/I-nutrient 30 41 +11 Dissolved phosphate -..... 0.3 mg/l-nutrient 11 22 +11 Colorado (1,450)- - --------Alabama-Coosa (59,000) San Francisco Bay and 0 Sacramento River Dissolved solids(105 C) 500 mg/I-water supply 25 10 -7 Dissolved solids (1000 C). 500 mg/I-water supply 20 12 -16 Columbia-Snake (1,324) .. Red (57,300)1,3 Potomac River Chlorides .--...... .. .... 250 mg/I-water supply 12 9 -3 (Washington, D. C.) Sulfates - - ----... -..... 250 mg/I-water supply 12 12 0 Ohio (1,306) ...- ......... Arkansas (45,200)' Boston Harbor pH- -----------6.0-9.0-aquatic life 0 0 0 Dissolved oxygen ........ 4.0 mg/I-aquatic life 0 0 0 Red (1.,222) ~~............. Susquehanna (35,300) Ohio River (Pittsburgh)l Red (1,222)------Susqueaa (35,000) OhioTotal coliforms (MFD)2.... 10,000/100 mi-recreation 24 13 -11 Brazos (1,210) .- -......... Willamette (30,700) Mississippi and Missouri Total coliforms (MFI)'.-... 10,000/100 mi-recreation 50 30 -20 Rivers (St. Louis), Total coliforms (MPN)'.... 10,000/!00 mi-recreation 23 20 -3 - Fecal coliforms (MPN)2 --. 2,000/100 mi-recroation 45 21 -24 'Contained in first (or second) columns. Focal coliforms (MPN)'.--. 2,000/100 mi-recreation 17 43 +26 2Includes Atchafalaya River (about 25 percent of flow). Phenols .-.... . ......... 0.001 mg/I-water supply 86 71 -15 3 Includes flow qf Ouachita River. z With the exceptions that follow, reference level designations are from "Guidelines Source: Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. National Water Quality Inventory: With the exceptions that fllow, refrence level designations are from "Guidelines ~~Report to Congress. Table I~-i~. ~for Developing or Revising Water Quality Standards," EPA Water Planning Division, Report to Congress. Table I-1. April 1973; for ammonia, chlorides, sulfates, and phenols, "Criteria for Water Quality," EPA, 1973 (Section 304(a)(1) guidelines); and for nitrate (as N), "Biological Associated Appendix Table 3.--Major waterways: Water quality trends 1963-721. Problems in Freshwater Environments," FWPCA, 1966, pp. 132-133. 2 Membrane filter delayed, membrane filter immediate, most probable number. Number of Percent of Source: Environmental Quality Fifth Annual Report, Council on Environmental Parameter reaches reaches Quality. analyzed improved2 Susapended solids -.....- ---...... . . . ........ 28 82 AppendixTable 5.--Published effluentguidelinesfor industries as Of June 30,1974 Turbidity .-- ----.... . ....... . ............. 29 79 Industry Proposed Final Focal colifarms (membrane filter) -- ----------. 9 78 (effective date) Ammonia .-..... . -. . ............... 25 76 BOD -- -------------------------------------31 74 Fiberglass -.-.- ---..--.. . ............... 8/22/73 1/22/74 Total coliforms (membrane filter delayed)-23 70 Beetsugar-/22/73 1/31/74 COD--------------------------20 70 Cement ..-.--------.-. . ................ 7/7/73 1/20/74 Temperature------------------33 67 Feedlots ---------------------------------- 9/7/73 2/14/74 Total coliforms (most probable number)- ----9 67 Phosphates-- -------......-9/7/73 2/20/74 Dissolved solids (1050 C) .-..-.. 28 64 Flat glass-1/1773 2/14/74 Chlorides---------------------34 62 Rubber .- ..--... . ................... 10/11/73 2/21/74 Dissolved oxygen .- ..---... . . ............. 31 61a Ferroallys10/1/73 2/22/74 Dissolved solids (1000 C) -- --------------------23 61 Electroplating - . ... . ................. 10/5/73 3/8/74 Odor--- ----------------------------------- 5 60 Asbestos- -.....---.--................. 10/30/73 2/26/74 pH------------------------------------- 34 59 Inorganics ---------------- 10/11/73 3/12/74 Total coliforms (membrane filter immediate) .-.. 12 5 Meats-10/29/73 2/274 Phenals.__,-- ...~~~~~~~~12 58 Plastics and synthetics .-- --__ ,-....-..... 10/11/73 4/5/74 Dissolved phosphate----------------10 Nonferrous metals .-.---.-----............. -11/30/73 4/8/74 Busslfe hpates .~.~...................~~~~.... 33 5 Sulfates--- - --------------------33 55 Cane sugar -------------------------------- 12/7/73 3/20/74 Organic nitrogen ----...... . . ............. 11 55 Fruit and vegetables ----.-....-.......11/9/73 3/21/74 11/9173 3/,21/74 Total phosphate .~.~~.~.~.~.~..~..... .. . ...... 16 44 Total phosphate ------------------------------ 16 44 Grain mills -------------------------------- 12/4/73 3/20/74 Alkalinity -.. ......................... 32 41' Soaps and detergents .-.. .............12/26/73 2/12/74 Nitrite -----------...-...........----....... 5 40 Fertilizer - .----...-................4/8/74 7/2/74 Nitrite plus nitrate --- ----- .. ..... 27 37 Petroleum121473 59/74 Color ----------------------------- ---------- 30 33 Dairy--------7------------ ------............. 12/14/73 5/9/74 Color ................~..~~.~~~~~~ ....~~ ... 30 D ar .................... 12/20/73 5/20/74 Nitrate (as N OI) ....~~~~...~~........ .. . ..... 19 26 Nitrate (as Nos) ----------------------- ------- 19 26 Leather -------------------------------------.12/7/73 4/9/74 Nitrate (as N)-----------------17 24 Pulp and paper ----...........- ---..-. -1/15/74 5/29/74 Total phosphorus-- --------------------------- 28 10 Organics-----------------------------------12/17/73 4/25/74 Builders paper .-.--.-.................. 1/14/74 5/9/74 Seafood ----------------------------- 2/6/74 6/26/74 1Based on median values at each reach. Reaches included only if they contain one Timber-- --------------- 1/3/74 4/10/74 or more stations with at least seven samples each. Parameters included only if five Iron and steel -....... ....................... 2/19/74 6/28/74 or more reaches were measured. Textiles ------------------ 2/5/74 7/5/74 'Except where noted, "improved" means that 1968-72 median concentrations are Steam and electric power-_-.-............. 3/4/74 Notyet lower than 1963-67 median concentrations at mean station. published 3 "Improved" means higher concentration. "Improved" means pH becomes higher (less acid). Source: Environmental Quality. The Fifth Annual Report of the Council an Environ- Source: Council of Environmental Quality, Fifth Annual Report, Table 20, p. 285. mental Quality, 1974. Table 0, page 141. APPENDIX B Principles for b. Regional boards should be designated to supervise the Coastal Zone Management implementation of the program. Drawn up by c. Regional areas should be designated following county lines and be functionally related to resource planning. California Advisory Commission on Marine and Coastal Resources d. The governing boards for the designated areas should consist of persons qualified and experienced in the develop- ment, conservation or use of marine and coastal resources (e.g., concerned with municipal government, county govern- 1. FINDINGS AND DECLARATIONS ment, water use, environmental quality, recreation and con- servation, land use and land use planning, living marine a. Legislative findings should be brief and directed toward resources, and economics and law of natural resources). the positive aspects of the regulatory scheme. 4. LOCAL GOVERNMENT COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 2. STATE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT a. The planning and management of the coastal zone is a. The state should provide leadership in assisting local primarily the responsibility of local government. governments in the planning and management of the coastal zone. b. Planning and management of the coastal zone located within the boundaries of units of local government are and b. Coastal zone management legislation should designate should remain primarily the responsibility of units of local a single state organization to provide leadership in the plan- government in accordance with state criteria. ning and management of the coastal zone. c. Local governments should coordinate their planning and c. The state organization to be selected to administer the management within overall state policy and should administer plan of regulation should be directed by a board consisting of the coastal zone under the state's certification. persons qualified and experienced in the development, con- servation or use of marine and coastal resources (e.g., con- cerned with environmental quality, conservation and 5. PERMIT AREA BOUNDARY recreation, living marine resources, land use planning and coastal development, and economics and law of natural resources) and persons not required to have specialized a. The state organization selected should have legally knowledge. precise and ascertainable boundaries. d. The state organization should be required to establish b. Any administrative discretion to expand the coastal zone continuing liaison and coordinate its activities with all other should be of short duration. major state and private agencies directly interested in the administration of the coastal zone. c. The practicability of the plan of regulation should be considered in determining the extent of the defined coastal e. The state organization should be empowered to require zone, it being more desirable to have a coastal zone with periodic review and updating of all local and regional plans. numerous exceptions based upon unquantified considerations. f. The state organization should be designated as the state coastal zone authority for all purposes stated in any federal coastal zone management legislation and be given the au- thority to administer any statewide program of research and a. The state organization selected should formulate and planning pertaining thereto. adopt state policy for coastal resources conservation and development. g. The state organization should be a clearinghouse for planning information pertaining to the development and con- b. Criteria for certification of local plans and programs servation of the marine and coastal resources of the state. should be established and administered by the state. h. The technical advisory committee should consist of the c. To the extent practicable, principles underlying criteria California Advisory Commission on Marine and Coastal to be applied by any new state coastal zone management Resources ("CMC"). should be established prior to or concurrently with the imple- mentation of the regulatory aspects of that system. i. The advisory committee should be given the responsi- bility to advise the state organization either when requested d. The criteria to be developed should include components by it or when deemed appropriate by the committee. for all lawful uses of the coastal zone and none should be generically prohibited. 2. REGIONAL COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT e. The criteria to be developed should facilitate an optimum a. Coordination of this planning and management function combination of all lawful uses in the coastal zone by a con- will require regional entities, encompassing aggregations of sideration of all private and public benefits and costs resulting several local governments. from them. 119 120 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL f. Special consideration in forming criteria should be given c. Regional boards should have the power to obtain injunc- to uses which cause irreversibility in potentially permanent tions and other appropriate legal relief. flow (e.g., renewable) resources. d. Where the matter is of regional concern, regional boards g. The staff of the state organization selected should be should also have the power to hear appeals from denials of given the responsibility of preparing recommended planning permits by units of local government and to confirm or rescind criteria. such action. h. A technical advisory committee should have the respon- e. The state organization shold upon petition of an e. The state organization should upon petition of an sibility to review and comment upon recommended planning aggrieved person, public agency, unit of local government or criteria. ~~~~~~~~~~~aggrieved person, public agency, unit of local government or ~~~~~~~~~~~criteria. ~its own motion review any action or failure to act by a regional board with respect to any requested use of the coastal zone 7. C OASTAL ZONE PLAN DEVELOPMENT considered not in accordance with state criteria. 7. COASTAL ZONE PLAN DEVELOPMENT a. The state organization selected should ultimately in- f. State agencies should be reqnired to give notice to the corporate the Comprehensive Ocean Area Plan ("COAP") appropriate regional board of regulated uses of the coastal into the state plan. zone proposed to be made by them and of permits proposed to be granted for such uses with supporting data for the b. The state organization selected should integrate regional decision made with respect thereto. The appropriate regional plans developed by the regional boards into the state program. board should have the power to review the decision within the designated period of time (30-60 days) to determine whether the same meets with the relevant criteria of the c. Regional boards should be required to prepare regional whether the same meets with the relevant criteria of the p lans incorporating coastal elements developed by units of regional plan. If the appropriate regional board does not give plans incorporating coastal elements developed by units of ntc fnnofrac ihsc rtra ihnsc notice of nonconformance with such criteria within such local government to the extent that the same are consistent period, the proposed use shall be deemed approved. with the criteria developed by the state organization. d. Regional planning entities should provide a compre- hensive format for coordinated planning and management in 9. EcoNoMIcs AND FINANCING accordance with state policy objectives. a. The legislation should provide funding for all affected e. Primary responsibility for management of marine living governmental agencies at all levels to enable them to perform resources should not be affected by coastal zone management assigned responsibilities in an adequate and timely fashion. legislation. f. The state organization should certify conformance of b. The state organization should be structured so as to regionsto state policy, take maximum advantage of existing organization, personnel ~~~~~~~regional plans to stateand equipment. 8. LAND USE PERMIT SYSTEM c. The state organization selected should allocate to the regional boards from funds appropriated to it such monies as a. Units of local government should be required to give may be necessary for their professional staffing and other notice to the regional boards of permits granted for regulated administrative expenses. uses of the coastal zone with supporting data for the decision made, and the regional boards should have the power to review the same within a designated period of time (e.g., d. The legislation should recognize private property rights 30-60 days) to determine whether the decision meets with the in the coastal zone and require payment of fair compensation relevant criteria. If a regional board does not give notice of in the event that any taking is effected thereunder. nonconformance with Such criteria within such period, the permit shall be effective. e. The legislation should give appropriate recognition to the effect of the plan of regulation of units of local government b. Regional boards should have the power to issue orders and should provide a means for equalizing benefits as well as to units of local government or their permittees to rescind costs incurred in environmental maintenance or sustaining permits issued for uses not conforming to relevant criteria. low density uses. THE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES IN THE COASTAL ZONE OF THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES STANLEY R. RIGGS East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina ABSTRACT The extractive industries in the coastal zone consider all known mineral sources excluding petroleum, that presently occur or may occur in the future within the estuaries, the nearshore continental shelf waters, and the adjacent land areas within continental United States exclusive of the Great Lakes. This includes all activities in the recovery of natural materials from the sedi- ments and rocks of the earth's crust and from the water column and the preparation and treat- ment of these natural materials in order to make them suitable for use. Mineral extraction, excluding petroleum, is presently nonexistent in most estuaries and very limited both in commodities and quantities in the few estuaries where extraction is taking place. Any consideration of estuarine and offshore mining must deal with the potential. To develop an adequate inventory of the resource potential of the United States coastal areas will necessitate a massive and coordinated detailed study of the surface and subsurface geology. Most extractive industries, whether in, adjacent to, or distantly remote from an estuarine system will have some impact upon the pollution of the coastal zone; however, no two extractive industries will have similar effects or degrees of pollution impact upon the estuarine system. A basic knowledge of the mineral reserves and the general economic value to man is essential prior to the development of any land and water use management plans involving the continued development of our coastal zone. Economics of a given mineral resource may change dramatically in response to new technological advances, discoveries of new ore deposits, or as industrial and social demands change through time. Such changes can have drastic effects upon the same manage- ment programs which define land and water uses. The resulting dilemma becomes of paramount importance: the need to protect a delicately balanced estuarine system, upon which man is de- pendent, and at the same time dramatically increase its use and modification for materials which man is also dependent upon. INTRODUCTION of the coastal zone, one must first establish what the mineral resources are. Any naturally occurring This report on the extractive industries in the This report, ,,, t . ev material, whether it be an individual mineral, an coastal zone considers all known mineral resourcese in ine aggregate of minerals combined into unconsolidated excluding petroleum, that presently occur or may sediments or consolidated rocks, or a natural ma- occur in the future within the estuaries, the near- terial in the form of liquid or gas is a mineral re- shore continental shelf waters, and the adjacent land source i f its physical or chemical characteristics source if its physical or chemical characteristics areas within continental 'United States exclusive of make it a desirable ingredient in man's technological the Great Lakes. Also, it does not directly consider society. Since almost all natural materials may be the consequences of dredging, particularly as related usable resources in some form and at some time or to channel and harbor dredging and maintenance. to channel and harbor dreding and maintenance. other, whether it be for general land fill, beach re- The estuarine zone or coastal zone, as used in this plenishment, construction materials, or as a source of report, refers to the geographic region including the some metal or fuel, all of the materials bounding and some metal or fuel, all of the materials bounding and coastal counties between the landward limit of tidal occurring within the coastal zone become potential influence and the three-mile limit to seaward ("Na- resources tional Estuarine Pollution Study," 1970, p. 5). The extractive industries include all forms of re- The estuarine zone is an ecosystem. That is it is an covery of natural materials from the sediments and environment of land, water, and air inhabited by plants rocks of the earth's crust and from the water column and animals: that have specific relationships to each other. This particular ecosystem is the interface between comprising the oceans and estuaries. More specifi- land and ocean. and one of its key components is cally these include (1) breaking of the surface soil human society (p. 8). in order to extract naturedal materials; (2) all activities In order to evaluate the mineral resource potential or processes involved in the extraction of natural 1'21 122 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL materials from their original location; and (3) any At the present time, it is nearly impossible to preparation and treatment of these natural materials describe accurately or completely the location and in order to make them suitable for use. This broad size of existing extractive industries in the coastal array of activities associated with the mineral ex- zone, to say nothing about the mineral reserves. In traction industries range from the exploration and fact, the mineral resource potential of the estuaries mining activities, to the processing and treatment and continental shelves, with few exceptions are at plants, to the complex transportation systems in- best only superficially known. The reasons for this volving pipelines, channels and harbors. The poten- are: (1) the geologic and mining agencies that moni- tial conflict with other coastal uses and the potential tor these industries do not differentiate the extrac- impact of these activities upon the delicate balances tive operations that are related to the coastal zone of the fragile and limited estuarine zone have given from any other region; (2) for competitive reasons, birth to a dilemma that is slowly growing to prohibi- the same agencies generally are not able to relate tive proportions. production statistics and rarely do they have access Various geologists have projected that. the major to good reserve information if it is even known; and mineral reserves in the United States, which are pres- (3) detailed geologic investigation, exploration, and ently derived from land, will be exhausted by the research in the coastal zone is extremely expensive, year 2000 (Moore, 1972). If this is the case, then technologically difficult, and generally a relatively where are the future resources to come from?-the "new" science. coastal areas and the continental shelves! Since the Recent inquiries by the author, to the geological shelves are geologically nothing more than sub- surveys of the coastal states, underscored both the merged portions of the continent, McKelvey (1968) lack of knowledge of the resources and the meager believes that it is logical to assume that the mineral effort to monitor any existing mineral extraction potential should be roughly comparable to that within or adjacent to the estuaries or the offshore which has already been found on land. Partly for areas. In fact, much of the existing published data, these reasons, Moore (1972) projects a truly large- such as Table IV.2.8 entitled "Major Exploitation of scale undersea mining industry by 1980 with com- Coastal Mineral Resources" in the "National Estu- plete dependence upon this source by the year 2000. arine Pollution Study" (p. 124, 1970), is extremely The fact that the United States Department of the misleading. The table states that in 1967 there were Interior has recently issued a "Draft Environmental 1,479 coastal operations in the United States ex- Impact Statement" in connection with undersea ploiting $373,192,000 worth of minerals including 168 mining, as well as a set of proposed regulations for metal operations, but excluding all petroleum and the actual leasing and mining of undersea hard rock other mineral fuels. These numbers are only correct minerals, underscores the anticipation of the in- if one includes all of the inland coastal plain areas. creased development of these presently poorly known A study of the case histories of specific estuarine resources. zones within the same publication, as well as in However, the total present world production of "The Economic and Social Importance of Estuaries" minerals from the sediments and rocks comprising (Environmental Protection Agency, 1971) and the the sea floor of the continental margins, excluding "National Estuarine Pollution Study" (United oil and gas, is only about $470 million annually or States Department of the Interior, 1970) suggest 2 percent of the on-land production of these minerals. that mineral extraction is actually nonexistent in Another $415 million worth of minerals are pres- most estuaries and very limited both in commodities ently extracted from seawater making the present and quantities in the few estuaries where extraction value of all extractive resources from the marine is taking place. To adequately know and inventory environment a minor part of the total mineral pro- the resource potential of the United States coastal duction (Rigg, 1975). However, to date only a very areas will necessitate a massive and coordinated de- small percentage of the coastal and shelf environ- tailed study of the surface and subsurface geology-a ments have even been explored for anything other mammoth undertaking. Only slow, isolated, and than possibly petroleum. If the major thrust for individual progress is presently being made in this future mineral resources is on the continental shelf, direction. then the coastal zone will play an ever increasing Consideration of estuarine and offshore mining role in the extractive industries. This role will in- must deal fwith the potential since the present min- clude some mining itself, but probably of greater eral production from below the sea is limited to significance will be the critical role the estuaries will only a few commodities, the major one being petro- play in supporting the massive transportation sys- leum. }However, tie present economic and technologi- tern ' rid processing plants necessary for the offshore cal restraints, which are the major liniting factors of extractive industries. mining the sea floor, are rapidly being overcome by LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 123 the current efforts within the rapidly changing off- 9. The United States Government information base for the conduct of its mineral responsibilities is grossly shore petroleum exploration and development. These inadequate. include: (a) a rapid annual increase in the number of holes drilled; (b) an expansion into deeper waters Morgan also points out that the world economy has further from shore; (c) a complementary increase grown faster recently than the United States' econ- in the size and capabilities of the offshore drilling omy has; this has resulted in increased competition rigs; and (d) an increasing sophistication of under- for needed raw materials. Likewise, it is becoming water operating facilities and pipeline systems. As increasingly difficult to sell manufactured articles the petroleum industry continues to expand its in world markets to pay for imported raw materials. exploration and operations into the coastal and Thus, the United States is faced with an ever-in- offshore areas, there will be an increase in the dis- creasing need for self sufficiency in mineral resources. covery and recovery of associated minerals that can Most extractive industries, whether in, adjacent be recovered by pumping and solution mining. Such to, or distantly remote from an estuarine system minerals as sulfur and potash occur in salt domes, will have some impact upon the pollution of the which are major petroleum reservoirs. The sophis- coastal zone. Since most of the drainage systems ticated technology necessary for the exploration and from the land ultimately end in the estuaries, the mining of other types of mineral deposits from the drainage network funnels a great variety of con- sea floor will quickly follow. taminants into the coastal system. These contam- The United States' economy needs over 4 billion inants are derived from a multitude of sources includ- tons of raw mineral supplies to produce $175 billion ing the extractive industries, agriculture, urban, and worth of domestically produced energy and processed industrial wastes. Consequently, coal becomes part materials of mineral origin annually; the demand of the sediment load entering the Potomac River, still far exceeds the domestic production of both dissolved phosphorus enriches the waters of the raw materials and processed minerals (Morgan, Pamlico River in North Carolina, and dissolved 1974). The Secretary of the Interior issued in mid- metals reach San Francisco Bay' from the mines in 1973 his "Second Annual Report Under the Mining the Sierras. and Minerals Policy Act of 1970," in which he stated On the other hand, no two extractive industries that the "development of domestic mineral resources will have similar effects or degrees of impact. For is not keeping pace with domestic demand," for nine example, a sand and gravel quarry adjacent to an major reasons (Morgan, 1974): estuary can be completely sealed so that no sediment 1. Mineral imports have an unfavorable impact upon reaches the estuarine waters, while a mercury mine the United States' balance of trade and upon the United many miles from the estuarine zone may contribute States' balance of payments; minute but lethal concentrations of dissolved mer- 2. Expropriations, confiscations, and forced modifica- cury to the bottom muds. Unless the extractive in- tions of agreements have severely modified the flow to dustry is directly within the estuary, the processing the United States of some foreign mineral materials plants and allied industries utilizing the recovered produced by United States firms operating abroad, and have made other materials more costly; commodity will often have a greater potential or actual long-term pollution effect upon the estuarine 3. United States industry is encountering greater com- system than the mechanical or the chemical extrac- petition from foreign nations and supranational groups in developing new foreign mineral supplies and in assur- tion in an adjacent land or offshore area will have. ing the long-term flow of minerals to the United States; The economic value and demand for a given com- 4. Development of the United States transportation modity is determined by (a) the specific qualities of net is not keeping pace with demand, thus seriously that material which in turn determines the tech- affecting the energy and minerals industries; nological uses; (b) the availability and concentra- 5. Removal of billions of tons of minerals annually from tion of the material; (c) by the cost of recovering the earth contributes to a variety of disturbances; and processing the commodity; (d) transportation 6. The United States mining, minerals, metal, and of the ore for processing as well as the distance to mineral reclamation industries are encountering increas- markets; and (e) time delays resulting from possible ing difficulty in financing needed expansion of capacity restraining orders, hearings, and court litigations. and the introduction of new improved, technology; Knowledge of these parameters is essential prior to 7. Management of the resources of the public lands, the development of any land and water use manage- including the continental shelves, must be improved; ment plans involving the continued development of 8. The factual basis for the formulation and implemefita- Our coastal zone. However, the economics of a given tion of environmental regulations must be improved, so mineral resource may change dramatically in re- that man and nature are properly protected with minimum dislocation of important economic activities; sponse to new technological advances, discoveries and of new ore deposits, or as industrial and social de- 124 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL mands change through time. Such changes can have. Table 1.-Categories of extractive resources and their development potential within the coastal zone drastic effects upon the same management programs which define land and water uses. Resource potential As we begin to go to the sea for more of our mineral Resource Extractive category resources Pas t or Near Long resources to offset dwindling onshore supplies, current future range spiraling prices, and satisfy the increasing need for production national independence, new pressures will develop. Surface deposits These new pressures, when combined with the exist- Unconsolidated to ing pressures of growing technology and population, partially consolidated sediment .-.......... Total sediments ** * * can only have significant increased pollution impact Shell gravels ** ** ** upon an already environmentally overstressed Quartz and rock gravels * ** ** coastal system. According to the "National Estu- Lghtmineralsands arine Pollution Study" (1970, p. 20), the coastal Heavy mineral sands ** ** counties of the United States contain 15 percent of Salt Clay minerals * * * the land area; however, they carry 33 percent of the Phosphate * ** *** population and 40 percent of all manufacturing Peat * * * plants in the United States-and they continue to Consolidated R ock -- ----- Rock aggregate NP * ** grow. Thus, man's dilemma continues to grow-the Limestone NP * * need to protect a delicately balanced natural system, Subsurface deposits upon which man is dependent, and at the same time Pumpable materials dramatically increase its use for materials on which Gas and fluids---.. Oil ** Natural gas * * * man also depends. LPG * * * Before discussing the specific extractive industries Geothermal energy * in the estuarine zone, the interrelationship of man Soluble solids -------- Sulfur* * ** and mineral resources should be put into proper Potash * perspective. This interrelationship is summarized by , - _.Sal._._._.t ------------------ T.S. Lovering (1969, p. 110): Slurry solids --------. Phosphate NP * *** Glauconite NP * * Whether a particular type and grade of mineral con- Sand NP centrate at a particular location in the earth's crust is Partially consolidated to or can become an ore (a deposit that can be worked at consolidated rocks-. Phosphate NP * 4* a profit), moreover, depends on a variety of economic Fuels (coal, uranium factors, including mining, transportation, and extractive etc.) NP technology. The total volume of workable mineral Metals (gold, silver, deposits is an insignificant fraction of 1% of the earth's copper) NP crust, and each deposit represents some geological accident in the remote past. Deposits must be mined Aqueous deposits where they occur-often far from centers of consumption. Chlorides ** * * Each deposit also has its limits; if worked long enough it Magnesium * ** must sooner or later be exhausted. No second crop will Bromine * * materialize. Rich mineral deposits are a nation's most Fresh water * ** ** valuable but ephemeral material possession-its quick Other materials NP * ** assets. Continued extraction of ore, moreover, leads, eventually, to increasing costs as the material mined comes from greater and greater depths or as grade KEY: NP-No known production decreases, although improved technology and economics Minor source or potential of scale sometimes allow deposits to be worked, tem- *--Moderate source or potential porarily at decreased costs. Yet industry requires **-Major source or potential increasing tonnage and variety of mineral rawmaterials; and although many substances now deemed essential have understudies that can play their parts adequately, deposits (Table 1). Each category of deposit has its technology has found no satisfactory substitutes for it others. own type of materials and problems associated with recovery and consequently, will be considered THE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES separately. AND THEIR POLLUTION IMPACT UPON THE COASTAL ZONE Surface Deposits The extractive industries that occur either within The natural materials occurring 'within or con- the estuaries, on the nearshore continental shelf, or stituting the surficial deposits of the estuarine zone adjacent land areas can be placed into three general are not only extremely varied in composition, but categories: the surface, subsurface, and aqueous also in their potential use (Table 2.). In general, the LIVING AND NoN-LIvING RESOURCES 125 Table 2.-Utilization of surficial sediment deposits Total Land fill, construction, beach maintenance Sediment Lime for cement Agricultural lime S hell . - - Construction and road foundation aggregate Gravel Beach foundation / /Fraction Poultry grit / / F~~Quartzoand rock fragments Oyster foundation High silica sand Light minerals - Building and paving sand /Z / Feldspar sand Beach replenishment sand Total I Sand Surficial Fraction Sediment Titanium (rutile, illmenite, and leucoxene) \\-,$..-- Zirconium (zircon) \Heavy mineralc Rare earths (monozite, xenotime) (Also occur within the silt fractinfractractories (kyanite, sillimanite) Valuable metals (gold, tin, platinum, chromium) Phosphate Clay Clay minerals Ceramic industries: Fraction brick, tile, earthenware, stoneware, refractories, etc. \Peat Soil improvement, horticulture, etc. materials in this category are unconsolidated or SAND AND GRAVEL poorly consolidated sediment which are capable of being dredged directly without the problems of The rising demand for sand and gravel is reflected removing overburden sediments or breaking up in the total United States consumption which has consolidated materials. These materials are generally accelerated from 500 million tons in 1954 to 980 mil- only renewable over extended periods of time. Under lion tons by 1970, with a projection of 1,670 million local high energy conditions, and if there is an ad- tons by 1985 and. 2,530 million tons annually by equate source and supply, some sediment deposits 2000 (Grant, 1973). The rate of consumption of can be rapidly renewed; examples of such deposits sand and gravel during 1970 amounted to 5 tons per are sands and gravels associated with inlets, near capita, which is greater than all other mineral com- shore shoals and capes, and river mouths. modities exbept water (McKelvey, 1968). Most of For the most part the deposits considered here are this sand and gravel comes from the land, even so, low value commodities (the exceptions being some of sand and gravel probably represent the most im- the heavy minerals, Table 2.) that require very portant commodities recovered from the coastal modest, if any, benefaction or preparation prior to zone in terms of both volume and value. However, use. Also, because of this low unit value, the corn- since no records are kept of production in the estu- modities have limited and often local markets that arine zone, the commonly quoted values are highly are dictated by the very high transportation costs. suspect. Nevertheless, the explosive urban and Consequently, most operations are very small scale, industrial growth in the coastal areas, which demand low budget, and temporary depending on the highly an ever-increasing amount of construction aggregate, variable local markets and economies. is rapidly depleting the known land supplies in The surface deposits represent the most widely nearby areas or is burying them in their urban exploited group of mineral resources within the sprawl. Since most of the cost of these essential low coastal waters today, with the major exception of unit-value commodities is in transportation, a proxi- petroleum. The present and future importance of mal location to the market is essential. However, these surface resources and the resulting pollution since such large reserves and acreages are necessary, potential to our estuarine system, will be considered faced with strong urban zoning restrictions, resource in more detail. The surficial deposits include the development near the markets in metropolitan areas following commodities: sand and gravel, heavy and becomes essentially prohibitive. Thus, as transporta- light minerals, shells, clay, peat, and total sediment tion costs rise and as land supplies dwindle, the ex- for land fill. tensive and high quality deposits of submarine sand 126 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL and gravel occurring in the coastal zone become HEAVY AND LIGHT MINERALS increasingly more attractive. England has already been forced to the sea to supply over 13 percent of Many of the sand resources of the coastal area the required aggregate, utilizing 75 ocean-going contain varying concentrations of heavy and light dredges representing 32 companies (Hess, 1971). minerals that have significant economic value. The Manheim (1972) estimated that 400 billion tons heavy minerals (minerals with high specific grav- of sand grading 75 percent or more are present in the ities) include the titanium and refractory minerals, upper three meters covering 20,000 square miles of zircon, monazite, and the less common minerals the continental shelf off the northeast United States such as gold, tin, platinum, chromium, and diamonds coast. Pings and Paist (1970) have estimated that (Table 2.). These minerals occur concentrated sand deposits cover about 50,000 square miles of the in placer deposits in drowned river channel deposits, Atlantic shelf and areas about half as large on both modern beaches, and old beaches on both the ad- the gulf and Pacific shelves. Extensive gravel de- jacent coastal plain and continental shelf that were posits have been outlined north of Barmount Bay formed during fluctuations in the sea level. These off the New Jersey coast (Schlee, 1968), within minerals are commonly mined from similar types of Massachusetts Bay, the Gulf of Maine, and on the deposits on the land, but rarely have they been Florida shelf (Rigg, 1974). Pings and Paist (1970) successfully mined in the offshore zone. In spite of believe that the offshore sand and gravel industry is the lack of past economic development of these still in its infancy and will grow and develop ex- coastal deposits within the United States, heavy tremely rapidly due to the abundance of suitable minerals are extremely popular and have been and deposits in shallow water near markets and the are presently being extensively studied in the marine relative ease with which materials can be recovered, sediments in most coastal states. Many of these classified, and transported by barge. This will be studies have been in connection with the heavy particularly true in the Boston to Norfolk megalop- metals program of the United States Geological olis. Detailed studies are already underway in the Survey, which was initiated in 1966 to stimulate coastal and offshore areas of most other coastal states domestic production of a small group of critical to define the potential of these resources with the metals including gold. Some of these metals, such U.S. Army Corps of Engineers doing much of this as gold, tin, platinum, and chromium, will probably work through the Coastal Engineering Research be dredged from the United States sea floor in the Center. near future simply because they are in considerably In addition to the massive needs of aggregate for short supply. The Pacific shelf has known deposits of gold off California and Oregon, chromium off the construction industries, another important use . . Oregon, and gold, tin, and platinum off the Alaskan is emerging for the submarine sands and gravels. coast. During 1973, millions of cubic yards of sand were The light minerals (minerals with average or less pumped from Cape Hatteras, N.C., to the nearby than average specific gravities) include pure quartz beaches by the National Park Service. This major ef- or high silica sand or feldspar-rich sands which can be fort to replenish 2.2 miles of lost beach with sand used as a source of potash (Table 2.). Both of these is only temporary since shoreline recession in this commodities are of considerably less value than the area has averaged 9 meters per year for the past 100 heavy metals, and are very abundant on land; con- years (Dolan, et al, 1973). This is becoming an ever sequently, the potential of these commodities being increasing problem around the entire country as the economically extracted from the sands in the marine rate of shoreline development spirals. The Corps environment probably lies sometime in the future of Engineers estimates that about 7 percent of the yet. United States shorelines are experiencing critical coastal erosion while an additional 36 percent are SHELL experiencing slight to moderate erosion (1971). Shell aggregate is commonly dredged from shallow Where is the sand going to come from if the beaches Shell aggregate s commonly dredged from shallow are to continue to be replenished, particularly when portions of the United States coastal zone. The shell, the sand has to be of a certain grain size which is in mostly from old oyster reefs, is primarily used for equilibrium with that particular energy regime? This aggregate in road building and concrete, the manu- resource problem is a little more difficult than locat- facture of Portland cement and lime, and in small ing construction aggregate. amounts, for miscellaneous markets such as poultry LrvrNG AND 'NON-LiVING RESOURCES i27 grit and cultch material for modern oystering. to the metropolitan markets; thus, transportation Generally, the total land resources of calcite (CaCO3) costs and land values are again the critical parame- in the United States are presently adequate. How- ters. Clay is primarily used in the ceramic industries ever, in local metropolitan regions, this resource is for building bricks, refractories, tiles, et cetera. often unavailable or lackingi then transportation Since clay deposits are extremely common and and land values again become the controlling factors widespread on the land there is little need to develop and the estuarine shell deposits become an alternate submarine clays. Nevertheless, clay is a major supply.- sediment type which is being deposited in the modern The largest production of shell comes from the estuaries, as well as occurring in the older Pleistocene gulf coast states including Texas, Louisiana, Missis- sediments. Riggs and O'Connor (1974) have de- sippi, and Alabama with lesser amounts produced in scribed extensive clay wedges in the estuaries of Florida and California. Some minor production has northeastern North Carolina. The proximity of these come from the mid-Atlantic states of Virginia, clay deposits to the Norfolk metropolitan area which Maryland, and New Jersey. The State of North is a great distance from the nearest brick factories Carolina is presently carrying out a shell survey has provided some potential economic value to an within some estuaries. Extensive shallow Pleistocene otherwise noneconomic sediment. Similar Pleistocene oyster reefs and marine shell beds underlie the estu- clay deposits in the Myrtle Beach, S.C., area are aries and the mainland areas adjacent to the estu- presently being exploited as raw material for brick. aries in northeastern North Carolina (Riggs and O'Connor, 1972). Since extensive limestone deposits outcrop along most of the North Carolina coast, the PEAT muddy shell deposits are only locally mined for land- fill purposes. Most of the central and south Atlantic Extensive peat deposits commonly occur in the coastal states have a similar geologic setting with protected estuarine intertidal salt marshes and abundant limestone just inland from the coast. freshwater swamps. These low energy transitional Consequently, the need for and the probability of zones from water to land represent areas of rich developing the estuarine shell resources in these organic growth which produce the thick peat ac- areas is minimal. The north Atlantic states have only cumulation of partially decomposed organic matter. minor shell deposits due to the occurrence of ex- This peat is used in horticulture for soil improve- tensive glacial sand and gravel deposits throughout ment; however, this market is both local and some- the coastal zone. what limited. Consequently, most peat extractive In contrast to the Atlantic coastal plain, the Texas industries are very small operations. coastal zone has limited limestone, gravel, and crushed stone reserves to supply the needs for con- structional aggregate, cement, and the large chemical TOTAL SEDIMENT industrial complexes. These massive needs are sup- plied largely by the extensive shell dredging indus- Probably the most common form of extractive try in the shallow Trinity, Galveston, and San industry in the estuaries is the dredging of sediment Antonio Bays, about 75 percent of current produc- for adjacent land fill and shoreline modification tion coming from the latter. The shell occurs as purposes, in which case the sediment itself has a low distinct reefs either at the bay bottom, which sup- unit value. This whole category seems to be a very port living oysters, or buried at varying depths gray zone that nobody claims, acknowledges, or within the bay muds. Shell production began in the considers as a legitimate part of the minerals indus- late 1800's and continued slowly until the 1950's, tries within any of the coastal states. This total reaching peak levels during the last 15 years (Fisher, sediment dredging includes everything from landfill et al, 1973). In 1971, production began to fall off itself to beach replenishment, ditching for mosquito considerably, due to both rapidly diminishing re- control, drainage of marshes for agriculture and serves and increasing environmental pressures. logging, stream channelization, harbor development, and finally, into channel dredging and maintenance. This extractive industry represents by far the great- CLAY est volume of material extracted directly from the estuaries. As a result, it probably has a far greater Clay is another low unit cost commodity critical to pollution impact upon the estuaries than all other the construction industries and therefore is related forms of mineral extraction. 128 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL POLLUTION EFFECTS associated invertebrate and fish populations which occur throughout this nearshore area. The pollution effects resulting from the extraction b. The removal of materials from the estuarine of the surface sediments by mine dredging are no bottoms and the disposal of spoils produces different than those from conventional channel and great modifications of the bottom topography. harbor dredging. In fact, the latter probably rep- Such changes have dramatic effects upon the resents by far the single most important form of remainder of the estuarine system which include "estuarine mining" that takes place in our coastal circulation and the resulting water chemistry waters. The subject of channel dredging is being (salinity, dissolved oxygen, et cetera.) The treated in considerable depth independently within deepening of the water and the steepening of the study of estuarine pollution. In general, the slopes will also increase wave-induced erosion pollution effects of the extraction of mineral resources of the adjacent estuarine shorelines. from the surface sediments within the coastal zone c. In addition, these extraction processes pro- can be summarized as follows: duce temporary disruption of the productive habitat and oftentimes a permanent change in 1. Since there is often very little processing other the type of habitat. For example, generally a than washing and sizing, surface sediment operations greater area will have deeper water and steeper are less likely to contribute chemical pollution to the slopes after the dredging than existed prior to coastal system. Likewise, they generally contribute dredging, thereby producing a net loss of the minimal amount of dissolved metals and substances more productive shallower water environments. more productive shallower water environments. This would result in major changes to the bio- 2. Extraction operations of surface sediments on logical population inhabiting the area as well the land areas adjacent to the estuaries can generally as a loss of the shallow breeding grounds. be carried out in shallow closed systems so that little deleterious sediment escapes into the coastal waters and there is minimal impat upon the groundater 4. Most extraction operations of the surface sedi- and there is minimal impact upon the groundwater ments on the continental shelves could probably be system of the region. 3. On the other hand, the extraction operations carred out with a smaller immediate and less far- within the estuarine waters can produce vast amounts reaching pollution impact upon the estuaries than of sediment pollution and have a dramatic impact direct estuarine mining itself. However, since there on the physical-chemical character of the estuaries. are so many variables such as geographic location, More specifically, these include the following: character of the sediment, local current system and energy levels, et cetera, each specific circumstance a. Large amounts of sediment will be suspended must be considered independently. For example, a producing increased water turbidity. This tends recent effort to extract gravels from the shelf in to decrease organic productivity by affecting Massachusetts Bay was temporarily halted because light penetration and the resulting photosyn- of the sediment dispersal patterns from the dredge thesis. More importantly however, these in- site (Nelson, 1974). creased suspended sediments can drastically change the bottom sediment patterns and the In summary, the extraction of surficial deposits in resulting benthic floral and faunal populations. the estuarine zone has extremely variable effects In a study by Riggs and O'Connor (1974) in upon the estuarine system. Exploitation of land the nearshore area off Pinellas County, Fla., deposits adjacent to the estuaries should be allowed the effects of the high amount of organic rich to fully develop to supply the local needs, however, suspended sediments derived from landfill dredg- only with strong controls for handling and dis- ing in Boca Ciega Bay had a drastic effect upon charging surface waters, effluent control, and recla- the nearshore environments around John's Pass. mation. Exploitation of the vast potential resource The suspended sediments in the murky estuarine wealth in the offshore area should be encouraged, waters are pulled out of suspension primarily by but again, only with strong controls which allow "filter-feeding benthic organisms (mostly poly- each deposit or operation to be evaluated indepen- chaetes) and excreted as fecal pellets which dently. On the other hand, extraction of the surface then accumulate in extensive ephemeral de- deposits within the estuary itself should not be posits." The resulting pelletal muddy sand allowed. The resources in the surficial deposits are populated by polychaetes is rapidly displacing usually stimulated by local economic development the "more desirable" populations including the and are absorbed into the local urban development beautiful and extensive "sponge gardens" and and do not spawn significant new industrial and LIVING AND NON-LIVING REsoURCES 129 Table 3.-Relationship of type of mineral resource to the general resource value and cost of production within the coastal zone Resource category Examples Mining method Present status Value Cost Surface Deposits Unconsolidated to partially consoli- dated sediment - ----............. Sand, gravel, shell, etc. Dredge Abundant Production Consolidated rock .- ........ ----. Crushed rock and limestone Explosives and dredge No Production (only for channel dredging, pipelines, etc.) Subsurface Deposits Pumpable materials. ' Gases and fluids -........... Oil, gas, LPG Drill hole (pumping) Very Abundant Production Soluble solids- - ---------------- Sulfur, potash Drill hole (solution mining) Abundant Production ' Unconsolidated sediment-. Phosphate Dredge (island damming and open No Production (technology being m - pit) developed) t - Phosphate Drill hole (slurry mining) Moderate Production o Consolidatedsedimentaryandcrystal- Coal, iron, oil shales, metals (gold, Hard rock underground mining No Production (technology available line rocks silver, copper, etc.) methods for working from adjacent land areas or artificial islands) economic development. Also, most often these corn- treme importance and size of the extractive indus- modities can be replaced with other low unit cost tries associated with these commodities, they will be alternative materials, including natural, manmade, considered separately in another report. and waste products. The short-term gains of low The other natural materials included here are the unit value materials cannot justify the increased soluble solids which include sulfur, salt (NaCI), and pollution and modification problems in an already the various potash minerals. All three of these highly stressed system which plays such an important materials are associated with evaporite deposits and role in the productivity of the oceans. the resulting salt domes, which are in themselves a very important reservoir trap for petroleum. Since Subsurface Deposits salt domes commonly occur in the coastal zone and on the continental shelves, and because of the rapid The extraction of natural materials from the sub- increased exploration and development of offshore surface is a much more expensive operation which petroleum, the future increased extraction of these requires more sophisticated technology and equip- commodities in coastal areas is pretty much assured. ment than the extraction of surficial materials. Presently, sulfur is the only soluble solid being Consequently, the types of materials that can be produced from the coastal zone in the United States; recovered from the subsurface are the glamor corn- however, salt and potash are being produced by modities which include the fuels, the metals, and the solution mining from inland Canada. The presently higher unit cost non-metallic resources (Table 3.). known deposits of sulfur occur in the Texas and The deeper in the ground or the further to sea one Louisiana estuarine zone, with present production has to go to recover these commodities, the higher coming from only one offshore area in Louisiana. the cost and the more "glamorous" the material has The extraction of sulfur is from many wells located to be. Also, the technical problems and the cost of on fixed, above-water platforms. Utilizing the Frasch recovery increases dramatically as we move from method of solution mining, the sulfur is then pumped the materials that can be pumped to the surface, to through heated pipelines to processing plants on unconsolidated sediments, to consolidated rock land. (Table 3.). These three categories represent a The pollution problems associated with solution logical approach to discussing the extraction of mining in the coastal zone can be summarized as specific materials and their resulting pollution poten- follows: tial upon the coastal system. a. The problems of leaks, breaks, and effluent PUJMPABLE MATERIALS (hot water, brines, drilling mud, et cetera) associated with solution mining and pipeline operation; Quantitatively, the most important materials in b. The problems resulting from the operation and this category are natural gas, oil, LPG, ground maintenance of the big equipment associated with water, and geothermal energy. Because of the ex- drilling, pumping, and transportation; 130 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL c. The most important problem, particularly with due to the need for heavy pumping to dewater the petroleum, of the allied industries which are estab- large open-pit mine. lished in nearby coastal waters. Similar extensive subsurface deposits of phos- phorite occur in the coastal areas extending from Charleston, S.C., to south of Savannah, Ga. An UNCONSOLIDATED TO PARTIALLY CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS attempt by a major mining company in 1966 to mine part of the 7 billion tons of phosphate reserves This category would include any mineral resource occurring under the coastal marshlands and estuaries that occurs in the subsurface in soft or unconsolidated of Chatham County, just east of Savannah lead to sediments that are diggable. The major resources a major study by the University of Georgia System that presently fit into this category are phosphate (1968). This report studied the geology and economic and possibly coal and oil shale. Coal is mined from potential of the deposit, as well as the effects of below coastal waters in many places around the mining upon the ground-water system. Even though world; however, in the United States the underwater the report was generally favorable, mining was com- coal potential does not appear to be very great and pletely blocked by the environmental aspects of the oil shale is probably down the road some. On the potential open-pit dredgemining. Furlow (1972, other hand, both the Atlantic and Pacific coastal p. 226) said that: waters have vast phosphate reserves which occur ... public opinion, aroused by conservation groups two primarily in the subsurface with only small surface years ago, is still so adamantly opposed to mining concentrations. marshland and disrupting ecological chains that I can foresee no time in the future when marshland mining The outer coastal plans, estuaries, and nearshore will be allowed. These conservation groups have only shelf areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, to point to phosphate mining areas in Florida as prime Georgia, Florida, and California have tremendously examples of what would happen to the Savannah area. large and extensive beds of phosphorite sediments Drill hole information from the Georgia Depart- that occur under from 10 to several hundreds of Drll hole i formation fr om the Georgia Depart- feet of overburden sediments. In Beaufort County, ment of Mines, Mining, and Geology suggests that N.C., the Pungo River Formation is presently being th e Ch atham County deposit extends offshore at strip-mined directly on the banks of the Pamlico least 10 mi es and possibly as much as 20 miles with River estuary. Three million tons of phosphate have small overburdens, high grades, and large tonnages. been produced annually for the past eight years from a 50 foot bed below 90 feet of overburden. The ... future of phosphate mining in Georgia lies entirely operating company is presently doubling its plant in the offshore area rather than in the marshlands. capacity while another company has just recently Offshore dredge mining, while more difficult and ex- pensive than onshore mining, can be accomplished with announced its plans for opening a new mine next present or presently developing technology. Last, but year. The projection for the new mine is to produce certainly not least of mining considerations, conservation and ecologically-oriented groups would have far less 4 to 5 million tons a year by 1977. The operating objection to offshore mining than they would to mining company controls 30,000 acres which contain over in the unspoiled marshes of Chatham County. 2 billion tons of phosphate reserves. Of this, 10,000 acres occur on a state mining lease below the The California Continental Shelf also has extensive Pamlico River estuary. In fact, this very rich deposits of phosphate sediments. In fact, these phosphate bed underlies not only several large deposits were planned for development in 1961; the counties in eastern North Carolina, but hundreds of United States Geological Survey subsequently sold square miles of the Pamlico Sound and Neuse and its first and only hard mineral lease on the con- Pamlico River estuaries. The existing phosphate tinental shelf in April 1974 (Rigg, 1974). However, mining operation has had a very small direct impact this sale involving six tracts and totalling 30,000 upon the adjacent estuaries. Hobbie, et al (1972) acres, was subsequently cancelled by the United reported that the addition of phosphorus in the States Geological Survey when it was learned that estuary resulting from the adjacent phosphate mine there was a World War II munitions dump on the was irregular, but small, producing only slightly lease site. higher concentrations than normal. The periods of The exploitation of the unconsolidated sediments high photosynthesis within the estuary are a direct from the subsurface generally represents tremendous function of nitrate fluctuations coming from up- earth moving operations utilizing open-pit strip stream and not the phosphorus. There have also mining techniques with massive equipment. Vast been only very minor effects upon the major fresh acreages are involved in both recovering the exten- watel aquifer directly beneath the phosphate bed, sive beds of reserves and treating and disposing of LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 131 the waste materials. It has been demonstrated in continents, they can be expected to contain similar North Carolina that such operations can safely take mineral resources as the continents. For example, place on the lands adjacent to the estuaries with a copper and zinc deposit below the tide flats of only very minimal pollution and direct environmental Penobscot Bay in Maine was originally mined from impact upon the estuaries. However, similar mining three underground shafts (Smith, 1972). More operations in central Florida, 20 to 50 miles inland recently, a 90-acre salt marsh was dammed and from the coastal zone, have been extremely damaging drained for a short-lived open-pit operation. The to the estuaries; upon occasion the wall of a slimes environmental pollution problems included salt pond will fail, sending millions of tons of mud water encroachment into the fresh water aquifer, downstream. silting and water turbidity, and heavy metal con- Similar types of mining operations are technically tamination in the estuary. feasible within the estuarine waters; the shallow Technology presently exists for mining below the waters can be filled, or even diked and drained estuary from shafts on the mainland or from man- -allowing for either open-pit dry mining or under- made islands within the estuary. The technology water dredge mining. However, due to the extremely already exists for using a lock tube seated in a shaft large land requirements, the vast amounts of earth cored by a big-hole drill supplying vertical hole movement, and the problems of the resulting waste entry with an open air underground mine. This materials, there is a tremendous permanent modifi- would allow for the use of the same mining tech- cation of the estuarine environment and system. niques as used on land (McKelvey, 1968). To date, Also, a great potential exists for massive estuarine this technology has not been put into operation in damage resulting from broken dikes during major the nearshore ocean environments. This, however, is storms and storm tides. not too far in the future. Moore (1972) believes that Offshore mining of these deep phosphate reserves the technology will exist and the need will be great is technologically and economically questionable at enough to support large-scale mining of noble and the present time. The two greatest factors are base metals from the shelf by 1980 with almost total probably the high energy levels of the Atlantic and dependence upon this source by the year 2000. the economic factors of ore dilution with dredge A pretty firm basis has already been well established mining. With respect to the potential effect upon the for such a prediction-the present transition of the adjacent estuarine systems, each situation would major petroleum reserves to the coastal and offshore have to be individually evaluated as with offshore shelf environments. Another important factor that surface mining. is involved here is that at present only a very small The technology which would allow surface mining percentage of the coastal and inshore shelf has been of phosphates utilizing a subsurface pumping method explored for anything other than petroleum. is actively being tested on the deep phosphate The potential impact upon the estuaries of sub- deposits in North Carolina. If this pumping proce- surface hard rock mining on land is extremely dure can be adequately developed, it could provide variable and is only partially dependent upon its a satisfactory alternative to open-pit mining for proximity to the estuary. Regardless of its location, recovering the vast estuarine and offshore phosphate resulting heavy metal contamination of the estuarine deposits with minimal estuarine damage. waters and bottom muds is common. On the other hand, those operations which are in close proximity kCONsOLIDATED ROCK to the estuarine system could also have a more direct impact upon both the groundwater and estuarine waters. Because of the high cost of hardrock mining in the subsurface, the only potential mineral resources that can be economically considered in this category POLLUTION EFFECTS are the glamor metals (gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, et cetera) and the fuels such as coal and The potential pollution impact resulting from sub- radioactive minerals. Extensions of underground surface mining within the estuary and nearshore mines from adjacent land areas have been producing environments is probably not as great as surface about 30 million tons of coal per year from under mining in the same areas would be. This type of the sea in eight different countries for a long time extractive operation would cover smaller areas, move (McKelvey, 1974). The fact that there are at smaller volumes of material, and would not be present no such undersea mines in the United States directly connected with the water column, which does not indicate the potential. Since the continental means that it generally would be a cleaner operation. shelves are merely the submerged portion of the The major impact would be associated with the 132 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL barge transportation of the ore and the necessary urban pressure for development, the latter two have processing plants located on the nearby coastal area. closed. It is not likely that future fields will be opened The potential chemical and sediment pollution since salt is readily available from brines, rock-salt resulting from hardrock-metal benefication plants mines, and as byproducts of potash mining. The and smelters is generally very great. environmental pollution resulting from the salt operations is very poorly known and is generally thought to be minimal. This is pointed out by the Aqueous Deposits recent establishment of a National Wildlife Refuge in San Francisco Bay which includes 12, 243 acres Most of the elements known on the-earth's surface of salt company lands, most of which is'used for can be found in seawater. These various chemical salt production. The company has been assured, constituents comprise an impressive 165 million tons however, that continued salt production is con- of dissolved solids per cubic mile of sea water in sidered compatible with the Refuge (Davis and the world's oceans. This amounts to a total mineral Evans, 1973). However, the diking of the estuarine reserve of 50 X 1'01 tons for the 330 million cubic flats, along with the resulting bitterns from the salt miles of sea water, thus forming the largest con- operations, definitely does modify the geometry, tinuous ore body available to man (Shigley, 1968). chemistry, and the biota of the coastal environment. However, the concentration of most of the elements is so low that only very. few are presently and probably will be economically exploitable in.the near MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS AND METAL future. Four groups of commodities are presently being extracted, or recently have been extracted, from sea water in the United States; these include Many of the various compounds of magnesium the chlorides (including common salt), the mag- produced in the United States are derived from sea e cods nd al, water in eight coastal plants-operating in six states nesium compounds and magnesium metal, bromine, and water. In addition to these, the ocean waters (Table 4.). The remainder of the magnesium is f produced from well brines and magnesium minerals. energay for the long-term solution to the ever- The process involves adding the sea water to lime energy for the long-term solution to the ever- increasing energy needs-deuterium. Deuterium is solutions, forming a magnesium hydroxide precipi- a heavy isotope of hydrogen useable in the process tate The lime is generally derived from oyster shell of fusion; the ocean waters contain 25 trillion tons which are dredged from the estuaries. Magnesium of deuterium (McI~elvey, 1974)-so much that metal is also produced from sea water at the Dow only 1 percent would supply about 500,000 times Chemical Company plant in Freeport, Tex. In 1972, the world's initial supply of fossil fuels; the total they produced 120,000 short tons of metal utilizing could supply the world's energy needs for 120 million chemical and electrochemical processes. The produc- years at 40 times the 1968 level. (Holdren and tion of the magnesium compounds itself produces Herrera, 1971.) It alsoappears that deuterium can very minor estuiarine pollution; however, since the be extracted from sea water without any ill effects production of the metal is a dhemical process, it has upon the water and biological system. a greater potential chemical impact upon the estu- Technological processes have been developed for ane system. recovering all of the major elements and many of the minor elements dissolved in sea water. However, Table 4.-Domestic producers of magnesium' compounds from sea water in 1972 only four groups of materials are presently being (from Minerals Yearbook for 1972, United States Department of the Interior, economically extracted on a large scale. A brief Bureau of Mines, v. 1, p. 748) discussion of each of these groups follows. Capacity Company Location (short tons SODIUM AND CALCIUM CHLORIDES'' M Basic Magnesia, Inc .- - ----------- Port St. Joe, Fla. 100,000 These two commodities are presently being pro- BarcrottCompany .- . .......... . . . Lewes, Dela. 5,000 Chorchem, Inc_....-. . Pascagoula, Miss. 40,000 duced by solar evaporation behind extensive diked Dow Chemical Company -- -------. Freeport, Texas 250,000 flats in the estuaries of San Francisco'Bay, Calif. rMC Corp.---.-- ..-- Chula Vista, Calif. 5,000 Recently, salt was also produced in similar evapora- Kiser Aluminum & Chem. Corp-- Moss Landing, Calif. 150,000 slMerck & Company, Inc-----------S. San Francisco, Calif. 5,000 tion flats in Newport and San Diego Bays, Calif. Northwest Magnesite Company .-. Cape May, N. J. 100,000 However, due to the extensive acreages of estuarine flats necessary for this operation and the extreme LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES 133 BROMINE 'Carolina, South Texas, and Southern California. Con- sequently, the estuarine impact of this extractive This element was economically produced from process will only increase with time in the United seawater in combination with other extraction proc- States. The impact resulting from the effluents esses. For example, in 1967 the Dow Chemical plant derived from desalinization is local and relatively in Freeport, Tex., produced large amounts of bromine small as compared to other extractive industries. as a byproduct of magnesium extraction. Also, the The effluents are about equal in volume to the solar salt pans at Newark, Calif., produced bromine amount of fresh water produced, and they have as a byproduct of the evaporite bitterns. These about twice the concentration of the original sea- extraction operations required chemical plants lo- water (Shigley, 1968). Of far greater impact is the cated directly at the water's edge and, therefore, associated urban, industrial, and agricultural devel- produced minor amounts of chemical pollution. How- opment that would follow, particularly in the areas ever, by 1971, all of the bromine produced in the that presently are deficient in fresh water resources. United States was from well brines in Arkansas and Michigan and lake brines in California (United States Department of the Interior, 1973). The environmental impact of those industries WATER extracting from aqueous deposits upon the associated estuarine systems appears to be less than some of The desalinization of seawater to produce usable the other extractive industries. Since these are land fresh water is an old idea that is becoming increas- based operations, the physical intrusion is limited to ingly important in the world today and locally it is the adjacent shoreline area. However, all of the even becoming an economic extractive industry. In extractive industries described in this section produce 1966, there were 153 seawater desalinization plants brines with increased heavy metal contents, often in the world with daily capacities greater than heat, and in some cases chemical effluent. Discharge 24,000 gallon per day (Shigley, 1968). He believes of these effluents, unless properly monitored and that: . . . "the rate of growth of desalinization has controlled, could produce significant local estuarine been about 30 percent per year for the past 10 years; pollution. Probably the greatest impact that this it is now predicted that the installed capacity will group of extractive industries has upon the estuarine be about one billion gallons per day by 1978." system is indirect, resulting from the stimulation of Since 1958, when the United States Office of and interdependence upon numerous other indus- Saline Waters authorized the construction of five trial, commercial, and residential activities. Shigley pilot plants to test different desalinization processes, (1968), pointed out that the combination of raw three coastal based plants have been desalinizing materials and location at Freeport, Tex., has stimu- seawater. These plants are located at Wrightsville lated the development of a large chemical manu- Beach, N.C., Freeport, Tex., and San Diego, Calif. facturing complex. of which seawater processing Today the costs of water production in these specific activities are only a part. Because the seawater plants averages between 75 cents to $1 per 1,000 processing activities share raw material overhead. gallons as compared to the average freshwater costs and research with over a 100 other products in such of 30 to 35 cents per 1,000 gallons for industrial and an industrial confine, what would otherwise be either municipal use and about 5 cents per 1,000 gallons a marginal or uneconomic operation, can become for agricultural uses (Cargo and Mallory, 1974). economic and viable. Since the effluents of desalinization are more valuable as a source of minerals than the average seawater, CONCLUSIONS the development of the necessary technology could play an important role in changing the economics The relationship between mineral resource utiliza- of the entire extractive industries from ocean water, tion and the coastal system is presently and will including fresh water. Indeed, due to increasing continue to produce an ever-increasing dilemma with demands for limited ground water plus the rapidly respect to estuarine pollution. This basic dilemma increasing pollution of our water resources, these can be summarized with the following conclusions: plants will become more important and abundant in the near future. 1. Our growing technological society is totally Several critical areas in the United States where dependent upon a myriad of basic mineral resources desalinization could become economic very soon are which are the raw materials for the technical machine. portions of South Florida, the Outer Banks of North The value of, and demand for any of these basic 134 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL resources is dictated by the industrial technology systems with the ocean's waters. Therefore, they and economic considerations at any given time, both receive the cumulative residue, waste, pollution and of which are highly changeable and volatile controls. sediment resulting from all man's and nature's 2. Extraction of minerals has to take place where activities within each drainage system, subsequently the minerals occur; the location of resources cannot funneled into the estuaries. be legislated or decreed. Since the coastal zone does 7. Socially, industrially, and demographically, the contain a myriad of potential resource commodities United States has evolved, in a manner that appears necessary for our technological society and since to be continuing, with disproportionate concentra- these commodities do have an economic value, tions within the coastal zones. This continual en- society demands exploitation. croachment and the mounting intensity of develop- 3. Even though there is considerable mineral ment and use of the estuarine zone has produced a resource potential within the coastal zone, there is highly stressed system which is resulting in major a dramatic lack of information pertaining to the and potentially devastating changes within this occurrence, distribution, and concentration of. spe- fragile and important transitional area. cific materials. This is absolutely essential informa- tion which is prerequisite to any form of coastal zone If one can accept these statements as valid, then management. there is no alternative but to establish a moratorium 4. The potential environmental and pollution on all estuarine activities that will continue to add problems associated with resource extraction, prep- stress to an environment that represents such a vital aration, and transportation, which are prerequisite part of the earth system and which presently sits in to their use, are often exceedingly great. The a very precarious balance. The extractive industries, processes of extraction of these resources are often to a large extent, fall into this situation. Develop- messy operations that are capable of physically, ment of the mineral resources on the adjacent lands chemically, and biologically disrupting and/or modi- and the offshore continental shelf areas should be fying the fragile coastal and estuarine system. The encouraged with the proper setback lines from the resulting effects may be either direct or indirect, shore, environmental controls, and a viable monitor- local or broad scale, temporary or permanent, and ing system. However, the question of mineral extrac- of varying degrees of severity, all depending upon tion from within the estuaries themselves should be the commodity itself and the methods of extraction seriously reevaluated. The age old question of which and processing. In addition, a myriad of satellite is the most valuable to man, provokes the honored industries develop in the coastal zone in response to response--the old "trade-off" game. But as man's a given extractive industry; often these industries needs grow, the "trade-offs" grow and pretty soon have a greater potential cumulative impact upon we're "trading off the trade-off." Man can no longer estuarine pollution than the extractive industry afford this sort of approach to the continued develop- itself. Some extractive and satellite industries are ment of some small part of the system which in its not compatible with other legitimate uses of the totality is a critical resource that has well defined estuarine system. limits. The need is to start evaluating the natural 5. Some resource materials have alternate sources systems, upon which man is so dependent, from a from which the necessary raw materials can be long-term basis of interdependence and not the supplied and many have substitute materials that immediate short-term dollar value. Multiple use and can be made available or developed. This is par- estuarine management are fine concepts that satisfy ticularly true of the low unit cost aggregate materials, quarreling factions, but all too often they amount Other materials, however, do not have alternate to little more than a sophisticated land grab-like sources or substitutes. Consequently, attitudes to- the old miners staking their claims. One must wards and necessity for the recovery of the mineral approach the continued use and development of the resources within the estuaries and offshore areas estuaries as a single complex interacting ecosystem vary between the two opposite extremes of complete which has finite limits-these limits must be defined abstinence to complete development, now. 6. The estuarine system of the United States occupies a very narrow transitional zone between the land area and the continental shelf; the total extent RECOMMENDATIONS of this system represents an extremely small but manifestly important percentage of the United In order to meet the objective of the overall study States. The estuaries, for the most part, are the considering the status of pollution in the nation's terminal mixing basins of the freshwater drainage estuarine zone with respect to the mineral extraction LIVING AND NON-LIVING RESOUnCES 135 processes, I propose the following recommendations: Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. The economic and social importance of estuaries: prepared for EPA by Battelle Memorial Institute, U.S. Government Printing Off., 1. Establish a moratorium on any further develop- Washington, D.C. ment of the extractive industries within the estuaries Fisher, W. L., L. F. Brown, J. H. McGowen, and C. G. Groat. until the proper background resource information 1973. Environmental geologic atlas of the Texas coastal can be obtained to set up a viable management zone: Univ. -of Texas, Austin, Texas, Bureau of Econ. program. After a national resource priority base has Gol, 7 v been developed, establish stringent sets of procedures Furlow, J. W. 1972. Georgia phosphate stratigraphy and that define what resources can be extracted from the economic geology of the Chatham County deposit in geology of phosphate, dolomite, limestone, and clay estuarine system, where, and by what methods. deposits, H. S. Puri, ed.: Florida Dept. Natural Res., 2. An extensive and exhaustive study should be Tallahassee, Florida, Bur. of Geology Sp. Pub. no. 17, initiated by Congress and placed under the direction p. 227-228. of the U.S. Geological Survey, to map the geology Grant, M. J. 1973. Rhode Island's ocean sands: management and inventory the mineral resource potential of the guidelines for sand and gravel extraction in state waters: Univ. of Rhode Island, Kingston, R. I., Sea Grant Prog., United States coastal zone in a similar fashion to Marine Tech. Rept. no. 10. the extensive U.S. Geological Survey-Woods Hole Atlantic Continental Shelf study or the U.S. - Geo- Hess, H. D. 1971. Marine sand and gravel mining industry of the United Kingdom: National Oceanic and Atmos. Ad., logical Survey heavy metals study. Such environ- Tech. Rept. ERL 213-MMTC1. mental and geologic mapping is an absolutely essen- tial first step for any resource management program Hobbie, J. E., B. J. Copeland, and W. G. Harrison. 1972. Nutrients in the Pamlico River estuary, North Carolina, which will consider the multiple use by conflicting 1969-1971: Water Resources Research Institute, Univ. of interests. One cannot plan the destiny of a system North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C., Rept. no. 76. without an intimate knowledge of the composition Holdren, J. and P. Herrera. 1971. Energy: San Francisco, and processes operating within the system. Use Calif., Sierra Club. evaluations and trade-offs cannot be made until the Lovering, T. S. 1969. Mineral resources from the land in total resource potential is known. Resources and Man: National Acad. of Sciences, W. H. 3. A mechanism should be set up within the Freeman and Co., p. 109-134. geological surveys in the coastal states under the geological surveys in the coastal states under the McKelvey, V. E. 1974. Ocean developments in the United direction of the U.S. Bureau of Mines to monitor the States: Ocean Industry, v. 9, no. 4, p. 208-211. extractive industries within the coastal zone of their state. This monitoring system should include: (a) 1968. Minerals in the sea: Ocean Industry, v. 3, no. 9, p. 37-43. the volume and values of annual production and the reserve situation of each specific mineral commodity; Moore, J. R. 1972. Exploitation of ocean mineral resources- (b) the extraction methods and disruptive effects perspectives and predictions: Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, v. 72, p. 193-206; Sea Grant Reprint, WIS-SG-73-333. of each specific mining operation upon the estuarine system; and (c) the processing and transportation Morgan, J. D. 1974. The current status of the United States methods of each mining operation and its actual and mining industry and the need for both increased production and increased productivity: Conf. on Productivity in potential disruptive impact upon the estuarine Mining, Univ. of Missouri, Rolla, Mo. system. 4. Establish rigid stress limits to stabilize the Nels n, T. A. 1974. The New England offshore mining disproportionate growth and development of the experimental study (NOMES): Geol. Soc. America, Abstr. disproportionate growth and development of the with Programs, p. 887. estuarine systems throughout the United States. This should include delineation of the type as well as the Pings, W. B., and D. A. Paist. 1970. Minerals from the amount of growth and development, oceans-Part I: Mineral Industries Bull., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Co., v. 13, no. 2, p. 1-18. Rigg, J. B. 1974. Minerals from the sea: Ocean Industry, v. 9, REFERENCES no. 4, p. 213-219. Riggs, S. R., and MV. P. O'Connor. 1974. Relict sediment Cargo, D. N., and B. F. Mallory. 1974. Man and his geologic Riggs, S. R., and M. Pnsgressive coastal system East environment- Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley. deposits in a major transgressive coastal system: East Carolina Univ., Greenville, N.C., Sea Grant Pub., UNC- SG-74-04. Davis, F. F., and J. R. Evans. 1973. Mining activity in California: Calif. Geology, v. 26, no. 12, p. 291-305. Schlee, J. 1968. Sand and gravel on the continental shelf off the northeastern United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 602. Dolan, R., P. J. Godfrey, and W. E. Odum. 1973. Man's impact on the barrier islands of North Carolina: Am. Shigley, C. M. 1968. Seawater as raw material: Ocean In- Scientist, v. 61, no. 2. p. 152-162. dustry, v. 3, no. 11, p. 43-46. 136 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Smith, P. A. 1972. Underwater mining-insight into current 1970a. The national estuarine pollution study: U.S. United States thinking: University of Wisconsin, Madison, Senate Document no. 91-58, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, Wisc., Sea Grant Pub. no. WISSG-72-330. Washington, D.C. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. National shoreline 1970b. National estuarine study: Fish and Wildlife study including the report on the national shoreline study, Serv., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., nine regional inventory reports, shore protection guidelines, 7v. and shore management guidelines: Washington_-DcC., U.S. Government Printing Office. University System of Georgia. 1968. A report on proposed leasing of state owned lands for phosphate mining in U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 1973. Minerals yearbook for 1972: Chatham County, Georgia: Advisory Committee on Bureau of Mines, v. 1. Mineral Leasing, Athens, Ga. FISHERIES STATUS OF ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS IN RELATION TO SPORTFISH RESOURCES JOHN CLARK Conservation Foundation Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT Increasing numbers of anglers-ten million at this time-fish along the coastal shores, an estimated 57 percent of them in the estuaries. Factors affecting the ecosystem are discussed. Recommenda- tions are made to meet management needs, on the federal, state, and local levels. INTRODUCTION reason to believe that the catches may be somewhat over-estimated by the inherent biases in the angler Ten million American anglers fish in coastal wa- interview-recall system used, they can be assumed ters; they catch nearly one and a half billion pounds to give a reliable indication of the distribution of of fish each year. This massive recreational activity catches. is supported by fish resources that are dependent Anglers fish in both estuaries (tidal rivers, bays, on the continued health of estuarine and coastal lagoons, sounds) and oceans (surf and offshore wa- ecosystems. ters), with 57 percent of the fish taken in estuaries. The number of people fishing in coastal areas has They spend about $100 each on fishing gear and increased 50 percent since 1960, while the average other expenses per year.2 yearly catch per angler has declined somewhat. The Coastal angling is a widespread attraction. Half causes for the decline in catch-an indicator of fish the anglers have family incomes of less than $10,000 population size-have not been determined with ac- (1970 data).2 Twenty-two percent are women. Most ceptable scientific validity and because of the envi- come from rural areas, towns, and suburbs rather ronmental complexities of coastal ecosystems they than from large cities. may never be. In the following account we have had National surveys in 1960, 1965, and 1970, show to work with skimpy circumstantial evidence to that coastal fishing has increased by 50 percent in explore the causes and effects. the span of one decade.' 2 As the number of anglers All in all, marine fish resources appear to be in increased from 6.2 to 9.4 million, the yearly average surprisingly good shape. Atlantic stocks are improv- catch dropped from 102 fish to 87 fish per year per ing after a period of general depletion during the angler. This reduction is most likely a consequence 1960's. This may in part reflect the results of the of reduced carrying capacity of fishing waters, a recent national effort to clean up our waters and possible natural reduction of fish stocks, or more protect the environment. Further gains will depend fishing pressure on the stocks than can be accommo- upon how well fish harvest management and eco- dated at the same high catch rate. system protection can be combined into effective The national sport-fishing surveys are not ade- federal, state and local programs and how well quate to provide a statistical basis for examining societal goals for use of the resources can be defined trends in abundance because they are done so in- and implemented. frequently (5-year intervals) and because they con- tain inherent biases typical of poll (interview-recall) THE COASTAL SPORT FISHERY systems of data collection. A somewhat more sensi- tive indicator of abundance trends is the commercial The ten million coastal anglers spread their efforts catch which is recorded by the National Marine rather evenly along the U.S. shoreline, as shown for Fisheries Service through collection and tabulation 1970 in Table 1, the latest year of record (from the of dealers' records. Example trends shown by com- National Marine Fisheries Service).' While there is mercial catch records are depicted in Table 2 for 139 140 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Estimated number of anglers and catch for 19701i Table 3.-The estimated total U.S. angler catch of certain estuarine dependent species groups for Atlantic and Gulf States combined.l Catch in millions of'fish Region . Number of Catch (millions of fish)' anglers Year Bluefish Croaker Flpunder Sea trouts Ocean Estuary 1960 . ------.----- 23.8 46.0 50.6 83.8 North Atlantic -- - ---------------. 1,700,000 35.3 81.7 1965 - - --- 31.0 51.* 54.6 - 89.4 Middle Atlantic - . . ... 1,800,000 69.5 98.7 1970 36.0 66.0 57.4 107.0 SoUth Atlantic .-. . . 1,800,000 112.2 72.0 Eastern Gulf of Mexico - ...... .... ! 1,500,000 42.4 146.6 Western Gulf of Mexico . 900,000 47.2 50.5 South Pacific ---- 900,000 34.7 2.5 North Pacific- '--- 1,300,000 8.3 15.8 breeding likely was restored to normal. Reduction of other chemical and industrial pollution is un- doubtedly a factor in recent fisheries improvement. Although these improvements 'are encouraging, four of the major Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sport thss e couragin , fish species. many threats remain; vigilance is necessaryi and a T6he pattern is different fornthevarious species. much higher potential. is realizable. Thisipotential The pattern is different for the various species, is particularly high for reducing damage from effects reflecting differences in biological, environmental such as urban drainage and physical destruction of and economic factors that affect their populations estur ine systems, effects that do nt riginate with and their fisheries. Common to all, however, is a low estuarie systems, effects that do not originate with point source pollution (pipe. discharges). To correct point in catch in the late 60's, centering in 1967, these, there usually must be control of land uses in followed by an upward swing into the 1970's, a -followed by an upward swing into the 1970's, athe watersheds and along estuarine; shores coupled, trend not discernible in the 5-year national surveys of course, with the control of point discharges. Suh of sport fishing catches (Table 3). of sport fishing catches (Table 3). combined land and water ecosystem management It is quite possible that the upswing of the latter comb me land and w ater ecosystem management 60's is partially due to a general lessening of pollu- programs are necessary to maintain the vitality of tion impacts and an improvement in water quality in coastal areas. For example, Edwin Joseph' sug- gests that the increase in sea trouts may have been THE ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM caused by. decreasing agricultural use of DDT.3 An estuary is a constricted coastal water body After World War II, DDT use rapidly increased in that connects t t and has a measurable quan- shorelands draining into estuaries where the spawn- tity of salt in its waters. For management purposes, ing and nursery areas of the sea trouts are located. the following rule of thumb, which is based upon Lethal doses of DDT lodge in the yolk oil of many the degree of confinement, may be used to distinguish species causing death to embryos. Then after the between estuarine and open coastal areas: An estu- middle 60's DDT use began to drop off. As it did, ary is a waterbody that has a basin circumference ary is a waterbody that has a basin circumference in excess of three times the width of its outlet to Table 2.-The total commercial catches of certain estuarine dependent species the sea.4 groups for the Atlantic and Gulf States combined. (Source: National Marine The excetional natural value of the estuarine eco- Fisheries Service; 1972 statistics are preliminary) system comes from a beneficial combination of phys- Millions of Pounds , ical properties that separately or in combination Year Bluefish Croaker Flounder Seatraots perform such functions as those listed below4:' 1955 .-------- 4.2 47.3 63.4 16.4 1. Co0nfinement: Provides shelter which protects 1956- 4.1 1 56.0 65.1 ' 15.5 the estuary from wave action, which allows plants 1957_ . 4. 8 1 90 69, 3 141. t ro 1958 . 3.3 24.7 77.3 to root, clams to set; iand. fragile small animals to 1959 .-.... 3.8 11.9 75.0 10.6 exist; and permits retention' and concentration of 1960 - _-- ----- 3.5 . 6.9 79.4 9.9 suspended life and nutrients. 1961 . - ----- - 3.7 5.2 85.5 10.2 1962 .-.........5.9 3.3 104,5 10.0 2. Shallowness: Allows light to penetrate to plants 1963 - - -----. . 5.9 2.7 125.5 ' .3 on the bottom; fosters growth of marsh plants and 19654 - --------4.-6 3 2.5 129.03 10.1 tideflat biota; encourages water mixing; and dis- 1965- . .............. 5.0 3.5 133.7 11.9a 1966 . 5.5 3.4 127.7 ' 10.7 courages large oceanic predators which avoid shallow 1967 _.._ '4.3 2.5' 112.5 ' 9.5 waters. 1968 . . ...... , 5.4 .4.7 114.0 12.0 1969 -_.__._,. 60 6.7 . 114 3. Salinity: Freshwater dilution deters ocean pred- 1970 .----- --- 7.2 8.4 123.0 14.9 ators and encourages estuarine forms; precipitates 1971- --- - ------ ' 5.6 10.6 125.0 18.7 sediments; and provides buoyanciy and physiologi- 197 -6.3 16.6 1~8.0 21.0~.' cally beneficial salt concentrations. Freshwater flow FISHERIES 141 over saltier, bottom water typically induces benefi- estuaries and the pollution potential is high. The con- cial stratified flow . finement and' shallowness of estuarine water basins 4. Circulation: Tidal and wind forces plus strati- allow pollutants to pervade their waters, particu- fied flow set up a beneficial system of transport for larly those that have'poor flushing characteristics. suspended life, enhance flushing, and retain orga- There is irony in all this. The most urbanized nisms in favorable habitats. estuaries which often suffer the highest environmen- 5. Tide: Tidal energy is a major driving force of tal stress are at the same time potentially subject to circulation; tidal flow transports nutrients and sus- the highest sport fishing demand because of the pended life, dilutes and flushes wastes; tidal rhythm human populations concentrated there. Therefore, acts as a regulator of feeding, breeding, and other the very water bodies.that should carry the greatest functions, sport fish resources may actually carry the least. 6. Nutrient storage: Trapping mechanisms store Because of the variety of man-caused disturbances large amounts of nutrient within estuary; marsh and that affect estuarine waters and because of year to grass bedsstore nutrients for slow release as detritus; year natural changes in the envirobnment that affect richness induces high accumulation-of available nu- species, it is nearly impossible to establish any trients in,animal tissue. scientifically valid correlation between the type of pollutant, or other disturbance, and the status of About two thirds of the Atlantic and Gulf 'of any fish population. Thier does niot` exist in the sci- Mexico species of coastal sport fish depend upon entific literature one scientifically convincing cause the special life giving properties of the estuaries for arid effect relation between a single disturbance and sanctuaries, or nursery areas for their young; Fewer a single effect. Therefore, one must look broadly at Pacific than Atlantic species are critically dependent complete ecosystems in all their complexity and try upon estuaries.4 to judge the multiple effects of multiple disturb- The estuarine dependent species include those ances upon carrying capacity limiting factors. that spawn in the ocean, along the beaches, in the inlets, within estuaries, and up the tidal rivers. The CARRYING CAPACITY LIMITING FACTORS young of all these converge in the estuaries for food, refuge, and suitable water. Most estuarine depend- The potential fish yield of any estuarine Rater ent fishes are ocean or coastal migrants who spend body is governed byits caring capacity for the only part of their lives in the shallow estuaries. But species it supports Carrying capacity in the strict this one period may be the most crucial part of the scientific sense is the number of a particular species survival of the species. Three major categories of estuarine dependency are shown below with exam- size. However, we use it here in a more general sense ples for -each species :5 v *ple for each speci~es :6 .as the amount of life that a habitat can support. Exactly what makes good fishing waters has al- Adultsfound Adults found ways been a bit of a mystery. However, science has mostly in the partially in the Adults found unraveled enough of the mystery to understand estuaries, some estuaries, some mostly along the what environmental disturbances degrade good fish- only seasonally. only seasonally. open coast. ing waters and generally how they do it. Each type Flounder (winter *Striped bass Bluefish of disturbance reduces carrying capacity in a spe- flounder) (rockfish) Tautog cific. way and a combination of them causes a Spotted trout Fluke (summer (blackfish) combination of carrying capacity reductions. Tarpon flounder) King whiting The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination hCroarker Porgy(scup) *A(kingfefiSdhi) System (NPDES) and related provisions of the (hardhead) Ret drum (redfish *Alewife (river Snook or channel bass) herring) 1972 Water Act should provide adequate control (lafayette) Black drum *Shad of disturbances arising from point sources of pollu- *White perch Mullet Atlantic mackerel tion (pipe discharges) including industrial and mu- Menhaden (bunker, nicipal wastes by the mid-1990's. This alone should pogy) considerably improve the carrying capacity of estu- *Anadromous species: Living as adults in salt or brackish water but aries for fish. But controlling point sources is only spawning in fresh or nearly fresh water. part and perhaps the easiest part of the much larger job of restoring the carrying capacity of the nation's Estuaries and their adjacent shorelands are easily estuaries. Controlling non-point pollution may pre- accessible for urban or industrial development. Use sent a far greater challenge. For example, a primary pressures are heavy in urban areas' adjacent to source of non-point pollution discharge to estuaries 142 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL is urban runoff-water from city streets, industry often the problem is a persistent and pervasive lack sites, parking lots, and other developed areas- of oxygen which reduces carrying capacity and re- which often carries massive loads of pollutants into pulses fish. For example, low oxygen from industrial estuaries. The following amounts might be expected and municipal wastes has eliminated striped bass from a typical city of 100,000 population following spawning in the Delaware River and oxygen deple- a one-hour storm (in lb./hr.) :6 tion from papermill waste disrupted salmon runs in Bellingham Bay, Wash. Oxygen levels are depressed Street Raw Secondary to low levels in Florida canals built for seaside surface sanitary plant housing developments where fine sediments accumu- runoff sewage effluent late and water becomes stagnant-a half pound of Suspended solids - - ---- 560,000 1,300 130 organic wastes per day (e.g., grass clippings) is BODs- .--------------- 5,600 1,100 110 enough to contaminate a 100-foot length of canal, COD ------------------ 13,000 1,200 120 reducing oxygen from an acceptable 4.5 to an un- NiPhosphatesn (jeldah----- 800 210 2 acceptable 3.8 ppm.9 In August 1971, all bottom fish deserted the western part of Long Island Sound around Glen Cove because of oxygen depletion Erosion from disturbed land surface often pro- caused by pollution.'0 duces massive amounts of sediment that may be transported to estuaries, as shown by the following estimates :7 Temperature Sediment Produced Temperature controls life in the coastal ecosystem. Activity (tons/sq.mi./yr.) Migration, spawning, feeding efficiency, swimming Construction ----------------- ------ -- 48,000 speed, embryological development, and basic meta- Cropland ------------------- ----- - -- 4,800 bolic rates of fish are controlled in large part by Grassland ..----- -----------. - --- 240 temperature. Temperature increase, such as that Forest ----------- 24 Disturbed Forest (not clear-cut) ----- 24,000 caused by power plant effluents may disrupt these Active Surface Mines -. . - ------ 24,000 basic life processes. (Power plants also suck fish in Abandoned Mines ---------. - -------- 2,400 with cooling water and kill them in the:pumps and pipes.) Where multiple power plants are placed on This erosion may also bring excessive nutrients, an estuary, temperatures can increase to damaging toxic matter, and bacteria down to the estuaries to levels over extensive areas, such as the striped bass reduce carrying capacity for sport fish populations. breeding grounds shown in Figure 1 or the vital In the following sections we first describe each grass bed nursery area shown in Figure 2 where 91 major natural factor that limits the total carrying percent of the grasses were killed. capacity of an estuarine fish habitat. Second, we discuss the point and non-point pollutional disturb- Fresh Water Inflow ances that lower carrying capacity. And third, we relate the disturbances to specific human activities. The volume of fresh water supply not only gov- erns the salinity of estuaries, but also controls circu- Oxygen lation patterns (circulation strongly influences the abundance and the pattern of distribution of fish Of the various gases that are found dissolved in and other life in the estuary). coastal waters, oxygen is of the most obvious impor- Some fish require different salinities at different tance to fish and other animal life. They need ample phases of their life cycle such as those provided by oxygen to survive and even more to grow and func- runoff, summer drought, et cetera. Alterations af- tion well-the federal water standard is a minimum fecting freshwater inflow may upset the natural of 4.0 ppm (parts of oxygen per each million of salinity regime, upsetting habitat conditions to water). which the fish are naturally adapted and lowering When sewage and other wastes with high BOD carrying capacity. Salinity throughout the coastal (biochemical oxygen demand) pollute coastal waters, ecosystem fluctuates primarily with the amount of bacteria multiply to enormous abundance and de- dilution by freshwater inflow and the extent of plete the water of oxygen faster than it can be evapotranspiration. The inner ends of estuaries may replaced by either plants or the atmosphere. Fish become so salty in summer when fresh inflow water may be killed by a sudden oxygen drop but more is diverted for other uses that the water becomes FISHERIES 143 86 , I i I I i i J I I i | I I i i I I i I _- ...~.,...~ MAX EXCESS TEIMP=6.140F '-'/" _ - //" I-ALL FIVE POWER 7 ARTIM (period) PRSION COE 82 .. .... /i,TP _TIDAL PERAIOD N2.O hrP s so -\ VARIABLE DISPERSlON COEF .1 \ e OCEAA TEMP.-70�F 74 OF = 4000 cfs K=90.O B.u/doy ft, �F 70 '_ 70 ', ' ' ' . , i , I' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' I ' EI 0 20 40 0 O 80 o 1 20 12 0 160 TROY DISTANCE (mile) OCEAN FIGURE 1.-Temperature of the Hudson from Troy, N.Y., to the ocean at three tidal times with five power plants in full operation." virtually uninhabitable for sport fish-for example, created high turbidity, and lowered the carrying Tomales Bay, Calif. (39 ppt salinity),'" and Rookery capacity."' Sedimented and degraded estuaries with Bay, Fla., (to 40 ppt).14 reduced carrying capacity for sport fishing are found along all sections of the U.S. coastline. Corrective measures require control of: (1) erosion Sedimentation from land clearing and site preparation in the water- Also related to the volume of runoff inflow is the amount of sediment carried down into the estuary. Uncontrolled development in estuarine watersheds creates adverse effects by reducing the capability of the land to filter and hold back storm water runoff and to cleanse it of sediments as well as -1. nutrients and a wide variety of other contaminants Intake . from the land surface. Therefore it is a fundamentalt Uk o goal of estuarine resource management to protect water bodies against excess loading of polluting materials by achieving control of damaging activities C + .0 in the watershed.4\ s4. Accumulation of sediment on the bottom of an estuary results in shoaling of the basin and the 7 /l / creation of a soft, shifting, and basically unsuitable 48/ habitat for bottom life. These sediments also trap pollutants that are harmful to water quality when 8 resuspended by wind, currents, or boat traffic. Vir- i OBSERVATION tual elimination of bottom life--as has now hap- STATIONS pened in the New York Harbor estuary-seriously + degrades the ecosystem and dismantles the food chain of fishes. - An example of gross pollution from agricultural drainage and clearing is the estuarine system of FIGURE 2.-Profiles of isotherms above ambient (T) in Back Bay, Va., and Currituck Sound, N.C., which Biscayne Bay during summer-the Turkey Point plant was was loaded with silt which killed bottom vegetation, subsequently fitted with an alternate cooling system." 144 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL shed; (2) dredging activity in estuarine basins; "blooms" of phytoplankton followed by mass death (3) municipal and domestic pollution which creates and decay, clouding the water, fouling estuarine organic sediments; and (4) boat traffic (which re- bottoms and depleting oxygen. suspends sediments). While sewage has been the usual suspect for over- fertilization of natural waters, the potential damage by fertilizer runoff has increased dramatically-the Water Circulation amount of nitrogen used in agriculture in the United States increased fourteenfold in 25 years.l6 Fertilizer The circulation of water through an estuary is a runoff can jeopardize the carrying capacity of estu- runoff can jeopardize the carrying capacity of estu- key factor in carrying capacity. It transports nu- arne systems, particularly poorly fushed ones.4 trients, propels plankton, spreads "seed" stages, (planktonic larvae of fish and shellfish), cleanses the system of pollutants, controls salinity, shifts Water Suitability sediments, mixes water, and performs other useful work. The fish populations and the entire dynamic Protection of water quality for fish life involves balance of an estuary revolve around and are strongly more than just avoiding lethal concentrations of dependent upon circulation. Channel dredging and pollutants-the water must be suitable beyond bare filling alter the flow patterns of estuaries as does survival. There are definite limits below which ani- the construction of bridges, causeways and piers mals desert an area or survive in very reduced which impede circulation. abundance. Sensitive oceanic migratory fishes may be particularly affected by water suitability and Light abandon coastal areas with bad water. The result may be failure of a fishing area and decrease of the Sunlight is the basic force driving the ecosystem. overall carrying capacity for the excluded species. It is the fundamental source of energy for plants A variety of substances from industrial discharges which in turn supply the basic food chain which or sewage effluent-heavy metals, oil, organic sub- supports all fish. Sunlight must be able to penetrate stances-are repelling to fish; for example, salmon the water so as to foster growth of the plants. avoid water with copper in very small amounts Estuarine waters are normally more cloudy (tur- (0.0024 mg/1)'7 such as comes from fertilizer run- bid) than ocean waters, being more laden with silt off.'4 Such repellents are probably responsible for and richer in nutrients and phytoplankton. Excess the general avoidance or apparent virtual abandon- turbidity reduces penetration of sunlight into water ment by oceanic sportfish species of many estuarine and thus depresses plant growth. This may be caused and nearshore ocean waters such as Boston Harbor, by excavation in water basins, by the discharge of the Savannah River, and the Hudson Estuary. Elim- eroded soil with runoff, by nutrients in the runoff ination of all significant discharge of pollutants or by sewage or industrial waste discharges which would restore the abundance of fishes in many of stimulate the growth of algae and lead to clouding these areas. of the water. Toxic Substances Nutrients It is not possible to determine the amount of In addition to light, nutrients must be present to damage done to sport fishing resources by the dis- support the food chain. The amount of nitrate dis- charge of toxic chemicals into estuaries, but the solved in the water is generally believed to be the damage appears to have been extensive; e.g., the primary nutrient control on abundance of estuarine severe reduction of the sea trout previously dis- plants. Nutrients continuously trickle out of the cussed. In another circumstantial example, the vir- estuarine system and must be replaced by minerals tual disappearance of the California sardine (an in the inflow of land runoff. This supply should not important forage for pelagic game fish) is correlated be diminished. with increasing DDT use after World War II (Fig- Conversely, the ecosystem may be unbalanced by ure 3).'1 DDT use is banned in California but a an excessive and unnatural supply of nutrient chem- 50-square mile area off the Los Angeles sewer plant icals from septic tank leaching, discharge of sewage discharge (Palos Verdes area) has a persisting de- effluent, industrial organic wastes, contaminated posit of about 200 tons of DDT in the surface land runoff water, and so forth. The result is over- sediments on the bottom of the continental shelf.'9 fertilization (eutrophication) which involves rapid The same area has also received toxic metals from ":" i .i..[lFI;SH~ERIES- . s145 ' Wetlands and tidelands vegetation converts nutri- ents in land runoff and estuarine waters to basic 4 '" ' 0 food for aquatic life, a sort" of floating humus of small particles (detritus). It also removes excess Sardine nutrient, sediment, d and sus- catch in 3 loochn - pended matter. The marsh and swamp areas provide critical habitats for many species as well as stabilize 2 ' 9_ * shorelines, prevent erosion, and buffer the force of storms.and floods. If the wetlands-tidelands vegetation is elimi- X- nated, carrying capacity of the ecosystem for fish is reduced-about 50 percent in a typical case.22 Re- ' , ' ,OT i duction of freshwater inflow to tidelands or canaliz- Milli..ns of ounasof DDT ing or -bulk-heading tidelands may also significantly FIGURE 3.-The decline of the Pacific sardine from the mid- reduce estuarine fish resources. Therefore, fishery 40's to the' early 50's and the amount of DDT used in Cali- management programs should require that wetlands fornia in the same period."' be protected from obliteration, alteration, or degra- dation by pollution and by drainage or dredge-and- the discharge, leading to fish diseases" and wide- fill projects which reduce the area of the wetland spread reproductive failure of marine species of the or disrupt the natural water flow patterns-as is area. But now there are signs of a comeback as addressed under Section 404 of the 1972 Federal young stages of species missing for decades are re- Water Act Amendments. appearing in the area indicating a water quality Submerged grass beds convert and provide detrital improvement."2 Because of the ocean outfall, water nutrient to the system, add oxygen (during day- quality of the harbors is better in certain respects light), and stabilize bottom sediments. They usually than that of the ocean, a reversal of the usual attract an abundance and diversity of life and are situation. nursery areas for young fishesand crustaceans. Grass The NPDES program of EPA has an important beds are vulnerable to turbidity, which screens out role to play in eliminating the discharge of toxic light and prevents growth of the grass, and to fine substances to estuarine and coastal waters. The sediments (mud) which create unstable bottom con- potential benefits are supported by encouraging re- ditions wherein the grasses often cannot anchor. suits of pollution abatement efforts to date. Heated power plant effluent (along with'induced Severe disease (fin rot) of estuarine and coastal turbidity) may destroy local grass beds; for exam- fishes is caused by municipal waste discharge. In ple, in the Patuxent River, Md., and Southern the New York harbor area 22 species were affected 'Biscayne Bay, Fla." Boat traffic over grass flats by fin rot, including both pelagic fishes (e.g., blue- may compound the problem by stirring up sedi- fish, striped bass) and bottom fishes (e.g., flounder, ments and ripping out plants.4 hake) .20 In the Los Angeles area about 50 percent of sole, rockfish, croaker, and: other~ bottom fish MANAGEMENT NEEDS sampled were affected.l" Fishing success depends upon the abundance of Vital Habitat Area fish which in turn depends upon the current carrying capacity of the aquatic ecosystem. Carrying capacity Vital habitat areas are particularly critical ele- itself is governed by specific limiting factors. These ments of the ecosystem whose protection is essential limits in turn are depressed by adverse ecologic to prevent degradation of the system, including impacts from development and human occupancy. depletion of fish. In the profile of the shorescape, Therefore, coastal sport fisheries management should wetlands are the areas above the mean high' tide incorporate ecosystem management aimed at opti- mark and below the yearly high storm mark. Wet- mizing carrying capacity.'4 lands, vegetated with a combination of salt-tolerant, Secondly, it should be directed toward optimizing wet-soil, plants-grasses and rushes-often grade the social benefits from the resource. This requires into some combination of fresh water marsh plants that goals and policies for management be based at the upland edge. Vegetated tidelands are the upon a realistic evaluation of social, economic, and swamps and marshes from mean high tide down to ecologic factors. the low water mark. ' It is customary for states to' regulate coastal fish- 146 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL eries. Stronger roles for both federal and local govern- Florida, and Massachusetts, is there any continuing merits should be considered if successful integrated management research program to serve as the basis programs of fisheries management are to be imple- for longer-term strategies that include environmental mented. Local governments sometimes regulate protection. If there is to be an effective strategy for shellfish and less often, a herring run or other spe- comprehensive coastal fisheries management, there cial situation. But local government plays an im- must be clearly defined long-term goals. The goals portant role in controlling access to fishing, via must be translated into policies consistent with social roads, parking lots, beaches, piers, boat ramps. needs as determined through the political process. The states have the leading role partly because The following planning framework suggests major fish migrate between local fishing areas. A species elements that need to be considered: may spawn in one area, feed in another, and winter somewhere else again, making it impossible for any 1. Resource optimization: Devise a system of estua- local government to act effectively. In addition, the rine resource management that involves both harvest water moves from one locality to another bringing control and ecosystem management. Harvest control one town's wastes to another's shores. Therefore, includes: bag limits, size limits, gear restriction, the states are better equipped to deal with manage- access limits, and closed areas and seasons. Eco- ment of fisheries. system management includes: control of chemical There is clearly a Federal role for management of and industrial pollution, protection of vital habitat coastal migratory fish and for protection of inter- areas, control of land clearing and site preparation state environments. No state can do the whole job in shorelands, maintenance of freshwater inflow, alone because both fish and water move from state control of dredging and filling, and control of boat to state. For the most part interstate commissions traffic. have proved ineffective in coordinating fishery man- 2. Access: Provide a system of access that will agement of the states into successfully integrated guarantee an optimum pattern of fishing activity programs. consistent with economic, sociologic, and ecologic Typical state fisheries management programs have constraints. Physical development should incorpo- dealt only marginally with the coastal environment, rate roadways and public transportation as well as Fish regulations are usually aimed at allocating fish beaches, bridges, piers, marinas, ramps, and charter to fishermen by limiting the type of gear, size of boats. Social factors to be balanced should include: fish, time of year, number of fish taken per day, and geographic distribution, income level, race, and so forth. This passive portioning out of the catch availability of alternative recreation opportunity. is usually done without any attempt to scientifically 3. Allocation: Plan for a balanced pattern of allo- optimize the yield from the ecosystems involved, cation of fish resources including: (1) competing In state management the target usually is a single user groups such as commercial anglers. skin diving, species. Rules are laid down for the species without and foreign fishermen; (2) the:various demographic regard for other species that share the ecosystem- elements (see 2); (3) preferred sizes of the catch; species that may be prey, predator, competitor, or and (4) preferred times and areas of fishing. cooperator. The rules are applied through the politi- 4. Monitoring: Design a system for measuring cal process in state legislatures or by appointed catch and monitoring user satisfaction to guide the state commissions, under heavy lobbying pressure management program. from fishing organizations. Opinions of state fishery 5. Revenue: Examine the recreational fishery biologists may be ignored because their case has (along with commercial) to determine the revenues not had the funds or manpower to be developed gained for different patterns of use and for different with scientific certainty. Most states have no ,salt levels of production. water sportfish license to provide an internal source 6. Institutional: Determine the optimum mix of of funds for management or research on sport fishing federal, state and local jurisdictions, and the best problems. State commissioners and the general con- methods of implementation of management actions stituency of the fishery agency want to see money through existing and new legislation. spent for visible structures-boat ramps, artificial reefs, and so forth-rather than advance planning, It appears that this is an appropriate time for research, or administration. Consequently, the agen- each coastal state to review its situation, to examine cies are under-financed and short handed. federal-state-local jurisdictions, to decide upon a As a result, coast sport fisheries management is unified set of goals, and to establish a clear set of typically a series of ad hoc responses to immediate policies for use and protection of coastal fishery situations. In only a few states, such as California, resources. FISHERIES 147 The Federal government would need to partici- 9. Personal Communication. Timothy Stuart, Florida De- pate in this process where migratory fishes and inter- state environments are involved, and to provide a 10. National Marine Fisheries Service. 1972. Druid's Island mechanism for coordinating activities of all federal Phase I: A short-term ecological survey of Western Long Island Sound. U.S. Dept. of Comm. NOAA, Nat. agencies dealing with the coastal environment and Mar. Fish. Serv., Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory. coastal resources. There is now no federal policy or (See Table 37). program on migratory fish resources. Such a role must be suitably defined by Congress through legis- 11. Simon-toy, M. 1973. Testimony to U.S.A.E.C. Licensing Board Hearing-Indian Point No. 2, Feb. 8,1973. lation, funding, and study. The new federally sponsored Coastal Zone Man- 12. Roessler, Martin A. and Joseph C. Zieman. 1969. The agement program would seem a logical framework effects of thermal additives on the biota of Southern Biscayne Bay, Fla. Proc. of Gulf and Carib. Fisheries for such a cooperative planning study, providing Inst., 22nd Session. pp 136-145. that sufficient importance and funds are given to the individual states to conduct comprehensive plans 13. Smith, Edmund H., et al. 1971. Physical, chemical, for land and water resource management. It is microbial, and hydrographic characteristics of Tomales Bay. Final Rept. to EPA. Project No. 18050 DFP. clear that only through this kind of comprehensive August, 1971. planning can recreational fishery resources be prop- erly maintained and equitably shared among all 14. Clark, John. 1974. Rookery Bay: Ecological Constraints on Coastal Development. The Conservation Founda- Americans. tion, Washington, D.C. 15. Sincock, John L., et al. 1962. Back Bay-Currituck Sound REFERENCES Data Report, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 4 Volumes (Mimeo). 1. Deuel, David G. 1973. The '1970 Salt-Water Angling Survey. U.S. Dept. of Comm., Ntl. Mar. Fish. Serv., 16. Commoner, Barry. 1970. Threats to the Integrity of the Current Fishery Stats. No. 6200. Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen Compounds in Soil, Water Atmosphere and Precipitation. In Global Effects of 2. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (undated). Environmental Pollution, S. F. Singer, ed. (D. Reidel National Survey of Fishing and Hunting 1970. U.S. Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland). pp 70-95. Dept. of the Int., Bur. Spt. Fish, and Wildlife, Res. Publ. 95. 17. Sprague, J. B. 1971. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. III. Sublethal effects and "safe" concentrations. 3. Personal communication, Edwin A. Joseph. Water Research, 5: No. 6, pp 245-266. 4. Clark, John. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Con- 18. Unpublished information supplied by Walter Thomsen, siderations for Management of the Coastal Zone. The previously with the California Dept. of Fish and Game. Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C. 19. Information supplied by David Young, The Southern 5. Clark, John. 1966. Fish and Man: Conflict in the Atlantic California Coastal Water Research Project, Los Estuaries. American Littoral Society, Special Publica- Angeles, Calif. tion No. 5. 20. Personal communication, Rimmon C. Fay, Pacific 6. Sartor, J. D. and G. B. Boyd. 1972. Water Pollution BioMarine Supply Co., Venice, Calif. Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants. USEPA, Env. Prot. Tech. Serv. EPA R2-724-81. 21. Mahoney, John B., Frederick H. Midledge and David G. Deuel. 1973. A fin rot disease of marine and euryha- 7. Midwest Research Institute. 1973. Methods for Identify- line fishes in the New York Bight. Trans. Amer. Fish. ing and Evaluating the Nature and Extent of Non- Soc., Vol. 102, No. 3: pp. 596-605. point Sources of Pollutants. Draft Report. USEPA. Contr. No. 68-01-1839. 22. Personal communication, Richard Williams, Smithsonian 8. Copeland, B. J., H. T. Odum, and Frank N. Mosely. Institution 1974. Migratory Subsystems. Chapter F, Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States, edited by H. T. 23. Anderson, Richard R. 1969. Temperature and Rooted Odum, B. J. Copeland and E. A. McMahan. Volume Aquatic Plants. Chesapeake Science, Vol. 1, Nos. 3 III. pp. 422-453. and 4: pp 157-164. LIMITING FACTORS AFFECTING COMMERCIAL FISHERIES IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC ESTUARINE AREA J. L. McHUGH State University of New York Stony Brook, New York ABSTRACT Landings of fish and shellfish by dom6etic commercial fishermen in the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area (Rhode Island-Virginia inclusive) nearly doubled in weight from 1969 to 1973, from about 586 million to more than 1,074 million pounds. The increase was not accompanied by a similar increase in fishing effort, but by distinct increases in abundance of certain coastal fishes like menhaden, weakfish, summer flounder, and bluefish. In the area north of Chesapeake Bay blue crab was more abundant than it has been for more than a decade and scup also was more plentiful. It is tempting to attribute these increases to pollution abatement, but no direct proof is available. For example, the return of blue crab to the New York Bight area may have been made possible by the decline in use of DDT. All these species are known to vary widely in abundance from natural variations in environmental factors and it is difficult to separate natural from manmade causes. The only certainly adverse effects of water pollution on abundance or catches of living marine resources are those which produce obvious and measurable effects, usually catastrophic, or which result in closure of shellfish beds. Because so many important living resources use the estuaries as spawning, nursery, or feeding grounds it is prudent to avoid additional deterioration of water quality and, where possible, to reduce dumping of wastes. INTRODUCTION The definition of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area adopted here is similar to the definition of the This review of the fisheries of the Middle Atlantic Middle Atlantic estuarine region used in the "Na- Estuarine Area includes estuaries and coastal waters tional Estuarine Pollution Study" (Anon. 1970a), from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras and out to the although that study did not include Chesapeake edge of the continental shelf. This area (Figure 1) Bay, but considered it as a separate region. "The lies between latitudes 41�20' N. Lat. and 35�15' N. National Estuary Study" (Anon. 1970b) defined and extends seaward to the 200m. depth contour. the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Zone as the estuaries, The offshore boundary is approximately where bays, and coastal waters from Cape Cod to Cape the shelf meets the continental slope. Although this Charles, Va. Chesapeake Bay was considered sep- is not exactly the definition given in section 104 (n) arately, and the area from Cape Henry, Va. to Cape (4) of Public Law 92-500, it is the only rational Hatteras was included with the South Atlantic definition for adequate consideration of the living Estuarine Zone. None of these arrangements is resources upon which the fisheries of the Middle entirely satisfactory for a fishery study because basic Atlantic Bight depend. Most commercial fishery data on domestic commercial landings are recorded resources in the area are highly migratory, and by states, whereas foreign and recreational catches perform extensive seasonal movements east and are recorded by broader regions. The fishery re- west as well as north and south. Thus, many living sources of Chesapeake Bay are sufficiently different resources of the area are about equally dependent from those to the north that it is best to examine upon the inshore and the offshore estuarine environ- them separately. Because North Carolina fishery ment. In winter and spring many of the major resources are transitional between Middle and South migratory living resources are concentrated in rela- Atlantic Estuarine Areas, the commercial fisheries tively deep water at the edge of the shelf, some ap- of North Carolina have been omitted. Thus, the two parently favoring the major canyons. Conditions subareas of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area con- along these outer boundaries must play an important sidered in the present study are Rhode Island to role in determining future abundance and availa- Delaware inclusive, and the Chesapeake states, bility of these resources to the inshore fisheries. Maryland and Virginia. 149 150 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 770 76� 750 740 730 72� 710 700 690 42�_ _ _ -------- 420 ' a MASS CAPE COD CONN. - 41�~- I'\GREATER`I '} UNOj~ ,d NANTUCKET SHOALS -41� .'RARITAN BLOCK LONG ISLAND ISLAND SOUND ", NEW YORK BIGHT ', N. J. -400 M X ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~�..... .. .. .:HUDSON CANYON LAWARE BAY DE L. .'" 31? ~ ~ha: _~14~__i~ ' -38 VA. 370 CHESAPEAKE BAY" .' 37� VA. A .360 NC. C -) APE." HATTERAS 760 75� 74� 73� 72� 71� 700 FIGURE 1.-The Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area of the United States. Not all place names mentioned in the text are included. The.long narrow east-west peninsula near the southeast end of Long Island and the similar north-south peninsula at the north end of the New Jersey seacoast are Rockaway Point and Sandy Hook, respectively. A line drawn between these points separates Greater Raritan Bay from New York Bight. The Potomac River is the large river entering Chesapeake Bay from the west. The Maryland-Virginia boundary follows its southern bank. The Patuxent River lies immediately north of the Potomac and the Rappahannock River immediately south. Within waters under national jurisdiction, from especially at or near the edge, many of these re- inland limits of estuarine waters to seaward limits sources remain concentrated for several months in of domestic fishery control, living marine resources winter and early spring. Here they are highly vulner- are subject to many natural and manmade hazards. able to fishing, mainly by foreign fleets, but less Subtle or catastrophic natural environmental vari- susceptible to water pollution and other indirect ables can alter abundance and availability of the human influences. resources to fishermen. Various stresses created by The fishery resources of the area from Cape Cod to man include not only relatively uncontrolled fishing, Cape Hatteras provided a domestic commercial but also domestic and industrial wastes and engineer- catch in 1973 of about 1.6 billion pounds', for which ing works which alter the environment, usually for the worse. Farther out on the continental shelf, 1 To convert millions of pounds to metric tons, multiply by 453.6. American fishermen received about $119 million. perhaps some migratory species of limited scope, The retail value of this catch could be $300 million or like blue crab, white perch, tautog, and some stocks more. They also provided 820 million pounds to of winter flounder (category Ee in Tables 1 and 3); fishing fleets of at least 10 other nations. Not to be 2) migratory coastal species that do not move off- ignored is the substantial recreational catch. Surveys shore in significant numbers beyond national fishery of saltwater sport fisheries have not been made every jurisdiction, like menhaden, croaker, and weakfish year, but in 1970 recreational fishermen were re- (Em); ported to have taken about 447 million pounds from 3) anadromous and catadromous species, which the same community of resources, and the sport spawn in fresh water but spend most of their lives catch in the area probably was larger in 1973. The at sea, or vice versa, like American shad, alewife, distribution-of catch and fishing effort on individual striped bass, and American eel (A); stocks varies between recreational, domestic com- 4) living resources of the continental shelf, which mercial, and foreign fisheries. Not included in the at the harvestable stage either are immobile on or recreational catch are clams, bay scallop, crabs, and under the sea bed or are unable to move except in some other invertebrates taken in large numbers by constant physical contact with the sea bed or the non-commercial fishermen. The recreational catches subsoil, like surf clam or rock crab (S) ;2 and of invertebrates have never been assessed for the 5) highly migratory resources that move seasonally area as a whole. These three segments of the fisheries not only north and south, but also inshore-offshore of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area have been between estuarine waters proper and the outer con- taking about 2.9 billion pounds of fish and shellfish tinental shelf, like red and silver hakes, summer annually, and perhaps more. flounder, scup, and butterfish (Om). A sixth cate- This essay reviews briefly the status of the com- gory in this arrangement might be made up of truly mercial fisheries of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine oceanic species, like tunas and the great whales, Area in 1969, when the report pursuant to the re- which penetrate waters of the inshore estuary seldom, quirements of Public Law 89-753 was completed if atall (0). ("National Estuarine Pollution Study"), and makes a comparison with the situation five years later, in Most of these living resources are subject to man- 1974. The comparison considers what has happened made stresses in the inshore estuarine environment, in the interim, what improvements and adverse some throughout life, others at important stages. developments have been noted, what important Assessment and control of the effects of water pollu- issues need attention, what the future may bring, tion, engineering works, and other human environ- and what are the chances for improved management mental influences, including fishing, upon the living of the resource. Particular attention has been given resources is extremely difficult because at least four to the effects of estuarine pollution, as directed by other major complicating forces may be operating Public Law 92-500, section 104(n), but it has not at the same time: 1) natural variations in environ- been possible to ignore other sources of variation in mental quality, sometimes subtle, like changes in condition of the commercial fishery resources. This water temperature or salinity-sometimes catastro- has required, among other things, brief attention to phic, like the effects of hurricane winds or heavy the saltwater sport fisheries, which are properly the rains; 2) self-generated (endogenous) oscillations subject of another chapter in this volume. Assuming within individual stocks; 3) complicated and major that other sources of attrition are, or will be, under effects of fishing operations; and 4) opinions, emo- control, continued productivity of the coastal fisher- tions, and political pressures generated by the effects ies will still depend upon appropriate control of all of natural and manmade phenomena indiscrimin- forms of fishing. ately, which influence the regulatory process. THE RESOURCE Status of the Resource in 1969 Coastal fishery resources can be subdivided use- Judged by the total weight of fish and shellfish fully into several categories, based not only on their landed in the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area in value to man and to the ecosystem, but also on their 1969 as compared with the past, the domestic com- geographic distributions, migratory habits, and mercial-fisheries of the area had never been in worse vulnerability to manmade environmental change. condition. Total weight of landings was at an all- One such arrangement might be: time low in recorded history, less than 37 percent of 2 American lobster has been declared by the United States Congress a 1) endemic resources, like oyster, hard clam, and creature of the shelf, but it does not fit the definition. 152 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the 1956 high of 1.59 billion pounds. But for most of Table L.-Major species In domestic commercial fishery landings In the Middle Atlantic Estuarlne Area 1969-1973 (Rhode Island to Delaware inclusive). Weights' the period up to 1956 and for some years after, in- In millions of pounds. Shells of molluscan shellfish not Included. Species wlthl dustrial fish and shellfish (used for purposes other total annual catch 50,000 pounds or less not Included. Symbols: Ee = estuarine than human food) had dominated the catch, thus endemic; Em = estuarine migratory; A = anadromous or catadromous; S = creatures of the continental shelf; Om = oceanic migratory, usually moving trends in total landings reflect principally the for- between International and territorial waters; O = truly oceanic tunes of the industrial fisheries, harvesting mostly menhaden for manufacture of oil and meal. When 1 972-73 edible species are considered separately, the peak in Species 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 -7 landings came about 1930.- By 1969 landings of food fish and shellfish, all species combined, in the area Menhaden -.... ..... Em 43.8 40.6 80.4 158.3 172.5 392 had been dropping fairly steadily for about 40 years Surf clam - S 42.2 52.6 40.3 32.7 31.6 68 Yellowtail flounder.. Om 13.5 15.4 20.8 28.0 25.1 184 The 1930 maximum in production of edible fish Hard clam- .... .....Ee 11.4 11.9 12.5 12.1 10.2 96 and shellfish came shortly after it was discovered Silver hake -.... .... Om 8.9 8.0 8.2 10.9 11.5 133 that many of the resources which migrate into American lobster -... Om 8.0 9.3 9.0 6.3 5.4 '68 Scup .-. .. Om 7.4 7.4 6.2 7.4 9.4 114 Middle Atlantic estuaries in spring and summer Winter flounder .---- Om 7.2 8.1 8.1 6.6 '6.6 86 move outward to the edge of the continental shelf Butterfish .--..- Om 3.6 2.2 2.7 1.2 3.0 72 and southward in late fall and winter. A winter trawl Squids c ...- --- Om 2.3 1.4 13.8 3 1 2.7 3.4 85 Sqeida -C._~_~~~___.. Om 2.3 1.4 1.3 1.9 2.8 127 fishery rapidly developed offshore to take advantage Summer flounder -... Om 2.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 5.6 170 of this discovery. Major disturbances in the long- Bluefish---- Om 2.0 3.1 2.5 2.2 2.7 96 Weakfish ............ Om 2.0 2.4 4.8 5,6 4.3 225 term trend since 1930 came when prices and landings Striped bass -- -- A 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.7 3 .6 1473 225 dropped sharply during the economic depression of Atlantic mackerel ...- Om 1.4 2.3 1.7 2.8 2.8 151 the early 1930s, rose sharply-toward the end of the American oyster- E 1.4 1.5 2.1 3.4 3.3 231 Red hake ...-... .. Om 1.2 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.9 125 second world war when acute shortages of red meat Blue crab ...- .......Em 1.1 1.2 2.2 4.0 5.0 391 at home and abroad increased the demand for pro- Sea scallop .--...... Om 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6 69 tein from the sea, and fell again in the 1950s. In 1968 American shad ------ E 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 82 American shad-...... A 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 110 total weight of edible fish and shellfish landed in the American eel .-.. ....A 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 110 Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area was lower than in Black sea bass Om 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.9 167 Tilefish .- ... .... O0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.8 550 any year on record except 1933, when the full force Bluefin tuna .-....Om 0.1 3.1 2.0 2.2 1.3 109 of the depression had hit the fisheries, with adverse Sea mussels -........Ee 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 300 effects on demand and prices. Total landings of edible fish and shellfish were only moderately higher Subtotals 168.3 183.7 216.7 298.3 316.5 175 in 1969 than in the low year 1968. Grand totals ...... 231.9 224.2 253.5 326.0 379.7 155 RIODE ISLAND-DELAWARE SUBAREA 86 percent of the landed value of the entire domestic Major species by weight in 1969 landings in this commercial catch from this subarea. in' 1969. This subarea are listed in Table 1. Surf clam dominated probably represents a retail value of $100 million the,edible catch, accounting for 35.6 percent by ormore. weight of all food fish and shellfish. Next in order Although landings in Rhode Island to Delaware were yellowtail flounder, hard clam, American in 1969 were almost the lowest on record, they might lobster, scup, and winter flounder. Together, these have been even lower if commercial fishermen had six species made up nearly 82 percent of the total not constantly shifted to new resources as the supply weight of edible fish and shellfish. of traditional resources declined. Outstanding ex- By landed value (Table 2) hard clam dominated amples of such declines were menhaden landings, the edible catch (nearly 29 percent of the total), which fell from a maximum of over one billion pounds followed in decreasing total landed value by lobster, in 1956 to a 1966 low of only 22 million pounds. By surf clam, and oyster. The first four species by landed 1969 the menhaden catch in the subarea had in- value were shellfish, and they made up 68 percent of creased to about 46 million pounds. The American the total landed value including industrial species. oyster, which was reported to have produced a Major edible finfish species by landed value were maximum of about 60 million pounds of meats in the scup, yellowtail flounder, summer and winter floun- early part of the 20th century' dropped from about ders, striped bass, and butterfish. The 10 leading 35 million pounds in 1929 to a low of one million in species by landed value, including shellfish and in- 1965, and in 1969 had recovered only slightly to dustrial species, produced a gross income to domestic about 1.4 million pounds of meats. Soup was the commercial fishermen of over $30 million, nearly dominant food finfish for almost two decades, reach- FIxsHERIS . : 153 Table 2.-Major species In domestic commercial fishery landings in the Middle CHESAPEAKE SUBAREA Atlantic Estuarlne Area 1969-1973 (Rhode Island to Delaware Inclusive). Landed values (price paid to fishermen) in millions of dollars, not adjusted to standard Total domestic commercial landings in the Chesa- dollars. * = $50,000 or less peake Bay states in 1969 were lower than they had Species 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 been since 1953. As in the area to the north, indus- trial fisheries have dominated the catch, but the rd lam 103 15 13.5 16.0 139 1969 catch was not an all-time low, as it was from American lobster - - -------- 7.4 9.5 10.2 8.7 8.5 Delaware to Rhode Island. The smallest reported Surf clam ------- 5.0 6.1 5.4 4.2 3.9 total weight of landings in the Chesapeake subarea American oyster ----1.5 2.0 2.8 4.4 5.1 Scup 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.7 2.7 was in 1942, at just over 200 million pounds, and the Scup .-------.---------... 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.7 2.7 Yellowtail flounder .- - -- 1.4 1.7 2.1 3.7 4.4 trend has been upwardever since.: Sea scallop - -------....... 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 Landings of edible fish and shellfish in. the Chesa- Menhaden .-. 0.8 0.7 0.3 2.5 4.3 Summer flounder - - ------- 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.3 2.3 peake area reached a peak by weight in 1930, as they Silver hake - - ------------. 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.4 did farther north, then declined, but reached even Winter flounderb- - ------ 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 higher levels in the middle 1940s, with a maximum of Striped bass.-. . ........... 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.2 Butterfish-. 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.7 about 205 million pounds. An unusual abundance of Bay scallop ---------- ----. 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 croaker and weakfish, coupled with high demand for Atlantic cod ------- 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 Bluefish - - ----------------- 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 food fish during the war and immediately after, were Squids .----------.-. 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.6 largely responsible for this second peak. Blue crab, Black sea bass - - ---------. 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 alewife, and oyster dominated the edible catch in the Blue crab -- 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.3 Weakfish .-.....-. 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.7 Chesapeake subarea in 1969, accounting for about 67 Conch .--------- 0.1 0.1 0.1 0. 0.2 percent by weight of all edible fishery products. soft clame e- - ---0.1 0 1 0.1 0.2 0.2 Next in order by weight were soft clam, striped bass, American eel .-.. . ........ -0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Atlantic mackerel .- . ...... 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 surf clam, northern puffer, American shad, scup, American shad .- - --------- 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 hard clam, and white perch (Table 3). Red hake ..- . ............. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 White perch -.-. ........ *C 0 .1 * 0.1 Together, these 11 major species made up over 90 percent of total edible landings. By landed value Subtotals-.... ....... 34.3 40.6 43.6 50.4 56.1 (Table 4) the first five species were shellfish, ac- counting for nearly 83 percent of all edible species Grand totals ------ 35.6 42.5 46.7 53.0 58.6 by value. A steady shift from one resource to another; al- ready noted in landings in the Rhode Island-Dela- ing a maximum of over 34 million pounds in 1960 ware subarea, was characteristic of the Chesapeake and a minimum of 6.2 million in 1971. Landings of subarea also. Catches of the following species de- scup in 1969 were near this minimum, at about 7.4 dined substantially prior to 1969: Atlantic croaker, million pounds. Several other species,'like weakfish, down from a maximum of 57.7 million pounds in had produced relatively large catches earlier and had 1945 to a low of about six thousand pounds in 1968; fallen to minima in or about 1969. scup down from a peak of 13.5 million pounds in To balance these substantial declines commercial 1960 to about 2.5 million in 1968; sea bass from a fishermen turned to other species' notably surf clam. maximum of 10.1 million pounds in 1952 to about This fishery was negligible prior to the mid-1940s, 1.9 million in 1969; weakfish from a 1945 peak of but began to grow in 1945 off Long Island, N.Y. 24.7 million pounds to a low of '0.7 million in 1967; Landings from waters off Long Island reached a and American oyster from over 100millionpounds of peak quickly and the center of operations shifted to meats before the turn of the century to a' record low the New Jersey coast. By 1968 and 1969 landings of 18.3 million in 1963. Countervailing upward in New Jersey had declined slightly from a peak of trends occurred in landings of other species: men- over 43 million pounds of meats in 1966, and the haden from a low of about 64 million pounds in 1942 fishery had just begun to shift to beds off the Dela- to record highs in the late 1950s and early 1960s, ware and Maryland coasts. The history of this fishery then a decline to about 180 million in 1969; striped has been one of heavy exploitation of known clam bass, an upward trend since 1934, when the catch stocks, entry of more capital and labor, substantial was only 0.6 million pounds, to a maximum' of- 7.8 reduction of the stocks, exploration for unexploited million in 1969; blue crab from a low of 30.2 million segments of the resource, and a constant shifting pounds in 1942 to a high of 94 million in 1966; and toward the south. The surf clam industry provides soft clam from insignificant catches prior to the an excellent case history of what happens to a living second world war to a peak of over 8 million pounds resource when harvesting is essentially unregulated. of meats in 1964. 154 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 3.-Major species in domestic commercial fishery landings in the Middle Table 4.-Major species in domestic commercial fishery landings in the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area 1969-1973 (Chesapeake Bay). Details as in Table 1. * = Atlantic Estuarine Area 1969-1973 (Chesapeake Bay). Landed values (price paid 50,000 pounds or less to fishermen in millions of dollars, not adjusted to standard dollars). * = $50,000 or less 1972-73 Species 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 as % of 1969-70 Species 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Menhaden. ..- . Em 181.6 449.8 400.1 955.6 503.9 168 American oyster .. 14.0 15.1 16.0 15.2 15.9 Bluecrab -..... Em 60.9 69.8 76.1 74.5 56.1 100 Bluecrab 7.0 5.5 7.2 7.4 7.7 Alewife ..-.... ...A 33.9 21.1 13.1 12.1 11.3 43 Mehade- - 2. 7.6 6.5 9.3 206 American oyster .-... Ee 22.2 24.7 25.6 24.1 23.9 102 Soft - - 24 3. 0 1.0 0.5 Soft clam .- .. Ee 7.9 6.2 6.0 1.9 0.6 1i Hard clam -- 1.7 11 1.6 1.2 1.3 Striped bass- -- ....A 7.8 5.8 4.0 5.8 7.4 97 Striped bass.~~. {~_ Sea scallop ---------------- 1.5 1.0 0.8 1.9 1.3 Surf clam .- - S 7.3 14.6 12.3 30.7 50.8 372 Sea scalloptriped bass - - 1.4 1.2 1.11 .5 2.2 Northern puffer .- Ee 4.6 1.5 0.6 0.1 * 3 Surf clam � 9 1.6 1.5 7 5 American shad - A 3.5 5.1 2.5 3.0 3.0 70 Alewite 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 Alewicep.m2.9 2.1 .9 1.3 .. .... 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 Scp ------------- Om 2.9 2. 1. 1.3 0.8 42 Summerflounder - -- ------- 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 1.0 Ha-fd clam ------ Ee 2.7 1.8 2.2 1.5 1.4 64 White perch 04 03 03 2 02 White perch -.-.-...Ee 2.7 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.0 52 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 Scp-.... .....0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 Black sea bass -..... Om 1.9 1.7 0.8 1.0 1.5 69 Black sea bass ---- - 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 Summerflounder .-.. Om 1.7 2.5 2.0 2.1 3.7 138 American shad 0.3 0.4 0.3 0,3 0.5 Catfish and bullheads. Ee 1.6 1.3 1.8 1.9 1.5 117 0. 3 Sea scallop --------. O 1.4 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.8 86 Catfish ad llads 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 .3 SeaSpot - Es ----------- - 1.1 6.4 0.5 3.0 2.6 7865 American eel -.-. --------- 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 American eel - ------- A 1.1 1.5 1.5 0.7 0.4 42 Northern puffer-0.2 0.1 American lobster - - -------- 0.1 0.2 0.2 1.1 0.3 Butterfish .- - ------- Om 1.1 .1.6 0.7 0.3 0.2 19 Weakfish -.......... Om 1.0 2.5 2.7 2.9 5.6 243 -- ------ Winter flounder ---- - Om 0.5 0.1 0.1 * * 17 tterfis0.1 0.2 01 0.1 Squids -. ----------- Om 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 62 Spt - - 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.4 Bluefish .-..---..... Om 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.3 3.1 440 Ch - ----------* 0.1 0.1 Conch .- ....... .. Ee 0.3 0.4 0.I 0.3 0.4 100 Blefish0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 Carp- -- Ees 0.3 0.2 0.2 0,,2 0.42 00 Atlantic croaker - - ----. * * 0.1 0.2 Atlantic mackerel ..-. O 0.3 0.3 0.1 0,1 * 25 American lobster--_ Om 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.2 275 Subtotals 35.6 40.2 41.0 45.6 60.3 Sharks ....- . ....... Om 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 67 Atlantic croaker ...-. Om 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.4 950 Grand totals -. . .......... 36.1 40.5 41.5 45.9 60.7 Spanish mackerel .... Om 0.1 0.2 0.1 * 33 Black drum ..- ......Em 0.1 0.1 0.1 ** 50 Yellow perch ..-. .... Ee 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 * 75 Silver hake .- .... Om 0.1 0.1 0.1 * * 50 Hickory shad - ---A 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 100 growth in catches of surf clam, yellowtail flounder, Atlantic herring -.... Om 0.1 * 2.5 0.7 0.4 _ weakfish, summer flounder, oyster, bluefish, and Sea rhbins-- C- - m 0.1 * *-------- some other species like croaker and tilefish for which King whiting - --- Om * 0.1 * * - - ----- Spotted sea trout. Om * 0.1 * * * _ _ the increase in pounds was relatively small but the Harvestfish .--.... Om * 0.1 0.1 0.2 percentage increase was large. Landings of Atlantic Gizzard shad Ee * 0.1 0.1 0.1 -------- croaker, for example, were 14 times as large in 1973 Subtotals- - --------- 351.1 625.9 562.4 729.7 682.9 145 as in 1969, and according to a recent report young croaker are exceedingly abundant in Chesapeake Bay Grand totals .... . 354.1 630.4 578.4 735.1 694.6 145 in 1974, which suggests that catches will continue to increase. The relatively large increase in tilefish land- ings was caused by recent development of a special- Status of the Resource in 1974 ized fishery out of New Jersey. These substantial increases were partially offset by decreased landings The record for 1973 must serve as an index of the of other resources. Included in this group were ale- condition of the fisheries of the Middle Atlantic wife, soft clam, northern puffer, American lobster, Estuarine area in 1974, because complete statistics hard clam, and a few others. No substantial increases for 1974 were not available at the time of writing. in domestic fishing effort or techniques have occurred Where appropriate, incomplete statistics (by in the 5-year period, except perhaps for menhaden. months) or reports in the literature can be used to This knowledge, and other lines of evidence, e.g. extend the analysis into 1974. In the area as a whole increased recreational catches and personal observa- since 1969 total landings have almost doubled (Ta- tions, can be taken as strongly supporting the view bles 1 and 3), from about 585 million to 1,054 mil- that there has been a real increase in abundance of lion pounds. Most of this increase has come about some species of the estuaries and a real decrease in through a substantial increase in menhaden landings, others. For species like alewife the decline in do- which in 19'73 were three times the 1969 catch. The mestic landings was balanced by increased foreign remainder of the increase was made up of substantial catches. FISHERIES 155 RHODE ISLAND-DELAWARE SUBAREA ings in the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area it is helpful to retreat to the narrower and more com- Landings in this subarea increased by about 55 monly used definition of an estuary: a semi-enclosed percent from 1969 to 1973 (Table 1). Menhaden coastal body of water having a free connection with landings increased nearly fourfold and fairly large the open sea and within which the sea water is mea- gains were recorded also for yellowtail flounder, blue surably diluted with fresh water derived by land crab, summer flounder, silver hake, weakfish, scup, drainage. It is in such bodies of coastal water that oyster, and striped bass. These increases were parti- effects of human activities are most pronounced. ally offset by declines in landings of surf clam, Amer- This includes Long Island and Block Island Sounds, ican lobster, and a few other species. The decline in Greater Raritan Bay (inside a line joining Rockaway lobster catches may have been a result of decreasing Point and Sandy Hook), Delaware Bay, Chesapeake fishing effort. Bay, and all estuaries and bays lying inside the fringe of barrier beaches along the south shore of Long Island and the ocean coasts of New Jersey, CHESAPEAKE SUBAREA Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Because it has been a major waste disposal site for many years, the Domestic commercial fishery landings in this sub- apex of New York Bight is also included, although area almost doubled from 1969 to 1973. The major it does not fit the conventional definition. increase here was also in menhaden landings, which This separation of estuarine and shelf waters almost tripled in this subarea. The increase in total eliminates some major living resources in Tables 1 to landings had been even greater in 1972, from about 4 from consideration insofar as strictly estuarine 354 million pounds in 1969 to about 735 million, processes are concerned. These resources are: surf more than doubling the 1969 catch. Food fish and clam, yellowtail flounder, cod, haddock, Atlantic shellfish landings were moderately higher in the mackerel, sea scallop, tilefish, bluefin tuna, and Chesapeake subarea in 1973 than in 1969, largely probably a part of the lobster resource. It is assumed because surf clam production rose by more than 43 for the purposes of this study that these essentially million pounds of meats, almost a sevenfold increase. oceanic species, and perhaps some others which do But this substantial increase was partially offset not reside in coastal waters close to shore for any by a major drop in alewife catches, catastrophic great length of time, are not presently affected declines in production of soft clam and northern significantly in abundance by human alteration of puffer, and moderate drops in catches of several the estuarine environment. However, it must be other species (Table 3). remembered that large oceanic fishes like tunas and billfishes have been shown to accumulate relatively PROBABLE CAUSIES OF CHANGES large residues of heavy metals and other contami- nants which may have come from estuarine sources Most living resources of the coastal zone fluctuate via the food web. Changes in abundance of these widely in abundance from natural causes. Natural species must be assumed to be caused by natural changes in environmental conditions at critical environmental changes, or by the effects of fishing, stages in the life history obviously affect survival and or both. This leaves about 25 species, more or less, future abundance, but our understanding of cause depending upon how one defines importance to the and effect is very poor and probably always will be. domestic commercial and recreational fisheries, When the fortunes of the fisheries are viewed against about which we should be particularly concerned this background of natural change it is difficult to with respect to the effects of manmade environ- determine the relative contributions of fishing, water mental modification. These resources have been pollution and other manmade effects, and natural identified by code letters in Tables 1 and 3. environmental variations. The effects of fishing can be measured if accurate information is available on Species Which Have catches and amount of fishing effort over a reason- Produced Major Changes ably long period of time. But similar information on in Landings 1969-74 most other manmade effects, and on naturally- caused changes in abundance, is not available. Thus, Of this group of about 25, nine have shown con- conclusions about the causes of changing abundance siderable increases in landings in the area as a whole, of living resources are likely to be largely intuitive. and these increases are almost certainly associated To assess the reasons for the changes observed with real increases in abundance, for reasons already between 1969 and 1973 in commercial fishery land- given. Another eight, or perhaps nine, have shown 156 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL considerable declines in landings, some of which have oyster production has been attributed to careless been associated with real decreases in abundance. oystering practices, but water pollution also has Two additional species have produced major in- hurt the industry by forcing closure of more and more creases in landings in the Rhode Island-Delaware areas for public health reasons, and by adversely subarea only, and another three have declined only affecting survival of larvae and young. But aside in the Chesapeake subarea. Before discussing specific from setbacks by severe storms, and severe out- environmental alterations which may have been breaks of predation or disease, industry and govern- responsible it is helpful to examine briefly most of ment probably will be able to continue improving these species to find out whether it is possible to the volume of oyster production to satisfy existing identify all or some of the reasons for the major in- demand. creases and declines. HARD CLAM AMERICAN OYSTER Hard clam is harvested in all states in the Middle The oyster industry of the area now produces Atlantic Estuarine area, but New York now is by much less'than it once did, but this still is the most far the largest producer. Most of this production important oystering area in the nation. In the late comes from Great South Bay on Long Island. From 1950S and early 1960s one calamity after another hit 1929 to 1957 Rhode Island and New York vied for the industry, first a massive invasion of sea'stars in first place in volume of hard clam landed, but since Long Island Sound, then specific diseases of oysters 1957 landings have been rising in New York and in Delaware Bay and later in Virginia. It is not falling in Rhode Island. The decline in Rhode Island known whether reduced water quality was a factor probably has been caused by over-harvesting, but in these epizootics, but it is possible that the new the rise in New York landings almost certainly has stresses exerted on the resource by manmade en- represented a large increase in abundance in Great vironmental changes may have made the oyster South Bay over the past 15 years. In both states the more susceptible. These outbreaks almost destroyed industry has been plagued by water pollution, the industry in all major producing areas from New which has led to progressive closing of productive York to Chesapeake Bay except in Maryland. The clam beds, especially on Long Island, where the relatively low-salinity waters of the northern part of human population is growing more rapidly than in Chesapeake Bay are particularly favorable for oyster any other area of the United States. Large areas of growing, and a massive rehabilitation program, con- clam bottom are closed or restricted along the New sisting mainly of replanting shell and transplanting Jersey coast, as in other states of the area. Where live oysters, by the State of Maryland on public clam digging is permitted the harvest is intense oyster grounds has more than doubled production because demand is good and prices high. there since the low year 1963. This has demonstrated Many experienced baymen believe the available that oyster production can be increased if govern- resource is being overharvested. That conclusion is ments are willing to spend the time and money to do hard to escape with respect to the Rhode Island so. Whether this has contributed any increased hard clam industry, which now produces only about revenue to the local economy apparently has not 20 percent of the catch of 20 years ago. The harvest been demonstrated. in New York reached a peak in the period 1969 to In the New York and Chesapeake areas some suc- 1973 and this is reflected in the record of landings cess has been attained at raising seed oysters in for the subregion (Table 1). Clam diggers in Great hatcheries. At this stage, however, opinion is divided South Bay report that they now must work harder as to whether this is an economically sound method to make the same catch. Clam fisheries in the area of resolving the problem of highly variable natural generally are subject to a negative form of manage- seed production. In the other Middle Atlantic states ment, in which water quality is checked frequently private enterprise, sometimes with help from the and grounds are closed to harvesting when coliform states, has been improving oyster production slowly, bacteria numbers exceed minimum values. This is In the area as a whole landings have increased about important, but is not likely to maintain yields of 15 percent from 1969 to 1973. In Maryland the in- clam resources when the total catch needs to be con- crease has been more than 19 percent in the 5-year trolled also. The towns that have jurisdiction over period, but this and the modest gains in other states clam beds in Great South Bay, especially the town have been partially off-set by a drop in Virginia of Islip, are now beginning to develop model re- oyster production. search and management programs based on im- Much of the blame for the long-term decline in proved law enforcement, better understanding of FISHERIES 157 the dynamics of the resource, and transplantation storage from the previous year. The species is notably from polluted to clean areas. They deserve to be variable in abundance, apparently from wide varia- encouraged and supported adequately. tion in success of spawning, which is especially evi- dent in short-lived species; but, as with other species, the causes of fluctuation are not known. Commercial SOFT CLAM landings dropped from 4.6 million pounds to less than 50,000 from 1969 to 1973 (Table 3). Consider- The soft clam industry of the area developed in than 50000 from 1969to 1973 (Table 3-) onsider- Maryland waters in f the 1950s t o supply markets able numbers are taken by sport fishermen in the Maryland waters in the 1950s to supply markets area as a whole, and the recreational catch has that could no longer be satisfied by a declining catch dropped sharply in New York and New Jersey as in New England. The abrupt decline in landings in e a from 1971 to 1972 and 1973 (Table 3) was caused by the effects of tropical storm Agnes, in June 1972, which brought down such a load of contaminants SPOT from land drainage after heavy rains that the State of Maryland found it necessary to prohibit harvest- This is a fish of estuaries and inshore coastal ing in the interest of public health. Before water waters. It was once fairly important along the west- quality had recovered to safe levels, low salinities ern end of Long Island and the New Jersey coast, and high water temperatures had killed most soft but commercial catches have been relatively minor clams in commercial clamming areas. Restrictions since the middle 1940s. The reason for the decline is were placed on the catch in 1972 and 1973 because not known. Spot is a short-lived fish, and wide varia- it was feared that the sharply-reduced resource tions in success of spawning are reflected in catches could not withstand an intense fishery. It was ex- almost immediately. The increase of about 1.5 mil- pected that landings would be considerably better in lion pounds in the commercial catch from 1969 to 1974, and monthly statistics received to date have 1973 probably merely reflects such variations, for the borne this out. 1970 catch was much higher (Table 3). WHITE PERCH C BLUE CRAB This species also, is most abundant in the Chesa- peake segment of the area. Commercial landings in The blue crab fishery has been centered in Chesa- peake segment of the area. Commercial landings in peake Bay, and landings to the north have histor- Chesapeake Bay have dropped to almost one-third of cally been much smaller. Abundance and catches the 1969 level, but this may not have been a conse- have varied widely in the Chesapeake, but the long- quence of declining abundance. White perch is taken term trend in landings has been upward since the in large quantities by sport fishermen in the areas, although the peak catch of about,97 million especially from New Jersey south, and the estimated ounds in 1930s has not been exceeded. From Dela- recreational catch is much larger than the commer- p ounds in 166 has not been exceeded. From Dela- ware north the maximum catch was 6.6 million cial catch. White perch is endemic to the inshore poundsin90, andfluctuationshavebeenrelatively estuary, and in Maryland waters of Chesapeake Bay. The northern it is considered to be underexploited. The decline ofter about 1957 and in New York the commercial fishery there probably has been no comme no commercial catch has been reported since 1961. caused by overcrowding and slow growth, which In the 1970s blue crab began to increase in abun- has affected prices. In Virginia, on the other hand, dance in bays along the south shore of Long Island, the species is believed to have been affected ad-gh commercial fishing has not resumed in versely by water pollution, especially in the James New York, recreational catches of blue crab are River. reported to have been substantial. Similar increases have occurred in New Jersey and Delaware also. NORTHERN PUFFER The increased commercial catches in those states are shown in-Table 1. The major fishery for puffer in the area also has It has been speculated that recovery of the re- been in Chesapeake Bay. Peak landings were reached source in New York has been caused by the ban on in 1965, and landings have been erratic and generally use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons for downward since that time. The initial decline was mosquito control. Suffolk County, New York, was caused by excessive catches in 1965, and in 1966 a reputed at one time to have the most massive spray- considerable supply of puffer was held over in dold ing program in the country. Partial recovery of the 158 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL fishery in New Jersey and Delaware also might have onstrates why it is so difficult to assess the effects of had the same cause, but there is no proof that this a specific pollutant, or even of water pollution gen- was so in any state. Whatever the cause, landings erally. If pollution control is able to prevent further by commercial and recreational fishermen north of deterioration of the estuarine environment; or even Chesapeake Bay have certainly increased substan- better, if estuarine pollution can be reduced; the tially, and the reported commercial catch has now inevitable decline of the menhaden fisheries of the recovered to about 76 percent of the all-time high. area, when it comes, will most likely be caused by Because the recreational catch probably is much overfishing, abetted by the effects of natural en- larger now, the condition of the resource probably is vironmental changes. A decline is assumed to be better than indicated by commercial landings alone. inevitable if the present high demand for the product continues, and the fishery remains essentially un- regulated. ATLANTIC MENHADEN The 5-year increase in landings of menhaden north STRIPED BASS of Chesapeake Bay was substantial, but 1973 land- ings were still far short of the maximum reached in Abundance and catches Of striped bass in the area 1956. In the Chesapeake subarea, however, men- have been following an upward trend for some 40 haden landings in 1972 were the highest on record, years, although the Chesapeake catch appears to in 1973 second highest. The 1970 Chesapeake catch have leveled out for the past decade. This trend was the third best year on record and 1971 the sixth, shows in commercial and recreational landings, and The intense fishery in the Chesapeake subarea now there is no good reason to doubt that abundance has takes mostly I-and-2-year-old immature fish, and increased substantially, although the evidence is allows relatively few to survive long enough to circumstantial, as it is for most of the species under migrate farther north. The increased catch to the discussion. This upward trend may not be evident north may have been related to greater abundance to the short-term observer, and it is not clearly in the south, or survival from local spawning may evident in the period 1969 to 1973 (Tables 1 and 3), have been better because competition from migrating because the trend is superimposed upon a back- southern menhaden had been largely eliminated for ground of wide variations in spawning success which a while. That the menhaden resource has been able have caused large short-term fluctuations in abund- to produce bumper crops despite the very heavy ance. Thus, in any period of a few years landings drain on the stock by commercial fishing is reason- are about as likely to be dropping as they are to be ably good circumstantial evidence that levels of rising. water pollution in the area and other manmade The long-term trend in commercial landings can environmental changes have not been great enough be recognized clearly in the progression of highs and to affect the menhaden resource. If water pollution lows. Since 1930 each major high in commercial or other human influences have affected the resource landings in the area as a whole has been higher than in the past, it could be assumed that conditions have the previous one, and each low also has been succes- improved recently as far as menhaden is concerned. sively higher. It is very unlikely that this increasing Virtually nothing is known about the environmental commercial harvest reflects only an increase in fishing variables that control the size of the menhaden stock. effort, for striped bass historically has been a popular It is difficult to understand how this resource has food fish. Sport catches also have been trending up- been able to survive such a heavy fishery, and indeed ward, although a part of this increase must have produce such large catches after it appeared that the been associated with the demonstrated increase in stocks of menhaden had been seriously overfished. sport fishing effort. It has been noted by several workers that just before It has been suggested that, because they spend the a fish stock collapses it may produce one or more first two years of their lives in the estuaries, striped very large year classes. No explanation has been bass have been able to take advantage of the in- advanced, except speculation that in some way the creased nutrient supply contributed by domestic internal regulatory mechanisms of the stock break wastes, This is only an hypothesis, which cannot be down. Thus, the recent large catches of menhaden confirmed by existing evidence that links cause and in the area may be more a matter for concern than effect. Nevertheless, it seems that striped bass has for optimism. Events in the fishery in the last five so far been able to cope successfully with human years illustrate as well as any case history of a fishery alterations of the environment, as well as with con- how poor is our capability to explain and predict tinued intensive fishing. what is happening. Among other things it also dem- This is not cause for complacency, however, for it FISHERIES 159 is not known for certain why striped bass apparently flavors of shad are less prevalent now. Like other has been increasing in abundance for more than a anadromous species, shad always will be vulnerable quarter-century, nor even why, along with this to environmental deterioration. Foreign catches of trend, abundance has fluctuated so widely in the shad have not been reported. short run. It explains nothing to say that such fluc- tuations are to be expected in resources which live in MIGRATORY COASTAL FOOD FISHES a rich but highly variable and sometimes hostile environment, although a more rational approach Several once important food fishes have made toward fishery management might be possible if this encouraging recoveries in abundance in the period fact of variation were more clearly recognized. It sinc e 1969, altho ugh commercial land ings of these since 1969, although commercial landings of these would be a matter of concern, of course, if the magni- species are still far below historic maximum levels. tude of such fluctuations were to increase. Nor is it Included are scup, weakfish, bluefish, summer floun- Included are scup, weakfish, bluefish, summer floun- cause for complacency, even if proof were available der, and Atlantic croaker. All five are important der, and Atlantic croaker. All five are important that added nutrients had favored striped bass abun- recreational species as well, and the saltwater sport dance, for the process is likely to be reversible if the fisheries have benefited particularly from this partial nutrient upply coninues to ncreasefisheries have benefited particularly from this partial nutrient supply continues to increase. recovery. The magnitude of the recovery probably was greater than commercial landings suggest, be- ALEWIFE cause although statistics are not available on recrea- tional catches of these species in the area except for Of all species which have declined in commercial 1970, it is demonstrated that the popularity of salt- landings in the area since 1969, alewife landings water sport fishing has been increasing. It must be have dropped most sharply. In the Middle Atlantic recognized that increased commercial or recreational Estuarine Area the species is important commercially landings do not by themselves demonstrate an in- only in Chesapeake Bay. Recently, from 80 to 90 crease in abundance, for increased catches may percent of the catch is landed in Virginia. Chesapeake simply signify greater fishing effort or improved landings of alewife dropped from about 34 million availability of fish to fishermen for some reason. pounds in 1969 to slightly more than 11 million in Assumption beyond reasonable doubt that these 1973, largely because large quantities have been species, and some others, have truly increased in taken by foreign fleets offshore. As a consequence, abundance comes from personal experience, con- the United States, by negotiating bilateral agree- versations with scientists and fishermen, and in- ments with some nations, has imposed strict quotas numerable reports in trade magazines and sport on some catches. There is no evidence that manmade fishermen's publications. Bluefish apparently have environmental changes other than fishing have been particularly abundant recently, as demon- affected the resource in this area, but anadromous strated by large sport catches, and by unusual num- species like alewife are especially vulnerable to estu- bers taken by commercial and research trawlers arine water pollution. offshore. Croaker have been appearing again off the coasts of Delaware and New Jersey, where they have been virtually absent for years. As mentioned al- AmERICAN SHAD ready, recent reports suggest that croaker catches may increase dramatically in 1975 and subsequently. The decline in landings of shad in the area, espe- Wide variations in abundance of all these species cially north of Chesapeake Bay, does not necessarily have been noted several times in the past. No one signify a decline in abundance of the species. It is has identified the reasons for these fluctuations, and known that economic factors rather than a scarcity no one can predict what will happen in the future. of fish have been the primary cause of the recent The recent increase in weakfish abundance appears decline of the Hudson River shad fishery. Modern already to have been temporary, as might be ex- transportation and preservation facilities have made pected from past experience. Weakfish appear to be it easier to ship shad from early runs to southern scarcer in 1974. All spend important parts of their rivers for marketing in New York at high prices. lives in the inshore estuary throughout the area, By the time shad runs begin in the Hudson River and it can be assumed that they are affected in vari- local demand has been sated because shad tradi- ous ways by what man does to the estuarine environ- tionally has been a short-term seasonal delicacy, ment, but the extent of such effects is not known which forces the price too low for profitable fishing. except when major kills of obvious origin occur. Two Actually, it is reported that water quality in the of the five, scup and summer flounder, are highly Hudson River has improved in most areas, and off- vulnerable to foreign fishing. All, however, are taken 16)0 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL by domestic commercial and recreational fishermen south of Cape Cod is now responsible for declining at all seasons, in various places, and by various gears. catches. There is no evidence that manmade changes Present laws and regulations, and the means to en- other than fishing have affected lobster abundance in force them, are totally inadequate to manage these the area. It is to be hoped that the relatively new fisheries effectively, even if the necessary scientific federal-state lolbster research and management knowledge were available. It is theoretically possible program will help to answer these questions and to regulate. the harvest to maintain optimum yields, prevent overharvesting of lobster. Whatever the but it is questionable whether the necessary public cause, landings in the area by domestic commercial cooperation and adequate funds will be available. fishermen dropped from a reported 8.2 million to 5.6 million pounds from 1969 to 1973 (Tables 1 and 3). SiLvER HAKE WINTER FLOUNDER Rather surprisingly, domestic commercial landings of this species have increased since 1969 in the area. This coastal species does not make extensive For several years the International Commission for migrations, and it tends to be subdivided into local the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) has populations which do not intermingle freely. It has been concerned about the stocks of silver hake and a history of wide fluctuations in abundance which has placed quotas on the catch. The species is not appear to have been caused by natural environmen- abundant south of New Jersey; and commercial tal changes. Winter flounder is not very abundant catches from the area are determined more by the south of New York. The decline in commercial land- market than by the supply of raw material. The in- ings since 1969 (Table 1) has no great significance in crease of about 2.5 million pounds in area landings in terms of abundance of the resource. the 5-year period cannot be interpreted necessarily as an indication of increased abundance. Demand for BUTTERFISH silver hake as human food is limited, and the price is highly sensitive to market conditions. The in- In the late 1960s butterfish was considered to be a centive to fish for this species varies accordingly. very much underharvested species. Foreign fleets, However, successful'spawnings in 1971 and 1972 had especially those seeking squid, now are taking in- led to predictions of increased catches later. creasing quantities, and it is believed that the har- vestable surplus is now being fully utilized. Under AMERICAN LOBSTER such circumstances it could be expected that domes- tic catches will be smaller than before, and this may The lobster harvest south of Cape Cod has been explain the drop of about 1.5 million pounds in growing for about a decade. This has been attributed domestic commercial landings since 1969 (Tables 1 to two developments, a southward shift of lobster and 3). Possible effects of estuarine pollution cannot be ruled out, however. stocks and increased abundance to the south in re- sponse to declining coastal water temperatures, and new fisheries on hitherto under-exploited lobster Estuarine Pollution stocks in relativ ely deep water on the continental shelf. As with so many popular explanations based Water pollution probably shares top place with on observations of general environmental change, uncontrolled fishing as the most serious threat to the the drop in water temperature and the increase in economic well-being of the domestic commercial lobster abundance were real, but the cause and effect fisheries. The sessile endemic resources, like oyster, hypothesis has not been proven. Many lobstermen clams, and mussels, are particularly vulnerable be- think that the harvest has been too intense and that cause, once the free-swimming larvae have settled to the resource has been overfished. This is quite likely, the bottom, these resources are non-migratory. For for in common with most other fisheries of the area, practical purposes conch also falls in this category. the states have many fishery laws and regulations, Other estuarine endemic species can to some extent but there has been no control on the amount of avoid gross pollution unless they become trapped fishing. Uncertainty about the catch of lobster by for some reason. Little is known about sublethal foreign fleets and by recreational fishermen further effects, although there is evidence that they can be complicates the problem. serious. Others think that a reversal of the environmental The most obvious damaging effects of estuarine trend that originally led to the growth of the fisheries pollution to living resources and to commercial and recreational fishing are the threats to human health Mass mortalities of menhaden and other species caused by intake and retention of human pathogens sometimes occur in estuaries. Such mortalities in by molluscan shellfish. The principal reason is that Chesapeake Bay often have been associated with a shellfish such as oyster and hard clam frequently are natural deficiency in dissolved oxygen content of the eaten raw. Many formerly productive shellfish water in the central part of the bay and in the lower grounds in Rhode Island, along the Connecticut parts of the major rivers in that area, especially the shoreline, around the coast of Long Island, along Rappahannock, Potomac, and Patuxent. Domestic ocean coasts from New Jersey to Virginia inclusive, and industrial waste disposal has aggravated this and in Raritan, Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, natural condition by creating an additional oxygen are now closed to shellfishing, or are open only under demand. A similar condition, which has become more special permit to take shellfish for further processing. serious as the human population has grown, exists The areas so restricted include substantial parts of in summer in the western part of Long Island coastal waters of the seven states in the Middle Sound. Interpretation of the effects of these man- Atlantic Estuarine Area, and the total area closed is made changes is very difficult for at least two rea- still increasing. The State of New York controls sons, both of which have been demonstrated dra- about 425,000 acres of shellfish bottom, of which matically in Chesapeake Bay in the 1969-1973 per- about 100,000 acres are closed because water quality iod. Hurricane Agnes in 1972 caused heavy mortality does not meet minimum standards. Thirteen percent of molluscs, partly, but not entirely, from intensifica- of these waters were closed in 1973. This not only tion of natural conditions. Unusually great abun- progressively reduces, the area of bottom approved dance of certain species, such as menhaden, will per se for shellfish harvesting and therefore the potential increase the numbers of fish killed, and perhaps the yield, but also increases the likelihood that consump- frequency of kills, even if the environment has not tion of shellfish taken illegally will cause outbreaks of changed. These interactions of natural and man- hepatitis or other human disease. Such outbreaks made forces make it extremely difficult to measure not only are dangerous to public health, but also cause and effect, because we do not know specifically can have disastrous immediate and long-term effects how these factors operate individually, or how they on the economy of the industry through erosion of interact. consumer confidence. Oysters and clams to be eaten At some places in the area, e.g. in Barnegat Bay, raw bring the highest prices, so are harvested selec- N.J., and Long Island Sound, N.Y., waste heat tively. Thus, the economic threat to the industry from power plants has had beneficial effects on is ever-present and very great. In the period 1969 to sport fishing. Species such as bluefish, striped bass, 1973 molluscan shellfisheries of the inshore estuaries white perch, menhaden, and others become en- of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area produced a trained in the warm plume of discharged cooling harvest for which fishermen received more than water and support recreational fisheries in winter $35 million a year, on the average, which was more where none existed before. Plant shutdowns or sud- than 38 percent of the landed value of all fish and den weather changes sometimes cause sudden mor- shellfish caught commercially in the area. talities. The power companies are seldom praised In addition to these non-migratory resources, for such fortuitous creation of new sport fisheries, several other species remain within the inshore but they are immediately vilified when a kill occurs. estuaries throughout their lives, and thus may be It seems unlikely that such kills can have significant more vulnerable to water pollution than the highly permanent or even immediate effects on the re- migratory species which come and go. Blue crab is sources involved, although local effects can be the most important of these, especially in Chesa- catastrophic. peake Bay, where it is the most important edible In summary, the only certainly identifiable effects species by weight and second most important in in the natural environment of estuarine water pol- landed value. Among the highly migratory species, lution on the living resources and their fisheries are: the anadromous fishes are especially vulnerable 1) transfer of human pathogens; 2) closure or re- because the young are born in those parts of the striction of harvesting on molluscan shellfish beds; estuaries most susceptible to pollution. Included and 3) catastrophic releases of pollutants in which are such valuable species as striped bass, alewife, cause and effect are obvious. and shad. Sublethal effects in the natural environ- It follows that we have no positive explanation ment are extremely difficult to detect and their why many important species in the Middle Atlantic influence on the living resources difficult to evaluate. Estuarine Area have increased substantially in abun- Thus, it should not be assumed that such effects dance in the period 1969-1973, and thus cannot are insignificant. attribute these recoveries to pollution abatement, 162 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL where abatement has occurred. However, many lab- all the other problems of the coastal fisheries of the oratory studies and some controlled field studies nation and of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area. have shown that all species studied are affected This dominance of foreign fishing over all other adversely by many components of water pollution. fishery problems probably occurred because it pre- This is sufficient to support the conclusion that sented an obvious "villain" which could be blamed, many pollutants are deleterious to fishery resources rightly or wrongly, for most of the ills of the domestic and to human health. commercial and recreational fisheries. This scapegoat has no means of fighting back at the domestic level. Foreign fishing has seriously affected some tradi- Domestic Management of the Fisheries tional American fisheries, such as Georges Bank haddock and Pacific halibut, to name only two. A primary objective of fishery management is to Foreign fishing as a serious problem for the domestic maintain the resource in a condition to produce the fisheries of the area began in 1965 and 1966, when optimum sustainable yield, which means economic the Soviet Union took a large harvest from the as well as biological health. Despite the short-term strong 1963 year class of haddock on Georges Bank, increase in landings from 1969 to 1973, which ap- and then began to extend its operations to the south parently was not the result of an equivalent increase and west. As early as 1963, however, the USSR did in fishing effort, it is fairly obvious from the long- some fishing south of Georges Bank. Now at least term record that we have not achieved effective 10 nations besides the United States are fishing in fishery management in the Middle Atlantic Estu- the Middle Atlantic Bight. arine Area. The declining total catch of food fish Of some 47 major species in the domestic commer- and shellfish, despite constant and progressive shift- cial and recreational fisheries of the Middle Atlantic ing from resource to resource, is sufficient evidence Estuarine Area, 18 are also being taken by foreign of that. There has been no dearth of opinion as to fleets on or over the continental shelf. The other 29 what is wrong with the fisheries of the area and domestic species either do not enter the high seas what are the remedies. Many of these views have beyond the 12-mile zone of national fishery jurisdic- been translated into laws, and all of the states have tion or do so in such small numbers or for so short voluminous codes of fishery statutes, few of which a time that incidental catches by foreign fishermen have any basis in fact. would not be a serious problem. The only exceptions The only exceptions in the seven-state area are are menhaden, which sometimes are found beyond the oyster and soft clam management programs of 12 miles in substantial numbers, especially off Vir- the State of Maryland, already mentioned. These ginia and North Carolina in winter, and surf clam, have more than doubled oyster production in that which is widely distributed onthe continental shelf state in 10 years, 25 percent of which increase oc- in the area. It does not seem likely that specialized curred from 1969 to 1973 (masked in Table 3 by a foreign fisheries for these species will develop. The concurrent drop in Virginia); and are bringing about surf clam has been declared a creature of the conti- recovery of the soft clam resource and fishery. In nental shelf under the provisions of the 1958 Geneva New York State the town of Islip, which controls Convention, which thus reserves this resource to the about one-third of the bottom of Great South Bay, United States. has embarked on a promising program to manage Table 5 shows reported landings of the 18 species the hard clam resource. If successful, these programs or groups of species fished jointly by domestic and will be models for other local communities and states foreign fleets in the area. The foreign catches are to follow. The difficulties should not be underesti- probably higher than they should be for direct corn- mated, however. Not the least of these is the extreme parison, because they include Georges Bank. Virtu- difficulty and cost of law enforcement associated ally none of the domestic landings listed comes from with resources in shallow water, near shore, and Georges Bank. easily accessible to the public generally. Without Some of the species migrate between waters over adequate enforcement, the best program in the Georges Bank and the Middle Atlantic Estuarine world will fail. Area (e.g. Atlantic herring and mackerel), others, such as winter flounder, probably do not. The ale- Foreign Fishing wife resources of Chesapeake Bay definitely have been affected by the foreign fisheries; as the decline Fishing by other nations on the continental shelves in domestic landings illustrates. Foreign catches of surrounding the United States has become the major scup have been relatively small, but even these small concern of domestic fishermen. It has overshadowed catches are of concern because the scup resource has FISHERIES 163 Table 5.-Domestic (upper row) and foreign (lower row-ICNAF subareas 5z and 6) commercial catches of major species taken by both groups In Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area 1966-73. Weights in millions of pounds. * = 50D000 pounds or less. - = no catch reported Species 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Alewife ---- 34.4 30.7 36.5 33.9 21.1 13.1 12.1 11.3 - 14.3 49.1 79.8 43.6 47.8 27.5 14.0 Scup ------ 25.9 18.6 13.9 10.3 9.5 8. 1 8.7 10.2 2.0 1.8 5.1 1.1 0.4 2.2 3.7 3.9 Summer flounder.-- ...-. 9.8 8.1 6.3 3.9 5.7 5.2 5.3 9.3 ... _ _ _ 1.5 0.9 Yellowtail flounder .. .......... 9.5 11.4 12.3 13.5 15.4 20.8 28 0 25.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 42.1 6.8 4.6 12.1 1.4 Silverhake ------------------. 9.2 11.0 9.7 9.0 8.1 8.3 10.9 11.5 472.4 195.4 132.0 166.4 72.6 162.0 233.0 254.7 Winter flounder ------------... 9.2 9.0 7.6 7.7 8.2 8.2 6.6 6.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 15.0 1.1 3.7 5.5 3.4 Atlantic herring - -------------. 7.4 1.7 0.8 o.1 * 2.5 0.7 0.4 305.1 479.5 822.1 674.4 540.8 570.3 377.8 435.9 Butterfish -------------------- 5.4 4.9 3.4 4.7 3.8 3.4 1.5 3.2 8.6 5.1 11.9 33.0 : 19.8 13.9 12.3 39.3 American lobster - - -----------. 4.9 4.8 6.5 8.2 9.5 9.3 7.2 5.6 - - - - - 0.2 0.4 0.5 Blacksea bass-... ........... 3.2 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.1 1.2 1.6 2.4 Squids ----------------------- 2.6 2.9 3.0 2.7 1.8 1.7 2.2 3.0 -* * 3.7 15.6 33.0 44.7 104.5 121.4 Atlantic mackerel -- - ---- -.... 2.4 2.1 2.9 1.7 2.6 1.8 2.9 2.8 15.0 41.9 123.7 . 239.8 450.6 517.5 843.0 836.3 Red hake .-- 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.9 239.4 117.5 29.3 108.5 16.1 59.3 162.4 137.7 Atlantic cod- - . .... ...... 1.2 2.2 2.9 3.4 3.8 3.1 2.7 3.4 90.8 52.0 61.5 46.7 23.8 26.0 25.8 28.0 Sea robins -0.9 0.6 0.5 0.1 * * * 3.1 1.1 19.8 4.2 1.8 8.1 6.2 Tilefish . 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.8 Sharks .-- 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 19.4 5.3 8.8 19.2 12.3 24.2 46.3 33.8 Bluefin tuna .- . ........... 0.5 3.2 0.2 0.1 3.1 2.0 2.2 1.3 - - - - - 1.1 0.4 0.2 decreased sharply in abundance since the 1950s. to 1973 do not reflect it, this flounder has been Summer flounder catches by foreign fishermen also seriously reduced in abundance. have been small, but foreign catches may be larger Catches of silver hake by foreign fleets in the area than reported because some summer flounder may have been very large. This fishery also is regulated have been included in unclassified catches. Relatively by ICNAF quotas. Domestic landings show no ap- large foreign catches of yellowtail flounder have led parent effects from foreign fishing, but the catch of to quota limits on this species by ICNAF, but the silver hake is determined more by demand than by effects on the fisheries of the Middle Atlantic Estu- abundance of the resource. and thus commercial arine Area are not evident in the record of domestic catches will not reflect variations in abundance. landings. Yellowtail flounder in the area probably Since foreign fishing began in the area, catches of belong to a distinct stock, and batches on Georges winter flounder have been relatively small, although Bank probably would not affect this stock. Although pulse fishing produced a large foreign catch in 1969 landings of yellowtail flounder in the area from 1969 and a fairly large catch in 1972. The decline in 4164 ESTUARINE POLLJTTION CONTROL domestic catches of winter flounder may have been catch domestic landings in the area have shown no a consequence of foreign fishing, but the demon- obvious effects of foreign fishing. Sea robins are not strated existence of local stocks and wide natural of great importance to the domestic commercial variations in abundance make such a conclusion fisheries of the area, but are apparently much more questionable. The domestic fishery for-Atlantic her- important in the sport fisheries. Only small catches ring in the area is negligible because there is little of tilefish have been reported by foreign fleets, but demand for adults of the species. The large foreign the species occupies a very specialized habitat at catches are apparently of little importance to the the edge of .the continental shelf, and incidental domestic fisheries, although it is not certain that foreign catches are suspected. The domestic com- the Maine sardine fishery will be unaffected. It would mercial fishery for sharks is small, but sharks are of be interesting to know whether this large catch of interest to sport fishermen. The effects of the rela- an abundant species has had any indirect effects on tively large foreign catch on the sport fisheries are other living resources of importance to the domestic not known; the relatively large recent fisheries for fisheries. It appears that the domestic fisheries have bluefin tuna in the North Atlantic Ocean have been harvesting only a small fraction of the butter- broughts that resource to a dangerously low level. fish resource, but with the development of large Vigorous attempts now are being made to limit foreign. fisheries the resource now is believed to be catches stringently. fully utilized. In summary, it is clear that foreign fishing in the Reported foreign catches of northern lobster have area has had measurable adverse effects on some been relatively small, but it has been suspected that fishery resources of interest to domestic commercial incidental, unreported, catches are larger. Lobster and recreational fishermen, and that foreign catches supports:an important traditional American fishery, of some others are a matter of concern. In addition, and any foreign catch is a matter of concern. Recent as long as foreign fishing continues in the area, declaration of lobster as a creature of the continental incidental catches of some resources will reduce to shelf by the United States may correct the situation, some extent the probability of measuring the effects if other nations are willing to accept the rather of other variables on the abundance and condition strained definition as it applies to this species. of estuarine stocks. On the other hand, it must be No foreign catches of black sea bass have been noted that a number of important fishery resources reported, except in 1964, when about 1,500 metric of the area are not subject to foreign fishing, and tons were listed, but sea bass migrate to the outer that stocks of some of these, like soft clam and continental shelf in winter and incidental catches northern puffer, have declined in the last five years are suspected. Demand for squid is very limited in much more sharply than some which are taken the United States, and this.species has been much by foreign fleets.' This- is not to say that foreign underexploited by the domestic fisheries, but squid fishing is not having its effects, but it does empha- are important in the diet of many resources of maj or size the complexities of the situation and the need interest to domestic fishermen. The large recent .to pay more serious attention to domestic fishery foreign fishery is of relatively minor concern to the management. domestic fisheries at present. At least 50 percent, and perhaps a greater proportion of the catch of the Social-political Issues foreign squid fleet is butterfish. . Atlantic mackerel, like Atlantic herring and squids, In the United States, the individual states, and is not in great demand in the United States. It has sometimes counties or even towns, have broad juris- been a part of domestic strategy in negotiating with diction over fisheries in adjacent waters. Local gov- other nations that fish off this area to encourage ernments make the laws and regulations and are them to concentrate on such abundant species of responsible for surveillance and enforcement. Federal minor value to Americans. This strategy probably jurisdiction over fisheries is restricted to inter- is less palatable to American recreational than com- national waters or to interstate commerce in fishery mercial fishermen. products. In the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area The domestic harvest of red hake probably is the federal, government takes the lead in ICNAF much underestimated by official catch statistics. affairs and bilateral negotiations as they relate to This is the major species. in the industrial trawl the fisheries of the area, but this places many migra- fisheries of Nantucket Shoals, a catch which is not tory resources under double jurisdiction, because reported by species. Red hake also supports a minor important species like scup, summer flounder, sea sport fishery. Most of the foreign catch of Atlantic bass, and others move seasonally between territorial cod comes from Georges Bank and north. In total and international waters. FisaRIEs 165 International fishery management in the area has to detect the effects of other manmade environmen- been criticized as inadequate or ineffective, but in tal changes. reality this is too extreme a view. For one thing, it ignores what should be obvious, that domestic fishery management, which among other things includes Communication Between Fishery Interests pollution control, has failed almost completely. In- ternational agreement is difficult to achieve, and Commercial fishery interests in the United States arrangements under ICNAF and the various bi- have many protagonists and some antagonists. Con- lateral agreements that apply to the area have not mercial fishermen, processors, and distributors have been perfect. However, it cannot be denied that the many organizations, local, state, and national, which fisheries would have been in much worse condition represent their interests in various ways. These in- today if the federal government had not entered elude groups of fishermen, boat owners, unions, and into negotiations with other nations fishing off this trade organizations of various kinds. At the political section of the coast. The results of these arrange- level, commercial fisheries have surprisingly strong ments have shown that the interests of the United support, especially in such key fishing areas as the States fisheries have been served best when we can Pacific Northwest, Alaska, New England, and the present reasonable scientific evidence that a problem Gulf of Mexico. In fact, some believe that in certain exists. Scientific research has been the basis of most regions political interest and support at the national of our international fishery agreements, but scien- level is far greater than the economic value of the tific evidence has played a very small role in deter- industry warrants. mining fishery policy or in developing laws and On the administrative side the National Marine regulations for most fisheries of territorial waters. Fisheries Service of the Department of Commerce This most important point has not been clearly has the major federal responsibility for fishery re- recognized by many. search, development, and services to the commercial State and sometimes local governments in the fishing industry and to recreational saltwater fishing area support scientific research on fishery resources 'interests. Other responsibilities reside in the Depart- and their environment. Some of the information ments of State, Interior, Treasury, Agriculture, developed has been used as a basis for regulating Labor and other departments and specialized agen- domestic fisheries, but usually fishery laws and regu- cies. Each state has an agency with prime responsi- lations have been based on opinion rather than fact, bility for marine fishery management and research. and are much more likely to be concerned with who Some coastal states have separate agencies for fin- makes the catch than how the catch should be fish and shellfish management, and often jurisdiction limited. In other words, domestic fishery manage- over anadromous fisheries is divided between coastal ment in estuarine waters is much more likely to be and inland fish and wildlife agencies. As already based on struggles between vested interests than mentioned, research and management are sometimes on scientific objectivity. This contrast between inter- further complicated by delegation of certain respon- national and domestic management strategies does sibilities to local governments. much to explain why international arrangements, In the Middle Atlantic Estuarine Area efforts difficult as they are, have been much more success- have been made to coordinate research and manage- ful than domestic. ment between states through the Atlantic States Many state and local fishery laws and regulations Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), an inter- tend to perpetuate inefficiency and prohibit or re- state organization of more than 30 years standing, strict efficient harvesting methods. This adds to to which all 15 Atlantic coastal states belong. The the cost of catching fish, which is already relatively Commission has made progress in certain directions, high because vessel construction, fishing gear, repair but has not yet succeeded in getting the states to and maintenance, insurance, and other costs are cooperate in effective fishery management programs. greater than anywhere else in the world. In addi- The compact which created the Commission named tion, most of the domestic fisheries suffer from the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of overinvestment of capital and labor, another form the Interior as its primary research agency. When of economic inefficiency. In the absence of scientifi- the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- cally-based catch quotas, or better still, limitations tion was created this function was transferred to the on numbers of fishermen and units of gear, there is Department of Commerce. All of these agencies, no effective management of the resource. This, cou- groups, and key individual members exert influence pled with wide natural variations in abundance of in a variety of ways, through the communications individual resources, makes it virtually impossible media, by serving on advisory committees or con- 166 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL missions, testifying before congressional or state do specific damage to estuarine organisms. Stich assembly committees or at public hearings, lobby- substances may kill fish and shellfish directly or ing, and so on. Vested interests and inadequate or exert less obvious, but sometimes much more damag- out-of-date information often stimulate controversy ing, effects on the resource as a whole, including rather than solutions. It would be interesting to modification of spawning habits, decreased growth determine how much human energy and economic and increased mortality of larvae' and young, reteri- resources ]have been devoted to these ends, to no tion and transfer of human pathogens, concentration avail. of heavy metals and pesticides, and increased inci- dence of deformities such as fin rot and crooked Sources of Information vertebral columns. It has been shown conclusively that DDT and other pesticides, developed to kill Knowledge about the fisheries and the living re- insects, are particularly harmful, in very low con- sources and their environment resides in various centrations, to .marine animals related to insects, forms in all individuals and groups described above, such as crabs and shrimps. But pesticides kill or in conservation organizations, in universities, in the otherwise affect other invertebrates and fishes too. staffs of international fishery commissions, and in When it comes to measuring the effects of pollutants the United Nations family of organizations, espe- on fish and shellfish in the natural environment the cially FAO and UNESCO. The amount of knowledge problem is much more difficult because natural en- available through such diverse groups is consider- vironmental variables, some seasonal, some longer- able, but it varies widely in accuracy, quality, and term, and fishing as well, have substantial effects breadth, depending on the experience, competence, on abundance. Against this background of fluctuat- and interests of individuals and groups, and on the ing abundance it is nearly impossible to detect the amount of information and expertise readily avail- effects of a single factor. Laymen are prone to be able to them. Between them, these individuals and much more positive about cause and effect than institutions know, or have access to information scientists, but some scientists have further compli- on, abundance, distribution, and biology of the re- cated the issues by making hasty judgments or by sources, including latent or underutilized species; drawing unwarranted conclusions. the condition of those resources and the effects of Much published work on effects of water pollu- manmade or natural environmental variables; fish- tion or of specific pollutants on fish and shellfish ing grounds and fishing methods; markets, prices, resources is fragmentary and inconclusive and not and economic structure of the industry; processing, of much help for interpreting what is happening in distribution, and consumption of fishery products; the natural environment. Many agencies and indi- imports and exports; the world fishery picture; and viduals are doing research and gathering data. Some major problems of the marine fisheries. of the work is good, some mediocre, some trivial. None of this information is complete, and its Better coordination and review would be desira- adequacy and accuracy vary between resources and ble. Since 1969 several useful reviews have been between specific fisheries. Much of it has been published. An example is "The Water's Edge," gathered by indirect methods and by scanty sam- sponsored by the Institute of Ecology and the Woods pling and it may be difficult or impossible to esti- Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1972. This and mate levels of accuracy. For example, statistics of some other pertinent publications are listed in the commercial fishery landings published by the federal bibliography, which makes no pretense of being government, sometimes in cooperation with individ- comprehensive. The conclusions and recommenda- ual states, are generally considered to underestimate tions in this report are worth study. Too often such the catch, whereas the national surveys of saltwater documents are published and then forgotten. sport-fishing probably have produced overestimates Factors of natural human origin that affect sur- of the sport catch. Some attempts have been made vival, abundance, and general health of fish and to measure the accuracy of these estimates, and shellfish in the natural environment are probably these have tended to confirm the statements made so numerous, and reinforce or buffer each other in above, but these attempts have been confined to so many complicated ways, that it probably is un- limited regions and short periods of time. realistic to pretend that our understanding of cause The literature on pollutants and their effects on and effect will ever be very clear. This is not neces- fish and shellfish is voluminous, and has been accu- sarily a deterrent to effective control. If we know mulating at an accelerating pace. Experimental from laboratory studies that DDT or other similar studies in the laboratory have demonstrated that compounds are lethal in small doses to blue crab many constituents of domestic and industrial wastes or shrimps, then that should be sufficient cause to FISRmn ES 167 decide that DDT should not be allowed to contami- doubt that, although the supply of some resources nate the waters of the Middle Atlantic Estuarine in the area has declined substantially since 1969, Area or anywhere else. If we know from laboratory others are much more abundant today. Generally, studies and from analysis of animals collected in the domestic commercial fisheries in the area appear the natural environment that heavy metals, pesti- to be in better condition now than they were five cides, and other toxins are concentrated in living years ago, but this may be transitory and more tissues at levels higher than concentrations in the apparent than real. Certainly, many stocks are much environment, that should be sufficient cause to pro- less abundant than they were. It has been demon- hibit additions of such substances to the waters of strated that the total living weight of fishery re- the coastal zone. If we know that addition of oxygen- sources in the ICNAF area is substantially less than demanding substances to a body of water will reduce it was a decade ago. the dissolved oxygen content to levels below that It is tempting to attribute this general increase in necessary for survival or for normal biological func- abundance and catches to the beneficial effects of tioning, then that should be sufficient cause to estuarine pollution control and abatement. Although prohibit excessive manmade oxygen demand in fish there is no evidence to refute this hypothesis, neither and shellfish spawning, nursery, or feeding areas. is there evidence to support it. The short-term im- Available data for understanding the effects of provement in commercial fishing in the area must water pollution on commercial fishery stocks are be reviewed against a long-term decline in catches reasonably good for some species or stocks of fish of most food fish and shellfish, in which short-term and shellfish. For example, it cannot be denied that fluctuations often have masked long-term trends. water pollution destroyed the oyster industry of Among the most important sources of short-term Greater Raritan Bay in New Jersey and New York, fluctuations are some partly-understood and many and is responsible for closure of most of the clam unknown natural variations in the environment, the beds there. In the early 1960s a serious outbreak of effects of which cannot be distinguished from the ef- hepatitis was traced to clams illegally harvested fects of manmade changes. Also unknown for most from Raritan Bay. There is no question that water species are the effects of essentially unregulated pollution played a role in reduced marketability of domestic commercial fishing, and of deliberate or shad from the Hudson River. In some places in the incidental catches by foreign fleets. Totally un- area it is clear that water pollution was at least known, but certainly important, are the effects of partially responsible for declining runs of shad and removals of fish and shellfish by recreational fisher- other anadromous fishes. Aside from clear-cut exam- men. Sport catches of some species, such as bluefish ples like these, or accidents in which cause and and striped bass, are many times as great as the effect is beyond reasonable doubt, presumption of commercial catch. Unless these fishery-associated pollution-associated effects on commercial fisheries sources of attrition can be brought under control, is largely hypothetical. It is just as logical to suppose the odds are high that domestic catches of traditional that the long-term upward trends in abundance of fishery resources will continue to decline in the long striped bass and blue crab in Chesapeake Bay were run, and that commercial fishing will continue to caused by nutrient enrichment from domestic wastes, shift to underutilized resources. Such latent resources as that the decline and recovery of blue crab stocks are not limitless, and they probably are underutilized in New Jersey and New York were caused by heavy either because markets are limited or the cost of use and then prohibition of use of DDT. Data do harvesting is too high. not exist to support or to deny these hypotheses, The extreme difficulty of measuring the effects of and it is difficult to conceive of ways in which direct water pollution or pollution control on the commer- confirmation could be obtained. cial fisheries of the area as a whole need not be a deterrent to positive action. Molluscan shellfish are an important segment of the commercial fishing SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS industry in this area, and they are worth preserving and enhancing. The molluscan shellfish resources In the 5-year period since the "National Estuarine also are important because they can be considered Pollution Study" was completed landings of domes- as endemic resources in the waters of each state, tic commercial fish and shellfish in the Middle At- and therefore can be managed unilaterally without lantic Estuarine Area have almost doubled in weight. the need for interstate or international cooperation. Although landings alone are not a very accurate Theoretically, management of these resources should index of abundance of the living resources of an be relatively easy, but as a practical matter it obvi- area, other evidence demonstrates beyond reasonable ously has not been in most states of the area. In 168 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL some of the states it is not certain that a, real Recovery of the blue drab resource may not be a incentive exists. good omen for the hard clam industry. Blue crab is a The area of bottom closed to shellfishing, and serious clam predator. Interactions between species, trends in closures or reopenings of such areas, may as populations wax and wane, create a shifting back- be a useful index of the condition of estuarine ground against which the effects of water pollution waters. If effective management of molluscan shell- are difficult to measure. fisheries can be achieved, and the effects of natural An encouraging note was sounded in July 1975 environmental change and economic trends in the when the New York Department of Environmental shellfish industries are sufficiently well understood, Conservation announced that it would reopen some it may then be possible to evaluate the benefits of 9,200 acres of shellfish bottom in Long Island Sound pollution control by monitoring estuarine shellfish because water quality has improved. grounds and measuring the condition of the living resource. In this connection, a better index of envi- REFERENCES ronmental quality on shellfish beds is needed, to replace the standard coliform bacteria count now This is not intended to be an exhaustive list of pertinent in use. literature. It contains principally references to publications It is possible that nutrient enrichment from waste from which supporting data or statements were drawn and a few papers which seemed to cover broadly the subject of disposal has increased the biological productivity of water pollution and fisheries. Other sources may be found in certain estuarine fishery resources in the area. If the literature cited by these papers, and in the other papers this is so, it was entirely serendipitous. The experi in this volume- ence of the oyster industry in Great South Bay, Anonymous. 1970a. National Estuarine Pollution Study. N.Y., has demonstrated that uncontrolled additions U.S. Dept. Interior, Fed. Water Poll. Control Agency, of nutrients can also destroy an estuarine commer- Washington, D.C.: ix+633 p. cial fishery. For these reasons, and in the interest Anonymous. 1970b. National Estuary Study. U.S. Dept. of public health as well, control and abatement of Interior, Fish & Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C., 7 volumes. estuarine water pollution must have high priority. At the same time, the possibility of benefits to Anonymous. 1974. New Jersey Landings, Annual Summary 1973. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Fish. commercial and recreational fisheries from controlled Serv. & N.J. Dept. Envir.. Protect., Div. Fish, Game & addition of nutrients merits investigation. Where Shellf: 7 p. and earlier reports in this series for 1971 and deliberate enrichment has been tried elsewhere, the 1972. results have been promising. Anonymous. 1974. New York Landings, Annual Summary 1973. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Fish. Serv. & N.Y. Dept. Envir. Conserv.: 8 p. and earlier AUTHOR'S NOTE reports in this series for 1971 and 1972. Since this paper was written, information about Anonymous. 1974. Virginia Landings, Annual Summary 1972. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Fish. Serv, commercial fishery landings in 1974 has become Va. Marine Resources Comm., & Potomac River Fish. available. The figures are preliminary, and for some Comm.: 9 p. and 1971 report in this series. states have not yet been published, but it is clear that the upward trends noted for some estuarine Berrafato, Frank. 1975. Return of the sea bass. Long Island Fisherman 10(28), July 1975:16. species are continuing, especially for scup, summer flounder, and blue crab. In New York State com- Boone, Joseph. 1974. The hardheads are back. Comm. Fish. mercial landings of blue crab were reported in 1974 News, Md. Dept. Nat. Resources 7(6) :3. for the first time in eleven years, and direct observa- tions confirm the increased abundance of this species. Brey, William L. 1974. Maryland Landings Annual Summary 1972. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Fish. Increasing abundance of summer flounder has been Serv., Md. Dept. Chesapeake Bay Affairs, and Potomac confirmed by a recent study of sport catches and River Fish. Comm.: 11 p. and 1971 report in this series. effort in New Jersey (Festa, 1975). Black sea bass can be added to the list of resources increasing in Butler, P. A. 1971. Influence of pesticides on marine eco- abundance. The commercial catch of this species systems. Proc. Roy. Soc. London B177:321-329. north of Chesapeake Bay has almost tripled since Calabrese, Anthony. 1972. How some pollutants affect 1970, and sport catches are increasing also (Berra- embryos and larvae of American oyster and hard-shell fato, 1975). On the other hand, the effects of foreign clam. Marine Fish. Rev. 34(11-12) :66-77. fishing on yellowtail flounder were first noted south of Cape Cod in 1974. Landings of sthis species Davis, Dr. Jackson. 1974. Telephoned information about soft clam, alewife, croaker, and northern puffer in Chesapeake dropped sharply from Rhode Island south. Bay. Va. Inst. Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. FISHERIES , : 169 Deuel, David G. 1973. 1970 Salt-Water Angling Survey. Ketchum, Bostwick H. (ed). 1972. The Water's Edge. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Fish. Serv., Critical problems of the coastal zone. MIT Press, Cam- Current Fish. Statistics No. 6200:iii+54 p. bridge, Mass: xx+393 p. Dewling, R. T., I. H. Walker, and F. T. Brezenski. 1972. Knapp, William E. 1974. Marine commercial fisheries of New Effects of pollution: Loss of an $18 million/year shell- York State: An analysis by gear. Unpublished M.S. fishery. In: Marine Pollution and Sea Life. M. Ruivo (ed.) Research Paper. Marine Sciences Research Center State Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London: 624 p. Univ. of N.Y., Stony Brook, N.Y.: 108 p. + appendices (to be published). Festa,. Patrick. 1975. Creel census of the summer flounder sport fishery in Great Bay, New Jersey. N.J. Dept. Envir. Medeiros, William Henry. 1974. Legal mechanisms to re- Protection, Div. Fish, Gahe and Shellf., Nacote Creek habilitate the Hudson River shad fishery. N.Y. State Research Sta., Prog. Rept. for 1:974. Assembly Scientific Staff and N.Y. State Sea Grant Program, Albany, N.Y. : xiv+65 p. Gates, John M. and Virgil J. Norton. 1974. The benefits of fisheries regulation: A case study of the New England Murphy, William J. 1974. Rhode Island Landings, Annual yellowtail flounder fishery. Univ. R. I. Marine Adv. Serv., Summary 1972. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Tech. Rept. 21:35 p. Marine Fish. Serv., and R.I. Dept. Nat. Resources, Div. Conserv.: 11 p. and 1971 report in this series. Ginter, Jay J. C. 1974. Marine fisheries conservation'in New York State: Policy and practice of marine fisheries manage- Rice, T. R. and J. P. Baptist. 1974. Ecologic effects of radio- ment. N.Y. State Assembly Scientific Staff and N.Y. State active emissions from nuclear power plants. Chap. 10 in: Sea Grant Program: vi+64 p. Human and Ecologic Effects of Nuclear Power Plants. Leonard A. Sagan (ed). Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Grosslein, M. D., E. G. Heyerdahl, and H. 'Stemrn, Jr. 1973. Springfield, Ill.: 373-439. Status of the international fisheries off the Middle Atlantic coast. Tech. Ref. Doec. prepared for the bilateral negotia- Riley, Frank. 1974. Personal communication: information on tions of USA with USSR and Poland, May 1973. Natl. domestic commercial fishery landings 1971-1973. National Marine Fish. Serv., 'N.E. Fish. Center, Lab. Ref. No. Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Mass. 73-4:117 p. (xerox). Schaaf, W. E. and G. R. Huntsman. 1972. Effects of fishing iamons, Frank L., Jr. 1973. Survey indicates threefold in- on the Atlantic menhaden stock: 1955-1969. Trans. Am. crease in clamming areas for 1974 season. Comm. Fish. Fish. Soc. 101(2):290-297. News, Md. Dept. Nat. Resources 6(6) :1-2. -'dderV: 1~1 -.-"5 . .'~c : : 'll. Vo1 .23 '.r 81 eyear Slobodkin, L. B. 1973. Summary and discussion of the sym- Hodder, V. M. 1975. Statistical Bull. Vol. 23 for the year posium. In: Fish Stocks and Recruitment. B. B. Parrish 1973. Internatl. Comm. Northwest Atl. Fish., Dartmouth, (ed). Cons. Int. Expl. Mer, Rapp. Proc.-Verb., 164:7-14. Canada: 277 p. and earlier reports in this series since 1966. Waldichuk, Michael. 1974. Coastal marine pollution and Jensen, Albert C. 1974. Managing shellfish resources under fish. Elsevier Pub. Co., Ocean Management 2(1) :1-60. increasing pollution loads. Proc. Gulf & Caribb. Fish. Inst., 26th Ann. Sess., Oct. 1973: 173-180. Wheeland, Hoyt A. 1973. Fishery Statistics of the United States 1970. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Natl. Marine Jensen, Albert C. 1974. New York's fisheries for scup, summer Fish. Serv., Stat. Dig. 64:489 p. and earlier reports in this flounder and black sea bass. N.Y. Fish & Game J. 21(2):126- series by various authors in various predecessor agencies 134. back to 1880. OUR ESTUARIES AND COMMERCIAL FISHING TRENDS GORDON C. BROADHEAD Living Marine Resources, Inc. San Diego, California ABSTRACT The estuarine habitat of fish and shellfish is eroded by both natural and man-caused environ- mental changes. Shrimp and menhaden are discussed principally, noting the effects on them of salinity, temperature, and turbidity. The soft-bottomed embayments peripheral to the estuaries offer preferred living conditions. They are more productive-and more vulnerable-than the open waters of the estuaries. Recommendations are made for preserving these estuarine habitats. INTRODUCTION THE RESOURCES AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT Coastal marshes are among the *ost productive areas of the world, largely because they function as Shrimp nutrient traps, occupy stable areas which are shel- tered from destructive wave actiqn and are nearly There are three commercially important species of free of desiccation hazards. Nourishment is supplied shrimp in the gulf and south Atlantic areas: the by freshwater rivers and streams carrying loads of brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus; the white shrimp, rich silt. At the same time, highly dependable tidal P. setiferus; and the pink shrimp, P. duorarum. Two currents remove undesirable wastes and bring in lesser important species are the seabob, Xepho- larvae and oxygen-rich waters. Because of these penaeus kroyeri and the royal red shrimp, Hymen characteristics, our coastal estuaries suppqrt a great openaeus robustus. variety and abundance of organisms. Perhaps even During 1973, the gulf and south Atlantic landings more important is that estuarine areas function as of penaeid shrimp were 207 million pounds, valued nurseries for a great many fish and other marine at $499 million to the fishermen. animals-including many commercial species-which Adult penaied shrimp spawn offshore. The eggs spend most of their adult lives in deeper, offshore hatch within hours and the nauplii become part of waters. the zooplankton. Within three to five weeks the During 1973, the United States landings of sea- young shrimp enter the bays and estuaries as post- food items totaled 4.7 billion pounds, valued at just larvae and there they grow rapidly, moving seaward over $900 million to the fishermen. Many of the and into the commercial fisheries within months. important species of commercially important fish In the estuaries, shrimp form part of the mobile and shellfish depend significantly upon estuarine benthos. Brown and white shrimp prefer soft muddy environment during at least a portion of their life substrate, while pink shrimp prefer the firmer sandy cycle. Various authors have estimated that about bottoms. The species are omnivorous, eating plants, two-thirds of our total commercial fish harvest is animals and organic and inorganic detritus. Penaeid made up of estuarine-dependent species. The list is shrimp are essentially an annual crop with only a lengthy and, therefore, I am confining my examples small percentage of individuals surviving more than to two important fisheries, penaeid shrimp and one year. A number of factors influence the occurrence and menhaden, which each supportt commercial operated success of spawning and the subsequent growth and tions along the east and gulf coasts of the United survival of the young shrimp. Unseasonally low Statos. Each of these resources has residernce in temperatures which occur following spawning are a estuarine areas during portions of their life history, significant factor in the survival of metamorphosing and are thus exposed to the potentially detrimental shrimp and postlarval shrimp in the estuarine nur- effects of estuarine degradation. sery areas. 171 172 ESTUARINE P6LLUTION CONTROL Salinity appears to be"'a d6minaht factor' in the there are considerable volumes of 3-, 4- and 5-year' distribution and growth of brown shrimp in the old fish in certain years. estuarine systems. Rainfall is the primary factor Menhaden are euryhaline. The adults spawn off- which influences bay and upper estuarine salinities. shore during the fall and winter and the larvae, Runoff is the major factor influencing salinities in migrate inshore and live in the estuaries for'five to the lower estuaries. Barrett and Gillespie (1973) 10 months, at which time they return to the offshore showed that years of above average discharge of the waters for further growth, followed by sexual matu- Mississippi River have been associated with poor rity and spawning. Their early life history pattern is production years for brown and white shrimp, while remarkably similar to that of, the penaeid shrimp. below average discharges re'sulted in good produc- Reintjes (1970) noted "menhaden are an im- tion years for the species. They noted that rainfall," portant component in an estuary. After they trans- combined with river wvater, may dilute estuarine form from the slender:. transparent larvae to juve- and near-shore salinities to' below the tolerance niles, they become filter feeders. They swim about' limits for penaeid shrimp arid, therefore, substan- in schools, usually with their mouths gaping open, tially limit available optimum nursery areas. Other to filter the small planktonic animals and plants from environmental factors such as turbidity, unseasonal the water. They have a complex gill apparatus that meteorological conditions and pollution may affect forms a basketlike sieve that removes all but the shrimp populations. smaller particles from the water. As the bulk of the No definitive' stdies have been conducted' which organisms eat algae or the remains of higher plants, relate the effects of turbidity to shrimp abundance menhaden are principally herbivores. Menhaden are and distribution. However,' casual observations by one of the few fishes (mullet is another) that.live by several authors suggest that bays and coastal areas grazing on the plants in the estuaries. They are at which are turbid produce the greatest concentrations one of the lowest trophic levels near the bottom of of shrimp. Ingle (1952) and Viosca (1958, cited the food chain and provide food, in turn, for nearly in Mackin, 1961) have both mentioned the fact all the carnivores that are large enough to eat them. that shrimp are apparently attracted to the turbid This then forms both sides of the coin: The role of waters near shell dredges in Louisiana and Alabama. estuaries in the life cycle of menhaden and the role' Kutkuhn (1966) felt that turbid estuaries and bayrs of menhaden in the ecology of estuaries." provided shrimp with both a supply of nutritive Reintjes and Pacheco (1966) discussed physical, detritus and protection from predation. Lindner and chemical and biological factors affecting the survival Bailey (1969) established a qualitative relationship and growth of young.menhaden. Mass mortalities between turbid plumes and shrimp in the Gulf of have been attributed to sudden temperaturechanges, Mexico using Gemini spacecraft photography and low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, very high commercial catch statistics for the brown shrimp in salinities. and toxic pollutants. the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Their conclusions Gunter and Christmas (1960) noted that surface were conjectural because of the lack of "ground- temperatures of coastal waters are a major factor truth" data on the fishing grounds. in' the migration patterns of. menhaden. Harper Mock (1966) noted that the abundance of small (1973) stated that menhaden indicated a preference white and brown shrimp was substantially greater for- clear water. However. Tagatz and Wilkens along a natural coastline than along an adjacent (1973) found that more juvenile menhaden were area altered by bulkheading. caught in clear water estuaries at night than during the day while there was no such diurnal difference in turbid waters. They suggest that the turbid waters offer the young menhaden protection against preda- tion. Kroger and Guthrie (1972.),found indications The United States landings of menhaden are com- tion Kroger and Guthrie (1972) foued indicatio prised of four species: Brevoortia tyrannus and B. of higher ater estuaries tn in turbid areas. smithi on the Atlantic coast and B. patronus, B. n clear water et al (193) and Maughn anturbi d armel- Kemmerer et al. (1973)a~nd Maughn and Marmel- quentri and B. smithi in the Gulf of Mexico. B. stein (1974) established aualtatve correlaton tyrannus dominate the catches in the Atlantic and between turbid plumes in the shallow Mississippi B. palronus in the gulf. During 1973, menhaden between turbid plumes in the shallow Mississippi B. patronus in the gulf. During 1973, menhaden landings for the Atlantic and gulf coasts totalled Sound observed from the ERTS-1 satellite and the 1.9 billion pounds, valued at $73 million. commercial catch .of menhaden. :Surface salinity, Commercial landings of menhaden irn the Gulf of temperature, 'and chlorophyll were also correlated Mexico are largely 1- and 2-year-old fish. These with the manhaden catches made in turbid water. ages also dominate in the Atlantic landings, although The cause of the apparent correlation was riot FIsHERIEus 1783 determined. However, the relationship is a well- nursery grounds in the Sabine Lake area was reduced known phenomenon that is utilized extensively by during late 1966 and 1967 during the filling of the the fishermen and their spotter aircraft pilots in reservoir. During the 5-year period following the locating schools of menhaden. closure -of the dam, river discharge as measured at Spotter pilots report that schools of menhaden Ruliff, Tex., was one-third lower than an earlier are capable of creating turbid clouds ("dragging 5-year period, 1955-1959, prior to closure. In addi- mud") as they pass over muddy bottoms. The fact tion, the seasonal pattern of runoff was altered sub- that these clouds appear in water as deep as 100 feet stantially with the peak period occurring in April as well as in shallow water, suggests that this rather than May. The discharge data and catch behavior may be either a feeding. response or a information are shown in Figure 1. Shrimp catches protective measure (Lichtenheld, 1970). Thus, in from Calcasieu Lake, an adjacent estuary not under the' shallow area of the Mississippi Sound, men- the influence of the Sabine drainage, are included for haden schools could have been responsible for the comparative purposes. There, the shrimp production turbid plumes observed by Maughn and Marelstein.. has been maintained while the Sabine Lake produc- tion has fallen.to near zero. The Estuaries j Such relationships are extremely difficult to isolate and verify on a real time basis. The measurement of The destruction of estuarine zone wetlands as a the abundance of commercial species of fish and result of natural processes and the activities of man shellfish is, at best, a very crude science. is a continuing and serious problem. Except for a Measures of apparent abundance are always in- few estuaries in Alaska, every one of the nation's direct. That is, an index of commercial fishing vessel estuaries has been modified by man. TWenty-three success, adjusted for seasonality and standardized percent have been severely modified, 50 percent for vessel efficiency, becomes the standard for year- moderately modified and 27 percent slightly modified. "The National Estuary Study," carried out by. the X, United States Department of the Interior, concluded oo / Mean Five Years that the destruction of estuaries is proceeding at a . 40. 1955 rate that will spell their end within a few decades, 300 . � .. The most severe adverse environmental impact r 0 to estuaries has resulted from sewage pollution, i.a F. a 66-'7 dredging and filling to create land, channel dredging 1W l for navigation, industrial wastes, and ditching and o draining wetlands. Additionally, there is river im- poundment and flow control, pesticide pollution, solid waste disposal, seawalls, dike and levee con- . struction to prevent flooding, mining and oil pollu- 1,400 - tion. Chapman (1972) noted that for the south Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf'of Mexico estuarine ,200. regions, about 50 percent of the area has been , moderately impacted and in the-gulf, 34 percent has 09 ' been seriously impacted. Important legislative steps Lake have-been taken in recent years to halt this irrevers- 0 m ible trend.00 S PROBLEMS IN DETECTION OF O F/ ADVERSE EFFECTS Despite documented degradation of the estuaries, 400 - there are few examples where changes in the overall \ productivity of shrimpa&nd menhaden can be related 200 directly to these environmental changes. One case may-be the sharp decline in,the shrimp production-of .a bine Lake Sabine Lake, Tex.A, concurrent with the completion 196 197 of the Toledo Bend Dam on the Sabine River. A substantial portion of the runoff to the shrimp FIGUovaRE 1.-i-River discharge and shrimp production. 174 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 110 - 100.- BroWn 90- 44 0 70- o 60 - m 50 - 'K /. 0 .1 i n..~ .. to eccildvain, sne15, "of hndvda ,-I ~~~~~~~o 30- ,% % .i W h ..lite 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0- 2o- /60 /| 10- 0 er I I Ihi t o i I I i o c 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 FIGURE 2.-Landings of brown an d white shrimp, Gulf of Mexico ports, 1957-74. to-year comparisons. However, the abundance of portant points are illustrated. First, there is a good marine fish and shellfish population s are influenced long-term correlation between the amount of fishing by a complex of facto rs: effort and the resulting catch. Second, there appear to be cyclical deviations, since 1956, of the individual * Broad nat ural changes in marine climatology. years about this average relationship. These fiuctua- * S hort-term variations in s pawning and survival ticnon s are about eight years' duration and are of young due to changes in ocean and estuarine con- ditions. � Commercial fishing operations. ESTIMATED AVEHAGEMAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (ST) GULF MENHADEN PURSE SEINE FISHERY * Manmade changes in estuarine habitat. 700- / / National Mar ine Fishe ries Service maintains long- 6oo 00 /0I t erm hist orical series on catch, effort and apparent i6 abu ndance for gulf menhaden and shrimp fisheries. no- _ / / (47,0o TONS) u _ -ig2 35 I ' Changes in overall shrimp production levels are 7 3 1' complex to analyze, as there are three principal ' /",4 species, taken by thousands of vessels, on a number j 90o of fishing grounds. Figure 2 depicts the historic i,, catches of brown and white shrimp along the gulf U coast since 1957. The 19-year trend in production is I .4 [460,000 UNITS) upward. However, substantial year-to-year fiuctua- t tions make it difficult to detect. any real change in the average level of productivity until long after 7 � : o Doo 2oo 300 40 Soo o such a change has occurred. EFFOR [THOUSANDS Of VESSEL TON-WEEKS) The most recent data for menhaden is shown in Figure 3 (from Anonymous, 1974). Several im- FIGURE 3 FISHERIEx S 175 probably the result of changes in ocean and estuarine flatly that the shallow, turbid, soft-bottomed em- climate on the spawning and survival of the very bayments in the interior of marsh areas around the young menhaden. The extreme values (1957, 1958, periphery of the estuaries are the preferred habitats 1961, 1962, 1967 and 1971) exhibit an average of many important migrating marine animals. These deviation of 35 percent from the line of best fit. Thus, areas are much more productive per unit area than the trend in population abundance after the 1968 the open waters of the bays and estuaries. They season suggests that the definite downtrend in represent about 30 percent of the total of 26 million catches since 1961 was signaling overfishing or acres of estuarine waters in the United States. detrimental effects of habitat degradation or a com- These shallow areas, mostly less than six feet in bination of both. However, the following year, depth, are the most vulnerable to man's activity. catches began to increase again and peaked in 1971. Fishery dollar values per acre of nursery ground With much the same level of effort, catches have must be computed and adjusted for their renewability been substantially lower in the 1971-1974 period. and for their direct and indirect impact upon our Is the present decline part of the cycle or is the economy. Commercial values must consider not only decline signaling problems with the population? the initial revenue to the fishing vessels (the tradi- Obviously, we will not be able to say until four or tional repbrting method) but also the ripple economic five more years of information have been added to impact upon the broad supporting infrastructure of the data base. the industry. Economists project that each dollar of The instability of marine populations has been primary industry income results in fivefold impact noted by Longhurst et al. (1972). They emphasize on our nation's economy. A dollar of landed catch the difficulties in sorting out and identifying the value is divided among fishermen, shipyards, equip- myriad of factors affecting marine fish populations. ment and machinery suppliers, fuel dealers, provi- They also demonstrate that these changes can only sioners, the insurance industry, the financial com- be revealed and measured by deliberately mounted munity, and many other smaller support elements. and well-sustained monitoring programs. They note Sport-fishing and recreational values are more dif- a real lack of understanding that pollution monitor- ficult to compute and compare with commercial ing schemes, in the ocean, can succeed only if the values which are primary in nature. They are large, natural effects of the changing physical environment nevertheless, and the dollar impact (discounting the are both monitored and understood on a continuing aesthetic values) is at least equal to that of the basis. Natural fluctuations are often incorrectly commercial industry. ascribed to the effects of pollution; conversely, the Tihansky and Meade (1974) provide an excellent effects of a modified environment frequently pass review of the problems associated with measurement undetected in the system. of the economic values of estuaries to United States Erosion of habitat on a broad scale is gradual in commercial fisheries. nature and thus direct effects upon populations of The placing of a real fishery value, per acre, on the commercial species of fish and shellfish are almost critical shallow estuarine areas, is not an easy task impossible to detect on a real time basis, amid the but it should and can be done on a region-by-region noise of short-term variability and long-term effects basis, utilizing currently available information. A of fishing pressure and climatic change. Thus, we research team of fishery biologists and marine econo- may be faced with the fact that these habitat mists, with practical business orientation, could modifications are completed and nonreversible by expect wide-scale fishing industry cooperation, both the time we can measure and document specific commercial and sport, in such an endeavor. The relationships for important species. results would provide agencies, legislature, and in- dustry with a sound basis for decisions with respect to estuarine zone usage where conflicts of interest WHAT SHOULD WE DO arise. It is obvious that major research studies designed to document the direct relationship between estu- REFERENCES arine habitat degradation and the deterioration of our major fisheries for shrimp, menhaden and other Anonymous. 1974. A Discussion Paper on the Current Status of the Gulf Menhaden Fishery and Some Resource Manage- commercially important species will not be too ment Issues. Report to Gulf States Mar. Fish. Comm. by useful in preventing these losses, but will prove NMFS Atlantic Estuarine Fisheries Center. largely an interesting historical documentation for laterg an inesigstraldouetysis. fBarrett, B. B., and M. C. Gillespie. 1973. Primary Factors Which Influence Commercial Shrimp Production in Coastal What is required is an approach which states Louisiana. Tech. Bull. No. 9., La. Wildl. and Fish. Comm. 176 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Chapman, Charles R. 1972. The Impact on Estuaries and Related to Turbid Water Photographed from Space. U:S. Marshes of Modifying Tributary Runoff. Proceedings Fish Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull: Vol. 67, No. 2. p. 289-293. Second Symposium 1972. Coastal Marsh and Estuary Management. LSU Division of Continuing Education, Longhurst, Alan, Michael Colebrook, John Gulland, Robin Baton Rouge, Louisiana. p. 235-258. Le Brasseur, Carl Lorenzen, Paul Smith. 1972. The In- stability of Ocean Populations. New Scientist, 1 June, 1972. Gunter, G., and J. Y. Christmas. 1960. A Review of Literature on Menhaden with Special Reference to the Gulf of Mexico Mackin, John G. 1961. Canal Dredging and Silting in Louisiana Menhaden, Brevoortia patronus Goode. U.S. Fish Wildl. Bays. In: Publications of the Institute of Marine Science, Serv., Spec. Sci. Report Fish. 363. Univ. Texas, Port Aransas, Tex. Vol. 7. p. 262-314. Harper, D. E., Jr. 1973. Effects of Siltation and Turbidity on Maughn, Paul M., and Allan Marmelstein. 1974. Application the Benthos and Nekton, In: Texas A & M Research of ERTS-1 Data to the Harvest Model of the United States Foundation, Environmental Impact Assessment of Shell Menhaden Fishery. For: Goddard Space Flight Center, Dredging in San Antonio Bay, Tex., Vol. 5, Appendix D5. Greenbelt, Md. p. 1-49. Ingle, Robert M. 1952. Studies on the Effect of Dredging Mock, Cornelius R. 1966. Natural and Altered Estuarine Operations Upon Fish and Shelfish, Technical Series No. 5, Habitats of Panaeid Shrimp. Proc. of the Gulf and Carib- October, 1952. State of Florida Board of Conservation, the bean Fisheries Institute, 19th Annual Session. p. 86-98. Division of Oyster Culture, Tallahassee, Fla. Reintjes, John W. 1970. The Gulf Menhaden and Our Kemmerer, Andrew J., Joseph A. Benigno, Gladys B. Reese Changing Estuaries. Proc. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries and Frederick C. Minkler. 1973. Summary of Selected Institute, 22nd Annual Session. p. 87-89. Early Results from The ERTS-1 Menhaden Experiment. Fishery Bulletin Vol. 72, No. 2, 1974, p. 375-389. Reintjes, John W., and A. L. Pacheco. 1966. The Relation of Menhaden to Estuaries. In: R. F. Smith, A. H. Swartz Kroger, Richard L. and James F. Guthrie. 1972. Effect of and W. H. Massmann (editors), A Symposium on the Predators on Juvenile Menhaden in Clear and Turbid Estuarine Fisheries, p. 50-58. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub. 3. Estuaries. Marine Fisheries Review, Nov.-Dec., 1972. Vol. 34, Nos. 11-12. p. 79-80. Tagatz, Marlin E and E. Peter H. Wilkens. 1973. Seasonal Occurrence of toung Gulf Menhaden and Other Fishes Kutkuhn, Joseph H. 1966. The Role of Estuaries in thestern Florida Estuary. NOAA Tech. Rep. Development and Perpetuation of Commercial Shrimp RF 672. Resources. A Symposium of Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries Society Special Pub]. No. 3; p. 16-36. Tihansky, D. P., and N. F. Meade. 1974. Estimating the Economic Value of Estuaries to United States Commercial Lichtenheld, Richard W. 1970. Schooling and Migratory Fisheries. Manuscript. Behavior. U.S. Fish, Wildl. Serv. Circ. 350. p. 26-29. rViosca, Percy, Jr. 1958. Report of the Seafood Section, Oysters, Water Bottoms and Seafood Division, Seventh Lindner, Milton J., and James S. Bailey. 1969. Distribution Biennial Report. Wildl. and Fish. Comm. 1956-1957, p. of Brown Shrimp (Penaeus aztecus aztecus IVES) as 96-106. LIMITING FACTORS ': AFFECTING .THE . COMMERCIAL FISHERIES IN THE GULF: OF" MEXICO SEWELL H. HOPKINS SAM R. PETROCELLI - Texas A&M University College Station, Texas ABSTRACT . . The gulf coast, with 13 percent of the U.S. coastline producing one-third of the Nation's fisheries catch, is enriched by the Mississippi and many smaller rivers. The same river water that brings in food and fertility also brings pollutants from cities, industries and agricultural areas. So. far, this pollution has not provably affected the commercial fisheries, except that closure of some bay areas by health authorities has hurt the oyster fishery. But over 95 percent of gulf fisheries production is based on species'that depend on estuarine nursery areas and are therefore vulner- able to pollution and other man-made changes in estuaries. Fish kills and decreased reproduction in some areas warn of what could happen if conditions get worse. Research is needed on the costs as well as the benefits of man's activities, including pollution and pollution control, as population increases. DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST ini rainy weather and by salty water during high OF THE GULF'OF MEXICO tide periods. Also, estuarine waters do not end at Inshore Waters and Estuaries the "passes" (bay mouths), but continue into the Inshore Waters and Estuaries- . . . gulf for variable distances. St. Amant (1973) esti- mated the gulf coast estuarine area, including only Some 1,000 miles of the gulf coast has an excess areas with water of salinity 5 parts per thousand of precipitation over evaporation, and all of the o gf precipitation overs evaporation, and all of the (ppt) or higher, at 7.84 million acres (12,250 square nearshore gulf waters are strongly diluted by fresh miles). Chapman (1973) gave a figure of 12.4 million water from floods or heavy local rains. All gulf coast acres (19,375 square miles). Gunter (1967) counted rivers together flow into the gulf at the average 33 "bay systems and sounds" averaging about 550 rate of approximately 829,000 cubic feet per second square miles, or a total of 18,150 square miles, but or roughly 600,000,000 acre-feet of fresh water annu- pointed out that the actual area of estuarine waters ally. Approximately 80 percent of this flows into normally includes parts of the gulf that have low the gulf on the Louisiana coast. Alabama contributes salinities, and varies according to season and weather 8.3 percent, Florida 6 percent, Texas 4.4 percent, conditions from 17,000 to 20,000 square miles (10.88 and Mississippi 1.3 percent of the fresh water enter- to 12.80 million acres). (See Fig. 1.) ing the northern Gulf of Mexico. The northern gulf is dominated by the Mississippi River, which flows into the gulf at the average rate Commercial Fisheries of 620,000 cubic feet per second. The river water of the Gulf States brings with it large quantities of dissolved nutrients, suspended organic matter, and nutrients absorbed Although it makes up only 13 percent of the total on clay and silt particles, so that there is a broad coastline of the United States, the gulf coast in 1972 area (over 400 miles) of enriched estuarine water produced 32 percent of the total U.S. fisheries catch, surrounding the mouth of the Mississippi. Gunter based on value, and 34 percent of the volume. In (1963, 1967) called this the "Fertile Fisheries Cres- 1973, gulf coast fishermen landed 1,229 million cent" and pointed out that 21 percent of the total pounds of marine and estuarine fish worth $63 fisheries catch of the United States was landed million, and 246 million pounds of salt water shellfish within this area. The percentage is higher now. worth $170 million. The total value of gulf fisheries Estuarine waters on the gulf coast include large landings was $223 million in 1972 and $233 million areas of low marsh that are flooded by fresh water in 1973, based on prices paid fishermen at the dock. 177 I~~~~~~~~~I. W-840 I.LOW TO11YRED LOW 1% * O OITDIIT a LOW II. INTERMEDIATE II EARIRMENOS-SAND-SILT-LASN 1 EK MI T S M CLAYS 6.ITEMDIT WPOwI MMOOIMATES IV EP5fIllTRIEOS-SWSO VMIXED VLECITHITRP RO0b4TIV1tMIXED VI INFAA AND OSTER REEFS V XI IMIAL PELEGYPOD ANDI OYSER RESVI MIXEDEIAWItM P~~~~P E A 7I *15'G-40'r, )I. VERY ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ILOWO~ V BOTH VPNDN. 12*-Sa V napOSIT .5.3%VI.~ I-AU VI PL~ ENIAI.JNOW PELAGIC REALM H. HIGH (3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CALCAREOUS SAWOS ANDO DESCI~PTION KEY - ---COASTAL PLARI - ZO. CONTOGH I. CLIMATE I... >SW ~~~~~~~~~~MOSTURIE (RINCES OF -RAINFALL) Sl,21 357 TEMPMTURE M0 35%. - 37 ~~~~~~~~SALINTY111W 11 HIGH INVENETEMATE POPIJIATINSI IHIGH : DIVERSITY (SPEWFS) IICALCAREOUS -SANDS (SOME MUDS) NUISSER OF UIAL/ IV SUSPENSION In PREDOMINANT SEDIMENT VLAKOIC IV PKDDMPV4 FEREBI TYPE VI EPIFAUNAL REEFS OF INVERTEBRATES V. RIVERTEMATE DE'EWLOPMET TYPE 'A. COMMUNITY TYPE CLIMATE - ~ SEDIMENT TYPE FAUNA__ FIGURE 1.-Ecological chart: Gulf of Mexico (from Parker, 1974. Elsevier),, FISHERIES 179 (Of course the wholesale value was higher, and the waters. The commercial fisheries can be maintained value of processed fishery products was much higher; only by keeping the nursery areas productive. retail value is roughly three times dock value.) Gunter (1967) and others have pointed out that Several features of the gulf coast commercial catch most of the gulf commercial catch is made close are worth noting here. inshore (inside the 12-mile limit, or within sight of (1) It is dominated by the shellfisheries, and espe- shore), in waters that can be considered estuarine cially by shrimp, crabs and oysters, usually worth since they are affected by the fresh water and tur- three to four times more than the much greater bidity from rivers. For instance, the menhaden fish- volume of finfish. ery, the most important commercial fishery in the (2) The finfish volume is dominated by menhaden. gulf by volume of catch, is conducted entirely in This industrial fish, which is processed to produce estuarine waters of the gulf, according to Gunter oil, fish meal and solubles worth ultimately many (citing Christmas, Gunter and Whatley, 1960); times the original value of the catch, is the number catches are made in salinities from 6 to 32 ppt one fish of the United States in volume and among (compared to 34-36 ppt in the open gulf). Most of the top five in value. Approximately 60 percent of the drums, croakers, sea trouts, flounders, king the U.S. menhaden catch is landed on the gulf coast. whiting, and sheepshead are caught even closer (3) Nearly all of the gulf coast catch, including inshore, or in the bays themselves. practically all of the menhaden, is made within the The shellfishes, by far the most valuable part of waters of the United States, or in international gulf coast commercial fisheries, are even more estu- waters within a few miles of.the U.S. coast. Of the arine than the finfishes. The principal commercial important commercial fishes, only groupers and red species of shrimp (white, pink, and brown) spawn snappers are caught mainly beyond the 12-mile in the gulf, but most of the progeny that survive to limit, and they make up only I percent of the complete the life cycle are those that find their way volume and 2 percent of the value of the total gulf into the estuaries and grow up in the low-salinity coast catch. nursery areas (Venkataramiah, Lakshmi, and Gun- (4) As Gunter (1967) has pointed out, 97.5 per- ter, 1974). Shrimp are worth roughly 10 times as cent of the total commercial fisheries catch of the much as all finfishes combined, excluding menhaden. gulf states is made up of fishes and shellfishes that The second most important crustacean, the blue spend all or part of their lives in estuaries. A few crab, also spawns in the gulf and grows up in the species, such as the commercial oyster, live their estuaries; females return to the gulf (or lower ends entire lives in estuarine waters. of bays) when mature, but most males spend their (5) Because gulf coast commercial fisheries are entire lives in estuarine waters. based on species that are mostly estuary-dependent, The third most important shellfishery is that they are especially 'vulnerable to pollution. The based on the commercial oyster, which spends its fresh water of gulf coast rivers brings in residues entire life cycle in estuarine waters. Oyster produc- of pesticides, defoliants, fertilizers, et cetera, used tion has been hurt more by pollution than any other to produce crops on millions of acres of farmland. fishery. When a bay is closed or condemned because On the way to the gulf the rivers receive discharges of contamination by domestic sewage or industrial from many city sewage systems and industrial wastes, the oyster is the main species affected, and plants, drainage from oil fields and mines, and so it is oyster fishermen and oyster farmers that are forth. So far, these containinants do not seem to hurt (not to mention oyster dealers and consumers). have reached the gulf in concentrations sufficient Other commercial molluscs are of relatively minor to conspicuously harm commercial fisheries, but value on the gulf coast. that seems possible in the future if pollution con- What is the productivity of gulf coast estuarine tinues to increase. waters in pounds of commercial fish and shellfish The typical gulf life cycle involves spawning in or per acre? Depending on whether one accepts the near the gulf, in water of near-oceanic salinity, mi- 12.4 million acres of estuarine water (including gration of the newly hatched juveniles to estuarine gulf waters of lowered salinity) calculated by Chap- waters, then growing up in the shallows where young man (1973) or the 7.84 million acres of St. Amant fish are protected from predators by vegetation, by (1973), the present commercial production is 117 poor visibility due to muddy water, or by salinity or 185 pounds per acre per year. Mullet, croaker, too low for most predacious fishes. These estuarine spot, sea trouts and drums could probably stand shallows are known as nursery areas. Some fishes up under heavier commercial fishing. Present com- leave the bays before becoming mature and others mercial catches of some species are small compared spend all or almost all of their lives in estuarine to mortalities from natural causes, as pointed out 1'80 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL by Simmons and Breuer (1962), and by Gunter in coastal Waterway, according to Simmons (1957) several publications. It seems possible that a cornm-' and Hedgpeth (1967). mercial fisheries production of 200' pounds per acre Low salinity caused-by heavy rains during hurri- per year could be reached and maintained in the canes sometimes kills fish and crustaceans in the gulf cokst estuarine area. " Laguna Madre, where salinity may drop front 50- ' ppt to nearly zero on such occasions. In the more normal estuaries fish, shrimp and blue crabs are not NATURAL FACTORS LIMITING killed by heavy rains or flooding, but are swept GULF COAST FISHERIES downbay by floods and escape into:saltier waters : '.,, by swimming with the current.' Climatic and Physical Conditions -Oysters in normal estuaries are often killed 'by low salinity in all gulf states. The most spectacular Temperature has two important effects on gulf oyster kills on'the gulf coast occur in Mississippi' coast fisheries: the high average temperature ofthe Sound and the waters of the Louisiana marshland water hastens sexual maturity and shortens life of on the eastern side of the Mississippi River delta. some fishes, and the extreme low temperatures of In bad flood years it is necessary to open the Bonnet the shallow bays during northers cause mass mor- Carr6 spillway in order to prevent flooding New tality of fish every few years. Orleans.- Millions of oysters are killed by fresh water Gunter (1950) pointed out that such abundant on these occasions, over an area of many square fishes as the croaker, spot, spadefish, butterfish and miles. Predators and parasites of oysters are also' harvestfish, which are important commercial food killed out. Then the oyster reefs are 'repopulated by fish in the Chesapeake Bay and Middle Atlantic larvae brought in by currents, and the next two or states, seldom reach marketable size on the gulf three years may see unusually large crops of oysters coast. . before the pests become reestablished (Gunter, The most spectacular effect of temperature is the 1952a, b; 1953, 1967). killing of millions of fish by extreme cold spells Although such local freshwater kills seem at the about once per decade in Texas (Gunter, 1941, time to be disasters, in the long run they are bene-' 1945, 1952a, 1956; Simmons, 1957; Breuer, 1962; ficial. The largest and densest populations of oysters Simmons and Breuer, 1962) and in Florida- (Storey develop in these areas that are frequently cleared and Gudger, 1936; Storey, 1937, and others). The of predators, pests and diseases, and not in the areas best documented cold kill, in 1951, was estimated of-higher and more stable salinity, because the same by Texas Game and Fish Commission biologists to waters of near-oceanic salinity that are physiologi- have killed 60 to 90 million pounds, of fish on the cally most favorable to oysters also favor a diversity Texas coast. Simmons and Breuer (1962) stated of marine organisms, many of which are harmful that "Catastrophic freezes occurring about every 10 to oysters years have each destroyed mllore fish than have been For this reason, "salinity intrusion" in estuaries harvested commercially for the past 50 years." Actu- worries oyster biologists. Other fishery biologists allythebaywaterdoesnot freeze, but drops.quickly also worry, fearing that increases in salinity will to about 40C (390F) and remains there for several make the estuarine nursery areas less suitable for days. Observed mortalities have included very few the survival and growth of juvenile fishes and crus- animals other than fish. Fish catches return to nor- taceans (blue crab, shrimp). Gradual increase in mal levels in two or three years. salinity, year by year, occurs when there is rise in Salinity extremes also affect some gulf fisheries sea level, :sinking of land, and erosion of shores, adversely at times. The Lag-una' Madre 'of -Texas making bays and passes wider. All of these processes and Mexico is one of the few places in the world are going on along the gulf coast, but faster in some where hypersalinity becomes so extreme as to cause parts than in others. Local subsidence of land makes mass mortality. Before the Intracoastal Waterway estuaries larger, deeper and saltier. was. dredged through the 120-mile length of' the In southeastern Louisiana the entire coastal area Laguna Madre of Texas, about 1949, this shallow is sinking. New sediments used to be deposited in lagoon, in a region where evaporation is normally the swamps and marshes and along the shores by twice as high as precipitation, often developed salini- the annual floods of the Mississippi River. All dis- ties of over 80 ppt, and sometimes over'l100 -pt tributaries except Atchafalaya River are now cut The mass fish kills that were formerly caused by off by levees, so there -are no longer new deposits extreme hypersalinity have been practically elimi- of sediments (Morgan, 1973). The inevitable result nhated by the improved circulation via the Intra- of reduced freshwater inflow, increased land subsid- ence and erosion, and rising sea level is an increase reported as rare phenomena on the Texas coast. of salinity in the waters of the marshland estuaries. Like the Mobile Bay "Jubilee," red tide outbreaks Consequently, marine animals, including predacious seem to be strictly natural phenomena that prob- fishes that feed on juvenile fishes, crabs and shrimp, ably occurred when America was uninhabited. See and the numerous enemies of oysters, penetrate far- Gunter, Williams, Davis and Smith (1948), Wilson ther and farther into the bays. and Ray (1956), Ray and Wilson (1957), Ingle and There are a few bays on the gulf coast with sandy Martin (1971), Baldridge (1974), Wilson, Ray and shores and bottoms, and clear water. These are less Aldrich (1974), and Steidinger (1973, 1974). productive than the typical gulf coast estuary, which has a mud bottom and highly turbid water rich in nutrients and organic sediments, either from a river Diseases of Fish and Shellfish or from surrounding marshes (Day, Smith, and Hopkinson, 1973; Odum, Zieman and Heald, 1973). All animals have parasites and diseases. Fishes, It is the large area of muddy, low-salinity water crustaceans and molluscs are no exceptions, having that makes the northern gulf so productive of fish the usual diversity of parasitic worms, protozoans, and shellfish. fungi, bacteria and viruses, plus some little crusta- The oyster is the only important gulf coast fisher- cean parasites and parasitic algae. Gulf fishes are ies species that is known to be adversely affected not known to have any disease or parasite that by high turbidity and sedimentation; it is well causes mass mortality or epidemics such as those adapted to turbid waters, but oyster beds are some- that control sea herring in the Atlantic (Sindermann, times killed when buried in sediments. This happens 1970). naturally when floods deposit thick layers of sedi- Oysters have many parasites and diseases, in vari- ment or storms shift the bottoms. It can also be ous parts of the world. The most important parasite caused by nearby dredging operations. on the gulf coast is a fungus, or perhaps several Gulf coast bays are so shallow (most are less than closely related species of fungus, causing a tissue- 10 and some less than 5 feet deep) that they are destroying disease commonly known as "dermo." well aerated by wave action and seldom have pockets This disease starts to kill oysters in spring as soon or layers of water deficient in oxygen. A famous as water temperatures rise above 20�C and continues exception is Mobile Bay. When deoxygenated water to kill them until cool weather lowers water tem- from deeper layers invades the shallows, thousands peratures in autumn (Mackin, 1962). Mortality of fish, crabs and shrimp swim on the surface and is highest in the higher salinities and at the higher concentrate in the shallows along the shoreline. This, temperatures. Annual mortality from this cause phenomenon has been known for at least a century often exceeds 50 percent. This mortality is in addi- as "the Jubilee" (Loesch, 1960). Apparently the tion to the more obvious killing by predators such deoxygenation of the water results from decay of as the stone crab, the blue crab, the boring snail, plant debris occurring naturally on the bottoms, but and several species of fish. All of these agents of organic pollution, if present, could make "jubilees" oyster mortality are most abundant and most active more frequent, more extensive, or more intense. in high salinity, which is the reason oysters survive better in the low salinities. Oystermen therefore fear "salinity intrusion" and oppose engineering ac- Red Tide (Phytoplankton Blooms) tivities that may cause increase in salinity. A mass mortality of fish and shellfish on the southern part of the west coast of Florida occurs MANMADE FACTORS LIMITING at intervals of several years, accompanying an area COMMERCIAL FISHERIES of discolored water. In recent years this has been called "red tide," although the water is not always Man has introduced new factors that limit com- really red. Since 1947 the gulf red tide has been mercial fisheries in gulf estuarine areas. These man- known to be caused by a "bloom" of one particular made factors will be discussed under three headings: dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve. All of the factors engineering activities, pollution, and laws. that must occur together to make this normally scarce organism explode into a population density of millions per liter are not yet known. During a red Engineering Activities tide outbreak millions of fish die and many drift ashore, where they pile up on the beach in windrows Most of the types of human alteration of coastal and decay. Lesser red tide outbreaks have also been environment that are here called "engineering activi- 182 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ties" have been discussed in a report by Cronin, Pollution Gunter and Hopkins (1971). That report also makes recommendations for the kinds of research needed As a result of the increased utilization of the on each of the problems caused by these works of coastal zone for domestic residence, recreation 'and man. Among the engineering activities analyzed in industrial production, the possibility of pollution of the 1971 report are: channel dredging, filling and the environment has increased. The population of spoil disposal, damming and diversion of rivers, the gulf coastal zone has increased about 2 percent levees and spillways, land-cut canals, jetties at per year since 1960; at least a million people have passes between bays and the gulf, hurricane bar- been added during this period. riers, oceanic disposal of dredged materials and Increases in domestic wastes necessitate the con- other wastes, "finger-type" (canal and fill) real struction of sewage treatment plants. Raw sewage estate developments, and various types of wetland released into rivers and eventually into the gulf, modification. partially treated sewage, detergents, phosphates, ni- To us it seems that the changes caused by engi- trates, pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and other neering activities have possibilities of more serious compounds are all discharged into estuaries as "mu- damage to commercial fisheries than other effects nicipal wastes." Many of these compounds are of man's activities, because the changes tend to be directly toxic to commercially important species; permanent and irreversible. Fishery populations some are toxic in combination with others; some soon recover from overfishing if allowed to, and cause excessive nutrient enrichment resulting in an polluted waters return to normal when the pollution abnormal proliferation of certain species, many of is stopped (even long-lasting pesticides and toxic which are considered undesirable by man; and some metals becoming buried in sediments), but when have high biochemical oxygen demands (BOD) re- open bay or marsh is destroyed by a real estate quiring large amounts of oxygen for their breakdown development that replaces vegetated shallows or and producing oxygen-depleted water masses. marshes with stagnant, dead-end, vertical-walled The development of recreational facilities to serve canals, an area of nursery ground is partly taken coastal residents and vacationers presents related out of production for many years (Trent, Pullen problems. More than 2 million visitors vacation on and Moore, 1972). the gulf coast of Florida alone. Certain types of The gulf coast has the most highly developed recreational use place a heavy pollution load on a estuarine and offshore oil fields in North America relatively small area. Marinas, for example, may and perhaps in the world (with some 8 to 10 thou- result in large amounts of gasoline, oils, lead, phenols sand wells in the gulf and thousands more in bays and organic wastes being added to the estuary. Boat and marshes). The engineering activities in coastal use in Florida has more than doubled since 1960. oil field development in Louisiana and Texas involve Industry has long recognized the value of estuaries the dredging of channels, including canals through for waste disposal. Among the industrial wastes marshlands; to develop fields in the marsh and bay which have been introduced into gulf coast estuaries areas. The damage done (especially to oyster beds) are heavy metals, plasticizers including PCBs and by activities of this type is probably more important phthalates, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides (or- than oil spillage. Exploitation of oil fields in the ganochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and gulf, often many miles offshore, is conducted by dioxins), and various other compounds. In most drilling a number of wells from each drilling plat- cases, relatively little is known regarding the toxicity form. If oil or gas is found, pipelines must be laid of these materials to fish and shellfish. Virtually connecting the producing wells with shore installa- nothing is known of the sublethal effects of these tions. Shore installations must be built to receive compounds on chronically exposed organisms. and process petroleum production and to harbor, Agricultural practices may also result in pollution load and unload the vessels used in offshore opera- of the coastal zone through the addition of fertilizers tions. All of this necessarily causes some modifica- and organic wastes. Pesticide usage on agricultural tion of the shore and shallow sea environment. Ex- and livestock producing lands or in the abatement cepting oystermen, gulf commercial fishermen have of insect nuisances in populated areas adjacent to not complained of any losses attributed to oil field estuaries has resulted in contamination of estuarine operations other than damage to trawl nets from organisms, including some commercially important pipes, dropped tools, and other obstructions left on species. the bottom by the oil men. The need for power to supply coastal inhabitants has increased. Power plants require large areas of TRENDS, EFFECTS OF TRENDS, land and large volumes of water for their operation. AND SPECIFIC CASES Many commercially important species, especially OF POLLUTION their larval and jfuvenile fdrms, are trapped and killed on the intake screens of power plants, in their problems along the gulf coast." He mentioned sew- problems along the gulf coast." He mentioned sew- passage through the plant itself or in discharge ills, fish processing ponds or canals where heated water (thermal pollu- age pollution, pulp and paper m tion) and chemicals such as chlorinated walgicides plants, chemical plants, sugar refineries, oil refineries, tion) and chemicals such as chlorinated algicides and so forth, but commented I am happy to y and so forth, but commented "I am happy to say are released (Chesapeake Science, Volume 10, pages that the gulf coast is probably freer from pollution 125-296 (1969); personal observations). More spe- than any other area of the United States coast at cific and detailed information on pollution is pre- present." Gunter stated that Galveston Bay was sented in a later section of this paper. "the only heavily industrialized area on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico," but pointed out that 38 Laws - percent of the sport fishing in Texas was done in the Galveston Bay area, that 36.5 percent of the Texas catch of four common sport fishes was caught In general, two kinds of laws limit commercial in Galveston Bay and its branches, and that this fisheries: public health laws intended to safeguard area still contained some of the best oyster reefs in the health of the consumers of seafood, and conserva- Texas. The conditions in Galveston Bay are nearly tion laws intended to prevent over-exploitation of the same today. Approximately half of the bay area commercial species. has long been closed to shellfishing because of sewage Public health laws include those providing for pollution, yet the remaining half has produced more inspection of shellfish, and the waters in which they oysters annually during the last decade than in any grow, by state sanitation officers. If coliform bac- period prior to 1960, and there is still excellent sport teria (bacteria similar to those in the human intes- fishing in the bay. tine) are found to be too abundant in water or Biglane and Lafleur (1967) revealed the appear- shellfish, or if inspection of the shoreline shows ance of some gulf coast pollution problems not men- possible sources of pollution, a certain estuarine area tioned by Gunter, especially the beginning of fish or an entire bay may be closed, meaning that no kills in Louisiana fresh and coastal waters that were shellfish can legally be taken in that area. Although shown by U.S. Public Health Service scientists to such closures of shellfishing areas are often hard on be caused by insecticides such as endrin. The other local fishermen, in the long run they are beneficial pollution problems they mentioned were attributed to the fishing industry. These laws and their en- to what we have called engineering activities: levee- forcement not only protect consumers, but help ing of the Mississippi River, change of marshland maintain public confidence in the wholesomeness of drainage patterns by dredged channels, and so forth. seafoods. The most obvious effect of pollution is the direct Conservation laws are more controversial. Often mortality in what has been termed "fish kills." they are products of political pressures, and of preju- According to Environmental Protection Agency dices and emotions rather than science. The worst (EPA) statistics, the numbers of reports of fish restrictions on commercial fisheries are those de- kills and the number of fish killed have increased manded by sport fishermen to maintain a monopoly since the survey was begun in June 1960. The num- for themselves. Pressure by sport fishermen has re- ber of fish kill reports increased from 465 in 1969 to sulted in closing Texas' bays to netting for fish. 634 in 1970 and to 860 in 1971. There has also been There is even a movement on foot to outlaw the a general upward trend in estimated numbers of sale in Texas and Louisiana of such marine fishes fish dying in fish kills, at least through 1971 (when as spotted trout and red drum because they are 74 million fish were reported killed). game fishes. As Gunter and other fishery biologists Every one of the Gulf Coast States has experienced significant fish kills which have been attributed to have pointed out, at least some food and game fish agricultural, industrial or domestic wastes. Since agricultural, industrial or domestic wastes. Since populations are probably uriderfished at present, and 1965, either municipal wastes (sewage) or industrial the numbers of fish killed by natural causes (freezes, wastes have been reported as the principal cause of red tides, predators, and old age) may far exceed fish kills in the United States for each year. In 1971 those caught by all sport and commercial fishermen the major identifiable cause of fish kills was reported combined. to be "sewage system wastes" with "pesticides" 184 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL second at about one-half that level (US EPA, 1972). no significant changes in the acreage permanently These data do not exactly pinpoint the problem closed in Texas bays since 1970, but some bays have since municipal sewage contains significant amounts been closed temporarily after floods, as in the spring of petroleum products, metals, pesticides, and other of 1972 (Texas State Department of Health). The industrial materials as well as organic wastes. Louisiana Department of Wild Life and Fisheries Most fish were killed in fresh water from 1965 to (Perret et al., 1971) reported 139,905 acres closed 1969. However, in 1971 there was a decrease in the to shellfishing, and in 1972 additional areas were number of dead fish reported from freshwater bodies temporarily closed after flooding (NOAA-NMFS and a sharp increase in the numbers from :estuarine Louisiana Landings, 1974). Varying acreages of areas for the first time since these statistics were Mississippi bays have been closed in recent years; first compiled (1960). During recent years, a single Biloxi Bay has apparently been permanently lost kill or relatively few accounted for a considerable for oystering (Christmas, 1973). The Alabama Con- percentage of the total kills for that year. Statistics servation Department reported almost 74,000 acres for 1971 reveal 29 million fish killed in 12 incidents permanently closed to shellfishing, with additional in Florida (Escambia Bay) and 16 million in six acreages temporarily closed when floods carried incidents in Texas (Galveston Bay). sewage contamination into other areas (Crance, Three points need to be made here. The first con- 1971; May, 1971). During 12 of the 18 years from cerns the kinds of fish killed. When kills are caused 1952 to 1970, lower Mobile Bay was closed for by sewage pollution, the first fish killed in estuaries taking of shellfish at least part of the year because are likely to be menhaden, which though important coliform bacteria counts exceeded 70 per 100 ml of because of their abundance, are cheap fish (worth water. Each such closing causes economic loss; the four cents a pound in 1973). Second, the numbers of loss in 1969 was estimated to be $500,000. In 1972, fish reported killed on the gulf coast by pollution after floods, Mobile Bay oystering areas remained are less impressive when compared with the 50 to closed 217 days (.NOAA-NMFS Alabama Landings, 90 million pounds (perhaps equal to 200 to 360 1974). McNulty et al. (1972) reported that, on the million fish) killed by a single freeze on the Texas Florida gulf coast 170,698 acres of estuarine areas coast in 1951, or the 500 million fish estimated to were closed for shellfishing. have been killed by a .single red tide outbreak off Any general trend that may exist in the closing of: Florida in 1946-1947 (Gunter, Williams, Davis and estuarine areas to shellfishing on the gulf coast as a Smith, 1948), not to mention the 1.2 to 1.8 billion whole is obscured by the local changes (opening and pounds of fish caught annually by commercial fisher- closing) from year to year or month to month as men and the 400 to 500 million pounds taken by pollution conditions change back and forth. Closures sport fishermen. Third, fish kills are important not were especially harmful to the oyster fishery in 1973 because of the loss of fish, but because they serve because of extensive flooding, but the increased as warnings that the environment is in danger. If production in 1974 tended to compensate for this. the condition that caused the kill is only temporary, Pollution of estuaries, besides causing the closing other fish will quickly replace the ones killed and of fishing areas, also results in the seizure and con- there will be no real loss. If it is persistent, replace- demnation of commercial fisheries products when ment may be prevented, or the replacements may pollutant residue levels or bacterial counts are above be less desirable species. -Massive fish kills impress the tolerances established by the FDA for interstate the general public much more than increases -in shipment. The contamination of estuarine species bacterial counts or metal content of -fish and shell- by various pollutants has been well documented. fish, and are more likely to stimulate action against Residues of the DDTs (including DDT, DDD and degradation of the aquatic environment. DDE), dieldrin, mirex and other organochlorine in- Another demonstration of the effects of pollution secticides have. been detected in oysters, other bi- of the environment on commercial fisheries is the valves, blue crabs, shrimp and fishes collected from closing of estuarine areas to the taking of shellfish. estuaries along the gulf coast (Butler, 1973; Petro- In most cases, closure is ordered by the' state depart- celli et al., 1973, 1975a, 1975b; Childressj 1968, ment of health based on bacteriological criteria. 1971). DDT and PCB residues have been detected These criteria are based on levels determined by the in the tissues of fish, crabs, shrimp and squid col- state, and on levels allowed by. the Food and Drug lected from offshore waters of the. Gulf of Mexico Administration (FDA) for interstate shipment. (Giam et al., 1972). - The largest Texas area permanently. closed to Butler (1973) in a monitoring study during the shellfishing is in the Galveston Bay area, nearly period 1965 to 1972 found that DDT was the most half of which has long been closed There have been common pesticide and dieldrin the second most com- FISmERIES 185 modnin molluscs. The incidence of DDT residues (1965, 1966, 1968, 12971) reported DDT incidence- (the percentage of samples in which DDT or prod- in oysters remaining at about the same level from ucts of its decay could be detected) was 63 percent 1965 to 1967 with a slight decrease from 1967 to and that of dieldrin 15 percent. Butler described a 1968. The incidence of dieldrin residues (the per- general decline in both the number and magnitude centage of oyster samples in which dieldrin residues' of DDT residues in oysters over the 7-year period. could be detected) increased from 1 percent in 1965 The data for the gulf 'coast samples are as follows: to 23 percent in 1967. The incidence of endrin resi- dues increased from .02 percent in 1965 to 1 percent Frequency (%) of residues in 1966-1967 in the oysters sampled by Childress. detected in samples and (The oyster is a good test animal for monitoring u valute f pesticides or metals:in the estuarine environment Date of.l State DDTI Dieldrin survey because it filters huge quantities of water and tends A to accumulate materials in its tissues.) , Texas -- .173%% (1249) 18% (87) 1968-1969 During this study period Breuer (1971, 1972), Texas ---------- 73% (1249) 18% (87) 1965-1972 Florida- - ----- 62% (5390) 7% (28) 1965-1972 reported on the historical and recent abundance of Mississippi - --- 61% (135) 4% (20) 1965-1972 spotted sea trout (Cynoscion nebulosus) -in the lower Louisiana - ----- no data ------ Laguna M!adre. Sea trout juveniles were abundant in 1958-1959 but declined in abundance through Heavy metal residues have also been found in the the 1971 sampling period. In 1969, only 21 juvenile tissues 'of estuarine species, (Saha, 1972; Eisler sea trout were identified in a total of 21,473 marine 1973). According to public health officials, relatively organisms collected. In 1971, fi-ve juveniles and no few seizures or condemnations of commercial fishery adults were captured using the same sampling tech- products due to pesticide or heavy metals contamina- niques. Pesticide residue analysis of juvenile men- tion are made compared with seizures resulting from haden, on which sea trout feed, revealed whole body elevated bacteriological levels. However, as research concentrations of 1.520 ppm of DDT in 1966 and better defines the sublethal effects of these com- 5.180 ppm in 1967 (Breuer, 1971). Ovaries of adult pounds, human tolerance limits, as set by law, may sea trout in the Arroyo Colorado area (lower Laguna be lowered thus increasing the possibilities of com- Madre) contained DDT residues as high as 7.980 mercial fishery products exceeding these levels. As- ppm, dieldrin residues to 0.170 ppm and endrin suming no further input of these compounds into levels of 0.054 ppm (Childress, 1968). Distribution estuaries, this situation would significantly decrease of insecticide residues (ppm) in these fish were: the amount and value of marketable products. Any increases in the levels of pollutant added to estu- DDT Dieldrin Endrin ariS in the future would even further complicate ovaries_ - ---- .. 6.280 0.028 0.017 this problem. brain ... 0.958 * - -:.liver . ______- ..------- 7.560. . UNKNOWN EFFECTS From the data it appears that DDT has had an adverse effect on the reproductive success of the Possibly the most insidious effect of pollution on local sea trout. It should be explained that the the commercial fisheries is one which is the least Arroyo Colorado is a waterway draining part of the understood and is only now being considered on a intensely cultivated farmland and citrus groves in broad level. This is the effect of pollution on the the irrigated area known as "The Valley" in Texas. ability of organisms to reproduce and for their larvae Behaviorally, it- has been reported that some and juveniles to develop normally to mature adults aquatic species are actively attracted or repelled fully capable of successful reproduction. : depending on other interacting parameters by pollut- It has been hypothesized that high concentrations ants such as copper- and petroleum hydrocarbons of DDT in the ovaries of sea trout are responsible (Kleerekoper, et al., 1973; Jacobson and Boylan, for declines in their population through decreased 1973). reproductive success or decreased survival of juve- Still another effect which has recently come to niles on the Texas coast (Butler et al., 1972, Chil- light is the interaction among pollutants and be- dress, 1971). Monitoring of pesticide residues in tween pollutants and natural stresses. Nimmo (pers. oysters (Crassostrea vir ginica) and fish of various comm.) and recent work by Petrocelli (not yet species from bays on the Texas coast began in July published) haveishown that salinity shock, such as 1965 and January 1967, respectively. Childress occurs in the estuary in the course of heavy rainfall 186 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL or river flooding, combined with exposure to sub- tinue to import oil we will have supertanker ports, lethal concentrations of pollutants results in mor- so we should learn more about the ecological effects talities not predictable on the basis of the salinity of petroleum. change or toxicity of the pollutant alone (Petrocelli To look at the bright side, the thousands of oil et al., unpublished data; Anderson et al., 1974; wells now producing in the gulf and in gulf coast Roesijadi et al., 1974). In some cases, this effect bays have not caused any decline in commercial can be attributed to changes in the physiological fisheries production. Louisiana, which has most of response of the animals to these stresses. For exam- the oil wells, has had its largest production of shrimp pie, shrimp exposed to heavy metals or PCBs and and menhaden during the years when gulf oil fields salinity shocked have been shown to be less efficient were developing. (Of course we all know this was a than controls in the regulation of blood chloride mere coincidence, but would we have known this if ion levels to compensate for these Change,. Over- catches had declined during that period?) Oyster street (1974) described a kill of estuarine fishes, production has suffered, mainly from damage done mainly mullets, in Mississippi, which was apparently by-channel dredging and other engineering activities caused by interaction between low salinity and low and from loss of sales when oysters taste oily (as temperature, possibljy complicated by pesticide con- they do occasionally). The Louisiana experience tents somewhat higher than in surviving mullets. shows that the petroleum and fishery industries can Interaction has also been observed in the case of coexist, even though not in perfect harmony. Earlier other physiological factors. For example, crustaceans studies on oysters in oil fields are summarized by during molting are much more susceptible to pollut- Mackin and Hopkins '(1962), and more recent re- ants than are the same animals during the intermolt ports on ecological effects of oil are reviewed by stages (Petrocelli et al., 1974, unpublished data). Moore, Dwyer and Katz (1973) and by Mackin In other studies, sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon (1973). See also Anderson, Neff, Cox, Tatem and variegatus) juveniles chronically exposed (63 days) Hightower (1974) and other reports by Anderson, to sublethal concentrations of mercury (1.0 ppb) Neff and colleagues, still in press but available as were observed to have a respiratory rate which was reprints. significantly lower than that of control fish (Petfo- celli et al., 1974, unpublished data). The biological effects of petroleum and its prod- NEEDED RESEARCH AND FUNDING ucts are still largely unknown; in spite of all the literature. The problems are complex because the There appears to be a great deal of "fad" research hundreds of crude oils are complex, each containing being conducted. Particular pollutants are picked hundreds of compounds, and refining adds many up, some papers published and then work begun on more. Crude and refined oils change upon exposure other compounds before definitive research has been to air and water, in different ways under different completed. Recent examples of this include DDTs, conditions. Though difficult, the many problems in- then other organochlorine pesticides, metals, organo- volved in the biological effects of petroleum products phosphates, PCBs, petroleum hydrocarbons, plas- should be studied by more laboratories. Atlantic ticizers such as phthalates, et cetera. National coast oil fields will soon be added to those in the priorities should be determined in workshops which gulf and Pacific. More important, we will soon have include ecologists, physiologists, and analytical chem- supertanker ports with possibilities for much greater ists who are interested in working with environmen- oil spills than have ever occurred up to now. tal pollution problems. These priorities should then The famous Santa Barbara oil loss was estimated be' implemented through research grants or con- at 3 million gallons (Holmes, 1969). The largest of tracts. A central clearing office should be established the four big oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico fields to coordinate tho whole effort, to insure adherence was about .5 million. According to a 1974 report of to overall goals and to prevent the current wasteful the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, all oil losses and unnecessary duplication of work funded by the of 50 barrels or more in gulf fields during the 10-year various goverpmental agencies. period beginning 1964 add up to 320,000 -barrels Funding should be on a minimum of a two year (13.4 million gallons) out of 2.9 billion barrels pro- basis so that time and efforts will not be wasted in duced. But these figures are dwarfed by the esti- unnecessary proposal and report writing or in switch- mated 90,000-100,000 tons (27 to 30 million gallons) ing projects to obtain continued funding. Progress of crude oil spilled into the English Channel by the should be reviewed periodically (every six months), "Torrey Canyon" (Smith, 1970), which was smaller unproductive programs dropped, and program gaps than the new supertankers. Nevertheless, if we con- filled by addition of new programs. FISHERIES 187 With regard to directions for research, it would be The same river water brings in the huge quantities helpful to study sublethal as well as lethal effects of food, in the form of dissolved and suspended or- of pollutants on physiological responses. It is the 'ganic substances, that enable the northern gulf to physiological responses that determine survival in produce 32 percent of the U.S. commercial fisheries the environment (as opposed to the laboratory), production on 13 percent of the coast. The number get the animal to its spawning grounds, determine of species is held down by the extremes of tempera- the success of mating and egg-laying, and so forth. ture and salinity, the high turbidity close to shore, Survival in the laboratory does not necessarily mean and the frequent kills of marine species from natural that survival in nature is probable. For the same causes: freezes, floods, red tides, et cetera. Dense reason, effects of manmade factors on biochemical populations of a few species are essential for good composition and activity, microscopic structure of commercial fishing. Most gulf species are prolific tissues and cells, and other indicators of health of and have short life cycles-i1, 2, 3 or 4 years from estuarine animals should be studied. Ability to repro- reproduction to reproduction so that losses from duce and success of larval and juvenile stages in natural disasters or from heavy fishing pressure are surviving, growing and developing, obviously should soon made up. be included in any study of lethal and sublethal Unfortunately, the same river water that reduces effects. Toxicity studies should include tests. on salinity and contributes food also brings in manmade animals at various stages of development, not just pollutants, both microbial and chemical. Man fur- adults. Multifactor interactions (effects of various ther endangers the fisheries by engineering activi- combinations of pollutants, salinity and tempera- ties-leveeing, dredging and filling, damming and ture, for instance) should be more enlightening than diverting streams, and so forth. Gulf coast fisheries studies of effects of single factors. To get still closer are especially vulnerable to such manmade changes to the complex situations found in nature, field ex- because most of the catch is made within 12 miles periments (for instance, holding animals at various of the shore, and over 95 percent of it consists of distances from a suspected toxic source, in pens or species that depend on estuarine nursery areas. cages) are often useful; The object of all such studies Destrtiction or poisoning of nursery areas could is to find out what happens to the organisms in destroy most of the gulf coast commercial fisheries. nature. In order to do this properly, field surveys So far, these fisheries have not been perceptibly and catch statistics, field experiments, and labora- hurt, excepting the oyster which is confined to estu- tory experiments are all needed, and should prefer- aries. The damage to the oyster fishery has been ably all be done by one coordinated team. mainly from engineering works, from oil contamina- Funding should be on the order of at least $100,000 tion occasionally making oysters in a small area per year for a moderately ambitious research project unsalable for a few weeks or months, and from at a major university. This level would allow part- closure of bay areas by health authorities because time salary for the principal investigator, salaries of sewage pollution. for about four graduate research assistants and tech- Although gulf commercial fisheries other than the nical help, small pieces of equipment and supplies. oyster fishery have apparently not yet been hurt by Narrower scale projects could be funded at a reduced manmade changes, including pollution, they are in rate. Broader projects including both field and labo- darnker. There have been warning incidents-pollu- ratory studies would require more funding, roughly tion kills of fish in a few areas, apparent prevention in proportion to the number of people involved. of reproduction of sea trout because of pesticide concentration in one area-to show what can hap- SUMMARY pen. If shores continue to be altered by real estate developers, stream flow continues to be interfered with by levees, dams and diversions, and man's A natural pollutant, fresh water, excludes most with by levees, dams and dt i nue to increase, and man's marine animals from the inshore waters and shallow bays along much of the northern coast of the Gulf commercial fisheries will eventually be badly hurt. of Mexico. This makes these waters ideal for survival Research is needed to determine when the costs of of animals that can tolerate lowered salinity, includ- man's activities reach the point where they exceed ing the young of fishes and crustaceans that require the benefits. We do not yet know all of the environ- gulf salinity when mature. Most species important mental costs, in a quantitative way, as we should. in gulf fisheries spawn in the gulf or saltier bay In the meantime, every effort should be made to areas, but the young migrate to the less saline estu- avoid engineering activities and polluting that we arine waters and grow up in these nursery areas. know to be harmful. 188 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL REFERENCES Childress, U. R. (1971 unpublished.) Levels of concentration and incidence of various pesticide residues in Texas. Anderson, J. W., J. M. Neff, B. A. Cox, H. E. Tatem and (Manuscript report). G. M. Hightower. 1974. Characteristics of dispersions and water-soluble extracts of crude oil and their toxicity to Christmas, J. Y. (ed). 1973, Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine crustaceans and fish. Marine Biol. 27: 75-88. Estuarine Inventory and Study, Mississippi. Phases I-IV. Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, Miss. Anderson, J. W., J. M. Neff and S. R. Petrocelli. 1974. Sublethal effects of oil, heavy metals and PCBs on marine Christmas, J. Y., G. Gunter, and E. C. Whatley. 1960. animals. In: M.A.Q. Khan (ed), The Mechanisms of Sur- Fishes taken in the menhaden fishery of Alabama, Missis- vival in Toxic Environments. Academic Press, London and sippi and eastern Louisiana. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., New York. Spec. Sci. Report-Fisheries No. 339. Baldrige, H. D. 1974. Temperature patterns in the long-range Crance, J. H. 1971. Description of Alabama estuarine areas- prediction of red tide in Florida waters. (Abstract.) In: cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Alabama FirnToxic Dinofiagellatte cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Alabama First International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellatell. 6 1-85. Blooms. M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass. Biglane, K. E. and R. A. Lafleur. 1967. Notes on estuarine Cronin, L. E., G. Gunter and S. H. Hopkins. 1971. Effects pollution with emphasis on the Louisiana gulf coast. In: of engineering activities on coastal ecology. Report to the G. H. Lauff (ed), Estuaries. Publ. No. 83, AAS, Washington. Office of the Chief, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army. Washing- ton. ?Breuer, J. P. 1962. An ecological survey of the Lower Laguna Madre of Texas, 1953-1959. Publ. Instit. Marine Sci., Day, J. W., Jr., W. G. Smith and C. S. Hopkinson, Jr. 1973. Univ. Texas 8: 153-183. Some trophic relationships of marsh and estuarine areas. Proc. Coastal Marsh and Estuary Symposium, 1972, Baton Rouge, La.: 115-135. Breuer, J. P. 1971. A survey of the spotted sea trout nursery areas of the lower Laguna Madre. Coastal Fisheries Project Reports 1969-1970, Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Eisler; R. 1973. Annotated bibliography on biological effects Austin 141-146.970, Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., of metals in aquatic environments. U.S. EPA Ecol. Research Ser. EPA-R3-73-007, Washington. Breuer, J. P. 1972. Juvenile and adult food and game fish of Giam, C. S., A. R. Ranks, R. L. Richardson, W. M. Sackett the Laguna Madre. Coastal Fisheries Project Reports 1971, and M. K. Wong. 1972. DDT, DDE, and polychlorinated Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Austin: 125-134. biphenyls in biota from the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. 1971. Pesticides Monit. J. 6 (3): 139-143. Butler, P. A. 1973. Organochlorine residues in estuarine mollusks, 1965-1972-National Pesticide Monitoring Pro- Gunter, G. 1941. Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas gram. Pesticides Monit. J. 6 (4): 238-362. coast, January 1940. Ecology 22 (2): 203-208. Butler, P. A., R. Childress and A. J. Wilson, Jr. 1972. The Gunter, G. 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Publ. association of DDT residues with losses in marine produc- Instit. Marine Sci., Univ. Texas 1 (1): 1-190. tivity. In: M. Ruivo (ed), Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing News (Books), London. Gunter, G. 1950. 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An investigation into levels of con- Spillway to oyster beds in Mississippi Sound and the centration, seasonal variations, and source of pesticide "Louisiana Marsh," with a report on the 1950 opening. toxicants in some species from selected bay areas. Coastal Publ. Instit. Marine Sci., Univ. Texas 3 (1): 17-71. Fisheries Project Reports 1966, Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Austin: 39-53. Gunter, G. 1956. Should shrimp and game fishes become more or less abundant as pressure increases in the trash fish Childress, U. R. 1967. An investigation into levels of con- fishery of the Gulf of Mexico? Louisiana Conservationist, centration of various pesticide toxicants in some species January 1956: 11, 14-15, 19. from selected Texas bay areas. Coastal Fisheries Project Reports, 1967, Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., 'Austin: Gunter, G. 1959. Pollution problems along the gulf coast. 1-17. Trans. Second Seminar on Biological Problems in Water Pollution, 1959. U.S. PHS, Robert A. Taft Engineering Childress, U. R. 1968. Levels of concentration and incidence Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. of various pesticide toxicants in some species from selected bay areas. Coastal Fisheries Project Reports 1968, Texas Gunter G. 1963. The fertile fisheries crescent. Mississippi Parks and Wildlife Dept., Austin: 1-21. Acadc. Sci. 9:286-290. ' FISHERIES ': 89 Gunter, G. 1967. Some relationships of estuaries 'to the Overstreet, R. M. 1974. An estuarine low-tempera-ture fish- fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico. In: G. H. Lauff (ed), kill in Mississippi, with remarks on restricted necropsies. Estuaries. AAAS Publ. 83, Washington: 757 p. Gulf Research Reports 4 (3): 328-350. Gunter, G., R. H. Williams, C; C. Davis, 'and F. G. W. Perret, W. ., B. B. Barrett, W. R. Latapie, J. F. Pollard, Smith. 1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine W. R. Mock, 6. B: Adkins, W. J. Gaidry, and C. J. White. animals and coincident phytoplankton bloom on the west 1971. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and coast of Florida, November 1946 to August 1947. Ecol. Study, Louisiana. Phase I, Area Description. Louisiana Monogr. 18: 309-324. - Wild Life and Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, La.: 1-27. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1967. Ecological aspects .of the Laguna ': Madre, a hypersaline estuary. In: G. H. Lauff (ed), Petrocelli, S. R. and J. W. Anderson. 1973. Distribution and Estuaries. AAAS Publ. 83, Washington. accumulation of chlorinated hydrocarbons in estuarine organisms. Pp, 21-77. In: Environmental Impact Assess- Holmes, R. W. 1969. The Santa Barbara oil spill. In: D. P. ment of Shell Dredging in San Antonio Bay, Texas, Vol. IV Hoult (ed), Oil in the Sea. Plenum Press, New York and of V. U.S. Army Engineer District, Galveston, Tex. London. Petrocelli, S. R., J. W. Anderson and A. R. Hanks. 1975a. Ingle, R. M., and D. F. Martin. 1i971. Prediction of the DDT and dieldrin residues in selected biota from San Florida red tide by means of the iron index. Environ. Antonio Bay, Texas-1972. Pesticides Monit. J. (in Lett. 1 (1): 69-74. (Contrib. 151, Marine Research Lab., pres). Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, St. Petersburg, Fla.) Petroeelli; S. R., J. W. Anderson and A. R.. Hanks. 1975b. Jacobson, S. M. and D. B. Boylan. 1973. Effect of seawater Seasonal fluctuations of dieldrin residues in the.tissues of soluble fraction of kerosene oh chemtiotaxis in a marine the marsh clam, Rangia cuneata, from a Texas estuary. snail, Nassarius obsoletus. Nature, 241 (5386): 213-215. Texas Journal of Science, Vol. 26, No. 1 (in press). Kleerekoper, H., J. B. Waxman and J. Matis. 1973. Interac- Ray, S. M. and W. B. Wilson. 1957. Effects of unialgal and tion of temperature and copper ions as orienting stimuli in bacteria-free cultures of Gymnodinium brevis on fish. U.S. the locomotor behavior of the goldfish Carassius auratus. Fish and Wildlife Service, Spec. Sci. Report-Fisheries Fish. Res. Board Canada 30 (6): 725-728. 211:50. Loesch, Harold 1960. Sporadic mass shoreward migrations of Roesijadi, G: S: R. Petrocelli, J. W. Anderson, B. J. Presley demersal fish and crustaceans in Mobile Bay, Alabama. and R. Sims. 1974. Survival and chloride ion regulation of Ecologhy 41 (2): 292-298. the porcelain crab, Petrolisthes armatus, exposed to mercury. Marine Biol. 27: 213-217. Mackin, J. G. 1962. Oyster disease caused by Dermocystidium marinum and other Micro6rganisms in Louisiana. Publ. Saha, J. G. 1972. Significance -of mercury in the environment. Instit. Marine Sci., Univ. Texas 7:132-229. Residue Reviews 42:103-163. Mackin, J. G. 1973. A 'review of significant papers on effects Simmons, E. G. 1957. Ecological survey of the upper Laguna of oil spills and oil field brine discharges on marine biotic Madre of Texas. Publ. Instit. Mar. Sci., Univ. Texas communities. Texas A&M Research Foundation Project 4 (2): 156-200. 737; (With annotated bibliography in appendix.); Simmons, E. P. and J. P. Breuer. 1962. A study of redfish, Mackin, J. G. and S. H. Hopkins. 1962. Studies on oysters Sciaenops ocellata Linnaeus and black drum, Pogonias in relation to the oil industry. Publ. Instit. Marine Sci., cromzs Linnaeus. Publ. 'Instit. Marine Sci., Univ. Texas Univ. Texas 7. 8:184T211. May, E. B. 1971. A survey of the oyster and' oyster shell Sindermann, C. J. 1970. Principal Diseases of Marine Fish resources of Alabama. Alabama Marine Resources Bull. and Shellfish. Academic Press, New York and London. 4:1-53. 'Smith, J. E. (ed). 1970. "Torrey Canyon"f Pollution and McNulty, J. D., W. N. Iandall, Jr. and J. E. Sykes. '1972. Marine Life. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, Florida: Phase I, Area description.'NOAA Tech, Report, NMFS Cire. 368. ' N . X Steidinger K. A. 1973, -Phytoplankton ecology: A conceptual review based on eastern Gulf of Mexico research. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology 3 (1): 49-68. Moore, S. F., R. L. Dwyer and A.' M. Katz. 1973. A prelimi Critical Reviews in Mrobiology 3 (1: 49-68- nary assessment of the environmental vulnerability of Macbias Bay, Maine, to oil supertankers. Dept.' Civil Steidinger, K. A. 1974. Basic factors influencing red tides. Engineering, M. I. T., Cambridge, Mass., Report No. 162. (Abstract.) First International Conference on Toxic Dino- flagellate Blooms. M. I. T., Cambridge, Mass. Morgan, J. P. 1973. Impact of subsidence and erosibn on Louisiana coastal marshes and estuaries. Proc. Coastal St. Amant, L. S. 1973. Shellfish and crustacean productivity Marsh and Estuary Management Symposium, 1972, in marshes and estuaries. Proc. Coastal Marsh and Estuary Baton Rouge, La.: 217-233. Management Symposium, 1972, Baton Rouge, La.: 151-161. Odum, W. E., J. E. Zieman and E. J. Heald. 1973. The importance of vascular plant detritus to estuaries. Proc. Storey,' M. 1937. The relation between normal range and Coastal Marsh and Estuary Management Symposium, 1972, mortality of fish due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida. Baton Rouge, La.: 91-114. Ecology 19: 10-26. 190 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Storey, M., and E. W. Gudger. 1936. Mortality of fishes due U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. Current Fisheries to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, 1886-1936. Ecology 17: Statistics. Gulf Coast Shrimp Data (monthly reports plus 640-648. annual summary each year). Texas State Department of Health, Division of Marine U.S. EPA. Fish kills caused by pollution. (Annual reports.) Resources. 1970-1973. Classification of shellfish harvesting areas along the Texas coast. Venkataramiah, A., G. J. Lakshmi, and G. Gunter. 1974. Studies on the effects of salinity and temperature on the Trent, W. L., E. J. Pullen and D. Moore. 1972. Waterfront commercial shrimp, Penaeus azlecus Ives, with special housing developments: their effect on the ecology of a regard to survival limits, growth, oxygen consumption and Texas estuarine area. In: M. Ruivo (ed), Marine Pollution ionic regulation. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- and Sea Life. Fishing News (Books), London. ment Station, Vickburg, Miss., Contract Report H-74-2. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. Current Fisheries Wilson, W. B. and S. M. Ray. 1956. The occurrence of Statistics. (For each state, monthly. reports plus annual Gymnodinium brevis in the western Gulf of Mexico. Ecology summary each year.) Alabama Landings, Florida Landings, 37 (2): 388. Louisiana Landings, Mississippi Landings, Texas Landings. Wilson, W. B., S. M. Ray and D. V. Aldrich. 1974. Gymnodi- U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. Current Fisheries nium breve: population growth and development of toxicity Statistics: Fisheries of the United States. (Annual summary in cultures. (Abstract.) First International Conference on volume.) Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms. M. I. T., Cambridge, Mass. DREDGING EFFECTS MAN'S IMPACT ON ESTUARINE SEDIMENTATION J. R. SCHUBEL R. H. MEADE State University of New York Stony Brook, New York ABSTRACT Estuaries are ephemeral features on a geological time scale being rapidly filled with sediments. Although most estuarine sedimentation rates are naturally high, man's activities have greatly accelerated the rates of filling of many estuaries, thus shortening their geological lifetimes. More importantly, the increased influxes of fine-grained sediments have degraded some estuaries, or segments of them, to the extent that their useful biological and recreational lifetimes have been cut drastically shorter than their geological lifetimes. Much more effort should be directed at reducing the most manageable source of sediment to most estuaries-soil erosion. This would not only result in an improvement of water "quality," but would, within a few decades, result in significant reductions in the amounts of dredging required for channel maintenance. Dredging will, however, continue to be a persistent problem because the supply of sediments cannot be eliminated. A new approach to dredging and spoil disposal is required. Regional plans must be developed to ensure that maintenance channel dredging can be carried out without prolonged delays. The present standards for characterization of dredged materials do not have a sound scientific basis, and should be reevaluated. While they were intended to be environmentally conservative, they may be unduly restrictive. INTRODUCTION SEA LEVEL, SEDIMENTATION, AND THE LIFE EXPECTANCY Estuaries are the major sites for the accumulation OF ESTUARIES of sediment along our coastline. Their positions at the mouths of rivers make them the ready recipients All present day estuaries were formed by the most of sediment eroded from the land, and the charac- recent rise in sea level which began approximately teristic circulation patterns produced by the min- 15,000 to 18,000 years ago. During the last glacial gling of fresh water from the land and salt water stage (the Wisconsin) the level of the sea was about from the sea that takes place in estuaries makes 125 m (410 ft) below its present level (Fig. 1) and them effective sediment traps. The rate of sediment most of the continental shelves of the world were accumulation in estuaries, which is already naturally exposed to the atmosphere. With the melting and high in many situations, has been increased by man's retreat of the great ice sheets, sea level rose, rapidly activities. at first, from about 15,000 years ago until about The primary purposes of this report are: (1) to 9,000 years ago when it reached a position approxi- review some of the characteristic estuarine sedimen- mately 20 m (66 ft) below its present level. By tation processes; (2) to look at some of the ways 3,000 years ago the level of the sea was within 3 m in which man has altered these processes; (3) to (10 ft) of its present position, and since then the assess the significance of the effects of these changes sea has risen even more slowly, averaging less than on the estuarine milieu; and (4) to recommend the 1 m per 1,000 years. types of research needed for significant advances The rising sea invaded numerous coastal embay- in our understanding of estuarine sedimentation ments and produced estuaries in those that received processes. enough fresh water to measurably dilute the en- For this discussion, we adopt the definition of an croaching seawater. Many of these coastal basins estuary most commonly used by physical oceano- were former river valley systems. Examples are graphers-an estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and the estuaries of water freely connected to the ocean within which around the Mississippi Delta. Other basins, formed seawater is measurably diluted by freshwater runoff by glacial scour, were the fjords such as those found from land. along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia. 193 194 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 MSL O0 . . . . . . . ' . ' . . . ... .... 0 5, 50- -50 a 100- -100 150- MID-WISCONSIN TRANSGRESSIONI LATE WISCONSIN REGRESSION HOLOCENE TRANSGRESSIONMOERN FIGURE 1.-Fluctuations of mean sea level from present to 40,000 before the present (B.P.). The curve was compiled from pub- lished and unpublished radiocarbon dates and other geologic evidence. Dotted curve estimated from minimal data. Solid curve shows approximate mean of dates computed. The dashed curve is slightly modified from Curray (1960, 1961). Probable fluctua- tions since 5,000 years B.P. are not shown (J. R. Curray, Late Quaternary History, Continental Shelves of the United States in the Quaternary of the TJnited.States, 1965). Wave action and littoral drift formed bars off the duced not only'by shore erosion, but also by rivers, mouths of some rivers thereby creating embayments by the wind, by the sea, and by biological activity. which were later transformed into estuaries. Exam- The sources are thus external, internal, and marginal. ples are Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds. Still other Typically, estuaries fill from their heads and their coastal basins that later became estuaries were margins. An estuarine delta generally forms in the formed by tectonic processes. San Francisco Bay is upper reaches of the estuary-near the new river an example. mouth. The estuarine delta grows progressively The rapidity of the rise of sea level was a major seaward, extending the realm of the river and thereby factor in the formation and maintenance of estuaries. expelling the intruding sea from the semi-enclosed Sedimentation could not keep pace with the rapidly coastal basin. Lateral accretion by marshes may rising sea that invaded numerous coastal basins. also play a major role. As a result of these processes, For the past few thousand years, however, the the estuarine basin is converted back into a river relative rate of infilling has been much greater than valley. Finally, the river reaches the sea through a during the preceding several thousands of years. depositional plain and the transformation is com- The rate of sea level rise has been slower, and within plete. the past few hundred years the rate of sediment While depositional rates in estuaries are naturally input has increased as a result of man's activities. high, man's activities both within the estuarine zone It is, of course, the relative sea level rise-the rise itself, and throughout the drainage basin (sometimes relative to the sedimentation rate-that determines hundreds of kilometers away) can greatly increase the geological lifetime of an estuary. the sediment yields and the rates of filling, can alter All modern estuaries then, are quite young the natural sedimentation patterns, and can shorten geologically; certainly less than 15,000 years old, the geological lifetimes of estuaries-sometimes ap- The relative youthfulness of many estuaries, par- preciably. More importantly, the indirect effects of ticularly of drowned river valley estuaries like increased inputs of sediments, particularly of fine- Chesapealke Bay, is indicated by their highly ir- grained sediments, can degrade an estuary, or seg- regular, dendritic shorelines. As estuaries mature ments of it, to the extent that its useful biological there is a progressive rectification or straightening and recreational lifetimes are cut drastically shorter of their shorelines; headlands are attacked by waves than its geological lifetime-perhaps several orders and current, and re-entrants in the coastline are of magnitude shorter. filled by drifting sand. Once formed, estuaries are It has been reported that when John Adams, a ephemeral features on a geologic time scale, being Democrat, was President, he swam in the upper rapidly filled with sediments. Sediments are intro- Potomac at Washington, D.C. Lincoln, a Repub- bJ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ DREDGING EFFECTS 195 lican, not only did not swim in the upper Potomac, relative to the riverflow and/or as the width of the but remarked that the stench from it was sometimes basin increases relative to the depth. so bad that on warm summer evenings when the wind was off the Potomac he had to flee the White House. This indicates either that the quality of the The Salt-Wedge upper Potomac had been seriously degraded by (Type A) Estuary man's activities over this period'of about 60 years; or as a Republican friend of ours, H. H. Carter, or as a Republican friend of ours, H. . Carter, The Type A estuary, Fig. 2A, is a river-dominated points out, merely that "a Democrat will swim in estuary. It is also called a salt-wedge estuary because anything." there is little mixing between the seawater and the fresh water, and the encroaching seawater is present as a wedge underlying the less dense, fresher river ESTUARINE CIRCULATION water. Salt-wedge estuaries occur where the ratio AND SEDIMENTATION PATTERNS of width to depth is relatively small and the ratio of riverflow to tidal flow is relatively large. At Because of their characteristic circulation proc- locations upstream from the tip of the salt-wedge, esses, estuaries are effective sediment traps. The the flow is downstream at all depths. Seaward of the tidal circulation is important in the formation of tip of the wedge, the flow throughout the upper channels, tidal flats, and tidal deltas, but it is the layer is still downstream at all times because of the net non-tidal circulation that is of primary impor- dominance of the river over the tide. In the lower tance in determining the rates and patterns of filling layer, the instantaneous flow may be upstream at of most estuaries. all times, or it may reverse with the tide, but the net It is in the estuary where the mixing of fresh flowis upstream. water from the land and salt water from the ocean Fine suspended particles that are brought into the produces dynamic conditions that lead to the even- estuary by the river and settle into the lower layer tual discharge of the river water to the ocean. The are brought back upstream to the tip of the wedge mixing may be due primarily to the action of the by the slow net landward flow of the lower layer river, the wind, or the tide. There is a sequence of and accumulate in the vicinity of the tip of the estuarine circulation types displaying different de- wedge. This fluvial sediment may also be supple- grees of mixing of the fresh water and the sea water. mented by fine particles from other sources. Heavier The position that an estuary occupies in this se- particles transported along the riverbed accumulate quence depends primarily upon the relative magni- upstream of the wedge. The region surrounding the tudes of the riverflow and the tidal flow, and upon tip of the wedge, then, is a zone of rapid shoaling. the geometry of the basin that contains the estuary. The position of the tip of the salt-wedge is deter- Changes in any of these factors may produce changes mined primarily by the freshwater discharge and the in the estuarine circulation pattern and may thereby channel depth. alter the resulting sedimentation patterns. One end The Southwest Pass of the Mississippi River is a member of this sequence is the poorly mixed (highly classic example of a salt-wedge estuary. The average stratified) salt-wedge estuary--that so-called Type flow through Southwest Pass is more than 5,100 A estuary. The other end member is the thoroughly m3/sec (180,000 ft3/sec), and peak flows may ex- mixed, sectionally homogeneous estuary-the Type ceed 8,500 m3/sec (300,000 ft3/sec). The river D estuary. Two intermediate types which have been completely dominates the circulation. The tidal described are the partially mixed, Type B, estuary, range in the Gulf of Mexico is only about 36 cm and the vertically homogeneous, Type C, estuary. (1.3 ft). The tip of the wedge migrates more than Estuaries are actually continuously varying in 235 km (126 n. miles) in response to changes in the their characteristics and may shift from type to type discharge of the Mississippi. During periods of as conditions change. Also, at any given time, dif- minimum flow, the tip 'ay be about 40 km (22 n. ferent circulation types may be observed within miles) above New Orleans-nearly 235 km (126 n. different segments of an estuary, depending on the miles) above the mouth of Southwest Pass. During relative magnitudes of the tidal flow and the fresh- is ao the t of thwe s water flow, and upon the local geometry of the basin. periods of moderate flow, the tip of the wedge is The four types of estuarine circulation patterns are located near the river's mouth, and the shoaling shown schematically in Fig. 2. In general, an estuary problem is so serious in this region that around-the- changes from Type A (Fig. 2A) to Type D (Fig. clock dredging is required to keep the navigation 2D) as the magnitude of the tidal flow increases channelopen. 196 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL OCEAN Wo iWter A. 'B. OCEAN : OCEAN . .- C. . . FIGURE 2.-Four distinct examples in the sequence of estuarine types. A. Type A estuary. B. Looking seaward in Type B estuary in N. Hemisphere. C. Looking seaward in Type C estuary in N. Hemisphere. D. Looking seaward in Type D estuary in N. Hemisphere. The Partially Mixed bottom remains: nearly the same over much of the (Type B) Estuary length of the estuary. The Coriolis force-an ap- parent deflecting force caused by the earth's rota- If the tidal flow is increased relative to the river- tion-produces a slight lateral salinity gradient flow so that the tide is sufficiently strong to prevent across the -estuary. The boundary between the the river from dominating the circulation, the added seaward-flowing upper and landward-flowing lower turbulence provides the mechanism for erasing the layers is slightly tilted. In the Northern Hemisphere, salt-wedge. This occurs when the volume rate of the upper layer is deeper and the flow slightly flow up the estuary on a flood tide is on the order stronger to the right of an observer facing seaward. of 10 times the volume rate of inflow of fresh water The lower layer is nearer the surface and its flow from the river. There is both advection and tur- is slightly stronger to the left of the seaward-facing bulent mixing across the freshwater-saltwater inter- observer. face. The sharp interface which separated the fresh Fine suspended particles that settle into the lower water of the upper layer from the sea water of the layer are carried upstream by its net landward flow, lower layer in the salt-wedge estuary is replaced by leading to an accumulation of sediment on the a region of more gradual change in salinity. Such bottom between the upstream and downstream limits an 'estuary is called a partially mixed; Type B, of salt intrusion. Because of the mixing which is estuary. The difference in salinity between top and more intense than in a salt-wedge estuary, there is DREDGiiG EFFECTS 197 generally an accumulation of fine suspended sedi- reaches of the Delaware and Raritan (New Jersey) ment in the landward reaches of the estuarine cir- Bays are examples of vertically homogeneous es- culation regime. Such features, called "turbidity tuaries. maxima," have been reported in the upper reaches of a large number of partially mixed estuaries throughout the world. These turbid zones charac- The Sectionally Homogeneous teristically begin in the estuary where a vertical (Type D) Estuary gradient of salinity first appears and commonly extends downstream for 20-40 km (10-20 n. miles). If the tidal flow is increased even more so that it Within a turbidity maximum the concentrations of is very large relative to the riverflow, it may almost suspended sediment and the turbidities are greater completely overwhelm the effect of the river. The than either farther upstream in the source river or tidal mixing may be so intense that not only is the farther seaward in the estuary. Their formation has vertical salinity gradient eradicated, but* so also been attributed to -the flocculation of the fluvial is the lateral gradient, producing a sectionally sediment, to the deflocculation of fluvial sediment, homogeneous estuary. The movement of water is and to hydrodynamic processes. We believe that essentially symmetrical about the main axis of the turbidity maxima are produced and maintained by estuary with a slow net seaward flow at all depths. physical processes-specifically the periodic resus- Truly sectionally homogeneous estuaries may not pension of bottom sediments by tidal scour, and the exist in nature. In estuaries that are approximately estuarine circulation pattern-and that the impor- sectionally homogeneous, the most rapid sedimenta- tance ascribed to the role of flocculation in estuarine tion occurs in areas where the slow net seaward flow sedimentation is not supported by field evidence. is interrupted by tributaries or obstacles. The The most rapid shoaling in partially mixed estu- Piscataqua estuary in New Hampshire appears to be aries normally is between the flood and ebb positions nearly sectionally homogeneous, but observations in of the limit of sea salt intrusion. Rapid shoaling may estuaries of this type are limited. also occur where the upstream flow of the lower As pointed out previously, the position that an layer is interrupted by entering tributaries, by estuary occupies in this sequence of estuarine types abrupt changes in cross-sectional area, or by mean- depends primarily upon the relative magnitudes of dering or bifurcation of the channel. The Chesapeake the riverflow and the tidal flow, and upon the Bay is a good example of a partially mixed estuary. geometry of the basin. Relatively subtle changes in any of these factors may produce changes in the estuarine circulation pattern and thereby alter the The Vertically Homogeneous resulting sedimentation patterns. In general, an (Type C) Estuary estuary's sediment trapping efficiency is increased as the riverflow increases relative to the tidal flow, If the role of the tide, relative to the river, is or as the depth increases. Most of the fluvial sedi- increased over that in the partially mixed estuary, ment is generally introduced into an estuary when the tidal mixing may be sufficiently intense to com- the riverflow is high, when its trapping efficiency is pletely eradicate the vertical salinity gradient and greatest. When the riverflow subsides and the relative produce a vertically homogeneous water column. The importance of the tidal flow increases, the estuary longitudinal salinity gradient still remains with the shifts in its circulation pattern toward one of greater salinity increasing seaward. And, because of the mixing. During these more prolonged periods of low Coriolis force, the lateral gradient in salinity also to moderate riverflow the sediment is redistributed. remains with the higher salinity water to the left of an observer facing -seaward in the Northern Hemi- sphere. The boundary between the lower salinity ALTERATION OF PREVAILING water flowing seaward and the higher salinity water SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES flowing up the estuary becomes more nearly vertical, and may intersect the water surface. In the Northern Sources Hemisphere then, the net flow and sediment trans- port are generally upstream on the left side of the Although sediment in estuaries comes from many estuary facing seaward and downstream on the right sources-including the erosion of the margins of the side. Shoaling is generally most rapid near the up- estuarine basins, and the beaches and sea floor stream limit of sea salt, in regions of large cross- outside the estuary mouths-the sources most af- sectional area, adjacent to islands, and in channel fected by the hand of man are the rivers that carry bifurcations where the flow is interrupted. The wider sediment from upland areas into the estuaries. Our 198 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL discussion will focus mainly on the sediment loads Hi _H of rivers, which are increased by such activities as farming, mining, and urbanization; and which are . WHITE ~ .-.t: decreased by reservoirs and other protective works. &C-" MAN'S ACTIVITIES Mg E THAT INCREASE RIVER SEDIMENT LOADS Ever since the first European settlers landed, man has affected the amount of sediment in streams He" ' i * draining North America. The influence of man on sedimentation is especially well documented in the %X Chesapeake Bay region, where clearing of forests and wasteful farming practices (especially those LAND AREA FILLED REMOVED used in raising tobacco) contributed enormous loads 1792 1792-947 1792-1947 of sediment to the rivers. Clear streams became FIGURE 3.-Accumulation of sediment at Washington, D.C., muddy and once relatively deep harbors at the near the head of tide in the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers, heads of a number of the tributaries were filled with between 1792-1947. sediment. The Potomac River, whose waters were already somewhat turbid but which were still suit- able for municipal use in 1853, had become so aries. San Francisco Bay, for example, contains muddy by 1905 that the city of Washington had to nearly a billion cubic meters of sediment washed install its first filtration plant. A comparison of the from the Sierra Nevada during the 30-odd years 1792 and 1947 shorelines of the upper Potomac of intensive hydraulic mining for gold. Even after (Fig. 3) shows that large areas of the Potomac near the hydraulic processing was stopped in 1884, the Washington have been filled with sediments stripped mining debris continued to choke the valleys of the from farmland farther upstream. The Lincoln and Sacramento River and some of its tributaries for Jefferson Memorials now stand on what was de- many decades. Gradually, over the years, the debris scribed in 1711 as a harbor suitable for great has been moved downriver to be deposited more merchant vessels. Even today, an average of about permanently in the marshes and shallower areas 2 million m3 (2.6 million yds3) of sediment is around San Francisco Bay. The mining debris that deposited every year near the head of tide in the was released in only three decades is more than the Potomac; not all of this sediment is the result of total sediment from all other sources (including agriculture, as we shall see. There are other former farmland) that the Sacramento River has carried seaport towns on the western shores of Chesapeake in the twelve-and-a-half decades since 1850. It has Bay where decaying docking facilities are now been shown that this sediment had an important separated from navigable water by several miles of effect on the bay; the tidal prism was decreased, sediment-filled lowland. and the flushing regime significantly changed. Streams that drain modern day farmlands in Urbanization is the most recent of man's activities many of the mid-Atlantic states carry about 10 to contribute large amounts of sediment to streams. times as much sediment as streams that drain Sediment loads derived from land being cleared or equivalent areas of forest land. And this relation is filled for the building of houses, roads, and other by no means unique. In the Coastal Plain of northern facilities are best documented in the area between Mississippi, sediment yields from cultivated lands Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, Md. During are 10 to 100 times the yields from equivalent periods when housing developments, shopping cen- areas of forested lands. In two other areas where ters, and highways are being built, the soil is dis- studies have been made-the Tobacco River Valley turbed and left exposed to wind and rain. The con- of Michigan and the Willamette Valley of Oregon- centration of sediment in storm runoff from con- streams draining farmland carry two to four times struction sites is a 100 to 1,000 times what it would as much sediment as streams draining equal areas be if the soil had been left in its natural vegetated of forested land. state. Even though the soil is left exposed to ero- Mining is another activity that has increased the sion of this intensity for only a short time-a few sediment loads of rivers that flow into some estu- years at most-the amount of land cleared for DREDGING EFFECTS 199 new housing and ancillary uses in the Washington- in common the ability to trap sediment. Even small Baltimore area has been so great in recent years reservoirs can trap significant proportions of river that the contribution of sediment is significantly sediment. For example, a reservoir that can hold large. Harold Guy of the U.S. Geological Survey only one percent of the annual inflow of river water has estimated that the Potomac River receives is capable of trapping nearly half the river's total about a million tons of sediment per year from sediment load. A reservoir whose capacity is 10 streams that drain the metropolitan Washington percent of the annual river water inflow can trap area. This is about the same amount of sediment about 85 percent of the incoming sediment. Although that the Potomac River brings into the Washington a river will tend to erode its own bed downstream area from all its other upland sources. of a reservoir to partly compensate for the sediment Another of man's activities that increases the it has lost, the net effect of the reservoir is to sedimentation rates of estuaries is the disposal of decrease the overall amount of sediment carried by dissolved phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant the river. In the larger river basins of Georgia and nutrients into rivers and estuaries. Municipal sewage the Carolinas, the sediment loads delivered to the effluents, including effluents that have teceived estuaries are now something like one-third of what secondary treatment-the highest degree of conven- they were about 1910, mainly because of the large tional treatment-contain high concentrations of number of reservoirs that have been built since then nutrients. In some areas, agricultural runoff from for hydroelectric power and, to a lesser extent, for fertilized croplands and animal feedlots also con- flood control. tributes nutrients to river waters and estuaries. On some rivers, settling basins and reservoirs have These nutrients promote the growth of diatoms and been built specifically as sediment traps to improve other microscopic plants (phytoplankton) both in the quality of water farther downstream. In 1951, the rivers and in the estuaries that the rivers flow three desilting basins were constructed on the into. The mineral structures formed by many of Schuylkill River of Pennsylvania to remove the these organisms persist after the organisms die and excessive sediment that resulted from anthracite become part of the sediment loads of the rivers and coal mining in the upper river basin. The basins are the sedimentary deposits of the estuaries. The Army dredged every few years, and the dredged material Corps of Engineers estimates, for example, that the is placed far enough from the river to be out of diatom frustules produced in the Delaware River reach of floods. As a result of these basins, the and Delaware Bay contribute about the same amount sediment load carried by the Schuylkill into the of sediment (a million-and-a-half tons per year) to Delaware estuary has been reduced from nearly a the Delaware estuary as all other upland river million tons per year to about 200,000 tons per year. sources. The effects of nutrient loading from munici- pal wastes on primary productivity are readily observable in the Potomac estuary, in Baltimore NET EFFECT N~. EFFES CTIVTE Harbor and the Back River estuary (Maryland) in oF MAN'S OF ACTIVITIESNT Raritan Bay, in the Arthur Kill estuary, in the Hudson estuary, in the Delaware estuary, in San The net effect of an's activities has no doubt The net effect of man's activities has no doubt Francisco Bay, and in many other etuaries around been an increase in the sediment supplied to most of the country. Stimulation of plant growth by nu- the estuaries of the United States, but we cannot trient-enriched runoff from agricultural areas issabyhwmc.Atogresevsanot apparent in the upper Chesapeake Bay, the estuary say by how much. Although reservoirs and other apparent inthpprChspekeBycontrols have reduced the sediment in rivers in of the Susquehanna River. of the Susquehanna River. recent years, they have only partly offset the in- fluences that caused the increases in the first place. MAN'S ACTIVITIEs Added to this is the fact that sediment takes THAT DECREASE decades to move through a river system. Much of RIVER SEDIMENT LoADS the sediments released by past mistakes-such as by poor mining practices and by poor soil conservation Reservoirs probably cause the most significant practices associated with agriculture-are still in interruptions in the natural movement of sediment the river valleys in transit storage between their to estuaries by rivers. Reservoirs are built on rivers sources and the estuaries. Even if the active supply for a number of purposes: for hydroelectric power, of sediment to rivers were completely checked today, for flood control, for water supply, and for recrea- many decades would pass before the sediment loads tion. Regardless of their purpose, reservoirs share would drop to their natural, pre-colonial, levels. 200 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL CONTROL OF RIVER short but severe events such as storms and floods. SEDIMENT INPUT We suspect that infrequent severe events are more important in delivering sediment to the estuary in The ultimate method of controlling the sediment the first place, but that the slower day-to-day that rivers contribute to estuaries is to control processes are more important in redistributing sedi- erosion at the source. The possibility of complete ment from one part of an estuary to another tb control, however, is remote. Erosion is basically a determine the final depositional patterns. In upper natural phenomenon. All land, whether in its natural San Francisco Bay, for example, the sediment state or altered by man's activities, yields a certain brought in by the Sacramento River during the amount of sediment. Because the natural processes rainy winter months is initially deposited in broad of erosion are less subject to control than are man's shallow areas of the estuary. During the dry summer influences on these processes, perhaps the best that months the daily breezes that blow across the bay one can hope for is to keep erosion down to its stir up the shallow waters- and resuspend the sedi- natural level. But even this is probably a vain hope. ments blanketing the shoal areas. The tidal currents In spite of the marked reduction that conserva- transport this material to deeper areas, mostly tion measures have caused in soil erosion since they farther up the bay. The deeper areas, in and near began to be applied in earnest over 30 years ago, Mare Island Strait, are the location of the most cultivated farmland in the eastern United States, intensive dredging of navigation channels in San for example, continues to yield sediment at about Francisco Bay. About two million cubic meters, or 10 times the rate of equivalent areas of forested about a third of all the sediment dredged in the land. In places where former croplands and grazing entire San Francisco Bay system, are removed every lands have been replanted in forests and grasses, year to maintain adequate channels into and within sediment yields have been considerably reduced. the Mare Island Naval Shipyard. Although it is true that as long as men cultivate If we have only a limited knowledge of the routes land, there seems to be little hope of reducing of transport within the estuary, we know even less sediment yields to their natural rates-rates typical about the rates of transport. We have some measure- of heavily vegetated lands-much more effort should ments of the rates at which sediment is supplied to be directed at reducing sediment yields through ap- the estuary from selected sources, mostly rivers. propriate soil conservation practices. If these con- And, we have some knowledge of the rate at which trols are enforced not only for agriculture, but also some of the sediment accumulates in specific parts for strip mining, urbanization, and highway con- of estuaries, particularly in the dredged navigation struction, significant reductions in sediment inputs channels. But we have only a limited picture of the to estuaries will result. These reductions will; within rates of input from other sources and -the rates of a period of decades, be manifested in reductions in accumulation at other less obvious places, and a the dredging activity required to maintain many particularly limited picture of the rates at which shipping channels; and may result in improvement a given particle of sediment might be expected to in water quality of the estuarine zone, particularly move from one part of the estuary to another on if nutrient inputs are decreased. its way to a permanent resting place. ROUTES AND RATES Patterns of Deposition OF TRANSPORT The pattern of deposition of sediment in an estuary Once sediment reaches an estuary, it may move is determined mainly by the non-tidal circulation directly to a site where it will remain permanently, patterns of the water. As pointed out previously, an but it is more likely to be deposited in a series of estuary's net circulation pattern is determined temporary storage areas or "parking lots" before primarily by the relative magnitudes of the river coming to its final resting place. Although we have and tidal flows, and by the geometry of the estuarine some idea of the kinds of places where sediment is basin. The circulation pattern can be altered, some- most likely to eventually accumulate in estuaries, times drastically, by changes in any of these factors. we are generally unable to predict the detailed route that sediment will follow between the point where TRAINING WORKS it enters the estuary and the place where it finally comes to rest. Furthermore, we know little about Training works such as jetties and dikes are built how often sediment moves-whether it moves a for the expressed purpose of changing the pattern short distance every day, or moves mainly during of flow and deposition in estuaries: specifically, to DREDGING EFFECTS 201 discourage the deposition of sediment where it is not part of the channel is filled. This process continues wanted,,or to facilitate its deposition in other places. until the entire navigation channel is healed- The deposition- of sediment is discouraged by chan- provided that enough sediment and time are avail- neling flows to increase their velocity and scouring able. If the navigation channel is dredged repeatedly, potential. Deposition is encouraged by providing as are most channels where the supply of sediment is quiescent areas where suspended particles can settle heavy, the sediment continues to accumulate at or to the bottom. - near the first nodal point which continues to be Although:in theory training works should be an the location of maximum dredging effort in the efficient means of controlling sediment, in practice estuary. The maintenance of navigation channels in their results are often difficult to predict. Works many estuaries, therefore, is a battle between man's constructed in the early years of this century along efforts to disrupt a pre-existing state of equilibrium, the main shipping channel in Liverpool Bay in and the estuary's tendency to restore that equi- England, for example, were successful in increasing librium. the velocities and the depths in the channel. How- A major problem in dredging is the disposal of ever, they caused an unexpectedly rapid increase in the dredged material (spoil). In many cases, spoil is sedimentation in the areas of the bay outside the dumped in places where sediment of that texture channel as well as in the tributary estuary of the would not have accumulated naturally, or at least Mersey River. not nearly as rapidly in the natural course of events as in spoiling. This applies to disposal sites both inside and outside of estuaries. DREDGING'" Spoil is commonly dumped inside the estuary, sometimes directly alongside the channel. The spoil may remain where it is dumped, especially if it is Since problems associated with dredging are dis- dumped in deep spots out of reach of strong currents. cussedat legth in several other papers in this Often, however, dredge spoil returns to the channel. volume, our comments will be limited. Dredging of In recent 'years, according to estimates made by the navigation channels is the most pervasive of man's U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, about half the activities in estuaries that affect the circulation of water, and consequently, the pattern of deposition Charleston Harbor and San Francisco Bay is mate- of sediment. In many estuaries, dredging seriously of sediment. In many estuaries, rial that has already been dredged at least once disrupts the natural 'equilibrium that formerly before and has made its way back into the channels before and has made its way back into the channels existed between river inflow, tidal exchange, sedi- m the place where it was dumped. ment supply, and the configuration of the estuary In some estuaries, spoil is dumped In some estuaries, spoil is dumped on fringing land oor. The response to dredgingis frequently o areas. A principal advantage is that these areas can "heal" the disruption by filling the dredged channel haPw it h sediment. be diked to prevent the return of the spoil to the estuary. The main disadvantage is that the marginal If left to itself, the healing might' proceed in the estuary. The main sadvantage is that the marginal areas are often salt marshes that are valued for following way. Suppose we have an estuary where the sediment' inflow and the bottv geometry hare their role in the protection and production of fish the sediment inflow and the bott geometry are and other forms of estuarine life. Dumping spoil on in some kind of steady-state balance with respect to these areas usually destroys their original plant and each other. This might be a large estuary, such as animal communities. Delaware Bay, that is slowly and steadily being fiDelaware Bay, thsediment is slowly in its uppeadily being Spoil is also taken by barge or hopper dredge and filled with sediment, mainly in its upper reaches; dumped in the ocean outside estuaries. In 1968, for or it may be a narrow estuary, such as the Savannah example, ab out 50 miion ton s of dredged spoil was River between Georgia and South Carolina, that dumped in ocean waters off the coast of the United flows in a river-size channel through sediment-filled States. In many ocean areas, such as off New York lowlands to the sea. When a deep channel is dredged city where some 7 million tons of spoil are dumped in such an estuary, it 'allows salt water to penetrate cty where some 7 mllion tons of spoil are dumped farther inland than formerly and it shifts the nodal every year, the spoil is a markedly different type of point 'of the upstream flowing seawater farther up sediment from the natural bottom aterial and it i the estuary. This nodal point becomes the locus of nt u at a rate many times greater than the most rapid sedimentation and remains so until the natural rate of local sediment input to the ocean. channel at that point is filled with sediment. When This is perhaps man's greatest alteration of the that part of the channel is filled and the salt water pattern of deposition-taking material that was can no longer penetrate that far inland, the nodal destined by nature to be deposited in estuaries and point is progressively shifted seaward and another dumping it at sea. 202 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Modification of Prevailing spoil is due to the deepening of the main navigation Sedimentation Processes channel from 9.1 to 10.7 m (30 to 35 ft) between By Engineering Projects: 1941 and 1943. The major factor in the increased A Mistake and A "Success" shoaling rate was the change in estuarine circulation .CHIARL;ESTON HARBOR produced by the diversion of water from the Santee River into the harbor. This was conclusively demon- strated by hydraulic model studies. Charleston Harbor, one of the finest natural strated by hydraulic model studies. harbors on the Atlantic seaboard, has served the The shoaling problem has become so difficult and needs of the region since the town was settled in expensive to control that plans are well underway 1670. It is an interesting example of an estuary for rediversion of the Santee back to its original whose circulation and sedimentation were markedly channel. altered by changing the freshwater input to the estuary. The Charleston Harbor estuary receives DELAWARE BAY freshwater inflow from the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando Rivers. The mouth of the estuary is restricted, . e f . t. A O Delaware Bay has also served maritime commerce and entrance from the Atlantic Ocean is gained . ee f. te Ai O. is since colonial times, providing access between the through a single, jettied-channel. Prior to 1942, sent. the freshwater input was very small, averaging less sea and succes as Philadelphia and Trenton. In than 20 m/sec (700 ft3/sec), and the harbor was ,recent years some fairly successful measures have somewhere between a vertically homogeneous and been taken to control sediment, both in the inflowing somewere between ationally homogeneous estuary. Fine-grained sedi- rivers and in the bay itself. The desilting works in sectionally homogeneous estuary. Fine-grained sedi- ment was moved slowly through the estuary to the the Schuylkill River need no further discussion here ocean, and little dredging was required. Mainte- except to point out that they have resulted in a nance dredging to keep the main channel at a depth fivefold decrease in the sediment brought by the nance dredging to keep the main channel at a depth Schuylkill to the upper estuary at Philadelphia. of 9 m was only about 60,000 ma/yr (80,000 ydsa/yr) Within the Delar estuary, the Corps of Engi- at a cost of .bout 11,800/y. OAWithin the DelaWare estuary, the Corps of Engi- at a cost of about $l1,600/yr. In late 1941, a hydroelectric dam was completed neers has been able to decrease the amount of dredge which diverted most of the flow of the nearby spoil that has returned to the navigation channels. which diverted most of the flow of the nearby - . . - . d Santee River, the largest river on the south Atlantic Before 1954, whe Delaware e stupoil as dumped verboarto 20 miion m seaboard, into the upper Cooper River which flows into Charleston Harbor. The average freshwater 26 million yds3) of sediment were dredged in an average year, and the navigation channel could not input to the harbor rose from less than 20 m3/sec average year, ad the navigation channel could not (700 to/asec) to more than 400 ml/sec (14,000 always be maintained at its specified depth. Begin- a700 ftl/sec) to more than 400 .nl/see (141.0.0ning in 1954, all dredge spoil was placed in diked ft3/sec). The inflow of fluvial sediment was in- ning in 1954, all dredge spoil was placed in diked areas to prevent its return to the channels. Since creased by about a factor of four. More importantly, then, only abdtit 6 million ms (8 million yds3) of the marked increase in the freshwater discharge the marked increase in the freshwater discharge sediment are dredged every year, and the navigation shifted the circulation pattern in the harbor from eient channels are consistently deeper. Although this is a well-mixed estuary to a two-layered circulation charac i of a parte one of the more successful instances of coping with pattern characteristic of a partially-mixed (Type B) estuaryn Fine sedimentary particles which would estuarine sedimentation, it is only a temporary estuary. Fine sedimentary particles which would previously have been carried completely through expedient in the long run. Peripheral lands for spoil disposal are becoming scarcer and more costly the estuary to the ocean were now entrapped in the ing a estuary by the net upstream flow of the lower layer because o f c omp eting demands such as developmant and accumulated in the inner harbor-in the upper or conservation, and the end of available laware reaches of the non-tidal estuarine circulation regime. estuary is already in sight. Shoaling became a serious problem. Dredging re- quired to maintain the inner harbor channel jumped to an average of 1.8 million m3/yr (2.3 million The Effects of Sediments yds3/yr) at an average cost of about $380,000/yr on the Biota during the 9 year period from 1944 to 1952. More and on the Aesthetics recently, dredging has averaged about 7.5 million of the Estuarine Environment ma/yr (10 million yds3/yr). Nearly half of the currently dredged material Clearly, man has affected the input of sediments represents older dredged spoil that has returned to to estuaries by land-use practices throughout their the channel. Another 10 percent or so of the new drainage basins, by the construction of dams and DREDGING EFFECTS 203 reservoirs on tributary rivers, by diversion of rivers, the increased suspended sediment concentrations and by engineering projects to control shore erosion may not be lethal to important organisms of the of the margins of estuaries. He has also affected the higher trophic levels. Studies of caged fish and distribution patterns of sediments within estuaries, crustaceans placed within 8 to 15 meters of active both in the water column (suspended sediments) dredges and overboard spoil discharges failed to and on the bottom (deposited sediments), by produce any evidence of increased mortality or changing the estuarine circulation patterns either damage to gill epithelium compared to control through alteration of the freshwater inputs, or organisms. through modification of their geometry by dredging It has also been reported that there was no or by other engineering projects. Man's impact on increase in the mortality of oysters adjacent to depositional patterns has already been described dredging operations in the intercoastal waterway briefly in the previous section. In addition to the near Charleston, S.C. The same investigators also obvious effects of shoalings on basin geometry and found that oysters could survive even when sus- therefore on circulation, and on the geological life- pended directly in the turbid discharge, and that times of estuaries, changes of the rate of sedimenta- the organisms died only when they were actually tion and of the character of the sedimentary material buried. Other investigations indicated that oysters can have significant effects on organisms, particu- decrease their pumping rates when subjected to larly the animals that live on the bottom. Fine- relatively high concentrations of suspended sedi- grained sediments may also affect the chemical ment. It has been reported that a concentration of character of the interstitial water and, when resus- suspended silt of only 100 mg/i reduces the pumping pended by waves and currents, that of the overlying rate of adult oysters by about 50 percent. If the waters. pumping rate were reduced below some critical threshold for an extended period, the oyster would obviously die from starvation. It is unlikely that this EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA would happen as a result of dredging activity. Furthermore, concentrations greater than 100 mg/l Dredging and the disposal of dredged materials D n a. occur naturally over many productive oyster bars have generated a great deal of concern, discussion, whenever bottom sediments are resuspended by and speculation about the impacts of such activities normal tidal currents. These periodic increases of on the quality of the estuarine environment. During on the quality of the estua environment Durg suspended sediment do not appear to seriously affect active dredging and spoiling there are increases in the concentrations of suspended sediment. Sub- g ., .f . . A Sublethal effects of chronic exposure to moderate stantial increases-increases of more than a 100 excess concentrations of suspended sediment-con- mg/l-are generally local, restricted to an area centrations of suspe nded sedimenturallycon- within a few hundred meters of the activity, and oc any biological or aesthetic effects of these increased nave not been eonvfecgly dcumented for any anybidiies ar not prste: ~~estuarine species. Such effects will be difficult to turbidities are not pers'stent, establish unequivocally. One would anticipate that Dredging can, of course, alter the estuarine circula- sensitivity to suspended sediment would be a func- tion pattern and, in doing so, also change both the tion not only of species, but of life stage, and of general sediment distribution patterns and the con- other environmental stresses. centrations of suspended sediment. Changes in these Increases in the concentration of suspended sedi- factors can persist after dredging and spoiling have ment that are large enough to markedly change the been completed. visibility of the waters of segments of an estuary can Increases in the concentrations of suspended sedi- . ment.~~ .aboe sproduce shifts in the fish population. Since game ment above some threshold level that result from fish feed by sight, some minimum visibility is re- any activity can have significant environmental any activity can have significant environmental quired for successful feeding. If visibility falls below effects-on aesthetics, on water quality, and on the biota. The available literature indicates, however, that direct effects of suspended sediment on most vacuum-cleaner fashion are favored. This probably that direct effects of suspended sediment on most occurs only when concentrations of fine suspended estuarine organisms of the higher trophic levels sediment exceed several hundreds of mg/I. Visibility occur only at relatively high concentrations, con- sediment exceed several hundreds of mg/l. Visibility centrations greater than 500 mg/l, and generally is a function not only of the concentration of total greater than 1,000 mg/I. Such concentrations are suspended solids, but also of their size distribution rare in most estuaries, even during dredging and and composition. spoiling activities except at, or very near, the source. The disposal of dredged materials generally results Even in the immediate vicinity of dredging activity, in the initial destruction of many, perhaps most, of 204 EsTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the bottom dwelling organisms (benthos) at the organic-rich sediments may produce a sag in -the disposal site through burial and smothering. It has oxygen distribution. It has been reported that in been documented in a number of estuaries, however, the Arthur Kill, for example, when dredged spoil that the spoil is recolonized relatively rapidly by was resuspended oxygen levels were reduced from organisms from surrounding areas except when the 16 to 83 percent below their average levels. Other spoil differs markedly in texture from the host investigators reported that when surface sediments sediments. Studies of overboard disposal sites in from Wassaw Sound, Ga., were suspended-in the the upper and lower Chesapeake Bay showed that estuarine water, they were capable of removing within one-and-one-half years the population density "533 times their own volume of oxygen from the and species diversity of the spoil areas could not be water." No such effect was observed in the upper distinguished from those of surrounding areas. In Chesapeake Bay, and studies of Louisiana marshes the upper Chesapeake Bay recovery of the channel- did not demonstrate any significant oxygen deple- the dredged area-was not complete, but in the tion as a result of dredging activities. Since the con- lower bay complete recovery of both the dredged centration of suspended sediment' affects the trans- and spoil areas was documented. Where marked parency of water, increases in suspended sediment textural changes result from the dredging or spoiling levels decrease the depth of the euphotic zone and activity, recolonization may be limited. The dredged therefore the production of oxygen-by phytoplankton. canals of Boca Ciega Bay, Fla., are examples. Increased suspended sediment-concentrations may If dredging or spoiling produce substantial changes also affect 'the production of oxygen, by rooted in the depth distribution of an estuary, or segments aquatic plants. Areas of the bottom formerly within of it, significant changes may occur in habitat space the euphotic zone can be removed from it as a result and therefore in the distribution of organisms. Areas of man's activities. Prior to about 1920 much- of the of the bottom can be removed from the euphotic bottom of the upper Potomac outside of the channel zone by dredging, and areas can be built-up by was covered with a dense growth of rooted plants. spoiling from a relatively deep position into the During the 1920's this vegetation almost completely surface layer where they are subjected to stirring by disappeared and lower oxygen levels were reported currents and waves. Clearly such alterations are not in this area. The effects of the disappearance of these necessary consequences of dredging and spoiling. plants on the distribution of dissolved oxygen were The magnitude of the impact of dredging and confounded by the effects of other significant en- spoiling is also a function of the time of year they vironmental changes on- oxygen levels. are done. These activities should be scheduled when Fine sedimentary particles can act as both a there will be the least probable impact on the most source and a sink for nutrients and. other constitu- "important" indigenous species. Generally, for any ents. Nutrients may be sorbed onto fine-grained given species the early life history stages are more particles, or desorbed from them depending upon a sensitive to environmental stresses than later stages. variety of physico-chemico conditions. These include Studies indicate that substantial dredging and salinity, pi, temperature, the chemical composition spoiling projects can be carried out in estuaries of the particles, and the concentrations of nutrients without any gross biological effects or any persistent in the water. The mechanisms that control these aesthetic degradation. Any chronic-biological effects exchange processes are poorly understood, and that might arise either from exposure of organisms should be investigated. to spoil and associated contaminants for long periods, It is well known that fine-grained particles con- or from exposure to relatively subtle, but persistent, centrate a variety of pollutants, including: petroleum changes of the physico-chemico milieu have not byproducts, heavy metals, pesticides, and some been documented. Much of the research that has radionuclides. In the water column the bulk of each been done and is still being done to determine the of these contaminants is usually associated with effects of dredging and spoil disposal is ill conceived fine suspended particles, and therefore the distribu- and will not provide answers to the pertinent tion, transportation and accumulation of these sub- questions. stances are determined primarily by the suspended sediment dispersal systems. Filter-feeditig organisms which ingest these particles and associated con- EFDECTS ON WATER QUALITY taminants agglomerate the smaller particles into AND AESTHETICS larger composite particles in their feces and pseudo- Fine-grained suspended sediment can affect the feces thereby providing the contaminants in a more distribution of dissolved oxygen in estuarine waters concentrated -form to deposit feeders. Laboratory both directly and indirectly. The oxygen demand of experiments have demonstrated the ability of oysters DREDGING EFFECTS' 205 to concentrate DDT in their pseudo-feces. Increases manage estuaries for the greatest use of man, are in the concentration of DDT and other pesticides in described below. detritus particles of fine-grained bottom sediment of estuaries of up to 100,000 times those in the over- lying waters have been reported. These residues can Sources of Sediment to Estuaries sometimes be transferred to detritus feeding or- ganisms. Increases in the concentration of con- . I n.reaes i n t h onentationofon-One of our principal needs in understanding the taminants at each trophic level are well documented One of our principal needs in understanding the for> .-di v *s e .n s. mlh ~ *sources of sediment brought to estuaries is for more for radioactive isotopes and some pesticides. This phenomenon has been referred to as "biological complete data on the sediment loads carried by magnification." rivers-the principal source of sediments to most Finemseagn if es ca in aloo serve as a temporary sink estuaries. In less than half of the estuaries of the Fine sediments can also serve as a temporary sink country do we have any kind of regular measurement for radioactive contaminants. It has been shown, for ex asle , th.t 66Zn .ay ,e held by fine-graine of the input of river sediment. Furthermore, the example, that B5Zn may be held by fine-grained sediments for. months withl a continual low level records we do have are mostly too short. Only a few sediments for months with a continual low level release to the interstitial and overlying waters. rivet stations have been in operat The effects of fine-grained particles and their enough to have documented the extreme nts are so important in the introduction of sediment: associated contaminants on the composition of both even ts such as the hu rricane flood of Augus t 1955 .he .nterstitial and overlyi. wates, ,nd oevents such as the hurricane flood of August 1955 th e interstitial and overlying, waters, and on the when the Delaware River carried more sediment past biota are p oorly unders tood . This is an area that Trenton in two days than in all five years combined should receive considerable attention. From the in the mid-1960's drought; or the three days in standpoint of dredging, it is particularly important. n the mbd-1960s drought; or the three days in December 1964 when the Eel River in northern Appropriate standards for permissible levels of California transported more sediment than in the contaminants in spoil should be based, not on the total concentration of each contaminan.t, but on the preceding eight years; or the week following Tropical total concentration of each contaminant, but on thine 1 *n t * l f * a n. - . l.lStqrm Agnes in June 1972 when the Susquehanna concentr at is available for b iological uptake-s much sediment as during discharged 20-25 times as much sediment as during the concentration of the reactive fraction. While the previous year. Events of this magnitude occur standards based on totals are safe they place undue only rarely-a few times a century at most-but restrictions on the disposal of dredged materials. It only rarelya few times a century at most-but their importance to estuarine sedimentation is so is becoming clear that fine-grained particles play a significant role in determining the quality of the great that progra should be designed to record estuarine environment, and the composition of its t h eir effects when and where they d o occur. biota. Daily sampling stations should be established on the lower reaches of all major rivers-upstream Increases in the levels of suspended particulate he lower reaches of . stream from the landward limit of measurable sea salt matter can also have a significant aesthetic effect. Above some threshold level, suspended, matter is intrusion-to measure the inputs to estuaries of water, sediment, nutrients, and other substances. aesthetically displeasing and inhibits recreational water, sediment, nutrients, and other substances. use. This level is a function not only of the total These stations should be permanently maintained to catch the large events, and permit an assessment concentration, but also of the size distribution and of their relative importance. In addition, a funding the composition of the suspended material. A con- mechanism should be developed to support research rentration f 1A0 m/l of fine 3u~ sd ,os n mechanism should be developed to support research centration of 100 mg/1 of fine quartz sand does not haventrati of ef f ect mgn ofatine colort sand t rresnc of the effects of events on the estuarine environment. have the same effect on water color and transparency as does the same concentration of organic-rich silt We also need o furher our undersanding of sources of estuarine sediments other than rivers. In and clay. Individuals also have different aesthetic thresholds. a recent study of the sources of shoaling material in the navigation channels of the Delaware estuary, for example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers esti- mated that only one-fourth of the shoaling material SOME RECOMMENDATIONS could be accounted for by present day river sources. FOR FURTHER STUDY The remaining three-fourths was attributed to erosion of the bed and banks of the estuary, diatoms Some of the types of studies we feel must be done produced in the estuary in response to an excess if we are to understand how estuaries operate supply of nutrients, and other sources (some of sedimentologically; if we are to be able to predict which could not be identified). It has been suggested the consequences of manmade alterations of the that shore erosion is the principal source of sediment prevailing sedimentary processes; and if we are to to the middle and lower reaches of the Chesapeake 206 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Bay estuary. These sources deserve more of our most estuaries is the question: on a net basis, does attention so that we can identify them more ac- more sediment move out of the estuary into the sea curately, assess the rates at which they add sediment than moves into the estuary from the sea? We know to the estuaries, and find out to what degree they that sediment escapes from estuaries on outgoing are subject to manipulation and control by man. tides, and we know that sediment is moved into estuaries from the sea floor on incoming tides; but ~~~Routes and Rates ~we do not know enough about the quantity or kind Routes and Rates ~of Sediment Transport of sediment that moves either way to be able to say whether, on balance, more moves out than in. Tracers offer a promising approach to studying Here again, well-designed tracer studies might be the routes and rates of sediment movement. Tracers useful. such as fluorescent particles can be added to the An estuary's sedimentary deposits contain the sediment, and the sediment can be sampled re- history of that environment, and it is only through peatedly to determine the routes and rates of sedi- the examination of this sedimentary record that one ment movement; or one can make opportunistic use can assess the impact of man on the distributions of distinctive contaminants, such as radioactive of both naturally occurring substances and of man- isotopes or heavy metals, that are dumped into made pollutants, such as PBCs (polychlorinated estuaries either intentionally or inadvertently. These biphenyls) and pesticides. Naturally occurring sub- compounds sometimes can be used as labels to stances include not only innocuous sedimentary follow sediments from known sources to sites of particles, but also some pollutants; pollutants such deposition. Releases from nuclear power plants as heavy metals which are present in the earth's should be investigated as possible tracers. An at- crust and are carried into the estuarine environment tempt should be made to assess the impact of man both in solution and adsorbed to fine suspended on the prevailing sedimentary processes. Such an particles by rivers and streams. Heavy metals are, assessment would have to come primarily from an of course, also introduced into the environment as examination of the sedimentary record. a result of man's activities. The sedimentary record also contains the most ~~~~~Patterns of ~reliable information of the frequency of natural Sediment Accumulation catastrophic events such as floods, droughts, and $ediment Accumulation hurricanes that have occurred during the past several thousand years. The importance of episodes in the In the past we have relied mainly on dredging development of estuaries has not been well docu- record s as a measure of sediment accumulation, buthe infrequency of such events mented because of the infrequency of such events ~~~~~~~~~~~and they ftell us amplingttle about howst seditorms in the large areas of estuaries that lie outside the and hd dredged channels. For some estuaries, modern day and floods. navigation charts have been compared with older ones (some dating back to the mid-1800's) to Model Studies estimate the accumulation of sediment. Because the charts are already available, a systematic comparison Physical and mathematical models can provide of old and recent survey sheets could be made for valuable insight into a variety of sedimentary proc- most estuaries of the country at relatively little esses. They are not, however, a panacea for all expense. Some newer techniques can also be ap- estuarine sedimentation problems, and are only as plied-particularly those techniques that use the good as the prototype data and theoretical assump- decay rate of naturally radioactive material to tions on which they are based. Perhaps the greatest measure the age of sediment and how long ago or need is for more attention to be directed at the how rapidly it may have accumulated. An effort formulation of conceptual models of estuarine sedi- should be made to refine those radiometric dating mentation. Conceptual models should, in any case, techniques that are particularly applicable to estu- precede the construction of mathematical or physical arine deposits, and to apply the techniques to a models. variety of estuarine systems. The two methods that have the greatest promise are Pbilo which has a Characterization of useful range of 10 to 100 years and C14 which can Fine-Grained Sediments be used to date events that occurred in the past 1,000 to 10,000 years. Appropriate field and laboratory studies should Another difficult aspect of the sediment budget of be conducted to characterize the chemical and DREDGING EFFECTS 207 mineralogic nature, and the reactivity of the fine- naturally areas of relatively rapid sedimentation, but grained, carbon-rich particles. It is clear that fine- much of the material dredged from navigation grained particles can play a major role in determin- channels is material previously introduced, and re- ing the quality of coastal waters, and the distribu- distributed by prevailing estuarine circulation proc- tion of organisms. These studies should also include esses. Further, the increasing use of deeper draft investigations that would lead to the establishment vessels, and the increasing demand for pleasure boat of meaningful diagnostic standards for the disposal marinas and facilities will require additional dredging. of dredged materials. While the present standards Estuary-wide dredging and spoil disposal plans used by the EPA to characterize dredged materials should be developed to ensure that maintenance were intended to be environmentally conservative channel dredging can be carried out without undue they may be unduly restrictive with respect to the delays. Such plans should include the designation of designated parameters, while they ignore a large a variety of types of sites (overboard, diked, et number of important contaminants such as'PCBs, cetera) for disposal of different types of spoil. pesticides, and others. In any event, they are clearly Certain kinds of spoil may have a greater environ- not based on sound scientific evidence. Standards mental impact if disposed of in aerobic (oxygenated) for dredged materials should not be based on the diked areas, than if disposed of by conventional total concentrations of contaminants, but rather overboard methods within oxygen-deficient areas of they should reflect the total masses of contaminants an estuary. If regional plans are not developed that are available for biological uptake. These promptly, the activities of a number of major ports masses are the concentrations of the reactive frac- will be seriously affected and will result in serious tions of these contaminants-the fractions available economic perturbations. These dredging and spoil for biological uptake-times the total mass of disposal plans should be significantly flexible to dredged material. Even with such standards, deci- provide a mechanism for decision making on requests sions on dredging and spoil disposal should be based for other types of dredging permits. The suggestion on the physical, chemical, biological, and geological that a number of our major ports are "poorly characteristics of the particular estuary. The uniform located" is to some extent correct, but the suggestion application Of Federal standards has little merit that they should be moved is naive at best. Major other than simplicity of enforcement. ports could not be moved without serious economic We know far too little about the effects of upheaval, and the lead time to implement any such sediment-borne contaminants on estuarine life. We proposals would have to be decades. The growth of need an extensive series of laboratory experiments some ports located near the heads of estuaries should to test the effects of a variety of contaminants on perhaps be controlled. different organisms. It is particularly important that We should also direct more attention to more these experiments simulate field conditions; too productive means of disposing of spoil. An example many of the experimental results we already have is the process developed by Professor Donald cannot be extrapolated beyond the laboratory. Only Rhoads of Yale University to make construction after such a series of experiments can we establish bricks from estuarine mud. Or we might consider diagnostic standards and criteria for such things as taking railroad cars that haul coal to seaports and dredged materials. Increased emphasis should be filling them on the return trip with dredge spoil directed at studies to determine the chronic effects that can be used to fill or reclaim lands that have of exposure to moderate excess concentrations of a been strip mined. Formation or nourishment of variety of contaminants. islands for recreational use is another possibility. The new Dredged Materials Research Program Surely there must be other more ingenious ways of (DMRP) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is disposing of dredged material than dumping in an important step in the right direction. The estuaries or transporting it out to sea. DMRP should provide a great deal of valuable in- formation for the more effective mangement of SOME CLOSING OBSERVATIONS estuarine dredging and spoil disposal. The great value of the estuarine zone is in the Alternatives to Present Practices multiplicity of uses it serves, but herein also lies its vulnerability. Estuaries can support certain levels Even if we succeed in reducing -Sdiment inputs of shipping and transportation without a loss of to estuaries through enforcement of strict soil con- commercial and recreational fish landings. Estuaries servation measures, dredging will continue to be a can tolerate some dredging and disposal activities persistent estuarine activity. Not only are estuaries without persistent damage to the biota or aesthetic 208 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL degradation. Estuaries also have a capacity to areas; still others should be preserved, or at least tolerate some human, industrial, and municipal conserved in a wild state. These segments are not wastes; and to assimilate some waste heat without all mutually exclusive; there would be considerable suffering persistent and significant ecological dam- overlap. And the spatial boundaries, of the various age. And, the biological resources of estuaries can zones should be defined as a function of time. be harvested at certain levels without seriously Because the primary reasons for the management affecting future yields. Estuaries can serve all of of estuaries are to protect their biological resources these uses and still remain aesthetically pleasing and to conserve their aesthetic and recreational environments for man's recreation-for his re- values, certain activities should be restricted more creation. But an estuary's capacities to support severely in some areas than in others and also during these varied activities are finite. The ability of an those periods when organisms are most vulnerable. estuary to tolerate each "environmental insult" During these vulnerable periods-generally the egg before suffering significant ecological or aesthetic and larval stages-temperature standards should damage not only varies from estuary to estuary but perhaps be more stringent, and dredging and spoil varies in different parts of a given estuary as well. disposals should perhaps be restricted or prohibited And, within any segment of an estuary it varies in the important spawning and nursery zones. The temporally. Uniform, invariant regulations and stan- zonation of estuaries would be much more difficult dards for the disposal of wastes, whether they are than zoning man's terrestrial environment, and some heat, nutrients, or dredged spoil, are environmentally of these suggestions may not be applicable to small naive. The only justification for their enactment is estuaries. The establishment and enforcement of an that it simplifies enforcement. A uniform speed limit estuarine zoning system would require more than of 25 mph is as irrational as one of 100 mph is simple policing. It would require careful and intel- irresponsible. Uniform estuarine regulations are ligent planning and management. But planning and wasteful of valuable natural resources-resources management by whom? that should be used, and used responsibly. The The establishment of a zoning system is contingent philosophy of those crusaders who espouse cessation upon the assignment of priorities to the various uses. as the solution to all environmental problems is not These decisions require not only scientific inputs but viable. People live. They eat, they defecate, they social and economic inputs as well. Decisions as to procreate, and yes, they also need to recreate. This which activities are "most important" and what is not to imply that we should not insist on good water quality standards are "good" or "acceptable" waste treatment, on carefully supervised methods are largely value judgments-important to whom? of dredging and spoil disposal, and on controlled ... good or acceptable for what purpose? Natural mining of bottom and subbottom mineral resources. scientists have no peculiar talents for making value We should. We should insist on more. judgments. Scientists can incontestably determine Estuaries should be zoned. To date, formal zona- neither what uses of an estuary are most important tion of the estuarine environment has been restricted nor even which are most desirable. In terms of gross primarily to that associated with military activities. monetary return, the most important uses of the Man zones his terrestrial environment into residential estuarine zone are, according to the "National and industrial areas, and he sets aside portions of it Estuarine Pollution Study," for military activities, for parks and forests for recreation. He identifies for shipping, and for industry. But the monetary other segments of it for the disposal of his waste values of commercial and recreational fisheries are products. He does not make it an official policy to also very high although they are more difficult to spread his garbage and trash uniformly over the estimate. And, if indeed, communication with nature landscape. He neither demands nor expects all parts is one of man's ultimate sources of happiness as of his terrestrial environment to be of equal quality. Dubos and others have suggested, then the true Should he expect to be able to swim and harvest worth of the recreational value of estuaries cannot seafood in every part of every estuary? Segments of be measured in dollars and cents. some estuaries should be identified as spoil disposal Through science, we can learn to understand areas, other segments as the receiving waters for estuaries and even to control them in part, but municipal and industrial wastes, others as sinks for scientists cannot unequivocally and decisively deter- the heated effluents from power plants, others as mine the ways in which we should control them. spawning and nursery areas, others for military These decisions should be made by the citizens who activities, and others as fishing and recreational are affected-by all of them. DDRE'J iNG EFFECTS' ' 209 REFERENCES Nelson; Bruce W., ed., 1972. Environmental Framework of Coastal Plain Estuaries. Geological Society of America Memoir, 133. Barnes, R. S. K. and J. Green, 1972. The Estuarine Environ- mrent. Applied Science Pub. Ltd., Ldndon. Schubel, J. R., ed., 1971. The Estuarine Environment: Estuaries and Estuarine Sedimentation. American Geo- logical Instit'ute, Washington, D.C. Short Course Lecture Folger, David W., 1972. Characteristics of Estuarine Sedi- nstitute, shington, D.C. Short Coe Leture ments of the United States. U.S.. Geological Survey Profes- sional Paper 742. Ippen, Arthur T., ed., 1966. Estuary and Coastline Hydro- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS dynamics. McGraw IHIill, New York. We thank 1M. Nichols, D. Hubbell, J. Conomos, and C. Lauff, George H., ed., 1967. Estuaries. American Association Zabawa for their suggestions. Contribution 116 of the Marine for the Advancement of Science, Pub. 83. Washington D.C. Science Research Center of the State University of New York. �: . ': ?- ". ' '.z, 7~.: : -' _' ? .-~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i - - 2 I 0 -~~~~~~~~~~ SIGNIFICANCE OI CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DREDGED SEDIMENT ON ESTUARINE WATER QUALITY G. FRED LEE The University of Texas at Dallas Richardson, Texas ABSTRACT During the past several years, there has been a major change in dredged material disposal in some estuarine waters in the U.S. This change is largely the result of finding that many of the sediments of rivers and harbors contain potentially significant concentrations of chemical contaminants. Some water pollution control regulatory agencies have adopted dredged material disposal criteria which have caused more expensive methods of disposal. A review of the information available today on the relationship between the presence of chemical contaminants in dredged sediments and water quality shows no technical justification for the general adoption of alternate methods of disposal at this time. Further, it is shown that some of the alternate methods of disposal may be more ecologically damaging than those previously used. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers initiated in 1973 the 5-year, $30 million Dredged Material Research Program, designed to provide a technical base of information for the determination of the most ecologically sound, technically, and economically feasible methods of disposal. This program shows great promise in providing needed information. It is recommended that the overly restrictive dredged material disposal criteria advocated by some environmental activist groups not be adopted. The results of the Army Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Research Program and other studies should be used for establishing criteria. INTRODUCTION sediments in many estuarine environments contained amounts of chemical contaminants which could Many American waterways have a significantly potentially lower water quality. By the early seven- recurring problem of accumulating sediments which ties, many Americans were caught up in the en- eventually interfere with navigation. It is of econom- vironmental quality movement. During this period, ic and social interest to Americans to maintain the at the mere discovery of a chemical contaminant in navigable waterways at a depth sufficient to allow the environment, activists would advocate large the water transport of goods. Generally, the question expenditures of funds for corrective action. In that is not one of Whether or not the U.S. waterways spirit, the Federal water pollution regulatory agen- should be dredged but is one of what method of cies developed criteria which changed the method of dredging and dredged material disposal is in the disposal of dredged sediments for some areas of the best overall interest of society. country. The process of removing settled solids from one The new methods of disposal were predicated on location and depositing them in another has an the fact that the sediments contained amounts of environmental impact on both locations. The po- chemical contaminants, which caused them to be tential impact includes turbidity (cloudy water) classified as polluted. The alternate methods of stirred up at the dredging and dredged material disposal generally required a much greater expendi- disposal sites, mechanical damage to the aquatic ture of funds for the dredging operation. In some organisms due to pumping for hydraulic dredging areas, the lack of a suitable alternate method of operations, burial of organisms at disposal sites, as disposal has caused the dredging of the waterway to well as toxicity to organisms arising from chemical be stopped or greatly curtailed. As a result, the contaminants in the sediments. It is the latter that cargo vessels using the waterway had to either causes sediments to be classified as polluted. lighten their loads or seek an alternate port. In the mid to late 1960's, increasing amounts of The situation that exists today in San Francisco information were gathered which showed that the Bay is a good example of this problem. The cost of 211 212 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL dredging and dredged material disposal in the bay water: quality. They are beyond the scope of this region has doubled' during the 'past several years, paper. largely as a result of environmental considerations.: This report does not attempt to provide detailed One would expect some problems associated with the documentation of each point raised. Instead,- it con- presence of chemical contaminants in the sediments sists of a synthesis of the author's views, -which are of the bay which, when dredged and disposed of in based on his having been actively involved as a bay waters, have a significantly' adverse effect on teacher, researcher and advisor to governmental water quality. However, upon examination of the agencies and industry on the environmental impact situation in the bay region, one finds that no one, of dredging and dredged material disposal. The U.S. including the water pollution control regulatory Army Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Re- agencies and the environmental activist groups, has search Program (DMRP) includes comprehensive yet attributed any problems to the presence of literature reviews prepared by various contractors; chemical contaminants in sediments, which have a which provide documentation of the various points deleterious effect on water quality as a result of covered in this report. Anyone interested in addi- dredging and dredged material disposal activities. tional discussion and documentation should contact Individuals knowledgeable in the behavior - of the author and/or the Corps of Engineers Dredged chemical pollutants in natural waters examined the Material Research Program at the Waterways Ex- federal criteria which forced alternate methods of periment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. disposal; they raised serious questions about'the Two Corps reports are especially 'pertinent as validity of these criteria. As'a result, the U.S. Army backup information to the discussion presented in Corps of Engineers, Which is one of the major dredge this report. The first is by Boyd et al. (1972), and ers of waterways in the U.S., initiated a program. presents a review of the overall problems-associated to determine which methods of dredging and dredged with dredging and dredged material disposal. The material disposal are in the nation's best interests. second report, by Lee and Plumb (1974), presents Their headquarters for this project is at the Water- a detailed review of the literature on the potential ways Experiment Station (WES) in Vicksburg, significance of chemical contaminants in sediments Miss. In addition, a number of Corps of Engineers as influenced by -dredging and disposal activities. districts have initiated regional research programs r designed to evaluate the potential problems of dredg- HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM ing and dredged material disposal.' This report dis- cusses the progress that has been made in the con- Prior to the environmental movement, dredged trol of chemical pollutants in waterways to be material was generally disposed of in the most dredged. economic-nanner possible, usually transportation to This report is not intended to be a discussion of all and disposal in deeper waters: By the late 1960's, of the' various problems associated with dredeing and early 1970's, -environmental activist groups and and dredged material disposal. It instead focuses some federal and state pollution control agencies exclusively on one of the most significant problems were advocating on-land disposal: Large amounts of of the past few years in the-area of estuarine water funds have been 'expended for-land disposal areas. quality. This problem requires congressional atten- ' During the past three years, -there have been sev- tion in order to develop a more meaningful approach eral attempts on the part of -federal and state water to the protection of water quality in U.S. estuaries pollution control regulatory agencies to develop with dredging and dredged material disposal activ- dredged material disposal criteria. These criteria ities. It should be emphasized that other aspects of were based on a limited scope study conducted in dredging and dredged material disposal should also the Great- Lakes, and were unfortunately made receive congressional attention. These problems applicable to -estuarine -and --marine systems as well. include the development of a more effective land In retrospect, it appears that such criteria were not erosion control program to reduce the need for dredg- suitable for the Great Lakes, much less other waters ing, the selection of a few harbors and waterways throughout the country. As a result of the use of as principal' ports for deep draft vessels, the- more these criteria, sediments in many parts of the coun- effective control of chemical and biological contam- try were classified as polluted when significant doubt inants arising from dorhestic, industrial, and agri- exists as to whether this was the case. cultural activities, and the development of more effective means for allocation of'the nation's-estu- NATURE OF THE PROBLEM arine and marine resources. Many of these tbpics are covered in other authors' contributions to the i The rapid changes in-dredging and dredging mater- U.S. EPA overall report- to Congress on estuarine ial disposal methods during the past few years have DREDGING EFFECTS 213 probably created as many problems as solutions. posal was adopted. Generally, on-land and in-water In some areas, dredging has stopped. In other areas, diked disposal areas have overflows that enter near- escalating costs are forcing private dredgers out of by watercourses. Thus, this disposal approach may business. Those who continue operating must ab- be more harmful to aquatic ecosystems than the sorb the increased costs. Yet, some of the more ex- disposal of dredged sediments in deeper waters. pensive alternate methods of disposal are prob- Those knowledgeable about the behavior of pol- ably more ecologically harmful than the previous lutants in natural waters have known for some time methods. that the primary area of concern for chemical con- It is difficult to estimate at this time the total taminants in natural water systems is fine particles. magnitude of the additional cost of alternate meth- Coarse particles readily settle to the bottom. The ods. However, in a survey of the various Corps of fine particles often contain the greatest concentra- Engineers districts, it was found that environmental tion of chemical contaminants and, because of their quality factors raised the cost of dredging by 10 to slower settling rates, have greater opportunity for 20 percent. For some Corps of Engineers districts, interactions with aquatic organisms. the increase represented 50 to 60 percent additional Some of the on-land or dike disposal areas near- cost. shore have been operated in such a way as to allow It is impossible to estimate the total cost for only a relatively short period of time for the settling alternate methods of dredged material disposal in of finer particles before returning the excess water estuarine waters. However, it is reasonable to expect to the nearby watercourse. This means that if there that several tens of millions of dollars are being spent is any adverse effect from dredged material, it would each year for alternate methods of disposal because occur to the maximum possible extent with on-land of arbitrarily adopted criteria which cause dredged or contained disposal. By contrast, any adverse sediments to be classified as polluted. Yet, there is effects of chemical contaminants associated with no evidence that the relatively economical sediment dredged sediments would generally be expected to disposal methods used in the past had significant be minimized in open water disposal because, in adverse effect on water quality. general, open waters allow much greater mixing of Many areas are not finding the alternate methods the contaminants with the surrounding waters. This of disposal, such as on-land disposal, feasible, and mixing would tend to rapidly dilute the chemical as a result must barge the dredged material further contaminants below critical threshold concentrations out into the open ocean. For example, the New York for the organisms present in the water column. More- District of the Corps of Engineers estimates that over, on-land disposal would bring contaminant they are spending about 1.2 million dollars per concentrations into contact with the most sensitive year out of a total dredging cost of 5 million dollars forms of aquatic organisms, since nearshore waters for additional transport of dredged material to open serve as the nursery grounds for the juvenile forms of water. The New York District Corps of Engineers many aquatic species. Thus; it is possible that points out that these figures do not include the in- in some areas the more expensive on-land disposal creased cost of goods such as oil, because partly methods in use during the early 1970's, have done loaded or shallow draft vessels must be used. more ecological damage to the water bodies than The New York District also reports that several have the traditional deep water disposal methods. marinas and small volume dredging companies have In addition, on-land disposal may also lead to con- had to go out of business because they cannot afford tamination of terrestrial ecosystems as well as nearby the increased costs of transporting the material to watercourses. However, at this time, little is known the open ocean. Also, because of environmental con- about the uptake of chemical contaminants by ter- cerns, dredging has ceased in some east coast harbors, restrial plants grown on polluted dredged sediments. such as Baltimore. Although the total increase in It is clear that, as normally practiced today, many cost is unknown, alternate disposal methods place of the alternate, more expensive ways of dredged a substantial burden on the public without any ap- material disposal may not be less ecologically damag- parent benefit in terms of improved environmental ing. Frequently, those who advocate alternate meth- quality. ods based on the presence of chemical contaminants, justify the increased expenditure by citing the lack PROBLEMS WITH of knowledge of the environmental impact of aquatic ON-LAND DISPOSAL disposal. They assert that the conservative approach should be used in those situations where there are In many areas, on-land disposal with complete questions about the impact on aquatic ecosystems. containment of the water associated with the sedi- This argument has some validity where the concern ments is not possible; so near shore diked area dis- is over the introduction of a chemical contaminant 214 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL into the environment. It is not technically valid, adopted by EPA as a basis for their October, 1973 however, for dredging and dredged material disposal Proposed Water Quality Criteria. It is likely that since the contaminants are already present in the attempts will be made to use these standards to environment and most importantly, since the alter- govern dredging and dredged material disposal. For nate methods of dredged material disposal could example, EPA Region IX has recently proposed produce significant environmental quality problems. revised dredged material disposal criteria for which they use as a justification the EPA October 1973 DREDGED MATERIAL Proposed Water Quality Criteria. However, this DISPOSAL CRITERIA presents a problem in that the criteria developed by the NAS-NAE and promulgated by EPA are applica- In 1972, two developments of major potential ble to forms of chemicals in a relatively simple chemi- significance to the disposal of dredged materials cal state. In natural waters, chemical contaminants occurred. The first was the passage of the 1972 exist in a wide variety of forms, many of which are Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Con- much less toxic than those simpler forms frequently trol Act. This act required the U.S. Environmental used to test aquatic toxicity. For instance, the chemi- Protection Agency (EPA) to propose water quality cals associated with the solids in sediments being criteria by October 1973. The other important event dredged would generally be in the least toxic form. was the 1972 release of the National Academies of herefore, any attempts to apply the EPA proposed Science and Engineering (NAS-NAE) Water Qual- criteria to dredging would likely be highly over-re- ity Criteria (NAS-NAE, 1972). These criteria repre- strictive in assessing the potential toxicity of chemi- sent several years of work on the part of scientists cal contamiants associated with sediments. and engineers throughout the U.S. in assessing the In developing dredged material disposal criteria, significance of various physical, chemical, and emphasis must be given to the role that dredging and dredged material disposal plays in affecting the biological contaminants to potential uses of fresh and and dredged material disposal plays in affecting the marine waters. The two events are closely related in significance of chemical contamants on water that the criteria proposed by EPA in October 1973, quality in a particular region. The problem is not were essentially based on the July 1972 NAS-NAE one of determining whether or not the sediments are water quality criteria. Both documents are potenti- contaminated The sediments of the majority of ally crucial to dredging because they suggest that the U.S. harbors and waterways are contaminated agencies which regulate water quality standards by chemicals of municipal, industrial, and agricul- tural origin. These contaminants do have an adverse significantly reduce the permissible concentrations tural orgi. These contaminants do have an adverse of chemical contaminants, effect on water quality in many U.S. estuaries. The The most crucial change stemmed from the dis- basic question, however, is what is the impact of that pollutants cruld b ge mchfronically toxic dredging and dredged material disposal in altering covery that pollutants could be chronically toxic. the significant adverse effects of these chemical Previous water quality standards throughout Amer- ica had been based on acute lethal toxicity (i.e., the relatively high levels of chemicals that cause the death of organisms within a few days of continuous CURRENT RESEARCH exposure). However, researchers found that con- tinuous lifelong exposure of aquatic organisms to By the early 1970's, the funds supporting research relatively low levels of chemical contaminants would in the development of water quality criteria had result in impaired growth and/or reproduction. The been greatly curtailed in an attempt to cut back on NAS-NAE concluded that, in order to provide the federal spending. Currently, little work is being ultimate protection to aquatic life, water quality conducted on the development of new criteria for criteria must also be based on chronic toxicity levels. the hundreds of new compounds that are being pro- The full impact of the NAS-NAE water quality duced each year, much less the thousands of com- criteria is yet to be manifested. The main problem is pounds that have been produced and are being in- that although the National Academies released the troduced into the environment today. It appears criteria in 1972, it took two and one half years for that, unless a major change takes place in the ap- EPA and the Government Printing Office to print proach to funding in the water quality criteria de- them. velopment area, it will be difficult to develop mean- The importance of the new NAS-NAE criteria is ingful criteria which can be used to properly evaluate that they will eventually become water pollution the full significance of chemical contaminants asso- control standards because they are essentially being ciated with sediments in rivers and harbors. DREDGING EFFECTS-: 215 With respect to dredged material disposal prob- sult of being made available by dredging or dredged lems as they affect estuarine pollution, perhaps the. material disposal. most significant event of the past three years was the It is apparent that one of two things must take funding of the $30 million, 5-year research program place in order to eliminate the dredged material being conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- disposal criteria chaos that exists today. Either the neers, Vicksburg Waterways Experiment Station. EPA regions must utilize the criteria established In many parts of the country, typical costs of dredg- by EPA national headquarters, or Congress must ing have increased from 30 to 40 cents per cubic appropriate sufficient funds to strengthen the tech- yard to 50-60 cents per cubic yard. In some cases, nical competence of the regional staffs so that these because of environmental considerations, the costs staffs could develop meaningful criteria for their of dredging and dredged material disposal approach particular regions. Frequently, the individuals re- $10 per cubic yard. The U.S. Army Corps of Engi- sponsible for making decisions of this type have neers' current annual budget for dredging and limited knowledge of the environmental chemical dredged material disposal is approximately behavior of pollutants in natural water systems. $200,000,000 a year. While the dollar magnitude of These individuals usually play it safe by taking the the 5-year research program is substantial, it should conservative approach and assuming that everything be noted that if this program results in savings of is polluted. Thus, they cause the public to spend one to two cents per cubic yard, it will pay for itself large amounts of money for alternate methods of during its lifetime. disposal. Since dredging is largely funded by tax The Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Re- dollars, such an approach leads to increased govern- search Program (DMRP), while originally moti- ment spending and accelerated inflation. In the vated primarily by a lack of knowledge on environ- opinion of many, the adoption of arbitrary bulk mental impact of dredging and dredged material chemical criteria which have no relationship to disposal, is providing information on constructive potential effects on water quality may do much use of dredged materials, such as in the development greater harm to the financial and ecological resources of wildlife habitat. Most importantly, from the point of a particular area than the utilization of the avail- of view of this discussion, this research project will able information to determine whether a particular provide valuable information that can be used to chemical contaminant present in sediments is likely develop meaningful dredging and dredged material to have an adverse effect on water quality. disposal criteria. These will enable those responsible Another significant problem with water pollution for environmental resource management to evaluate control agencies adopting arbitrary dredged material the potential environmental impact of chemical, disposal criteria is that this will eventually further contaminants in sediments which are scheduled to' erode the public's confidence in the ability of the be dredged. From these studies, criteria will be de- agency to act on its behalf, Many individuals al- veloped which will be transformed into standards ready question whether the approaches being used for dredging and dredged material disposal. by water pollution regulatory agencies are in the overall best interest of the public. There is an urgent need for these agencies to gain credibility in the CURRENT SITUATION environmental quality control area. The first attempt to establish criteria relative to At present, although dredged material disposa the pollutional tendencies of a given concentration criteria are supposed to be uniform across the U.S., of chemical contaminants in sediments utilized what there is considerable confusion in the estuarine is termed "bulk criteria." Bulk criteria are based on dredging field concerning the criteria which deter- an examination of the total content of the sediments mine whether a given sediment contains sufficient for a particular element or compound. Use of these concentrations of chemical contaminants to warrant criteria generally assumes that all the forms of alternate methods of disposal. A situation exists that element are equally toxic. Those familiar with whereby each EPA region is able to promulgate its aquatic toxicity know that this is certainly not the own criteria irrespective of EPA's efforts to estab- case. There is no relationship between the bulk com- lish uniform criteria. To develop their criteria, the position of sediments and the water pollution tend- regional EPA districts often resort to the bulk cies of the chemical contaminants present in the analysis approach rather than attempt to assess sediments. what part of the chemical contaminants may ad- In an effort to eliminate the problems associated versely affect water quality or aquatic life as a re- with bulk criteria, EPA and the Corps of Engineers 216 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL developed the elutriate test. This test exposes the RECOMMENDATIONS sediment sample to a known volume of water and then allows the chemical contaminants to be leached The following recommendations are proposed to from the sediments. The elutriate test is primarily serve as the basis for developing the technical in- designed to examine potential problems due to the formation needed to evaluate the environmental release of chemical contaminants from sediments impact of dredging and dredged material disposal during the dredging and dredged material disposal in estuarine waters of the U.S. process. The primary problem with the elutriate test 1. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredged is that it has not yet been properly evaluated for the Material Research Program, devoted to evaluating wide variety of sediments that occur in various the environmental impact of dredging and dredged estuaries and waters throughout the country. This material disposal (including the evaluation of various leads to confusion over the interpretation of the beneficial uses of dredged material) should be con- test results. The Corps of Engineers DMRP is de- tinued, at least at the currently programmed funding voting considerable effort to finding a remedy for this level, for the duration of the program. situation. It is likely that within a year or so the 2. The overly restrictive position based on bulk elutriate test will become a standard tool to evaluate chemical criteria advocated by some environmental the potential deleterious effects of chemical! con- activist groups and water pollution control regula- taminants such as copper, DDT, et cetera, on the tory agencies at the local, state, and federal level, water near dredging and dredged material disposal should not be adopted. sites. 3. The current fragmented approach toward estab- In addition to developing the elutriate test, the lishing dredged material disposal criteria and stand- Corps of Engineers DMRP is funding studies which ards at the various regions of the EPA should be are designed to evaluate the potential deleterious eliminated and national criteria should be adopted. effect that will occur on benthic organisms at the The national criteria should provide a basis for eval- dredged material disposal site. It is likely that uating the potential significance of chemical con- a standardized bioassay procedure will be developed taminants present in dredged sediments. In applying as part of this research program. Within a few years; these criteria, consideration should be given to local water 'pollution control regulatory agencies will factors which would influence the significance of likely have the tools necessary to evaluate, prior to chemical contaminants at a particular dredging dredging, whether the Chemical contaminants pres- and/ or dredged material disposal site. These criteria ent in'the sediments will have an adverse effect on should be developed jointly by individuals repre- water quality at the dredging and dredged material Senting the EPA, Army Corps of Engineers, and disposal sites. others knowledgeable about the environmental It is in the best interests of the public, overall, impact of dredging and dredged material disposal. to adopt interim dredged' material disposal criteria which prevent the deposition of dredged materials in ecologically sensitive areas, such as significant fish REFERENCES spawning areas and shellfish beds. The interim cri- teria should be based on all available inforrmiation Boyd; M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Kelley, R. L. Montgomery, on the significance of chemical contaminants present R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis and C. J. Guice. Disposal of in dredged sediments to aquatic ecosystems. If al- Dredge Spoil. Problem Identification and Assessment and in dredged sediments to aquatic ecosystems. If al- Research Program Development. U.S. Army Corps of ternate methods of dredged material disposal are Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, advocated because of-these criteria,, a careful review Miss., Technical Report H-72-8, (1972). should be coriducted to ensure that the alternate methods do, in fact, minimize environmental im- Lee, G. F. and R. B. Plumb. Literature Review on Research Study for the Development of Dredged Material Disposal pact of the chemical contaniinants in sediments in Criteria. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experi- both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These in- ment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., Contract No. DACW- terim criteria should be modifiedi according to in- 39-74-C-0024, (1974). fornriation, developed as a result of the Corps, of E ngin eers Dredgveloped Mat erial Researh Progra of National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engi- Engineers Dredged Material Research Program neering, Water Quality Criteria 1972, U.S. Government aiid other studies. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. LIMITING FACTORS THAT CONTROL DREDGING ACTIVITIES IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE JAMES H. CARPENTER University of Miami Miami, Florida ABSTRACT The current level of dredging activity for navigation channels (250,000,000 cubic yards annually) is producing substantial effects in the United States estuaries. These effects derive from 1) physical changes at the dredge site and release of substances from the sediment during the dredging; and 2) physical changes at the disposal area-filling of deeper areas and smothering of bottom dwelling organisms-and release of substances to the waters of the disposal area. The recent increasdd use of diked disposal areas, along the shorelines at increased costs, does not eliminate all of the environmental effects. Since soil erosion throughout the watershed is the primary source of the sediments, the obvious management strategy is control at the source. In addition to the recognized desirability of soil conservation, erosion control should be identified as essential to prevent continuing damages to estuaries. INTRODUCTION to produce reservoirs has reduced the flow of soil to the estuaries but the reservoirs are rapidly ac- Navigation and cargo transport are valuable uses cumulating sediment. Past and present failure to of estuaries that must be considered in formulating control erosion has led to a continued filling of the strategies and policies for management of U.S. estuaries. In many cases, fine-grained sediment has estuaries. The optimization of policies to meet mul- been introduced to the point where resuspension by tiple-use objectives for estuaries presents intriguing wind, waves and tidal currents leads to rapid transfer and perplexing challenges with unavoidable inter- into the quieter waters of deep channels and rapid twining of scientific and political considerations. filling of navigation works. Policy development that does not adequately con- Failure to develop effective policies will impact the sider both kinds of considerations may lead to the economics and natural resources of many coastal extremes of thoughtless waste of natural resources or states. As shown in Table 1, nearly every coastal to excessive preservation. Examples of both extremes state had maintenance and new projects proposed can be found in the United States today. for FY 72. Many of the proposed work programs Creation and maintenance of navigation channels were not carried out, either for a lack of funding in the United States is a substantial activity of the priority or because of questions concerning environ- Federal government through projects carried out mental effects and whether or not the optimal ap- by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The scope of proach had been proposed. The economic con- recent activities and associated partially understood sequences of the projects are not related to proposed environmental effects have been reviewed by the yardage of dredging by a constant proportionality. Army Corps of Engineers'. The level of dredging For example, Maryland's project of 0.4 million cu yd, activity has been approximately 250,000,000 cubic (a small part of the national program), was not yards annually in recent years for just maintenance, carried out in FY 72 and the Baltimore Evening Sun and the magnitude has led .to questioning of the recently headlined, "Port Dredging Delay Costs City acceptability of the various environmental effects. $30 Million."' This article describes the economic The rather high level of activity has developed as impacts of the continued delay in maintenance the result of two different processes. Increased land dredging with 42-foot authorized channels having utilization for agricultural, industrial, and domestic shoaled to 36 feet and at some points to 27 feet. purposes in the watersheds that feed the estuaries Similar substantial economic impacts are occurring has led to increasing amounts of soil introduction. in other regions, notably San Francisco, Mobile, Concurrently, new and expanded ports have been Galveston and the Great Lakes. Co-ntinued stale- developed, along with increasing use of deeper draft mates will have increasing impacts on the citizens cargo vessels. In some cases the construction of dams affected and the adversary postures of national and 217 218 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Dredging proposed for Fiscal Year 1972 State Maintenance New Projects New Hampshire.-..... ... .... 1.7 4 0 DOLLARS million cu yd million cu yd CUBIC YARDS 200- x CUBIC YARDS New York ----- -- 2.4 5.4 Pennsylvania / Delaware . 1.8 8.6 Z C) New Jersey O Maryland .. 0.4 _ . 160- - 400 Virginia ----------2.0 0.1 I / North Carolina .-... . ................... 6.0 0.1 140- - 350 CO South Carolina - 6.9 -1 _z 0 a 120 - -300 '- Georgia----------------- 1.7 F Florida ..-......- 2.8 - 100 - 250 CD Alabama ...-.......... 16.5 3.2 Miss64 65 6'6 67 6 69 70o 71 72 73 Mississippi'- 74.4 21 Louisiana--- -1'...-...........74.4 21 FISCAL YEAR Texas --.. .. ...... 28.7 17.6 FIGURE 1.-Recent federal dredging activities in volume and costs. Data supplied by U.S. Army Engineer Waterways California-------------------------.---- 4.9 2.9 Experiment Station. Oregon -O-.-...0.-..... 0.4 4.2 Washington 0.1 1 OBSERVED AND POTENTIAL EFFECTS Washington~~_~~~. .~. . ~~. ~. 0.1 1 1 OF DREDGING AND DISPOSAL Data source: reference 1. The effects of channel construction and main- tenance occur at the construction location and at the disposal location. Considering first the con- state agencies will have to be modified toward struction activities, the effects may be categorized as collaboration to develop multiobjective policies that follows balance economic and-conservation considerations. The national dredging effort during the past dec- ade is shown in Figure 1 in terms of yardage and dol- Direct Effects of Dredging lars. The decrease following FY 66 was the result of The excavation of channel includes the removal a twofold decrease in new projects and the increases of the living organisms and the loss of a fraction of since FY 69 are primarily associated with main- the total local population of benthic (bottom-dwell- tenance dredging. The rapid rise in costs since FY 72 ing) organisms. Harvestable species, such as oysters, appears to be due to changes in disposal practices to clams, shrimps, and so forth, may be involved as meet presumed environmental requirements. It well as species that are eaten by bottom grazing should be noted that in some localities increased fishes. The presence of a particular species is strongly costs have been much greater than average increases related to the physical character of the bottom, shown in Figure 1 and the national effort cost sta- particularly with respect to grain size, degree of tistics are ballasted by the high volume-low cost compaction, or firmness and organic content. When operations in Mississippi. Local project costs have a channel is cut, the newly exposed material is gone as high as 10 times the national average or up usually firmer than the previous surface and repopu- to $5 per cu yd. In some cases where costs have lation is limited to those species that find the new increased drastically, the projects cannot be justified conditions amenable. While channel construction on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis and the pro- reduces the area available to some species, channels jects have not been undertaken. The national trend, in the nation's estuaries occupy only a small fraction shown in Figure 1, appears to be substantial and the of the total area. The effects on the local populations following discussion attempts to outline the consid- are of questionable quantitative significance and the erations that are leading to the increasing costs and losses appear to be outweighed by the usefulness of delays. the channels. DREDGING EFFECTS 219 Indirect Effects of Dredging and toxicants are usually more important at the disposal site. The bottom materials of estuaries are composed While it should be trivially obvious that environ- primarily of quartz (sands), aluminosilicates (clay) mental effects are quantitative in character, for and calcium carbonate (skeletal fragments). These example, the release of one pound of an active materials are predominantly inert. However, organic substance per day may have discernible effects in a materials are also present and many elements (in- particular estuarine location and almost imper- cluding transition or heavy metals) are present in ceptible effects in another estuarine location, efforts lesser abundance in association with the surfaces of continue to classify sediments and dredging activities the bulk material and the organics. The organic on the basis of the composition of the materials materials may come from plant and animal life on involved. Inspection shows that a guideline or stand- the watershed, plant and animal life in the estuary, ard that would protect all estuarine locations from and discharges from domestic and industrial activi- environmental effects would be unnecessarily re- ties. As the estuarine sediments are being deposited, strictive and lead to a waste of public monies. much of the organic material is metabolized by The point to be made is that release of active microorganisms that flourish at the sediment sur- chemical compounds is a potential limiting factor face. However, not all of the organic material is on the acceptability of any particular dredging oper- metabolized and some becomes buried as additional ation, but the substantialness of the limitation can materials accumulate at the sediment surface. only be determined for each particular location and Metabolism occurs within the sediment and, at specific activity. some variable depth below the sediment surface, the A second kind of indirect effect that persists after supply of oxygen is inadequate to support the meta- the channel construction has been completed derives bolic rate and the metabolism is dominated by from changes in the currents and circulation caused anaerobic or oxygen-free processes. The predomi- by the presence of the channel. The intrusion nant anaerobic process is the use of sulfate ions to of seawater into an estuary depends on the fresh- support the oxidation of organic materials with the water flow rates, the strength of tidal mixing and the result that hydrogen sulfide is produced and mineral depth of the estuary. A new channel has the potential sulfides may be formed in the sediments, and hydro- for increasing the intrusion and therefore the salti- gen sulfide (rotten egg or swamp gas) accumulates in ness along the length of the estuary. Many activities the waters within the sediment. and requirements of estuarine organisms are related As the metabolism proceeds, nitrogen and phos- to the salinity of their environment. Some fishes phorus compounds (plant nutrients) are released to spawn in fresh water and others spawn in salt water the waters within the sediment. Some metals, par- but require brackish or low-salinity waters during ticularly manganese and iron, are solubilized from their maturation into adults. Increases in salinity the minerals and appear in sediment waters in have the potential for reducing the amount of habitat concentrations greater than that of the overlying available to these species. Success of some estuarine waters. The net result of these processes is that organisms, notably the oyster, reflects the intolerance many sediments that are considered for dredging of some predators, the oyster drill, to low salinities have relatively high concentrations of biologically and increasing salinities potentially extend the range and chemically active substances. For example, of the predators into the estuary. Once again, the hydrogen sulfide reacts rapidly with dissolved potential of these effects can be recognized but only oxygen and contributes substantially to the so-called evaluated in the context of a specific location with chemical oxygen demand of the sediments as well as its particular biota and physical characteristics. acting as a direct toxicant. Turning next to the effects of open water disposal, they may be categorized as follows. The presence of growth promoting (nutrients) and growth inhibiting compounds (toxicants) leads to questions concerning the effects of release of Filling of Deeper Areas- these substances during the disturbances associated Open Water Disposal with dredging. It is pertinent to note that molecular diffusion naturally transports these substances to The deep regions of estuaries may play a unique the overlying water and the dredging disturbance is role in supporting fish by providing havens during primarily a local, intense acceleration of the trans-, the winter cold season, as has been observed for port process. Most of the dredged material is trans- striped bass and croakers in northern Cheasapeake ported to the disposal site and effects of nutrients Bay. The deeper water is saltier but warmer than 220 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the surface waters in the winter and the existence Modification of Currents of the deep water refuges may be critical in avoid- and Flushing Rates ing "cold kill" of these fishes or migration of the fishes to the ocean. The significance of this considera- At locations where the dredged material is not tion varies from estuary to estuary and no generali- widely dispersed, filling to substantial depths will zations are possible. While the values of naturally occur and such environments have obviously weak occurring deep regions have been identified, there currents The reductin in cross-sectional area does not seem to have been justification for deliber- through which the water can flow may reduce the ately over-deepening stretches of navigation channels total flow and, thus, the flushing or renewal of the but this approach might be considered to mitigate waters in the estuary. Since the salinity distribution the loss of the natural areas, if the water quality in in an estuary depends on rates of river water input the navigation channels is suitable. and the circulation, the reduction in depths may have an additional effect in terms of changes in the salinity distribution. The potential for these effects is rather easily identified, but there do not seem to SmOrganisms and Repopulation be examples where it has been quantitatively signifi- Organisms and Repopulation cant. Open water disposal of dredged material m'ay re- Release of Sediment suit in covering rather large areas with the spoil. Discharged materials have been observed as deposits in areas manyfold larger than the nominal disposal As noted above, sediments contain biologically site.34 The potential for this effect is substantial active substances, both nutrient and toxic materials. since the annual volume of dredging could cover The possible release of these substances during open 268 square miles to a depth of 1 foot. The degree of water disposal'and following deposition of the dis- dispersal depends on the nature of the spoil, the charged materials has led to questioning the 'ac- strength of the currents at any particular disposal ceptability of such operations and is a major source site, and on the kind of dredging operations since of current arguments hopper dredging produces less opportunity for disper-e m l Protection Age sal than hydraulic dredging. The Environmental Protection Agency has put sal than hydraulic dredging. forth "criteria for determining acceptability of If the dredged material is similar to the existing dredged spoil disposal to the Nation's waters" (refer- material at the disposal site, the effects of smother- ence i, page 32). Criteria (h) reads, "...when con- ing may be transient and repopulation to replace the centrations, in sediments, of one or more of the killed organisms could occur. This may be the case following pollution parameters exceed the limits frequently for new work, but maintenance dredging expressed below, the sediment will be considered commonly involves fine-grained material that ac- polluted in all cases and, therefore, unacceptable for cumulates preferentially in the dredged channels. open water disposal." Transfer of fine-grained materials to locations with existing firmer, coarse-grained sediments may be SEDIMENTS IN FREsM AND MARINE WATERS expected to produce long-term population changes Cone. % (Dry Wt.) as reported in reference 3, and, even though some Volatile solids 6.0 species reappear in large numbers, the community Chemical oxygen demand ------------------- 5.0 structure will be changed. Such changes in the bot- Total Kjeldahl nitrogen _ 0.10 Oil-grease ................................ 0.15 tom of a habitat may be a major limitation on spoil Mercury -------------------------0.001 disposal in estuaries. -Lead .................................. 0,005 Smothering may be a particularly severe limita- Zinc -------------------.--------------- 0.005 tion in areas of high water clarity, since benthic e grasses may be an important part of the community Some of the deficiencies associated with numerical and repopulation of denuded areas will be slow. concentrationlimits maybeseenfrom consideration of the zinc "criterion." The average abundance of Even in the warm waters of Florida, the return of zinc in rocks and soils on the surface of the earth is seagrasses to damaged areas has been observed to 0.01 percent' and most naturally occurring materials require many years. Similarly, corals regenerate would fail to meet the criterion but it is difficult to slowly and losses are not readily replaced. consider them polluted. The sediments being dis- DREIDGING EFFECTS 221 charged to the Chesapeake'Bay in the Susquebianna The' purpose of drawing attention to the inad- River flow average 0.05 percent zinc6 and nearly all equacy of numerical concentration limits for dredged of the sediment in Chesapeake Bay would not meet materials (that are analogous to effluent standards) the criterion. However, there is no evidence that is that such an approach will frequently either not these concentrations impair the environment of the properly protect environmental values or unneces- aquatic organisms in Chesapeake Bay. sarily restrict some useful activity. Just as a re- There appear to be two major deficiencies in the sponsible physician will not make a diagnosis or concentration criteria, The first is that the quantity prescribe treatment without studying the individual involved in any particular activity is not considered; patient, limitations on estuarine dredging due to i.e., disposal of 100 tons of sediment with 0.05 percent release of materials to the water can only be devel- zinc could potentially result in the release of 0.05 oped on the particulars of each individual proposed tons or 100 pounds of zinc to an estuary and, simi- activity. Environmental requirements of estuarine larly, with numerical criterion of 0.005 percent zinc, organisms can be established in a straightforward the release could be 10 pounds. Whether or not the way and be broadly applied as water quality criteria, resulting environmental perturbation in either case but the meeting of those requirements cannot be would be significant depends on the particular estu- mandated by adoption of arbitrary input concentra- ary and the rate of the release. Each particular op- tion limits, despite administrative enthusiasm for eration should be considered in terms of the time simple; universal regulations. and spatial intensity of the perturbation and whether or not appropriate water quality criteria will be Creation of Land Along exceeded in a sufficient area for a sufficient time to Creation of Land Along Shorelinesgand Islands produce an, unacceptable effect on the aquatic pop- ulations in the estuary. ulations in the estuary. In view of the above effects of open water disposal, For sediments, the gross or total composition does - confined or diked disposal areas have been increas- not seem to be the appropriate aspect for considera- used. Frequently, the shallow areas along the tion and this is a serious deficiency in the existing estuary shorelines have been used. Such use causes a estuary shorelines have been used. Such use causes a criteria. Using zinc as an example, the pertinentf valuable estuarine environment information is the availability of the zinc to the and, in some cases, has produced land that has only biological systems, both during the disposal opera- limited usefulness for long periodsof time. Current tions and after the dredged material has been depos- research directed by the Army lorps of Engineers � . ~ 5 r 5 T t- a research directed by the Army Corps of Engineers ited, i.e., both short and long-term release. Much of is aimed at developing techniques and engineering the sediment zinc may be immobile and, thus, in- practices to improve the quality of the land in the nocuous. An approach to evaluating the short term diked disposal areas. However, in view of the limited release is the elutriate test described under the EPA -area of estuaries in the United States, conversion of Ocean Dumping Final Regulations and Criteria present estuarine water bodies to fast-land is not an 227.61 (C)7 in which the material proposed for dis- attractive long-term strategy. posal is shaken with water from the disposal site One limitation on the use of shoreline diked dis- and the resulting solution is analyzed for released posal is the necessity of retaining suffcient width to substances. At present, there is no accepted way of discharge of storm runoff without ex- permit the discharge of storm runoff without ex- evaluating the potential long-term release or effects cessive upstream flooding. The Potomac estuary on bottom-dwelling organisms. A possible procedureWashington, D.C., is a good example in that would be the examination of the characteristics' of p ast diking produced useful land for Washington the material at the proposed dredge site by 'analysis National Airport, Blue Plains 'Treatment Plant, and of the pore or interstitial waters of the sediment and forth, but furthe diking would likely produce n the bottom-dwelling, deposit feeding organisms. If unacceptable reduction in the capacity to discharge substances are being released to the overlying waters, flood waters. Changes in the width of an estuary also the pore waters will be greatl y enriched and an flood waters. Changes in the width of an estuary also the pore waters will be greatly enriched and an will have effects on the circulation, flushing, and estimate of the rate of release can be found from the salinity distribution to change the character .of the contrast between the concentrations in the pore estuary. waters' and the overlying waters. If substances are In addition to the ready generalization that de- entering the biological food chains' through deposit struction of shallow water and marshland habitats feeding organisms, the significance of this process on a large scale and continuous basis is a waste of could be judged from the amounts appearing in such our limited resources, few property owners view organisms. : with favor the construction of a diked spoil disposal 222 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL facility adjacent to their lands and the states are Figure 1. As appropriate open water estuarine sites reluctant to enter into condemnation proceedings. and adjacent shoreline areas are fully utilized, upland This is a practical limitation that is limiting dredg- and deep ocean disposal become the only alternatives ing in estuaries and will also be a serious limitation and costs can be expected to increase by tenfold or to upland or dry land disposal. more. As costs move to tens of dollars per cubic The use of diked disposal areas has been proposed yard, the alternate of vigorous action to attack the for materials that have been classified as polluted. root of the problem becomes more attractive. Failure As noted above, such classification may not be an to regulate human activity has led to well-docu- accurate evaluation of the environmental hazards mented increases in the rates of soil erosions. Prob- associated with the materials, but, in addition, it is lems in the national dredging program are inversely not clear that diked disposal solves the problem. related to successes in the national soil conservation The process of dredging unavoidably involves the program. It has long been the view of this writer mixing of the sediment with large quantities of that sedimentation at increased rates poses the most water. If biologically active materials are released to serious threat to the nation's estuaries and the dredg- the water, the discharge of the water from the diked ing problems simply highlight the continuing damage area into shallow waters with little dilution capacity being done through failure to control erosion. would be expected to display greater environmental Substantial progress has been made in the re- effects than would have occurred with open water search, development, and application of procedures disposal. Many estuaries have sediments with high to reduce erosion. Many examples of successful use concentrations of iron sulfides that are stable in the of such knowledge could be cited; however, more absence of oxygen. With diked disposal, the percola- obvious are the failures to use such knowledge. Poor tion of oxygenated waters through the material may agricultural practices, slipshod road construction, produce the familiar acid mine drainage waters that and aggravated stream erosion due to storm water result from the production of sulfuric acid upon from paved areas are easily observed. The federal oxidation of iron sulfides. Evaluation of the signifi- program of advice and information dissemination cance associated with these potential effects requires to the states, counties and individuals has been quantitative considerations; i.e., what fraction of sound, but action is primarily at the county and the habitat is modified, for how long, to what degree individual level. At present there are only local in- from water quality criteria. centives and the pollutional aspects of the soil erosion in one county harming the estuarine resources, SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM iicluding navigation, of an adjacent county have POSSIBILITIES received little attention. With increasing costs and greater recognition of damages due to upstream The current research program directed by the negligent or improper practices, the need for action Army Corps of Engineers should provide improved, should be a matter for federal concern and activity factual information upon which assessment of new by the appropriate agencies. short-term options can be based. Where open water disposal is not suitable (habitat modification through REFERENCES physical effects may be expected to be a more severe restraint than pollutional effects), diked disposal 1. Boyd, M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Keeley, R. L. Montgo- with adequate engineering practices may be a viable mery, R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis and C. J. Guice, option. Reduction in environmental damage due to "Disposal of Dredge Spoil-Problem Identification and runoff and leaching from the disposal sites may lead Assessment and Research Program Development," Tech. Report H-72-8, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- to increased costs and more complex disposal tech- ment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1972. nology. The acceptability of such operations should be increased as techniques for making the disposal 2. The Evening Sun, December 12, 1974, Baltimore, Md. areas useful as land for human activities or wildlife habitat are developed. The optimal procedures will 3. Cronin, L. E., "Gross Physical and Biological Effects of Overboard Disposal in Upper Chesapeake Bay, NRI have to be developed for each estuary with due Special Report No. 3, (U.S. Department of Interior, regard to its socio-economic setting. Washington, D.C., 1970). However, these approaches to ameliorating dam- ages to estuaries from dredging will be increasingly 4. Saila, S. B., S. D. Pratt and T. T. Polgan, Providence Harbor Improvement Spoil Disposal Site Evaluation costly as the cheaper options are exhausted. This Study, Phase II, (University of Rhod e Is land, Kingston, trend is clearly shown in the pattern illustrated by R. I., 1971). DREDGING EFFECTS 223 5. Rankama, K. and Th. G. Sahama, Geochemistry, (The 7. Environmental Protection Agency, "Ocean Dumping Final University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1950). Regulations and Criteria," Federal Register, Washing- ton, D.C., October 15, 1973. 6. Carpenter, J. H., W. L. Bradford and V. Gant, "Processes Affecting the Composition of Estuarine Waters (HCO3, 8. Brown, C. B., "Effects of Soil Conservation," Applied Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Co and Cd)," Recent Advances Sedimentation, Ed. by P. D. Trask, John Wiley, New in Estuarine Research, (Academic Press, Spring, 1975). York, 1950. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DREDGING IN THE GULF COAST ZONE WITH SOME ATTENTION PAID TO SHELL DREDGING WILLIAM H. ESPEY, JR. Espey, Huston & Associates, Inc. Austin, Texas ABSTRACT The coastal zone is a rich national asset closely tied to our economy. Man's activity in the coastal zone has caused this rich national asset to be placed in jeopardy. "The National Estuarine Study" (1970) estimated that approximately 85 percent of the estuaries located on the gulf coast have been modified because of man's activities. Shell dredging activities in the gulf coast region indicate a slight downward trend and are expected to decline as a whole in the future. The reasons for the reduction in shell dredging activity reflect both alternative raw materials and environmental concern. However, the overall USCE dredging activities as well as private dredging are expected to increase in the near future. Insufficient data are available on the extent of dredging and filling in the gulf coast, where it is a major environmental problem. Many of the environmental aspects of dredging are not well understood. The federal permit system that deals with dredging activities in the coastal zone needs to be centralized and streamlined to expedite the efficient processing of permits. Environmental criteria used in evaluating USCE dredging permit applications should be clarified and quantified to the extent possible. INTRODUCTION These estuarine systems are generally more fertile and productive of plant and animal life than either The coastal zone constitutes one of our most land or sea, due in part to the dynamics of the tidal valuable and vulnerable natural resources, an asset cycle, which mixes incoming fresh water, with its closely related to our national economy. As the nutrient burden from the land, with the mineral- economic value of the coastal zone rises and popula- rich water from the sea. Thus is formed a kind of tion pressure increases, the conflict between corn- rich broth fed by both the land and sea, resulting peting uses of the coastal zone becomes a complex in a cradle of marine life. The estuary provides a problem. Today, we have almost six times as many sheltered environment for organisms which forms people in the United States as we had a century an abundant food supply for higher members of the ago. Since all of these people, in some fashion, call food chain. Some estuaries are the spawning grounds upon and derive some benefit from the coastal zone, and nurseries for many commercially important the "nation has been forced to recognize that what species. The United States Fish & Wildlife Service it had in surplus, it now has in jeopardy" (Singer, (Cain, 1968) estimated that approximately 90 per- 1969). Even seemingly unrelated uses of a coastal cent of the total harvest of sea food taken by Ameri- zone can have dire consequences; a solution to one can fishermen comes from the continental shelf, and irritating problem may engender far more pressing approximately two-thirds of the species involved problems. For example, pesticides that help citrus depend in one way or another on estuaries. growers in South Texas could result in fish kills in In addition, estuaries serve other beneficial needs, the Laguna Madre. While supertankers transport such as important nesting and wintering habitat oil economically to all parts of the world, a massive for migratory waterfowl, as well as resting and feed- oil spill can result in severe environmental damage. ing places during migration. Estuaries also provide Modifications of estuaries through dredging opera- many forms of recreation to people who boat, camp, tions, filling for real estate development, discharge explore, picnic, nature walk, or merely enjoy the of wastes from a city, fertilizer and pesticides in natural beauty of the coastal environs. Nowhere runoff from nearby land, are capable of disfiguring else do nature and urban conglomeration occur in and destroying the coastal zone. such close proximity. Approximately 30 percent of 225 226 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ... the total population of the United States is located Table 1.-U.S. commercial fisheries landings Gulf Coast Region compared to within a 50-mile coastal belt, while this area repre- other major coastal regions. (From U.S. Dept. Comm. 1970;1973) sents only about 8 percent of the total United States. 1940 1950 I 1960 | 1970 1972 1973 The U.S. Department of Commerce (1970) made an intensive study of the economic activity of the Total Poundage U.S. continental shelf for calendar year 1964. Eight Percent .- -- - 6% 12% 26 ' 35% 34% 33% major economic activities were identified: mining Rank .--.-.-... 6th 3rd 2nd 1st Ist 1st and petroleum; marine engineering; recreation; health and welfare; transportation; food and agri- TotalValue culture; defense and space; and research and de- Percent 11% 15% 24% 27% 32% 30% velopment. The level of economic activity was Rank 3rd 3rd 1t Ist Ist 1st estimated at $21.4 billion, a total that included operating expenses, investments, and income. A Chesapeake Washington & Oregon little more than half the money was spent for trans- South Atlantic Californa Gulf Great Lakes & Mississippi River portation activities; nearly $4 billion was spent for Alaska Hawaii recreational activities; and about $330 million was New England & Middle Atlantic the dockside value of the U.S. Fishery catch from the continental shelf area. The harvest of shellfish activities. Approximately 15 percent had been constituted the largest single portion of the U.S. Fishery catch value, about 38 percent. If the invest- slightly, 1 percent moderately, and 34 percent ment for harvesting a nd processing the entire U.S. severely modified by man's activities (see Figure 2). ment for harvesting and processing the entire U.S. Fishery catch for 1964 were included, then the total Unfortunately, many people do not realize the pro- Fishery catch for 1964 were included, then the total economic activity in fisheries increased to $1.4 bil- found influence on the ecology of an estuary which lion, a very respectable industry (Singer, 1969) can result from modifications in the watercourse. lion, a very respectable industry (Singer, 1969). Oftentimes, even when they do understand the con- A significant segment of the United States coastal Oftentes, ev e n when they do understand the on- zone is the gulf coast, from the Mexican border on sequences, the short-term gain,, rather than the the west to the tip of Florida onthe east. is overall or long-term effects, may be the overriding the west to the tip of Florida on the east. This consideration for making such modifications. 1,500 miles of coastline constitutes the border- of five states where they meet the Gulf of Mexico. The economic importance of this region is reflected DREDGING ACTIVITIES in the commercial fishery production. In 1973, gulf One area of significant activity which esults in coast landings represented 30 percent of the esti- modification of the coastal zone and its estuarine mated $907 million in U.S. commercial fisheries regions is dredging. Whether to provide channels landings, The value of commercial fisheries along for navigation or materials for construction, dredg- the gulf coast has steadily increased in terms of both ing operations can represent a substantial alteration total poundage and dollar value (Table 1) as com- to natural coastal environments. Moreover, the in- pared to other coastal areas of the U.S. pared to of thergulf coastal areas of the U.S. tensity of dredging activities in the coastal zone is cApproximately 8 percentage of the gulf coast, as anticipated to increase as a result of pressures such compared to like percentage of the Atlantic and 15 as exploration, drilling, and transportation in re- percent of the Pacific coast, is composed of estuaries spons e to the energy crisis; the need for develop- (Singer, 1969). Gunter (1967) estimates that the sponse to the energy crisis; the need for develop- (Singer, 1969). Gunter (1967) estimates that the ment of superports; increased demand for housing total area of gulf coast estuaries ranges from approxi- and commercial sites; and demands for additional mately 17,000 to 20,000 square miles, or five to six coastal recreational facilities. times the size of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Dredging is the process by which sediments or The principal bays of the Gulf of Mexico are shown other materials are removed from the bottom of in Figure 1. "The National Estuarine inventory, in Figure 1. "The National Estuarine fdventory, streams, lakes, and coastal waters, transported by rerHandbook of Descriptors" (Wastler and de Guer- in ship, barge, or pipeline, and/or discharged to land rero, 1968) lists 39 primary estuarine systems in and/or open water. The common purposes of dredg- and/or open water. The common purposes of dredg- the Estrtie Regiary ster Areas alond 175 secondary- ing are to maintain, improve, or create new navigable tertiary systems along 3,670 miles of the shoreline. waterways or to provide construction materials Multiple utilization of gulf coast estuaries has such as sand, gravel, or buried shell. In the majority resulted in significant modification and loss of valu- of dredging operations, the solids are hydraulically able marsh and open water areas. "The National transported from the bottom of the waterway to a Estuary Study" (1970) determined the areas of dredge and then to a disposal site. This mixture of gulf coast estuaries that had been modified by man's suspended solids and water is called dredge soil. It DREDGING EFFECTS 227 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 I i - - ' I- I I I J I 32 - 1{ -32 14 16 .... 30 30 12 28 - < 21; \ ' . - 28 MEXICO6) -26 26 '- F E X I C O 24 24 22 :s 22 20 - I 20 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 FIGURE 1.-Masjor bays of the gulf coast of the United States. 1. LAGUNA DMADRE 9. CALCASIEU LAKE 17. PENSACOLA BAY 2. BAFFIN BAY 10. VERMILLION LAKE 18. CEOCTAWHATCHEE BAY 3. CORPUS CHRISTI BAY 11. ATCHAFALAYA BAY 19. APALACHEE BAY 4. COPANO BAY 12. TERREBONNE BAY 20. WACCASASSA BAY 5. SAN ANTONIO BAY 13. BARATERIA BAY 21. TAMPA BAY 6. MATAGORDA BAY 14. LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN 22. CHARLOTTE BAY 7. GALVESTON BAY 15. MISSISSIPPI SOUND 23. FLORIDA BAY 8. SABINE LAKE 16. MOBILE BAY is typically about 5 to 20 percent solids by weight Types of Dredges and 98 percent water by volume. The suspended solids vary in size from rather large rocks, bricks In general, dredging in the coastal zone is accom- and debris (e.g. cans, tires, and steel cable) to ex- plished by "floating dredges" which can be classified tremely small particles of clay. When given the as hydraulic or mechanical. Hydraulic dredges in- opportunity, the larger material quickly settles out elude suction pipeline dredges, with a suction or of the water, but the smaller and lighter particles cutterhead for digging in hard material, and the settle very slowly and dewater poorly. To protect self-propelled hopper dredge. Mechanical types in- the quality of the waterway, large volumes of spoil dude dipper and bucket dredges. Hydraulic channel must be transported and then stored for some time dredging and shell dredging make use of essentially in a disposal site before the water can be returned the same equipment although there are differences to the waterway. Transport and storage of spoil is in operations. Channel dredges construct or main- expensive and difficult when the disposal site is of tain navigation channels. In this operation, recent insufficient size or near capacity. Moreover, in urban alluvium and water are pumped from the bottom of areas adequate disposal sites are becoming increas- the channel and the spoil is discharged by pipeline ingly difficult to acquire. usually some distance away from the channel. Shell ;228 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL GULF OF MEXICO, ESTUARINE. ZONE ' CAPE ROMANO TO MEXICAN BORDER MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA LOUISIANA ALABAMA TEXAS . ?��,1 ;' Madl.eiy Modif led M61C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~R.eZNBRR Severaly Modified FIGURE 2.-Extent of effects of man's activities on gulf coast estuaries (from "National Estuary Study," 1970). dredges generally operate outside of channels in the from various state agencies. Also, along the gulf open estuary. Dredged material is screened and coast,. each state requires permits for dredging in washed to remove the shell. The discharge, cormn- the coastal zone. As a result of the 404 dredging posed mostly of original bottom material is returned permit system, considerable questions have arisen overboard in the immediate vicinity of the dredge. with regards to its relationship with the existing Section 10 permit system. These questions concern jurisdiction as well as specific engineering and en- vironmental requirements. The present Section 10 permit system, because of other federal agency re- activities in the coastal zone is under Section 10 of view in many cases, results in considerable time and the River and Harbors Act of 1899, which is admin- expended by the applicant because of istered by the United States Corps of Engineers (USCE). This permit is required when any dredging or filling is done in navigable waters of the United Shell Dredging States or in areas which may affect navigable waters. New Federal guidelines (Federal Register, April 3, Buried shell is an important natural resource found 1974) require that the environmental aspects of in the coastal zone. Industrial demand for this almost these dredging permits be considered. In addition, pure source of calcium carbonate is significant and the Environmental Protection Agency requires per- several major industries depend upon it. Private mits under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollu- companies annually dredge about $30 million worth tion Control Act Amendments of 1972 for the dis- of unprocessed clam and oyster shells from gulf charge of dredged or filled material. In each of the coast estuaries and the resource makes a substantial federal permits, review and approval is required contribution to the economy of many coastal areas. DREDGING EFFECTS 229 - Table 2.--Shell production In cubic yards by State (1965-74) Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Total (Jan. 1-Dec. 31) (Oct. I-Sept. 30) (Jan. I-Dec. 31) (Sept. 1-Aug. 31) 1965 .. ......... . ..... 1,675,557 1,972,499 208,222 N/A N/A N/A 1966 .--- --------- ---- 1,796,561 1,842,737 187,028 8,681,177 11,702,553 24,210,056 1967 .--- -------- - ---- 1,492,102 1,766,611 206,333 9,500,285 12,512,977 25,478,308 1968 .--- --------- ---- 1,102,052 1,867,794 228,i83 10,921,101 10,033,221 24,152,351 1969 .-- --------- - ----. 1,949,668 N/A 119,662 10,097,148 9,108,682 22,975,160** 1970 .--- -------- - ---- 1,480,472 N/A 165,144 10,283,276 9,097,316 22,726,208** 1971 ----------- - -----. 1,539,299 1,685,445 135,008 10,901,371 8,198,153 22,459,276 1972 ----------- - -----. 1,611,403 1,543,217 281,129 11,708,035 7,791,577 22,935,361 1973 .--- --------- ---- 1,046,988 1,275,603 339,513 11,996,579 7,444,232 22,102,915 1974 .--- -------- ----- 325,806* 1,608,997 98,033 N/A 7,027,909 N/A * Five months only. ** Estimated 1,700,000 for Alabama. Florida-William Witfield, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Marine Resources and Jack Dull, Fiscal Office, pers comm, Nov. 1974 Alabama-Mr. Swingle, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Marine Resources Division; Revenue Department, pers comm, Nov. 1974; May, 1971 Mississippi-Mr. Quinn, Mississippi Marine Conservation Commission, pers comm Nov. 1974. Louisiana-Joseph Cuadrado, Louisiana Wildlife and Fish; Revenue Department, pers comm, Nov. 1974 Texas-Chester Harris, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department; Revenue Division, pers comm, Nov. 1974 In addition, royalty from shell dredging contributes in the gulf coast each year. Boyd, et al. (1972) about $3 million each year to conservation activities present a compilation of data on the magnitude of in the gulf states (May, 1971). Shells from this dredging operations. It is important to note that source are extensively used for cultch (attachment this data does not reflect dredging activities of other material for new oysters) on public oyster beds in agencies or private industry under the permit pro- many states and the practice has greatly increased gram administered by the USCE. The majority of oyster production. the dredging operations in connection with USCE Along the gulf coast shell dredging is a major in- projects are done by pipeline and hopper dredgers. dustry. Most of the shell is used for manufacture of The USCE is responsible for dredging and maintain- cement, masonry blocks, road materials, poultry feed, and in some cases for the creation or establish- Beaumont L A ment of oyster beds. Summarized in Table 2 are T E XAS Ho shell production figures for each of the gulf coast '/V A, states as determined from published records and by ' / /ry BAYS personal communications with various state agen- MArAGORDA BAY cies. The total production for the gulf coast for the period 1966 through 1973 shows a slight downward LAVACA A NArOOBAY trend. In Mississippi shell production has recently NUECES BAY been stopped. In Texas (along with Louisiana, the Corpus Christ o [CORP CRIS7I BAY major producer) shell production has been declining, In Texas, production has shifted from the Galveston Bay area to Matagorda and San Antonio Bays (see Gulf of Mexico Figure 3). The change from the Galveston Bay system to Matagorda Bay is a result of changes in Texas Parks and Wildlife dredging policies coupled '- _._. with significant reductions in the shell reserve in Galveston Bay. FicuRE 3.-Percentage of shell production in the State of Texas for major bays by year (from Eiffer, 1968 and Texas ~~~~~~~Extent of USCE ~Parks & Wildlife, Revenue Division, 1974). Extent of USCE Dredging Activities Year Lake, alveston M atagora Antono Laa ca Nusce 1966-66 1.4 62.8 0 23.7 1.6 11.0 6-647 2.1 62.2 o 4. 1.s 9.4 The majority of dredging activities in the coastal 67-68 0.1 4 17 0 242.8 .8 9.4 zone is accomplished by the U.S. Corps of Engineers 68-69 0.2 4.9 0 8o.5 6.1 s.4 69-70 0.9 0,9 11.2 81.5 0.2 5.4 in the development and maintenance of navigable 70-71 . 06 24.8 69.1 0 8.6 waters. Within this authority, the USCE is responsi- 71-72 0 0 338 59.9 0 6.4 o72-e737 0 0 41.8 51.0 0 7.8 ble for the dredging of a large volume Of material 73-74 0 0 62.8 34.0 0 3.3 230 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ing approximately 4,000 miles of navigation channels on the gulf coast. Gulf coast dredging represents historically 48 percent of all USCE dredging activi- ties. Total dredge spoil generated in maintenance dredging annually averages 143.0 million cubic yards. Average quantities of spoil for each Corps of Engi- neers District in the gulf coast is shown by disposal type in Table 3.Y o A T The USCE (Boyd, et al., 1972) estimated that approximately 177.6 million cubic yards of spoil material would be dredged in 1972 in the gulf coast zone, of which 55.2 million cubic yards would be new work. Of these activities 61 percent of the dredging was proposed in the New Orleans District, 26 percent in the Galveston District, 11 percent in the Mobile District and 2 percent in the Jackson- FIoURE 4.--Environmental aspects of dredging. ville District. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS Physiography A variety of studies (Masch and Espey, 1967; All dredging operations involve the physical modi- Chapman, 1968; May, 1973; Cronin et al., 1970; fication of the environment by removal of bottom U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1974) describe the material and its disposal. Such actions result in the environmental aspects of shell dredging, channeliza- loss of habitat for benthic organisms, including tion, and spoil disposal. Unfortunately, the impact oysters and a multitude of other creatures of signifi- of these operations on the gulf coast ecosystem is cant value in the food chain. The extent of the area incompletely known. However, enough is known in the gulf coastal zone which has been impacted by about the ecology of estuarine systems to evaluate, dredging is difficult or impossible to determine. in general, the major ecological consequences in- Table 4 is a compilation of data from the various volved. Figure 4 is a generalized flow chart which segments of the Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estu- diagrams the manner in which ecology is affected arine Inventory and Study for the Gulf States, and by dredging. Three main categories resulting in fpur Chapman (1968). Historically, Cain (1967), Chap- principal pathways are involved. This is a simplifi- man (1968), and the "National Estuarine Study" cation of the complex interactions which actually (1970), have all estimated the amount of estuarine occur. However, some of the other more obscure habitat and acreage modified. The inconsistencies in interactions form pathways which may or may not the acreage values listed from one report to another occur in a particular system, or are poorly under- are based primarily on the use of differing criteria stood. Attention given them would only serve to in defining the limits of estuarine areas, period of confuse the basic cause and effect relationships. record, and incomplete data. The latest total estu- The following subsection will deal with the pri- arine acreage value is 13,898,978 acres taken from mary effects of dredging separately. Table 4. The NES (1970) lists 655,900 acres of im- portant habitat that had been lost to dredging and TABLE 3.-Average Quantity of Spoil Material (million-cubic filling for the period 1950 to 1969. yards) Dredged in the Gulf Coast by Disposal Method and Due to siltation, dredged areas usually require District* periodic maintenance dredging which disturbs any recolonization by benthic organisms which may have Nesw Jackson- occurred. In many channels, however, the substrate Galveston Orleans Mfobile ville GalvestonUndiffer- Orlean Moblestabilizes enough to allow the establishment of a Undiffer- entiatedt 18.2 None 13.6 None benthic community. Confined 8.7 20.3 2.5 0.2 It is important to note that some estuarine areas Open Water 21.0 40.5 13.7 2.5 are more valuable than others. Thus a simple acreage Upland None None 0.4 1.4 figure of dredged areas may not tell the entire story. * From Boyd, et al. (1972) Areas of submerged aquatic vegetation (turtle grass, t Disposal Method Not Defined widgeon grass), emergent marsh grass areas (salt- DREDGING EFFECTS 231 Table 4.-Alteration of estuarine areas In the Gulf Coast Zone (acres) Florida' Alabama2 Mississippi3 Louisiana' Texass (West Coast) Total Estuarine area .-.. .... - ---- 3,003,213 431,967 500,380 7,289,568 2,673,830 Tidal marsh -. ..--------------- 921,688 34,614 66,933 3,910,644 1,141,400 Open water_ -. . .................. 2,081,525 397,353 433,447 3,378,924 1,532,430 Alteration Emergent spoil banks -1,135 17 9,000t** 25,369 Filled causeways ...-... .--- 3,977 76 - -- Housing, industry, and other .-.............................. 18,409 2,059 - 1,246 Drained tidal marsh . 26,676 - - 47,792 Spoil area - - - f 40,000 78,5006 Miles of Corps of Engineers channel .-..... 1,500t 144 3001 1,000t 990 (4,572.6*) Surface area of Corps channels .-..................... - 3,420 - 20,2606 (42,104*) 1 McNulty, Lindall, and Sykes, 1972. Crance, 1971. 3 Christmas, 1973. 4 Perret, et al., 1971. 6 Diener, R. A., 1974. 6 Chapman, 1968. * Estimate of total length and area of channels and canals in Louisiana. ** All filled areas combined. t Approximate. marsh, cordgrass), mangrove swamps, and shell flows of sediment along the bay bottom associated reefs all rank higher in ecological value and sensitiv- with dredging operations. These turbidity currents ity than do soft open bay bottoms. Estuarine areas seem to be principally affected by tidal currents, are centers of production for many commercially or bottom sediments, topography and dredge discharge recreationally important species and for the orga- characteristics. The hydrodynamics of these currents nisms on which they depend for food. Measures are not well understood; however, they can cover must be taken to perpetually protect such areas broad areas of bay bottom before flocculating out, from destruction. Indeed, a worthwhile endeavor is thus substantially reducing benthic populations by the creation of new habitat, e.g., marshland areas, smothering them. Studies of the effect of shell dredg- when possible. The feasibility of such procedures is ing on live oyster populations have shown these discussed by Woodhouse (1972). turbidity currents are capable of covering and smoth- Another area of concern is the loss of habitat ering live reefs. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers through sedimentation. The dredging processes sus- (1974) in San Antonio Bay, Tex., showed that al- pend part (1 percent according to Mackin, 1962) though nektonic organisms easily escaped turbidity of the dredged material into the water column. The flows, sessile benthic populations were adversely resulting suspension forms a plume of turbid water affected. While deposition of spoil on bay bottoms at the surface and turbidity currents along the bot- and in dredge cuts substantially reduces benthic tom. Masch and Espey (1967) noted that, while populations over time periods ranging from several shell dredging does not introduce sediments into the months to several years, these populations, if un- bay water, the dredging does resuspend materials disturbed, slowly recover. already present on the bay bottom. The suspended sediment load in the vicinity of even a single dredge Circulation is at least an order of magnitude greater than the suspended load produced by currents, strong wind CURRENT PATTERN AND and wave action, ship and barge traffic, and ship SPEED ALTERATION swells in Galveston Bay, Tex. The levels of nitrates and phosphates in the immediate vicinity of the Within this category are the effects of density dredge were 50 to 1,000 times greater than the currents and topographic changes which modify ambient levels; however, no detectable effects on both the current pattern and speed. Many of the photosynthesis of plankton were noted (Cronin, migratory species (e.g., white and brown shrimp, 1970). crabs, various fish) utilizing the estuaries are de- Masch and Espey (1967), O'Neal and Sceva pendent on salinity for their navigation. The stable (1971), and May (1973) have all delineated density long-term density gradients (in salinity) set up by 282 ESTUAlhINE 'POLLUTIONO 6"NTROL a dredged canal could possibly redirect the migratory ring of soft bottom materials by current and wave route of species and potentially negatively impact action. the standing crop of those organisms. - Temperature changes as a result, of dredging op- Topographic changes associated with dredging erations are probably relatively unimportant to the can affect current velocities. Such changes can alter estuarine ecosystem when compared to those in the distribution of current-dependent plankton orga- other physicochemical parameters. Most gulf coast nisms. Where current velocity is significantly re- estuaries are shallow bodies of water which are not duced, established pathways for the distribution' of thermally stratified. Deep dredged channels repre- planktonic organisms may be blocked. Also, in- sent an, area where stratification can occur. The creased sedimentation associated with velocity ability of a deep water mass to resist very rapid alterations may smother benthic populations. and temperature changes associated with winter storms reduce the suitability of the' siibstrate for such known as "northers" occasionally prevents fish kills, populations. Kutkuhn (1966) notes that, because which sometimes occur in the shallow bays of Texas of new circulation and water quality regimes, the (Gunter, 1941; Gunter and Hildebrand, 1951), by creation of "fish passes" may increase the ecological providing a thermally stable haven for fish. carrying capacity of an area:. CHEMICAL PARAMETERS Water Quality Salinity is a critical chemical parameter poten- Water qcuality parameters fall into 'two categ'ories, tially affected by dredging activities. The distribu- physical and chemical. Factors such as turbidity, tion of many species within an estuary is closely light penetration, and temperature are important tied to the salinity pattern. In the case of many physical parameters, while salinity, nutrient loading, species (e.g., blue crab, brown and white shrimp), dissolved oxygen, and toxic substances aremchemical the distribution of various stages in the life cycle is parameters. tied to different salinity levels. In some instances the intrusion of more saline water- due to channeliza- tion may not' be' extremely detrimental; -however, .PHYSICAL PARAMETERS in general, increasing salinity intrusion reduces the necessary low and mid-range salinity areas required Increased turbidity is one of the more' noticeable for the developnment- of juveniles of many estuarine short-term effects of dredging. This was discus'sed species. Salinity wedges moving up and' down chan- in the physiography section, where it was pointed nels" depending on' freshwater inflow prevent the out that while nekton and plankton can escape from establishment of a stable benthal community. turbidity plumes, benthic organisms are negatively The salinity pattern of an estuary can be impacted impacted by the settling out of the suspended solids. by deep channels through the formation of density Reduced light penetration (euphotic zone) due to gradients. Such gradients are long-term phenomena turbidity plumes is documented by Sherk (1971). which provide a series of decreasing isohalines as Odum and Wilson (1962) state that "the turbid the distance from the channel increases..-Migratory mixtures of organic and inorganic matter both inter- routes of animals such as shrimp might well be inter- fere with photosynthesis and stimulate it by in- fered with by these density gradients. directly raising inorganic nutrient levels." Depend- Due to sorption and ionic processes bay sediments ing on location, dredge spoil may or may not contain represent effective traps for a wide variety of poten- nutrients. It is important to note that estuarine tially hazardous industrial and natural chemicals. productivity is primarily dependent upon organic Dredging and spoil deposition may release many and inorganic nutrient loading from the rivers and such substances (e.g., herbicides, pesticides and marshes emptying into them rather than upon local heavy metals) into the aquatic ecosystem. Lee and photosynthesis. Thus 'turbidity 'does not impact Plum (1974) describe an-elutriate test designed by estuarine production to the extent that it would in the USCE and the EPA to detect the release of a system having phytoplankton as the primary chemical contaminants in. dredged materials, into base of the food web. In addition, these'.effects are the water column. transient, being ion evidence only during the actual Deeper channels often display anoxic conditions operation of the dredge. Over longer periods of time, due to benthal oxygen demand. Dredging in recrea- some increase in turbidity may occur in the vicinity tional developments with dead end canals with of spoil banks. This is possible because the decreased depths of over five to six feet often produces stagnant depth of water over these areas may 'facilitate stir- conditions because of poor water circulation, low DREDGING EFF;CT5m 233 light penetration and high nutrient loading. Such REFERENCES conditions often foster plankton blooms which ulti- mately raise biological oxygen demands and some- Boyd, M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Keeley, R. L. Montgomery, mately rase ologcal oxygen demands and some- R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis, and C. J. Guice. 1972. Disposal times produce fish kills. of dredge spoil problem identification and assessment and research program development. Technical Report H-72-8, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, "* :'c ~' Vicksburg, Miss.: CONCLUSIONS Breuer, Joseph P. 1962. An ecological survey of the lower Laguna Madre of Texas, 1953-1959. University of Texas. The following is a summary of major conclusions. Pub. Inst. Mar. Sci. 8:153-183. '1. Eighty-five percent of the Gulf of Mexico cstu- Cain, S. A. 1967. Statement before the Subcommittee on aries between Cape Romano; Fla. and Brownsville, Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation of the Committee on Tex., has been moderately or severely modified by Merchant Marine and Fisheries House of Representatives man's activities. 90th Congress. March 6; 8, 9, 1967. Serial No. 90-3. 2. The energy crisis and the resulting increased oil p 2876. exploration, production, and transportation activi- Chapman Charles R. 1968. Channelization and spoiling on ties further threaten the environment of the coastal gulf coast and south Atlantic estuaries. In Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary Management Symposium. Baton zone. Rouge, 1967. p. 93-106. LSU, Baton Rouge, La. 3. Important estuarine habitats have been de- stroyed by dredging and/or filling. Christmas, J. Y. 1973. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, Mississippi, Phase I: area description. 4. Approximately 48 percent of' U.S. Corps of Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, Miss. Engineers dredging activities occur along the gulf coast. - Crance, J. H. 1971. Description of Alabama estuarine areas- 5. Insufficient data is available on the extent of Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory. Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin No. 6. Alabama Marine Re- dredging and filling operations in the gulf coast for sources Laboratory. Dauphin Island, Ala. both the Corps of Engineers and private industries. 6. Shell dredging production data indicates a slight Cronin, L. E. 1970. Gross physical and biological effects of reduction in the gulf coast zone for the period overboard spoil disposal in upper Chesapeake Bay, Sum- .n1966-1973. mary, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Special Report . No. 3, Natural Resources Institute, University of Maryland. 7. Texas shell production for the period 1966-1974 indicates an approximate 40 percent reduction. , Gordon Gunter, and S. H. Hopkins. 1969. Effects of 8. The direct overboard disposal of washwater dredging activities on coastal ecology. Interim Report to from shell dredging operations is a major environ- the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Corps of Engineers, mental problem. 9. Additional information is required on the release Didner, R. A. MS. 1974. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine of chemicals from bottom sediments as a result of inventory and study, Texas: area description. U.S. Dept. dredging activities, of Commerce. NOAA Technical Report. NMFS CIRC, 10. Environmentally acceptable spoil areas should xxiv+265 ms. p. (in press) be identified in major estuarine areas. Eifler, G. K., Jr. 1968. Industrial carbonates of the Texas 11. Additional information is also needed on the Gulf Coastal Plain. In Proceedings, Fourth Forum on movement and fateof sediments suspendedby Geology of Industrial Minerals, L. F. Brown, Jr. (ed) Bureau of Eco-Geology, University of Texas. Austin, Tex. dredging activities. pp 45-56. 12. Salinity is a critical chemical parameter poten- tially affected by dredging activities. However, in- Gunter, Gordon. 1941. Death of fishes due to cold on the sufficient information is available on the effect of Texas coast. Ecology. 22(3):203-208. channel dredging and spoil deposition on salinity de. 1967. Some relationships of estuaries to the fisheries modifications. of the Gulf of Mexico. In Estuaries edited by George H. 13. The Dredged Material Research Program of Lauff, America Association for the Advancement of Science, the USCE should provide additional information on 621-638. the environmental aspects of dredging in the coastal , and H. H. Hildebrand. 1951. Destruction of fishes zone. and other organisms on the South Texas coast by cold 14. Clarification of.environmental criteria used in wave of January 28-February 3, 1951. Ecology, 32(4): the evaluation of USCE dredging permits is needed. 731-736. 15. Streamlining and centralization of.the federal 15i Stealiinadenraiztinfhefeerl Kutkuhn, J. H. 1966. The role of estuaries in the development permit system is required for dredging activities in and perpetuation of commercial shrimp resources. American the coastal zone. Fisheries Society Special Pub. #3, p 16-36. 234 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Lee, G. F., and R. H. Plumb. 1974. Literature review on study, Louisiana: Phase I, area description. Louisiana research study for the development of dredged material Wildlife and Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, La. disposal criteria. Contract Report No. D-74-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. Sherk, J. A., Jr. 1971. The effects of suspended and deposited sediments on estuarine organisms, literature summary and Mackin, J. G. 1961. Canal dredging and silting in Louisiana research needs. Natural Resources Institute of the Univer- bays. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. (Tx.) 7:262-314. sity of Maryland, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons. Maryland. Contribution No. 443. Masch, Frank D. and W. H. Espey, Jr. 1969. Shell dredging- A factor in sedimentation in Galveston Bay. Center for Simmons, E. G. 1957. An ecological survey of the Laguna Research in Water Resources, University of Texas. Madre, Texas. University of Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. 4(2) :156-200. May, Edwin B. 1971. A survey of oyster and oyster shell resources of Alabama. Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin Singer, F. S. 1969. Federal interest in estuarine zone builds. No. 4, Alabama Marine Resources Laboratory, Dauphin Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 2. Islandi, 4kla. ; i . pp 124-131. 1973. Enironmental effec"ts of hydraulic dredging in Wastler, T. A., and t. C. de Guereiro. 1968. National estuaries. Alabama Marine Resources Laboratory-Pre- estuarine inventory. handbook of descriptors. U.S. Depart- pared for National Marine Fisheries Service, April 1973. ment of the Interior, FWPCA, Washington, D.C. COM-73-11271 NTIS. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. 1974. Shell Dredging in San McNulty, J. K., W. N. Lindall, Jr., and J. E. Sykes. 1972 Antonio Bay, Texas. U.S. Army Engineer District, Galves- Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, t, Tex. Florda: Phase I, area description. NOAA Technical Report NMFS CIRC-368, Seattle, Wash. TU.S. Department of Cominerce, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service. Current Fishery Statistics #5600, Fisheries of the United States, 1970. March 1971. Odum, H. T., and R. F. Wilson. 1962. Further studies on reaeration and metabolism of Texas bays, 1958-1960. Current Fisherie 6124, Texas Landings, University of Texas, Pub. Inst. of Mar. Sci. 8-23-55. Current Fisheries Statistics # 6124, Texas Landings, University of Texas, Pub. Inst. of Mar. Sci. 8:23-55. Annual Summary 1972. December 1973. Annual Summary 1972. December 1973. O'Neal, Gary, and Jack Sceva. 1971. The effects of dredging U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife on water quality in the northwest. EPA Region 10, Seattle, Service. 1970. National Estuary Study, 1970. Volume 1-8, Wash. USGPO Washington, D.C. Perret, W. S., B. B. Barrett, W. R. Latapie, J. F. Pollard, Wbodhouse. i972. Marsh building With dredge spoil in North W. R. Mock, G. B. Adkins, W. J. Gairdry, and C. J. White. Carolina. North Carolina State University, Agricultural 1971. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and Experimental Station Bulletin 445. NUTRIENTS NUTRIENT LOADING IN THE NATION'S ESTUARIES MICHAEL A. CHAMP The American University Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT An evaluation is made of the current status of nutrient loading in the nation's estuaries. Special consideration is given to sources and transport of nutrients and their impact on estuarine ecosys- tems. Critical problems and trends in nutrient loading are reviewed at the national level and for six major estuaries: Cook Inlet, Columbia River Estuary, San Francisco Bay, Galveston Bay, Pamlico Sound and Chesapeake Bay. INTRODUCTION species diversity. Nutrient loading is a relative state in which low and high levels produce undesirable Estuaries and their transition zones comprise conditions: high levels stimulate eutrophication while 27,000,000 acres in the United States (Congress, low levels limit productivity. The optimum nutrient 1970) and are annually responsible for more than load is a mid level in which the estuarine system 65 percent of America's fish and shellfish harvest reaches stability in both productivity and diversity. (Smith, Massmann and Swartz, 1966). An estuary The optimum nutrient loading will vary with each is a unique zone in coastal environments in which estuary due to the natural accumulative capacity of fresh water from rivers mixes with salt water from each system. In all cases, the limiting nutrient the ocean. It is a complex interacting system in controls the total potential development. delicate balance among the physical, chemical, and The health of an ecosystem is directly proportional biological forces present at any particular time. to the species diversity of that system over an ex- An estuary is a nutrient storehouse; marshes and tended period of time. A healthy system exhibits wetlands are constantly flushed of decomposing many species of phytoplankton, each of which has a plant material by tides. These nutrients are trans- particular dominance period followed by its return ported into the estuary and support a substantial to background levels, with other species blooming production of biomass. A Georgia salt marsh for at their selected times when environmental condi- example contains enough nutrient reserve to permit tions dictate. This natural cycle permits many dif- optimum ecosystem functioning for 500 years with- ferent algal species to coexist and compete against out renewal (Clark, 1974). The enriched soils of one another while the entire system remains in estuaries are often several feet thick and are held careful balance. Under natural conditions, these together by extensive plant root systems. This blooms will occur regularly, each with an associated natural ageless phenomenon can continue as long assemblage of zooplankton, invertebrates and fish as the system is not modified by the impact of larvae within the estuary. Many species prey on human activities. "The National Estuary Study" selected plankton forms and have evolved mecha- (1970) reports that all of the nation's estuaries have nisms of timing stages of embryonic development to been modified: 23 percent severely, 50 percent follow specific plankton blooms. It is this type of moderately and 27 percent slightly. One of the major mechanism that characterizes a healthy aquatic impacts has been increased nutrient loading. ecosystem and permits it to function with a high Nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon are the rate of productivity year after year. Excessive major components of nutrient loading; their transi- nutrient loading supports the bloom of one or more tion is cyclic, resulting in effects which are cumula- species which are particularly favored and/or toler- lative and compounded (Woodwell, 1970). A major ant of the added nutrients. Those species which result of nutrient overenrichment is eutrophication succeed under these conditions are usually not pre- which is the normal environmental aging process. ferred components of food webs, and total fisheries Eutrophication is the buildup of rapidly cycled productions are reduced. The result is an unbalanced organic carbon. Early signs are excessive growth by system, low in species diversity due simply to the phytoplankton or vascular plants, and a reduction in selective fertilization of undesirable phytoplankton. 237 238 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL NUTRIENT SOURCES AND TRANSPORT estuaries by freshwater runoff from the land. Simple construction like paving significantly increases the Municipal Sewage and sediment loading. Dredging activities, bridge-build- Industrial Waste Discharges ing and resort land developments tend to resuspend The major contributors of nutrient sources are the sediments containing nutrients, organic particles, municipal sewage and industrial waste discharges, trace elements, and toxic substances in estuaries. urban runoff, agricultural and'forestry practices. In Public Law 92-500 requires that point source dis- the coastal zone, most nutrients are terrigenous and chargers (industries, munieipal treatment plants, are transported toward the ocean with river flow. feedlots, and other discrete sources) must obtain In some estuarine zones, it is even possible for permits requiring that such discharges meet all nutrients to be transported up river by floodtide applicable requirements relating to effluent limita- (Ketchum, 1969). Therefore, an area of an estuary tions as regulated by the Environmental Protection cannot be considered immune to a nutrient source Agency. This effort to regulate what enters the located below it. nation's waters represents an attempt on the part of The flushing of nutrients from an estuary is a the government to not only limit nutrient input but function of the volume and flow rate of the water also the thousands of other chemicals discharged source in addition to the physical topography of the daily with little if any treatment. States which water basin. If the freshwater source is of great desire to administer the national permit program magnitude, as in the case of the Columbia River in may submit complete program descriptions to the Washington, the residence time of water mass may Administrator for approval with the stipulation be very short, meaning that nutrients do not have that all individual permits are subject to EPA enough time to exert their effects upon the system. review, and annually the states must submit reports If, on the other hand, the freshwater flow rate is to EPA that inventory all point sources of pollution slow (Pamlico River Estuary), the flushing action and assess exsting and anticipated water quality. is reduced and the system is unable to rapidly export This National Pollution Discharge Elimination Sys- nutrients, therefore allowing them time to exert more tem (NPDES) provides EPA with the authority to influence on the system. For this reason, estuaries enforce the effluent limitations and allows private differ greatly in their tolerances of nutrient loading. citizens or groups to levy judicial process against Thousands of municipalities dump sewage treated any polluter in violation of an effluent limitation or administrative order. to various dearees into inland waterways flowing Industrather towards the sea. A great number of inland coastal Industrient source to estuaries. Indust ry has been ac- cities were founded on rivers for a variety of reasons, nutrient source to estuaries Industry has been ac- but among them was the availability of municipal credited with contributing over 60 percent of all but among them was the availability of municipal U.S. water pollution (Nobile and Deedy, 1972). The and industrial waste disposal into the waterways. U.S. water pollution (Nobile and Deedy, 1972). The This practice has continued today. Even though the principal industrial offenders are by category: paper, cities have grown to tremendous sizes, these rivers organic chemicals, petroleum and steel Much of the are expected to transport greatly expanded volumes conventional technology used in municipal waste of waste downstream to be rendered innocuous by water treat s used also trat industrial natural processes, even though the average annual wastes Existig data suggest that about half the riverflows remain approximately the same. Munici- total volume of waste water treated by municipal pal sewage has its origins in plant and animal wastes; plants s of industrial origin. The current trend therefore, it is an enriched mixture of nitrogen, appears to be toward more joint use of treatment phosphorus and carbon compounds which provide plants by ndustry and municipalities. It is also the essentials necessary for plant growth. This difficult to generalize on treatment of industrial growth (primary production) is consumed in turn waste waters because the sources are highly diverse. by microorganisms, protozoa, rotifers, zooplankton, Industrial waste waters generally are less amenable crustaceans and so on up the food chain, stimulating species diversity and stability in the system. Pollu- tam substances such as trace metals and chemical tion of the stream by sewage treatment effluents and compounds that resist biological degradation. Also, runoff from fertilized lawns has caused the State of to reduce discharges, industry has increased its Florida to place restrictions on recreational activi- reuse of water, partly to reduce the costs of pollution ties there, after seeing the harmful effects exemplified abatement and stay within federal regulations per- by a number of fish kills between 1970 and 1973. .taining to discharges. Today, industry probably Unregulated construction in urban areas increases reuses an average of three gallons of water for every the amount of sediment and nutrient transport into new gallon it takes in. NUTRIENTS 239 Table 1.-INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF NUTRIENT LOADING commercial fishery industries have a unique waste Industries Major wastes that is discharged directly into the estuary; for instance: one third of a salmon's weight is con- DISSOLVED sidered to be waste and Alaska salmon canneries Metals annually dump more than 100 million pounds of Chemicals (inorganic) this waste into estuaries. Some of this fish is used Alkalies as mink food but the vast majority is dumped into coastal waters. The decomposing fish waste con- Chemicals Acids tributes to the nutrient loading and greatly in- (organic) fluences species diversity and can increase selected Salts species populations. In Alamitos Bay, Calif., very Electroplating polluted bottom areas are found which are sur- rounded by a thick sediment of fish scales containing SUSPENDED unnatural populations of red annelid worms (Capi- (processing)t Solids tella capitata) in concentrations as high as 6,000 per (organic) square meter. In 1963 it was reported that several Texas harbors were receiving shrimp and crab wastes, raising the phosphorus concentration from Solids 0.049 mg/L to 0.143 mg/L (Odum, et. al., 1974). Minerals (inorganic) Such dumping not only represents an additional nutrient source but it enters in such forms as Hydrocarbons protein and fat at irregular intervals. The abundance of nutrients favors organisms which expend less metabolic energy and gives advantage to forms which can use organic breakdown products at the Petroleumi early stages of their decomposition cycle. For VAPOR instance, species capable of utilizing ammonia as a nitrogen source are usually tolerant to high levels Gases and survive better than those organisms requiring it Agricultural (organic) oxidized to nitrate. Pulp and paper mills have long been known for Gases their pollution effects in rivers. The waste produced (inorganic) by their processes exerts an immediate oxygen Pulp and Paper demand upon the water their effluent enters. This is caused by the chemical demand for oxygen made by the SOs which depletes the dissolved oxygen Modified from Nobtie and Deady (1972). present in the water. Studies of the York River, Va., indicate that sulfate wastes inhibit oysters from efficiently metabolizing carbohydrates. The volume Most industrial discharges contain high Oxygen- of water filtered by the oysters was also reduced but demand wastes or toxic materials; however, a large increased as they were removed from the waste portion of industrial discharges contain some form of available nutrients. Most contain some form of carbon (inorganic or orgamc). Then there are special industries which produce some form of nitrogen or Urban Runoff phosphorus either as an intermediate byproduct or a waste product (i.e., fertilizer manufacturing or Vitale and Sprey (1974) have reported that phosphate mining, cattle feed lot operations). In between 40 and 80 percent of the total annual farming operations, the fertilizer is applied to in- BOD and COD entering receiving waters from a crease production and a portion leaches out and is city is caused by sources other than the treatment carried away in runoff. The major industries and plant. They also report that 94 to 99 percent of the their major wastes are given in Table 1. total BOD and COD load from a single storm event Another important industrial waste as a source of is contributed by sewer overflows, storm sewers, nutrients is the food processing industry. Most of runoff and bypasses, and that the periodic loads these discharges are processing wastes and are dis- from storm events exert a demand which is 40 to charged into rivers from the canneries. However, 200 times greater than that of the normal dry 240 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL weather effluent from the sewage treatment plant. In the atmosphere, most of the nitrogen present In their study they found that the storm water is in the form of N2 with lesser amounts of ammonia, annual contribution of nutrients (nitrogen and and oxides of nitrogen derived from the combustion phosphorus) appears to be generally less than 10 of fossil fuels. Atmospheric ammonia originates percent; however, storm water nutrients dominate from a number of sources including air pollution, all other sources during a storm event. photochemical reactions of the stratosphere, and the decay of plant and animal byproducts. Rainfall acts to rinse the air, bringing this vast array of ESTUARINE NUTRIENT CYCLES nitrogeneous products into aquatic systems. Only a few algal and bacterial species are able to utilize' A better understanding of the cycling of nutrients molecular nitrogen (N2) for their nitrogen require- in estuaries would greatly contribute to man's ments. Ammonia is oxidized into nitrites (NO-) ability to increase the yield of coastal fisheries. by nitrifying bacteria, which is further converted Already estuaries are considered among the most to nitrate (NO3=) using the reaction as an energy productive aquatic areas in the world and their source and making the product more available to importance continues to grow with the world's plants. Most plants use ammonia, nitrate, or nitrite growing populations. in the production of proteins and nitrogeneous Estuarine ecosystems differ from freshwater and nucleic acid components. This is an important inter- marine ecosystems by their relatively high concen- conversion of inorganic nitrogen to organic nitrogen. trations of nutrients. These nutrients enter the Animals, being unable to make this interconversion, estuary from river nutrient loading and the decay are entirely dependent on plants. In decomposition, of marsh vegetation and are trapped by physical, biological processes convert organic nitrogen to chemical and biological processes. The large quanti- ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate for recycling. The ties of nutrients trapped in the estuary promote a refractory organic forms are resistant to decomposi- high rate of plant production. This plant biomass tion and may remain for years in the system is very important because the animals in an estuary (Williams, 1971). are directly or indirectly dependent upon plant Photosynthesis assimilates inorganic and organic material as an energy source. Plant tissues are com- nutrients, most of which are present in excessive posed of the following principal elements in descend- amounts. However, nitrogen naturally occurs in ing order by weight: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, micromolar concentrations which can be completely potassium, sodium, calcium, sulfur, chlorine, phos- assimilated from the water mass by phytoplankton phorus, and magnesium. Certain necessary trace of a given area. The major unnatural sources of elements include silicon, iron, manganese, and zinc. nitrogen in an estuary are: municipal and industrial Much current literature indicates that in coastal wastes, fertilizers from agricultural and forestry waterways, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds practices, and urban runoff. In estuaries where have been reported to be the limiting factors for nitrogen is limiting, these wastes accelerate eutro- plant growth. phication. EPA criteria (1973) recommended pre- vention of any nutrient discharge causing enrich- Nitrogenous Compounds ment leading to any major change in the natural levels of flora. However, there are no EPA standards regarding nutrient loading for "maximum acceptable Nitrogen represents the fourth most abundant . ,, element by weight present in plant tissues and one concentrations" of nitrogen and its compounds of the two generally considered to be limiting in (Proposed Criteria for Water Quality, EPA, 1973). of the two generally considered to be limiting in aquatic production. Clark (1974) reports that in coastal waters the amount of available nitrate is Phosphorus Compounds generally believed to be the nutrient factor that controls the abundance of plants. Municipal sewage Nitrogen and phosphorus represent the two disposal into rivers and estuaries is the major con- elements generally found to be limiting in natural tributor of nitrogen compounds in the estuarine systems; however, nitrogen is generally considered systems. Nitrogen naturally occurs in these forms: to be the more important of the two. Ryther and ammonium ion-NH4+, ammonia-NH3, nitrite-NO2-, Dunstan (1971) suggest that since phosphate is the nitrate ion-NO3=, molecular nitrogen-N2, and normally present in concentrations twice that of complex organic nitrogen complexes. A simplified nitrogen in the coastal marine environment, nitrogen estuarine nitrogen cycle is given in Figure 1, which must be the critical limiting factor. The "maximum has been modified from Odum, 1971. acceptable concentration" for phosphorus is placed NUTRIENTS 241 IAgricultural &:' Organic N - - forestry runoff Plants & Animals Fecal material Municipal sewage protein excretion, synthe 9 sur .'..\synthesis . ....'. ........ V bacteria & ureaetc. fungi of decay \ N fixing algae and bacteria aminifying bacteria Nitrates NO tmospheric N2 Ammonia NE3 electrification & '" " 0 / | nitrate denitrifying bacteria | --ibacteria loss to sediments Agricultural I (refractory N) Agricultural \ ' ��'.... / . forestry runoff Fecal material Municipal sewage Nitrites . FIGURE 1.-The estuarine nitrogen cycle (modified from Odum,'1971). as 100 mg/L with no "minimum risk threshold" in detergents are replaced by nitriloacetic acid value given (EPA, 1973). (NTA)', a nitrogen compound as is, the current Phosphorus exists in a great number of forms, the trend in industry, the net effect could be the ac- most prevalent of which is the phosphate group P04. celeration of eutrophication (Ryther and Dunstan, A simplified estuarine phosphate cycle is given in 1971). These authors also estimate that 25-50 Figure 2, which has been modified from Odum, 1971. percent of the total land-derived phosphate comes The slightly soluble inorganic phosphorus of the from detergents. The amount of nutrient exchange earth's crust is an unlimited reservoir which slowly, between sediments and the water column is depen- leaches into aquatic systems through the weathering dent on the exposed surface area between the two of rock. These soluble orthophosphates are quickly media and not on the amount of nutrient material assimilated by plants and transformed into par- presient. Low oxygen concentrations cause the ticulate organic phosphorus.- Dissolved 'inorganic release of phosphorus from the sediment. Several phosphorus compounds are released into solution by studies have found that under 'natural conditions an excretion or decomposition and are transformed into equilibrium is established between the phosphate particulate organic phosphorus, or through degrada- concentration of the sediment and the water (Lee tion are converted back to inorganic' orthophos- and Plumb, 1974). However,' if these sediment phates. As in nitrogeheous forms, some of the organic nutrient reservoirs are covered by silt, or sand, no products result int refractory compounds, unavail- such interchange can take place. 'One study showed able for biological use and become part of the no phosphorus was released 0.54 cm below the sediments. ' " surface of the bottom (Lee and Plumb, '1974). Manmade detergents contain iphosphates similar -Unlike many pollutants, phosphorus appears to those produced by'living organisms. If phosphates harmless by itself, but in combination with nitrogen, 242 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Organic Phosphates :Plants Animal protoplasm Terrestrial runoff excr synthesis Animal feces Detergents Municipal sewage metabolic Industrial wastes by-products bacteria erosion & metabolic effluent bones & uptake teeth& .Phospht/ // IRefractory Phosphate FIGURE 2.--The estuarine phosphorus cycle (modified from Odum, 1971). it can change the whole biota (Redfield, et. al., Since algal tissue contains between 35 and 50 1963). Samples of water enriched with phosphate percent organic carbon by weight, it merits classifica- alone show no greater growth than control samiples, tion as a major nutrient. In many cases, organic while nitrogen-enriched cultures have shown tenfold carbon may be directly correlated with nitrate growth in several cases (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971). distribution in a body -of water. Carbon fixation rates are often stimulated by the addition of nitrogen Carbon Compounds or phosphate compounds as in the caseof eutrophica- tion. Organic carbon does represent an area of The sources for most inorganic and organic carbon concern, but many authors believe that the reservoir compounds in estuaries are terrestrial runoff, munici- of inorganic carbon compounds is in such excess pal and industrial discharges into rivers, and photo- that the rapidly cycling organic carbon is usually synthetic carbon fixation. A simplified carbon cycle not a limiting factor under natural conditions. for estuaries is given in Figure 3, which has been modified from Wangersky, 1972. Inorganic carbon Mineral and Trace Elements is converted into organic carbon by photosynthesis. Organic carbon can be separated into particulate In the late 1800's Dittmar studied 77 seawater organic carbon (POC) and dissolved organic carbon samples and found chlorine, sodium, magnesium, (DOC) fractions by bacterial decomposition. Either boron, potassium, calcium, sulfur, sulfate, carbonate, of these can be associated with the sediments, the bicarbonate and strontium represent from 99.7-99.9 POC by settling, the DOC by adsorbing onto larger percent of the total dissolved material. (Corcoran aggregations and settling to the bottom. Organic and Alexander, 1964.) The 0.2 percent remaining carbon is important as a nutrient because of the included the principal plant nutrients: nitrogen, interconversion to inorganic carbon. - phosphorus, and silicon, in addition to iron, copper, NUTRIENTS 243 Aef ht / otont- excretionh / ephotosynthesisl r decomsition / ceterotrophic fixation / tab metabolism- Di ssolved form mgeed pecipitats Particu late Organic Organic Carbon (DOC) a n Carbon (POC) \ytpaggregntnoate formation & adsorption or\mal \a bacter ial degradation f/ \____. _ |,bacterial degradation eclsbei eethe Sediments [Refractory Carboni FIGURE 3.-The estuarine carbon cycle (modified from Wangersky, 1972). obalt, and manganese. Iron, because of its 'role in in interstitial water, ionically bound to charged clay emoglobin, catalases, and cytochromes is an es- and organic surfaces, entrapped within iron and ntial element in life processes. Iron in the form manganese precipitates in addition to lattice and f ferric hydroxide (rust) has been postulated by organic complexes. In the biotic phase, zinc is as- solberg (1952 and 1954) to have a scavengertrole sociated with an organism: bound to mucous mem- i the accumulation of trace elements, allowing branes, enzymes, contained in cellular protoplasm 'hytoplankton to concentrate them along with their or within the digestive system. This permits bio- ormal uptake of iron. Copper, another essential logical cycling as'it passes up the food chain from lement, is found in hemoglobin, cytochromes, and the plankton thro ugh the carnivorous fish, and .emocyanins, as well as being necessary in the possibly returning to the sediments. tabilization of the chloroplast. It aids in oyster and The concentrations of trace elements present in ,arnacle attachment, formation of octopus melanin, the estuary prevent them from being limiting factors nd the hardening of exoskeletons and egg encase- for photosynthesis. Dittmar's hypothesis includes aents. However, its toxicity at high concentrations a general statement that the concentrations of s evidenced by its use in antifouling paints. these elements vary little in relation to each other The trace elements exist inall three phases: water, in sea water. Trace elements can be toxic at con- :ediment, and the biota. Using zinc as an example, centrations above background levels (Doudoroff and n the-water column it can be in an ionic state or a Katz, 1961). EPA has set up a table listing "maxi- -omplexed form with many other molecules. While mum acceptable concentrations" (Clark, 1974; t part of the estuarine sediment, it can be dissolved EPA, 1973) for various substances; see Table 2. 244 ESTUARINE P6i:LTTION CONTROL Tabie 2.'-Maximum acceptable concentrations for bindicated suibstances U.S. ' euforSe Environmental Protection Agency, 1973 Substance : Concentrations (mg/l) Aluminum_1.5 -.------- Ca'odo.. Copper -- ------------ - -- 0.05 Boron -------------------------------- -. N.A. adequate data not available Fluorides ... . --------- ( CookInlet . Anc oroge1. o: Aneou Lead ------------ --'---0.05. r : Manganese .-? -,1-- ------------------. 0.1 Mercury ..---------------------------------------------- 0.001 Nickel - -- ....... ......... 0,1 Phosphorus ---........ 0.0001 Bering Sea , CZ . va u s rersn.tex PecJ flc Oceon The values represent the "maximum allowable concentrations" of toxic substances . l'' ' . ' , , . c C e as established by EPA following a National Academy of Sciences Review in 1973. FIGURJE' 4.--Cok Inlet and Alaska (from "National Estuary Study,"' 1970): NUTRIENT LOADING IN Study," 1970). SIX MAJOR U.S. ESTUARIES Cook Inlet: Alaska , . In Alaska many fishing villages are located on Cook Inlet,-Alaska \ small finger bays. .The villagers utilize individual cesspools and septic tanks for sewage disposal, Cook Inlet (see Figure 4) in the south central which seep' nutrients into the coastal waterways area of the state, exhibits a 30-foot tidal range, a (Department of Health and Welfare, 1967). In rapid flow rate, and a large natural suspended many small villages waste materials are stored sediment load. The estuary has an estimated '400- frozen during the colder months and dumped onto 500 miles of tidal shoreline (1 percent of Alaska). intertidal beaches to be washed away.. These In Cook Inlet there are four major sources of practices of waste disposal permit contaminants to nutrient loading: (1) municipal sewage discharges, enter the ground waters, infecting wells and becom- (2) fish processing waste discharges, (3) 'salmon ing a hazard to public health. spawning wastes, and (4) turbid outwash'-outflow Brickell and Goering (1970), investigating the from glaciers. Anchorage borders the inlet and dis- concentration of nitrogen in a pink salmon spawning charges the sewage of nearly one-half of the state's stream (Sashin Creek, and its associated estuary, population. The depth and flow rate of the estuary Little Port Walter on Baranot Island in southeastern greatly reduces the impact of this nutrient load. Alaska), found that dissolved organic nitrogen However; with the discovery of oil, the Anchorage ranged from 0.006'mg/L to 0.018 mg/L following area will experience tremendous population' growth. spawning, indicating a tremendous nutrient loading In 1963, oil was discovered at Middle Ground Shoal from the decay of adult fish. in Cook Inlet; 'in less than two years oil production In the future, the anticipated population growth exceeded 1,000 barrels per day' per well' ("National in Alaska will overload the current estuarine waste Estuary Study," 1970). Along the shores of Cook disposal methods and greatly impact these waters. Inlet numerous fishing villages (Seldovia, Anchor Continued nutrient loading through human waste, Point and Homer) base their economies on chinook, commercial fisheries' waste, and industrial dis- pink and red salmon, king crabs and shrimp. It charges will alter the natural equilibrium of these is a common practice for canneries to dispose 'of 20 estuaries, especially during the warmer months. percent by weight of salmon back into the inlet, producing unnaturally high nitrogen concentrations in small areas. Murphy et. al. (1972) concluded that Columbia River Estuary there is some pollution near the Chester Creek and Cairn Point Outfalls, but as a whole, Cook Inlet The Columbia River Estuary has a high velocity is not pollduted due to the high degree of turbulence, flow rate. It is ranked seventh in total length (1,324 flow rate, and sediment transport. They' further miles) and second in flow volume (behind the suggest that 200 million gallons per day of untreated Mississippi) of any river in the United States. The domestic waste could be pumped into the inlet yearly mean discharge has been calculated to be without causing an undesirable'situation. 170,000 cubic feet per second, with a watershed of NUTRIENTS. 245 259,000 square miles. The elevation of the river Table 3.--Columbla River: Dlstrlbutlon of point waste discharges by source drops from 2,650 feet to sea level, generating an 97273) enormous velocity and producing a large effluent Flow BOD Phosphorus Nitrates plume into the Pacific (see Figure 5). Waste source *mg./d. lb./day Ib./day Ib./day The Columbia River has significant impact on the adjacent Pacific coastal zone. During 1966 and 1967 (Muniipaoltles -113.6 145,132 5,800 16,372 ~adjacent Pacific coastal zn.Drg196a d 97(Portland) - - -----------------(71.1) (66,962) (3,102) (9,340) the annual chemical input to the Pacific was esti- Pulp and paper ..-.... 395.1 606,211 993 706 mated to be 10s moles of phosphate, 2.6 X 109 moles Chemicals ..-....--...-.. 85.3 7,418 107 463 Aluminum reduction .- . ...... 91.3 4,300 493 415 of nitrate, and 2.2 X 1011 moles of total carbon Washington public power...... 1,710.0 - - - dioxide (Pruter and Alverson, 1972). Due to the AEC HanfordWorks .. 28..... 29.5 - 1 - high velocity and short retention time within the Food processing ..-........ ... 4,033 39 9 Other........... ......... 36.0 1,634 75 95 estuary, these levels of nutrients do not have enough time to produce adverse conditions. It has been Total 2,76....... 2,768.0 768,728 7,508 18,059 reported that: "With the exception of slime growths * Million gallons per day. (Sphaerotilus natans) in the lower river, the biologi- Modified from National Water Quality Inventory; 1974. cal populations of the river are diverse and balanced, the opposite of eutrophic conditions. Although nitrate and phosphorus levels exceed desirable waste treatment facilities to reduce the release of levels (particularly during high runoff periods), paper fibers into the river. there are none of the usual symptoms of excess Nutrollable point enrichment can be divided int con- productivity such as noticeable variations in dis- lable point discharges and generally uncontro- solved oxygen saturation. There are no trends to lable noff. The point discharges come normal suggest increasing eutrophication" (EPA; National vand runof sources on the rdischarges come from a Water Quality Inventory, 1974). The slime growths variety of sources on the river including municipal Water Quality Inventory, 1974). The slime growths mentioned were found to be associated with pulp dumping, pulp and papermills, food processing and paper mill wastes and became a problem to the plants, grain washing plants, and so forth. Each fishermen by fouling their nets and also to those of these makes contributions to the Columbia using the river for recreation. By the summer of through industrial discharges A point waste dis- 1972, practically all of the slime growth had been charge for the Columbia River is given in Table 3. eliminated following a program of more extensive These point discharges are generally minor in their influence on the water but twice they have been effluent treatment by the paper plants. The recom- nfluence on the water but twice they have been involved in pollution problems in the lower river. mendation made was that all pulp and paper mills volved in pollution problems in the lower river. should at least have mechanically cleaned primary Fortunately, the volume and velocity of the Colum- bia River have been great enough to maintain a quality that rarely drops below the very high stan- R.M.tO101S dards set by the States of Oregon and Washington. While the quality of water in the Columbia remains generally high, some of her tributaries experience nutrient levels higher than state standards. a%< tRM.78l tSufficient amounts of all nutrients are present to British Columbio support a diverse and abundant biota. During most , Washington Montona of the year, nitrates are present in concentrations far D Js . i 9 greater than the 0.3 mg/L limit set for the usual t.M.464 Spokane formation of algae blooms (EPA; National Water Quality Inventory, 1974). In fall and winter nitrate ."- -- Co bio River c 5 ( median concentrations range from 0.3 to greater ..summer P/ ortyd M *rY than 0.4 mg/L from McNary Dam (RM330) to ,afJIfmecn : Dame/ Xa the mouth; in spring, the median exceed 0.3 mg/L ..Oeo, Ia from Longview (RM68) to the mouth. Concentra- ,'/ Oregon Ida ho \ tions at McNary Dam exceed 0.8 mg/L in 15 percent of the readings; however, the effect is very slight. During the summer months when conditions are optimum for algal growth, nitrate concentrations FIGrURE 5.-The Columbia River showing summer effluent fall well below the 0.3 mg/L value. plume and dam locations (modified from EPA, National Water Phosphorus concentrations show a similar annual Quality Inventory, 1974). trend. From McNary Dam to the mouth, during 246 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the fall and winter, the median phosphorus value exceeds the 0.05 mg/L value set as the limit. During Sacramento ' River the warmer summer months, the median value is consistently below the limit value except in the lower 60 miles. It appears that total phosphorus concentrations can be correlated to river flow. Low flow years experience lower values (1967-1969), while higher flows (1970-1972) produce higher median concentrations. Fortunately, the Columbia River's nutrient levels are sufficient, with the vast / majority of nitrates and phosphates coming from SaPablo S natural non-point sources. Phosphorus comes from soil-bound materials and is runoff dependent. "In Sn Francisco 1972, 6 percent of the annual loading of the Columbia Pacific Bay occurred from point sources discharging directly into the Columbia, 65 percent was carried to the Colum- Ocean San bia by its major tributaries, and 29 percent was River accounted for by other mechanisms-among them minor tributaries, direct runoff, and sedimentation" (EPA, National Water Quality Inventory, 1974). Therefore, the Columbia River receives vast amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus principally from land runoff, but natural conditions have not permitted eutrophic conditions to occur. Point sources contribute large amounts of nutrients but the rate and volume of river flow is enough to dis- perse these substances during the algal growth FIGURE 6.-San Francisco Bay (from Kaiser Engineers, season. It appears that some of the tributaries are Final Report to State of California, 1969). experiencing increased eutrophication. The Columbia River has been sampled for 82 years and now has In San Francisco Bay, nutrient overenrichment 89 monitoring stations along its length, which should is the major problem. The rivers entering the bay enable recognition of potential problems. are rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon from point sources (municipal and industrial) and non- San Francisco Bay point sources (natural and agricultural) from the California Central Valley. Low velocity riverflows San Francisco Bay represents the oceanic outlet produce a residence time for the northern reach of for the Sacramento River, San Joaquin River, and San Francisco Bay estimated at 100 days according many lesser rivers that drain the Central Valley of to the California State Water Resources Control California into the Delta (see Figure 6). Its history Board in 1971. This time period permits extensive is unusual; in about 1850 the bay complex was nutrient cycling and high rates of carbon assimila- estimated to be 700 square miles but by 1960 tion. "Recent studies have indicated that nitrogen extensive diking and filling had reduced the area by and phosphorus concentrations were from 10 to 38 percent to 435 square miles. In addition, the bay 100 times greater in the Delta than those reported area boasts a population in excess of five million, for substantial growths of algae" (Kaiser Engineers, which discharges industrial and municipal wastes 1969). Reported concentrations of total nitrogen into the rivers and bay. This population represents ranged from 0.2 to 2.5 mg/L with the higher values a fourfold increase over census figures of 1930. found at the San Joaquin River near Stockton, an In 1969, municipal and industrial wastewater agricultural area. An unusual feature of the bay discharges were estimated at approximately 600 is that nitrogen and phosphorus are at too high million gallons per day and this figure is forecast levels for them to be limiting eutrophic conditions. to increase to over 2,100 million gallons per day by A California State Water Resources Control Board the year 2020 (Kaiser Engineers, 1969). These Report (Kaiser Engineers, 1969) states that in the figures do not include industrial use of water for Suisun Bay (see Figure 6) during periods of maxi- cooling purposes. Natural runoff has increased due mum phytoplankton concentration, no more than to increased urban development. 17 percent of available nitrogen was being utilized. NUTRIENTS 247 The report further states that the possibility that Son JCnto::River Trinity River phosphorus could be the limiting nutrient is even less credible. Data from 1961-1964 computes that municipal and industrial sources contribute 53 tons per day of total nitrogen and 42 tons per day of total phosphates (Pearson, Storrs and Selleck, 1969).ston ay Phytoplankton blooms occur frequently. In gen- oes to Boy / D/ eral, algal populations found in the bay are 1/10 to 1/100 of those'found in the delta region; however, East Boy densities of greater than 4 million cells per liter have been observed below Dumbarton Bridge. Texas City Blooms occur almost every summer. Typical summer plankton counts in the delta area range from 3 million cells per liter in the Sacramento River to Gulf of Mexico greater than 30 million cells per liter in the San Joaquin River which normally exhibits much higher West Boy values than the other inflowing rivers (Kaiser Engineers, 1969). Therefore, nutrient enrichment and eutrophication are a major water quality prob- lem for the bay-delta system. The increasing volume of wastes expected in the future, coupled with the reduced freshwater flow caused by the development the Matter of Pollution Bay, Tex avi(frombl EPA Proceedings in the Matter of Pollution of the Navigable Waters of Galveston of the Central Valley Project and the State Water Bay and its Tributaries, 1971). project influenced Kaiser Engineers (1969) to project: "Within the preceeding context, it is Mexico in three places: Bolivar Pass, San Luis Pass believed that the bay-delta system has no assimila- and Rollover Pass. In 1914 the Houston ship channel tive capacity for wastes above the quantities now was constructed, making Houston a major seaport being discharged. Eutrophication of the system, with entry from the Gulf of Mexico. The major particularly in the delta and south bay, is well particularly dning the delta and south bay, is well direct effect has been oil pollution from ship traffic advanced. Increasing waste loads and the decreasing and from the development of petrochemical in- availability of flushing water from the Sacramento dustries along the Houston ship channel. The in- and San Joaquin Rivers will inevitably accelerate and San Joaquin Rivers will inevitably accelerat,. direct effect has been the tremendous urban develop- the eutrophication of the system." the eutrophication of the system." ment and other industrial growth in the entire area. In the Final Report for the California State Water Resources Control Board, comparison was made between San Francisco Bay and Lake Erie. The Under th e Texas Water Qualvesity Act of 1967, Report states many differences between the two Under the Texas Water uality Act of 1967, Repodi st water:size, ainiy Erifferens b e te t' permits are issued to municipalities and industries bodies of water: size, salinity, Erie's 920 day regulating disposal into Texas estuaries. By 1971, regulating disposal into Texas estuaries. By 1971, residence time vs. the bay's 100 day period, et the Environmental Protection Agency had granted cetera ... but the mean soluble phosphate content 141 municipal and domestic sewage permits and 136 141 municipal and domestic sewage permits and 136 is 10 times that of Lake Erie's and the bay's average industrial permits. The total permitted discharge nitrate concentration is usually three times higher of waste effluent to. Galveston Bay and tributaries than Erie. Furthermore, the median coliform bacte- ria content of San Francisco Bay, which is an indi- suspendedsolids; 270,000 pounds BOD, and 1,657,000 cator of the presence of domestic wastes, is from 5 pounds GOD. The 136 industrial waste discharges to 250 times that which is reported for Lake Erie. were allowed to add 563 million gallons per day i n were allowed to add 563 million gallons per day in total effluent, most of which enters into the Houston Galveston Bay, Texas ship channel. The remaining 215 million gallons represented effluent from the 141 municipal and The Galveston Bay Estuary is made up of about domestic waste sources. These sources contribute 1,022,000 acres including 383,400 acres of wvater, high levels of coliform bacteria which have closed 230,000 acres of rice farms and cattle ranges, and many of the shellfish areas within Galveston Bay. 190,000 acres of urban and industrial areas; see Of the 277 permits mentioned above, the waste Figure 7 ("National Estuary Study," 1970). treatment needs and status of 189 of them were not The estuary exchanges water with the Gulf of listed, and an additional 40 provided either in- 248 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL adequate or no treatment at all. Only 22 were listed Virginoia as being in compliance with permit requirements (EPA Galveston Bay Conference, 1971). Al, l Major nutrient alterations have occurred fre- quently in the recent history of Galveston Bay. Wallisville Dam, located on the Trinity River four Chowon Rlver b CurrituckSound miles above its entrance into tli bay, will eliminate i "20,000 acres of brackish ponds, sloughs, marshes, bmore Sound and bottomland, nearly all of which biologists of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service regard as prime shrimp and finfish nursery grounds with an annual Na g productive capacity of not less than $300 an acre Mo od and probably more" (Carter, 1970). This marshland Pamlico loss will substantially alter the nutrient input of IR 9 - Trinity Bay which is. part of the Galveston Bay ton complex. The nutrients contributed by the Trinity River support the tidal marshes, the estuary and Galveston Bay. The 0.5 feet tidal fluctuation con- Pomliao Sound tributes additional nutrients from the tidal marshes .C to the estuary. McCullough and Champ (1973) HNrnrau reported that 255 miles or half of the entire length 9 coka Inl of the Trinity River was impacted by municipal and industrial waste discharges from the Fort Worth- Dallas area before organic carbon concentrations Mrehead City! a ~ returned to background levels. Also, the authors calculated that the Trinity River exports an esti- mated 3.52 X 104 metric tons/year of total organic carbon into Trinity Bay, utilizing data fronm the FIGuRE 8.-Pamlico Sound (from "National Estuary Study," 1972-1973 study period. 1970.) Several other human activities have a potential for increasing the impact of nutrient loading in This entire complex -makes up the second largest Galveston Bay: estuarine area in the eastern United States with .*,: Chesapeake Bay being first (Schoenbaum, 1972). 1. Silting in at the new bridge at San Luis Pass, a process that is increasing the water mass retention Currituck Sound 102,400 acres time. Albemarle Sound 302,000 acres 2. Increased dredging activities that include Pamlico Sound 1,088,000 acres $2,807,000 in 1970 in the polluted Houston'ship TOTAL 1,492,000 acres channel, which was necessary for navigation. Chesapeake Bay 2,816,000 acres 3. Escalation in recreational construction of bay homes and bay front properties by. diking marshes Exceeded only by Alaska and Louisiana, North and dredging activities. "In sum, Galveston Bay is Carolina contains an estimated 2,200,000 acres of providing a classic case history of an estuary that estuarine area (Rice, 1968). Shallow water charac- can be rescued from its troubles only by determined terizes these estuaries with a maximum depth of and imaginative effort-the solutions to the bay's 7 feet in Currituck Sound and 20 feet in Pamlico problems seem to lie in large scale research, ambi- Sound, but lessens to a few inches in many of the tious programs of pollution control plus tough en- numerous shoal areas. In Washington, N.C., the forcement and a close watch on the outfalls" Tar River becomes the Pamlico River flowing east (Carter, 1970). to the Pamlico Sound (see Figure 8)'. An important feature is the slow riverflow allowing longer residence Pamlico Sound time and consequently a much slower flushing :rate. Lunaf tides are negligible due'to the Outer Banks, The Pamlico Sound and adjacent Albermarle and and the extreme shallowness allows wind mixing of Currituck Sounds represent a drowned North the water producing turbid conditions during most Carolina coastal plain separated from the Atlantic times. '(Copeland and Hobbie, 1972). Ocean by the Outer Banks (see Figure 8). Copeland and Hobbie (1972) have reported that NUTRIENTS, 249 nitrogen appears to be the nutrient limiting eutro- phication in the Pamlico River Estuary. The soils of this region are unusually high in natural phos- phorus, allowing large amounts to leach into the waterways. Natural deposits are high enough to make mining (for use in fertilizers) profitable by the Texas Gulf Sulphur Company (TGSCo) which contributes quantities into the Tar River. This additional phosphorus enters the water column and Washington elawiore becomes part of the sediment, particularly near the hopt R. Bay TGSCo effluent pipes. Under conditions of low Potomac R, oxygen, significant amounts of this phosphorus are released from the sediment to the overlying water mass. Copeland and Hobbie (1972) have reported lappo ock coi that: When the total unfiltered phosphorus data were sum- hespeake say marized for the upper, middle and lower river, it became obvious that there had been a general increase in the Richmond concentration of phosphorus in the upper river over three years of sampling (67-69). In spite of the scatter of values and seasonal changes, there was a tripling in ic the phosphorus concentration in the upper river... the James Ra cean middle river was greatly affected by the concentration of phosphorus entering from Texas Gulf Sulfur. . . the lower section... also seems to be strongly affected by Norfolk Bridge Tunnel Texas Gulf Sulfur's activities... while it is difficult to say whether or not the amount of phosphorus reaching Pamlico Sound is increasing, most of the time only low levels reach the Sound. FIGURE 9.-Chesapeake Bay (from "National Estuary Study," Yentsch (unpublished data; NAS, 1969) has 1970). postulated 2.8 tug of phosphate per liter as the ap- proximate upper limit for unpolluted coastal waters. miles and extends This value is exceeded most of the time in the ton, D.C., t o th e bay (aworski et al., 1971) Major Pamlico area but eutrophic conditions do not exist tone D , to the bay (Jaworst i et al., 1971o. Major because "it appears that nitrogen is limiting in this cities contributing to the bay or her tributaries estuary and that the polluting effects of the Texas include Baltimore, Md, (pop. 905,759), Washington, Gulf Sulphur phosphate are slight at this time." D.C., (756,510), Richmond, Va., (249,430) and (Cpeland' and Hobbie, 1972). Other ~ required Norfolk, Va., (307,951). These urban areas con- (Copeland ~ and Hobbie, 1972). Other - required micronutrients appear to be abundant. Experiments tribute to the nutrient load through municipal and were conducted adding phosphorus to the water but industrial wastes, land silt runoff, and wastes con- were conducted a dding phosphorus to the water but increased photosynthesis did not occur. Added tributed by the estimated 110 million tons of cargo nitrogen produced significant increases in carbon annually shipped through the bay ("National Estu- assimilation. ary Study," 1970). TheSusquehanna River con- In summary, phosphorus by itself is relatively tributes 600,000 tons of terriseneous silt to the harmless in the Pamlico Estuary area but if nitro- Chesapeake each year, but this volumeseems genous compounds become available to the system, insignificant to the estimated 2.5 million tons origi- nating in the smaller Potomac Basin. Nearly half of the economically important oyster beds located in the upper bay have been destroyed or moved lower Chesapeake Bay in the bay due to this massive sedimentation. 'Cities and suburban areas are presently adding uncontrolled The Chesapeake Bay represents the largest estu- quantities of silt into Chesapeake Bay ("National arine area in the eastern United States (2,816,000 Estuary Study," 1970). acres), having major freshwater flow from the Regarding nutrient enrichment in Chesapeake Susquehanna River, Potomac River, Rappahannock Bay, there are two considerations: (1) the predomni- River, and the James River along her western shore nant influence of three principal watersheds on the ("National Estuary Study," 1970); see Figure 9. nutrient balance of the bay-the Susquehanna, the The Potomac River itself drains 14,670 square Potomac, and the James; and (2) the seasonal 250 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL nature of nutrient enrichment, whereby the majority Guide and Villa (1972) have alsb reported the of nutrients transported are via nontidal discharges existence of a direct relationship between total and (Guide and Villa, 1972). There is a relationship inorganic phosphorus concentrations as P04 and between river discharge and nutrient loadings, river discharge. They found that higher than normal especially NO2 and NO3 as nitrogen. High NO2 flow resulted in total and inorganic phosphorus and NOs as nitrogen loadings are indicative of land surges from the upper Susquehanna River Basin. runoff as contrasted to TKN as nitrogen loadings Jaworski et al., (1971) report that 325 million which are attributable mainly to treatment plant gallons per day of wastewater is discharged from discharges. Conversely, total phosphorus as P04 is municipal treatment facilities which serve the more difficult to characterize since it tends to Washington area. Schubel (1972) adds that this absorb to particles and sediments. During low flow present sewage discharge contains more than six phosphorus is retained in bottom deposits in the metric tons of phosphorus and 10 metric tons of stream channel and is unavailable due to sedimenta- nitrogen per day with these values expected to tion. The greatest impact of these nutrient loadings double in the next 30 years. During periods of low occurs during periods of low flow (and high tempera- river flow (75 m3/sec.) these inputs drastically alter ture) during which high retention times result in the nutrient load of the Potomac, increasing the con- algal blooms. Guide and Villa (1972) have by centration of phosphorus by about 180 ug/liter regression extrapolation over a 15-month study (Carpenter, et. al., 1969). Total nitrogen in the period (Nov. 1969-AIay 1970) calculated the primary river varies seasonally but generally appears highest source of nutrients entering Chesapeake Bay as from January to March. Total phosphorus reaches follows: its highest values during the late fall and early winter. Agricultural drainage and sewage in the LOADINGS (LBS/DAY) AS % Potomac produce adverse phosphate conditions T - NO2 above Washington, D.C. Measurements made in P04 + 1965-1966 showed that nitrate concentrations in Tributary as TKN NO3 'NH3 the river above Washington were 100-150 lug at./ Watershed P04 Pi as N as N as N TOC liter during periods of high river flow, and phosphate Susquehanna River_ 49 54 60 66 71 51 concentrations were 5 Ag at./liter (Carpenter, et. al., Potomac River .... 33 27 23 25 15 27 1969). This loading in summer and fall produces James River- - --- - 12 13 10 6 - 11 12 large algal populations of blue-green algae Micro- Rappahannock River-2 2 3 1 1 3 cystis aeruqinosa which are present from the metro- Panmunkey River__ 2 2 2 1 1 4 politan area as far downstream as Maryland Point Mattaponi River__ 1 1 <1 <1 2 (40 river miles). Comparison of chlorophyll a con- Chiekahominy centrations for 1965-1966 to 1969-1970 for Smith's River ------ ---- 1 1 1 <1 <1 1 Point (River Mile 0) and Indian Head (River Mile 75 from the mouth of Chesapeake Bay) indicate Clark, Guide, and Pheiffer (1974) have developed that algal populations have not only increased in the following conclusions regarding the nutrient density in later years but have become more per- loading in the Susquehanna River: sistent over the annual cycle (Jaworski, et. al., 1971). 1. Runoff from agricultural land (42 percent of the Organic carbon studies in the Patuxent River, study area) accounted for 75-85 percent of the non- Md., have found that the concentrations of dis- point source phosphorus contribution, 60-70 percent of the TKN contribution, and more than 90 percent solved organic carbon (DOC) were higher than of the nitrate nitrogen contribution from all nonpoint particulate organic carbon (POC). The DOC to sources. 2. Runoff from forested land (53 percent of the study POC ratio was 1.7:1 for the 48 river miles studied area) accounted for 10-15 percent of the non-point (Hill, 1973). An analysis of variance indicated that source phosphorus load, 25:-30 percent of the TKN DOC varied significantly with salinity while POC load, and about 5 percent of the nitrate nitrogen load from all non-point sources. varied significantly only at low and high salinities., 3. Phosphorus is considerably more manageable than Both DOC and POC concentrations decreased down nitrogen in the lower Susquehanna River Basin river (Hill and Champ in manuscript). during all flow conditions. 4. In order to protect the biological integrity of the Thus far, Chesapeake Bay itself has been able upper Chesapeake Bay, a sizeable reduction (70-90 to avoid the problems associated with nutrient percent) in the existing point source contribution of phosphorus must be realized. loading leading to eutrophic conditions which are 5. The effectiveness of nitrogen control at point sources present in many tributaries (i.e Potomac River, is questionable unless attention is given towards reducing the existing load from agricultural runoff. Patuxent River and Black River). In the main NUTRIENTS 251 body of the upper bay nutrient levels and phyto- Table 4.-MaJor waterways: Referencelevel violations,. 1963-72 plankton production are high, but the grazing rate is also high, thereby preventing an undesirable Parameter Reference level exceeding reference levels buildup of algae. Nutrient levels are probably near andsource 1963-72 68-72 Change the upper limit for healthy conditions in the bay. The discharge of improperly treated sewage and Suspended solids .-... .... 80 mg/I aquatic life 26 14 -12 municipal wastes constitutes the most serious im- Turbidity---.---.-. 50JU aquatic life 28 28 0 mediate threat to the Chesapeake Bay estuarine Nitrate (as-N)----- 0.89 mg/l aquatic life 16 6 -10 Nitrate (as N)-.. .......... 0.9 mg/I nutrient 12 24 +12 system (Schubel, 1972). Nitrite plus nitrate ----- 0.9 mg/l nutrient 18 26 +8 Total Phosphorus .-..... 0.1 mg/I nutrient 34 57 +23 Total Phosphate ..-.. ..... 0.3 mg/l nutrient 30 41 +11 Dissolved Phosphate .----. 0.3 mg/I nutrient 11 22 +-11 CRITICAL PROBLEMS AND Chlorides -. --.- --------.. 250 mg/l water supply 12 9 -3 RECOMMENDATIONS Sulfates ...-.. ....... 250 mg/I water supply 12 12 0 Current U.S. Trends Modified from National Water Quality Inventory; 1974. in Nutrient Loading The current trend in expansion, development and permits for discharging from a point source into the population growth of coastal cities will greatly nation's waters. These permits specify the amounts accelerate man's impact on the Nation's estuaries. of pollutants that each discharge point is allowed. Nutrient loading is increasing in general with some By March 1974, about 41,000 permit applications harmful results. The 1974 National Water Quality had already come in with an expected 34,000 still Inventory stated that the "chemical and physical to be filed. measurements taken in 22 waterways show that the Municipal sewage contributes large amounts of pollutants receiving the most widespread controls nutrients to the river or estuary depending upon the (including bacteria and oxygen demand) greatly treatment it receives. Primary treatment removes improved in the last five years." It continued to the particulate matter from the raw sewage thereby report that "nitrogen and phosphorus, the nutrients removing 20-35 percent of the biological oxygen most frequently associated with eutrophication, demand (BOD). Tertiary waste treatment, using showed worsening trends." The overall effect of the effluent from the secondary process, involves these opposite trends is not completely understood; nutrient removal (nitrogen and phosphorus) and however, if the present increased use of chlorine as can reduce BOD effluent concentrations significantly a disinfectant is considered, lower bacteria counts below secondary treatment. Table 5 lists the number and BOD levels could be explained even though of municipal discharges by treatment level and by nutrient loading has increased. Phosphorus levels state. were high enough to exceed suggested levels in up Agricultural sources are more difficult to study. to 57 percent of the reaches studied. In addition, Most farms are not considered to be point sources "82 percent of the reaches showed increased levels and are not required to have permits, but large of phosphorus from 1968-1972 over the previous feedlots, fish hatcheries, and return flows from five years ... with nitrogen exceeding reference irrigated fields must have permits. Most operations levels in one quarter of the reaches measured, and of this type are found in the west and midwest with increased in up to 76 percent of the reaches." Table 4 about 6,500 permit applications expected under the presents the percent of the reaches exceeding refer- National Pollution Discharge Elimination System ence levels and the percent change from 1963 (NPDES). to 1972. Increased nutrient loading represents a potential The National Water Quality Inventory (1974) hazard to the nation's estuaries which may have a represents a landmark work in the study of the profound effect on a type of American way of life. United States continental waterways because it was Many communities bordering the estuaries depend a cooperative effort by the states in association with upon the estuarine ecosystem for their economic and the Environmental Protection Agency. The report cultural livelihood. In tidewater Virginia, for exam- studied the 10 longest rivers in the country; the ple, fishing and oystering have been community 10 rivers with the highest streamflow volume; and pursuits for well over a century and they could the rivers or harbors where the 10 largest urban easily be eliminated, impacting economic and social areas are located. structures. Socially, the estuaries annually provide In 1972, the National Pollution Discharge Elimi- recreation for. millions in the form of swimming, nation System (NPDES) Act was passed requiring boating and fishing. In North Carolina, the annual ESTUAR.INE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 5.--Municipal discharges by state (.From EPA National Water Quality Inventory, 1974) Number of municipal facilities by treatment level Number of facilities by population served State Total Primary Adequate Inadequate Unclassified Tertiary None Less than 1,00ore 10 000to Greaterthan secondary secondary secondary* 1,000 9,999 l(J0,0O0 100,000 Alabama .............. 261 32 65 42 I01 0 21 96 - 137 27 1 Alaska ................ 38 8 0 I 25 0 4 31 4 2 1 Arizona ....~ .......... 119 3 7 13 75. I 20 51 54 11' 3 Arkansas'. ............. 211 18 5 29 157 O 2 71 118 21 1 California ............. 659 119 69 62 375 11 23 196 SO0 140 ' 23 Colorado .............. 233 11 15 16: 168 7 16 119 86 24 4 Cunnecticut ............ 180 39 11 7 84 6 33 88 44 45 S ..Delaware .............. 25 5 S g 2 9 2 8 15 1 ' 1 District of Columbia .... I O O i 0 O 6 0 .O 0 1 ~lorida ................ 582 40 173 147 189 14 19 261 240 78 3 Georgia ............... 474 64 207 114 62 2 25 264 173 33 4 Hawaii ................ 39 5 9 3 15 O 7 11 22 6 O Idaho ................. 129 17 16 42 37 0 17 67 53 9 O Illinois ................ 828 71 189 230 287 31 26 313 416 92 7 indiana ............... 741 49 37 80 355 104 122 450 241 44 6 Iowa .................. 639 27 23 122 350 O 117 421 195 22 1 Kansas ................ 632 98 13 67 442 O 12 405 192 33 2 Kentucky .............. 284 25 6 5 238 3 7 96 166 20 2 Louisiana .............. 188 11 1 2 159 0 15 ' 42 111 33 2 Maine ................. 68 15 4 ' 8 24 O 22 27 34 7 O Maryland .............. 304 28 61 57 141 O 17 t 195 88 19 2 Massachusetts ......... 153 37 O O 77 O 39 56 58 33 g Michigan .............. 482 108 59 58 132 13 112 184 245 48 5 Minnesota .........:... 520 53 15 92 311 15 34 295 195 27 3 Mississippi ............ 312 7 4 I1 277 O 13 170 114 27 1 Missouri .............. 454 20 18 31 376 0 9 213 205 30 6 Montana .............. 163 24 2 2 127 2 6 109 46 g O Nebraska ............. 496 41 4 24 385 7 35 374 109 10 3 Nevada ............... 39 3 7 2 24 1 2 14 21 1 3 New Hampshire ........ 45 18 0 2 23 D 2 l0 26 9 0 New Jersey ............ 339 84 26 33 193 4 5 73 176 80 lO New Mexico ........... 82 1 .. 8 27 45 O I 1~7 39 14 2 New York ............. 747 472 34 66 135 16 24 312 329 86 20 North Carollna ......... 1,156 114 150 166 634 93 59 901 200 53 2 North Dakota .......... 256 15 3 11 216 0 U 194 54 8 0 Ohio .................. 1,033 89 219 123 298 132 172 576 344 lO1 12 Oklahoma ............. 385 12 76 157 137 O 3 199 155 28 3 Ore~on ................ 249 42 39 54 9t 2 21 117 102 28 . 2 Pennsylvania .......... I;877 164 429 263 494 253 274 1,225 518 121 13 qhOde Island .......... 27 8 I 7 2 2 7 11 6 8 2 South Carolina ......... 1,416 113 37 93 1,067 82 24 1,202 188 25' l South Dakota .......... 227 19 93 74 26 2 19 169 50 8 0 Tennessee ............. 265 17 60 42 134 6 6 102 133 26 4 Texas ................. 911 73 172 499 171 1 4 239 530 123 19 Utah .................. 89 14 23 21 17 I 19 42 29 16 2 VermOnt .............. 79 34 1 4 31 O 9 34 41 4 0 Virginia ............... 956 99 54 90 673 22 18 733 184 31 g Washington ............ 363 95 22 39 182 2 23 202 120 37 4 West Virginia .....: .... 578 149 6 l0 385 5 23 472 94 12 0 Wisconsin ............. 562 84 lO1 195 132 14 36 326 197 36 3 Wyoming .............. 85 9 O 2 70 I 3 52 29 4 0 Guam ................. 1 O O O 1 0 0 1 0 O O Puerto Rico .........._. 82 25 5 .47 1 O 4. 6 66 9 1 Virgin Islaads .......... 1 1 O O O O O O 1 0 0 Total ............... 21,055 2,723 2,575 3,287 10,153 795 1,532 11,852 7,291 1,718 204 * Data insufficient to classify further. marine sport fishing value was estimated at 9 million areaswere in excess of $15 million in 1960 (National dollars in 1960, with marine commercial fisheries Estuarine Study, 1970). In 1966 in Chesapeake Bay valued at 3.6 million dollars. Estuarine dependent $30 million dollars worth oLfish and shellfish were oceanic fish were valued at 2.5 million with water- harvested, half of this oysters. The 20 million pounds fowl hunting valued at 0.2 million dollars..Therefore, of oyster meat harvested in 1966 c~osen't compare the annual primary economic value of fish and well with the 177 million pounds harvested in 1880 wildlife resources of the North Carolina estuarine Oyster harvesting could evidently be prohibited I NUTRIENTS 253 in some areas if pollution and eutrophication are sible concentrations" exist in many cases but these allowed to continue. Swimming has been banned in need to be evaluated as standards for water quality some rivers. for instance in the Potomac River, and as methodology incorporating both accuracy and where up to 5 million gallons of untreated raw simplicity. EPA and other governmental groups are sewage per day are currently being discharged due on the right track in coordinating activities and to treatment plant overloads. defining critical values, national zones and areas Nutrient loading in some estuaries has accelerated of study. However, a total cooperative program will eutrophication, altering the biota and reducing be required to reverse the national trend. An species diversity. The species considered to have integrated systems approach will enable a better economic value generally do not thrive in eutrophic qualification and quantification of estuarine dy- conditions. Perhaps the most significant alterations namics, eliminating problems associated with inter- in the biology of eutrophic estuaries would be the preting individual parameters. For enforcement reduction in embryonic and juvenile survival rates policy to be effective, it must be uniform, and those and the reduction of alternative food webs. Oysters, at fault must be given an economic incentive for clams, lobsters. crabs. and many species of fish corrective action. If fines are not enough, stiffer have been placed in stressing environments. The measures must be taken to develop cooperation. resulting biota is composed of large populations of A nationwide monitoring system using standard- polycheate worms. trash fish, and echinoderms. In ized methodology is needed which could be state tropical waters, sewage dumping accelerates algae and federally supported and staffed. This allows for production which drastically alters the production progressive trends to be realized and would be of coral reefs. On the west coast, sewage disposal beneficial in discovering problem areas. Phosphates, stimulates 'large populations of sea urchins, which largely coming from households, represent an easy over-graze the giant kelp beds, eliminating nursery source for action but certainly that is not enough. areas for larval and juvenile forms, habitats for fish, Nitrogenous compounds, generally considered to be sea otters, and numerous invertebrates. These altera- the limiting nutrient in coastal areas, need 'to be tions are at the interacting ecosystem level and strictly monitored. New technology in municipal cause irreversible damage. > sewage treatment has increased the efficiency of With world food production today at a premiumn, phosphate removal; however, there must 'be 'a the 4.06 billion pounds of U.S. estuarine commercial greater effort to investigate the impact of specific fishand shellfish (1967) are averyimportantsource of nutrients on specific estuaries. Fertilizers could be protein. Several investigators have reviewed the made less deleterious simply by increasing the potential for controlled cultural eutrophication as efficiency of their uptake. a new source for man's food (Sawyer, 1970). The Nutrient loading in the nation's estuaries exists philosophy is that added nutrients increase phyto- as a problem between good management (coopera- plankton biomass, which could be channeled into tive policy and decision) and enforcement of food chains specifically for the production of com- regulations. mercially important fish or shellfish (aquaculture). This could serve a twofold purpose: first, it could RECOMMENDATIONS use treated sewage as a nutrient source, and secondly, it could produce a vast industry if developed. The 1. Formation of a National Estuarine Coordinating statistics compiled for 1969 by the National Marine Fisheries Service of the National Oceanic ad .Board. The, Board would consist of representatives Fsheres Service of the Natnal Oceac an from the various state and federal agencies. The Atmospheric Administration indicate that the Gulf Board would be responsible for approving manage- of Mexico Fisheriesotrbuted15 millionorBoard would be responsible for approving manage- of Mexico Fisheries contributed $152 million, or ment programs and directing the enforcement of about 30 percent of the total U.S. fisheries produc- policies and enactments. The Board would be tion ($518.5 million). In 1970 the gulf shrimp policies and enactments. The Board would be ftion (518.5 million). In 1970 te gulf shrimp responsible for reviewing every estuarine proposed misheriesalon.e weeesiatdtoproject prior to submission to Congress for funding, million. A Ism ooth systeml doesn't exist whereby federal similar to the Board of Engineers for River and Harbors for civil works projects. The Board would agencies administer to state agencies, which control be responsible for c ordinating estuarine onitoring local operations, w o le be responsible for coordinating estuarine monitoring local operations, with one federal-group as the lead surveys and evaluating nationaltrends. The Board organization responsible for coordination' of estu- could be housed in the Office of Coastal Zone arine programs. Instead, a free lance theory of Management of NOAA. operation exists which can break down interagency 2. Development of 'a national policy on coastal land cooperation. Federal "maximum acceptable permis- use with regard to construction of recreational-homes 254 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL and beach houses, et cetera, modeled after the Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1961. Critical review literature on the toxicity of industrial wastes toxic components to Currituck County Plan in North Carolina. This fish. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 22:1432. plan concentrates housing and populations in small areas which enables better sewage treatment and Eppley, R. W., A. F. Carlucci, et al. 1972. Evidence for human impact on the system eutrophication in the sea near southern California coastal reduces the human impact on the systgem. sewage outfalls. California Mar. Res. Comm., CalCOFI 3. Formation of a Nationwide Estuarine Monitoring Rept., 16:74-83. System in which the many regional programs would be coordinated and manned by federal and state Goldberg, Edward D. 1952. Iron assimilation by marine authorities using standardized techniques. The data diatoms. Biological Bulletin, Vol. 102, No. 3. pp. 243-248. could be stored in EPA STORET System with a Goldberg, Edward D. 1954. Marine geochemistry 1. Chemical system of quality control instigated, scavengers of the sea. Journal of Geology, Vol. 62, No. 4. Designation of natural undisturbed estuarine 3. 1954. pp. 249-265. areas as biospheres to be preserved and protected for Guide, Victor, and Orterio Villa, Jr. 1972. Chesapeake Bay research and long term studies. nutrient input study. Technical Report 47. US-EPA .5. Seasonal and long term studies evaluating the Region III. impact of the addition of specific nutrients to Hill, J. M. 1973. Distribution and diurnal cycle of dissolved specific estuarine ecosystems to determine the limit- and particulate organic carbon in the Patuxent River, Md. ing nutrient. MS thesis. The American University. Washington, D.C. Hill, John M., and Michael A. Champ. (In manuscript.) REFERENCES xorDistribution and diurnal cycle of dissolved and particulate urEERE NCES ;organic carbon in the Patuxent River Estuary, Md. Alaska Division of Public Health. 1967. Water supply and Jaworski, N. A., D. W. Lear, Jr., and 0. Villa, Jr. 1971. waste disposal in the Gateway Borough. Published by the Nutrient management in the Potomac Estuary. Technical Branch of Environmental Health. Juneau. Report 45. Environmental Protection Agency. Brickell, D. C. and J. J. Goering. 1970. Chemical effects of Kaiser Engineers. 1969. Final report to the State of California- salmon decomposition on aquatic ecosystems. In Inter- San Francisco Bay-Delta water quality program. national Symposium on Water Pollution Control in Cold Climates. Edited by R. S. Murphy and D. Nyguist. U;S. Ketchum, B. H. 1969. Eutrophication of estuaries. In Eutro- GPO Stock No. 5501-02028. pp. 125-138. phication: causes, consequences, and correctives. 1971. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C. pp. California State Water Resources Control Board. 1971. A 197-209. comprehensive study of San Francisco Bay.' Final Report, Publication No. 42. Lee, G. F., and R. H. Plumb. 1974. Literature review on research study for the development of dredged material Carpenter, J. H., D. W. Pritchard, and R. C. Whaley. 1969. disposal criteria. NTIS AD-780 755/5GA. Observations of eutrophication and nutrient cycles in some coastal plain estuaries. In Eutrophication: causes, conse- McCullough, J. M., Jr., and Michael A. Champ. 1973. quences and correctives. National Academy of Sciences, Limnology-aquatic elements in ecological survey data for Washington, D.C. pp. 210-224. environmental considerations on the Trinity River and tributaries, Texas. A report for U.S. Army Corps of Engi- Carter, L. J. 1970. Galveston Bay: test case of an estuary in neers. Contract No. DACW63-73-C-0016. pp. 91-229. crisis. Science, Vol. 167, No. 3921. pp. 1102-1108. Murphy, R. S., R. F. Carson, D. Nyquist, and R. Britch. Clark, John. 1974, Coastal ecosystems: ecological considera- 1972. Effects of waste discharges into a silt-laden estuary- tions for management of the coastal zone. The Conserva- A case study of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Institute of Water tion Foundation. Washington, D.C. Resources, University of Alaska. Publication No. IWR 26. Clark, Leo J., D. K. Donnelly, and Orterio Villa, Jr. 1973. Nobile, Philip, and John Deedy. (Editors.) 1972. The com- Nutrient enrichment and control requirements in the Upper plete ecology fact book. Doubleday and Co., Inc., Garden Chesapeake Bay. EPA-903/9-73-002-a. City, N.Y. Clark, L. J., Victor Guide, and T. H. Pfeiffer. 1974. Nutrient Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. Third edition. transport and accountability in the Lower Susquehanna W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. River Basin. US-EPA-903/9-74-014. Technical Report 60. Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan. 1974. Copeland, B. J. and J. E. Hobbie. 1972. Phosphorus and Coastal ecological systems of the United States. The Con- eutrophication in the Pamlico River Estuary, N.C. Water servation Foundation. Washington, D.C. Vol. 1-4. Resources Institute of the Univ. of N.C. Report No. 65. Pearsons, E. A., P. N. Storrs, and R. E. Selleck. 1969. Final Corcoran, E. F. and J. E. Alexander. 1964. The distribution report. A comprehensive study of San Francisco Bay. Vol. 3. of certain trace elements in tropical sea water and their Waste dischargers and loading. SERL Report No. 67-3. biological significance. Bull. of Marine Science of the Gulf Berkeley: Sanitary Engineering Research Lab., University and Caribbean. Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 594-602. of Calif. 'NUTRIENTS 255 Pruter, A. T., and D. L. Alverson (ed.) 1972. The Columbia U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Water quality River estuary and adjacent ocean waters. U. of Seattle press. criteria. 1972. National Academy of Sciences Committee on Water Quality Criteria Report. Washington, D.C. Redfield, A. C., B. H. Ketchum, and F. A. Richards. 1963. EPA-R3-73-033. The influence of organisms on the composition of seawater. In Hill, M. N. (ed.) The Sea, Interscience, N.Y. Vol. 2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. National water quality inventory. Vol. 1. Report to Congress, Office of Rice. Estuarine lands of North Carolina: Legal aspects of Water Planning and Standards. Washington, D.C. EPA- ownership, use and control, 46 N.C.L. Rev. 779 (1968). 440/9-74-001. Ryther, J. H. and W. M. Dunstan. 1971. Nitrogen, phosphorus Vitale, Anne M. and Pierre M. Sprey. 1974. Total urban and eutrophication in the coastal marine environment. water pollution loads: the impact of storm water. NTIS Science. Vol. 171. pp. 1008-1013. TB-231730. Sawyer, C. N. 1970. ABCs of cultural eutrophication and its control. Part 1-cultural changes. Presented at meeting of Wangersky, P. J. 1972. The cycle of organic carbon in sea- water. From a lecture given to the Societe Vaudoise des Psychological Society of America, Indiana University. Sciences Naturelles on April 26, 1972. Chima 26 Nr. Published in the Proceedings. pp. 278-281. 11-559-564. Schoenbaum. 1972. Public rights and coastal zone manage- ment. 51 N.C.L. Rev. 1. Williams, P. H. 1971. The distribution and cycling of organic matter in the ocean. Chapter 7. In Organic compounds in Schubel, J. R. 1972. The physical and chemical conditions of aquatic environments (Samuel D. Faust and Joseph W. Chesapeake Bay; an evaluation. Chesapeake Bay Institute, Hunter, eds.). Mariel Dekker, Inc., N.Y. pp. 145-163. Chesapeake Bay; an evaluation. Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns Hopkins University. Special Report No. 21. Woodwell, G. M. 1970. Effects of pollution on the structure Smith, R. F. 1966. In R. F. Smith, A. H. Swartz, and W. H. and physiology of ecosystems. Science. 108. p. 429. Massmann (ed.) A symposium on estuarine fisheries. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 3. pp. vii-viii. Yentsch, C. S., unpublished data. Ketchum, B. H. 1969. Eutrophication of estuaries. In Eutrophication: causes, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. consequences, correctives. National Academy of Sciences, 1970. National estuary study. U.S. Government Printing Washington, D.C. pp. 197-209. Office. Volumes 1-7. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1970. The national estuarine ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS pollution study. Report of the Secretary of the Interior to the U.S. Congress. 91st Congress, Document No. 91-58. U.S. Government Printing Office. Sincere appreciation is extended to William J. Rue, Jr., without whose valuable assistance this manuscript could not U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. Conference have been compiled. A. R. Armstrong, Roland F. Smith, and in the matter of pollution of the navigable waters of Gal- Paul R. Becker are to be thanked for their critical review. veston Bay and its tributaries, Texas. (3 vols.) Houston, Rosie Valigra's efforts in editing and typing the final manu- Tex. script are also greatly appreciated. EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF NUTRIENTS IN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS JOHN E. HOBBIE B. J. COPELAND North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina ABSTRACT Almost all nutrients entering estuaries come via streams, with smaller amounts from precipitation and the ocean. Oversupplies of nutrients are transported to estuaries from land-use activities, sewage disposal, industry, agricultural wastes, urban runoff and mining. Increased nutrients cause algal blooms, which lead to more subtle estuarine ecological problems. Many processes affect nutrient concentrations during transportation and after they reach the estuary. Absorption, dilution, coagulation, and sedimentation decrease nutrient concentrations in estuarine waters. Since an equilibrium is established between water and sediment, nutrients are also released to the water from sediment storages. Biological activities influence nutrient cycling and concentration. Several control mechanisms are discussed. The potentially most successful and least harmful means of controlling nutrient inputs to estuaries is to control them at their source. After nutrients reach estuaries, there is little possibility for effective reduction in nutrient concentrations. Suggestions for research to develop new and more effective means to control nutrient inputs to estuaries are made. These include denitrification, land-use practices, natural filters, treatment innovations, and new ways to assess ecosystem response. Finally, management mechanisms are suggested to influence nutrient inputs and to minimize effects. INTRODUCTION flushing, which lead to fish kills and destruction of The Problem benthic populations. Some algae prominent in blooms (e.g., some blue green algae) are little In all aquatic systems, nutrients are important utilized by consumer organisms; these may also clog raw materials supporting a basic biological activity, gills of animals. Shading occurs in bloom conditions primary production. Estuaries, being open-ended and the photosynthetic activity of bottom plants and subject to tidal flushing, are highly dependent is affected (e.g., several instances have been reported upon a continuous import of nutrients to maintain of grass flats being replaced by phytoplankton in their productivity. Under circumstances of an over- cases of high nutrient input). supply of nutrients, however, the normal rate of Estuarine waters are a mixture of sea and fresh primary productivity is altered and changes in water. As seawater contains large amounts of a structure and function of the ecosystem result. mixture of salts, most of the salts necessary for The most obvious symptom of increased nutrient plant growth, such as potassium and sodium, will input is the often-cited bloom of certain types of be plentiful. Also, there will be no lack of the trace algae. This is usually manifested by the rapid elements, such as molybdenum or cobalt, that often growth of the few species capable of rapid utilization limit photosynthesis in oligotrophic lakes (Goldman, of the incoming nutrients. The result is the com- 1972). Two nutrients that are low in concentration petitive exclusion of many species present under in both sea and fresh water, nitrogen and phosphorus, more normal conditions. When these imbalances in have been shown to control productivity in estu- the primary producers occur, entire food chains aries. Consequently, we will consider only phos- may also be altered and the secondary production phorus and nitrogen in the following pages. prized by man may decrease. Algal blooms may also lead to more subtle Objectives changes in the ecosystem. Decomposition of the dying and sinking bloom organisms results in low 1) To identify the sources and characteristics of oxygen conditions, especially in areas of slow nutrients entering the estuaries of the U.S.; 257 258 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 2) To characterize the transport mechanisms for Table 2.-Input of phosphorus in precipitation and output in streams from watersheds 2 (deforested) and 6 from 1 June 1968 to May 31, 1969 (in g P ha-tyr'). nutrients entering estuaries; The output is given as the sum of the total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) plus fine 3) To summarize the impact and fate of nutrients particulate phosphorus (FPP) and as large particulate phosphorus (LPP) which in the estuarine ecosystem, both physical and is the sum of the phosphorus in inorganic particles plus that in organic parti- cles > 1 mm (from Hobble and Likens, 1973, Table 3) biological; 4) To identify control mechanisms and evaluate W.2 W-6 them in terms of estuarine management; and 5) To recommend future programs of control and Input. .-................................... 99* 108* management. Output TDP + FPP -...0......... -20 9 LPP .--------- 183 12 Met gain or loss ------------------------------104 +87 SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS * Estimated on the basis of precipitation analyses during 1971-1972, when the Estuaries receive nutrients in both dissolved and weighted concentration was 8 ug P liter-. particulate forms. Almost all of these nutrients enter the estuary in streams and rivers; a small amount also comes from precipitation and from the ocean. When the forests are cut, then the nutrient loss These relative proportions will be different in dif- increases. For phosphorus, this loss doubled for the ferent reaches of an estuary so that at the mouth, dissolved P in Hubbard Brook but increased fifteen- for instance, most of the nutrients may have come fold for the P in particulate matter (Table 2). The from seawater (a large volume offsets the small nitrogen also increased drastically (36-fold) in concentrations). In this dependence on outside Hubbard Brook after the forest was cut (Borman sources of nutrients, estuaries resemble lakes and et al. 1974), mostly as dissolved nitrate. It is true rivers. All these systems contrast with forests or of soils in general that phosphorus is strongly crop lands where some nutrients are constantly attached to soil particles and is lost from soils supplied from breakdown of the parent rocks and mainly by erosion of the particles themselves. In from the soils. contrast, nitrate nitrogen is soluble in the soil water In forests and grasslands undisturbed by man, and is lost by percolation. the soils and vegetation combine to conserve the Much of the nutrients entering the freshwater nutrients in the watershed and allow only small streams and rivers of the U.S. come from sewage amounts to leave in the streams. One example of and agricultural wastes. The nutrients in sewage this comes from a New Hampshire forest where more arise from human wastes, detergents, street runoff, nitrogen and phosphorous entered the watershed in and industrial wastes. There are a number of the rainfall than left by streams (Table 1, Table 2). detailed studies of the amounts contributed by Hobbie and Likens (1973) mentioned that while each source; an idea of the magnitude of the prob- only 21 g P/ha left the watershed, some 1900 g P/ha lem may be gained from the summary of Vollen- were contained in the annual leaf-fall alone. weider (1968) for average conditions in central Europe (Table 3) and from Jaworski, Lear and Villa (1972) for the Potomac estuary (Table 4). Table 1.-Inputs and outputs from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest* The actual concentrations of nutrients in a given (from Doevey 1972, Table 2) river will vary according to such factors as volume Average all undisturbed of flow, number of cities, amount of forest, and type Weightedcon. atersheds 1963/1969 of agriculture. High concentrations of nutrients are (mg liter-) added by point sources, such as domestic sewage Input Output and industrial wastes (domestic sewage contains 1 Ca2+-0.21 2.6 11.8 to 4 g P/person/day and 5 toS1 g N (Vollenweider, Mg2- .... ........0.06 0.7 2.9 1968)). The concentrations of nutrients from non- Na+----- ---- ---------- 0.12 1.5 6.9 point sources, such as farms and forests, is low but +S ----- -- - ----------- 0.09 1.1 1.7 el-- ----------------- 0.42 5.2 4.9 the total amount added will qften equal or exceed tSo ------------------ 3.1 38.3 48.6 that from point sources (Table 3). Thus, Vollen- NH3--- - ------------ 1.232 2.37 0.4 weider states that a lightly fertilized pine forest may NO,-..... .... 1.31 16.3 8.7 SiO3 .-....... <0.1 ** 35.1 receive 2 kg P/ha and 26 kg N/ha each year while ACo--------------- 1 .8 heavily fertilized farmland may receive 37 kg P and H3------O------- a .4*0~ 14.6 340 kg N. Between 10 and 25 percent of the nitrogen *'Sample data from Likens et al.(1971). and 1 and 5 percent of the phosphorus will enter ** Not measured but very small. the streams from this fertilized land. NUTRIENTS 259 Table 3.-Amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus (kg/ha/yr) in runoff from an TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS average area (from Vollenweider 1968). The range for farmlands and meadows and grassland reflects differing amounts of fertilizer reaching the streams After the nutrients enter streams and rivers, some fraction may be changed by various processes before SourceskN ' . they finally reach the estuary. One process is, the kg/ha/yr absorption by plants and bacteria; another is'the absorption by sediments. The total quantity ab- Sewage 6.6 0.8 sorbed is difficult to quantify and it is also possible Human wastes - ..-.... -.. . ... . . 6.6 0.8 Detergents .-...... ... - 0.4 that some of the absorbed material eventually Street runoff ...-................... 0.7 0.1 reaches the estuary (e.g., by washout during excep- Industrial wastes- ~~~~~~~~~..~~~~. -0.7 0.1 tionally high discharge). In the Upper Potomac 8.0 1.4 Basin (Jaworski, Villa and Hetling, 1969), 38 percent of the phosphorus entering the surface Arable land - 2.3- 5.8 -- 0.1-0.5 waters is retained in the channel. The high nutrients Meadows and grasslands..... ..... 4.3-13.3 0.1-0.5 in the water and the rich sediments will cause a Forests--- ------------------------ 1.0 o'l dramatic increase in the aquatic plants (Fig. 1). 8.6-20.1 0.3-1.1 Another factor causing loss of nutrients in streams Total ---------------------------.. 16.6-28,1 1.7-2.5 is adsorption onto particulate matter. Jaworski et al., (1972) states that more than 20 percent of the reduction of phosphates measured during peak Table 4.-Summary of nutrient sources, upper and middle reaches of the flows could be attributed to adsorption followed by Potomac estuary (from Jaworski et al. 1972, Table 3) sedimentation of the particulate. Nitrogen in land ruiioff enters the rivers and Land Wastewater Air-water streams mostly as nitrates; however, the nitrogen (kgyff discharges interfacey- from wastewater enters mostly as ammonia. This (kg day-') (kg day-') (kg day-c) nitrogen is taken up by algae and other plants, is Low-flow conditions deposited on the bottom (as organic nitrogen after (Potomac River discharge at death of algae and plants), and is oxidized to nitrite Washingtion, D.C. = 33.98 and nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. In the Potomac mssec-) 77,100 72,600* 431,000'* Nitrogen- ------ 3,040 27,200 726*** Phosphorus _.. ........... 454 10,900 0 Median-flow conditions (Potomac River discharge at Washington, D.C. = 184.06 0 DOLLARS C m3sec-) I' Carbon -....... 159,000 72,600 431,000 200- x CUBIC YARDS Nitrogen ----- 18,100 27,200 726 G' Z Phosphorus ..--..-.-.-. . 2,400 10,:900 0 / Z 80- -450 * Of the 72,600 kg day', 27,200 kg day- are discharged as inorganic carbon. -I " The potential C02 obtainable from the atmosphere was determined by using only X 160- - 0.1% ofthe transfer rate of 0.8 mg cm min-' as indicated by Riley and Skirrow (1965). E 400 *** Based on a nitrogen fixation rate of five lb acre- yr- as reported by Hutchinson I (1957), 0 :: n 140- -350 -j Seawater is also a source of nutrients in estuaries. 120- -300 It is usually considered that the reverse is true, and r little thought is given to input from the ocean. As o will be discussed later, however, a number of 00 -250 (O processes in estuaries will concentrate nutrients from water so even the nutrient-poor ocean water may lose some P and N to estuaries. In one estuary in FISCAL YEAR Scotland, the Ythan, 70 percent of the P and 30 FraURs 1.-Phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic carbon in the percent of the N that flow into the estuary wevre upper r from 1913-1970. The top line gives marine in origin (Leach, 1971) but the distributioni plant nuisances (from Jaworski, Lear, and Villa, 1972, of the P and N retained was not measured. Fig. 7). 260 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 1.6 TEMP=27.5o C - 1.2- z 1.5- OII ~z -NO:4-NO, (OBSERVED) Z 0.8 - /+NO. .6I /' NH. (OBSERVED) NTRUSION 0.0 4- , 0 . 10 20 , 30 40 50 60 70 KILOMETERS BELOW CHAIN BRIDGE FIGURE 2.-The average and predicted concentrations of ammonia and nitrite' plus nitrate in the Potomac River on August 17-22, 1968. The brackish water begins at about 50 km (from Jaworski et al., 1972, Fig. 12). River the nitrification is the dominant reaction and changinfg the concentration of the nutrients, then most of the nitrogen is changed to nitrate (Fig. 2). their concentrations would decrease in direct propor- In some rivers that traverse coastal plains, such tion.to the increase in salt concentration. (The as the Chowan River in Virginia and North Carolina, assumption that the ocean water has a lower con- the flood plain of the river is often flooded and the centration of nutrients than the fresh water is swampy ground resembles a giant sponge. Tremen- almost always valid.) dous amounts of water flow in and out'of these ' One estuary where dilution is important is swamp soils as the water level in the river rises and Charlotte Harbor, on the west coast of Florida. falls due to flow and wind effects. The change in Here, water from the Peace River, one of three water level in the soils is easily measured I km from rivers emptying into the estuary, contains 0.6 mg the river. The effect of this exchange of water on P/liter. This phosphate comes from phosphate the concentration of nutrients is unknown but soils mines and so there are' no accompanying high and peats do act as ion exchange columns and amounts of nitrogen. Therefore, there are no algal there are undoubtedly many changes occurring. blooms and the phosphate remains in the water (Alberts et al., 1970). As seen in Figure 3, the decrease in P concentration closely follows the ideal PROCESSES AFFECTING dilution curve indicating that neither biological nor NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION. ~~~~~IN ESTUARIES ~chemical processes are important. A number of distinct processes change the con- ADSORPTION AND COMPLEXING centrations of nutrients in estuaries. Most of these.- are acting simultaneously in most cases, but some- Some of the nutrients entering estuaries are at- times one process predominates. Thus, although the tached to particulate materials in the rivers. This is processes are described below in isolation, we do not particularly true for phosphate and, to a lesser mean to imply that only one process is occurring. extent, ammonium. Most of the research has been carried out. on phosphate. Physical and Chemical Processes When phosphorus is added to stirred suspensions of estuarine sediment, half of the phosphorus is.- DILUTION adsorbed to the particulate matter within 15 seconds or so (Pomeroy, Smith and Grant, 1965)'. Much of The circulation of estuaries causes a continual the particulate matter is clay and silt and- the inflow of seawater and continual mixing with fresh adsorption ..properties of clay are well .known. water. If this were the predominant mechanisms Evidence exists that some of this phosphorus may NUTRIENTS 261 �'0� ~ DEC. 1969 oAoo' MRCH 1970 O.SO0~~~1 is to 2 .B0 aI o0' 3 \,0 ' '.400 0.400- 0.400- 0.200 - 0*00 - 0.100- * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~0.100" 0 o~~~loo- , . X ~~~~~~~o.lOo- ' ;. ; ,~' ,e ,o ,4 ,o : - ~. e ,, ,S io ,4'io ~, 4 a lif to 3a 2 428:3S 4 8 12 .18202 4283:a S %. . .' S %. FIGURE 3.-Phosphorus concentrations and salinity in Charlotte Harbor, Fla. An ideal dilution curve is given as a solid line while actual measurements are plotted as dots (from Alberts et al, 1970). be released or displaced by competing ions, such as with an electrical charge. In fresh waters, the par- chloride or sulfate, when the particulate matter tidcles are kept from aggregating by repulsive forces, reaches brackish water (Upchurch, Edzwald and but when the particles move into brackish water O'Melia, 1974). the ions affect the particles and floes are formed. There also appears to be a good correlation The size and settling velocity of these floes may be between the amount of phosphorus and the amount several orders of magnitude larger than those of the of extractable (with oxalate) iron in estuarine individual particles (see Edzwald, Upchurch and sediments; this leads to the hypothesis that phos- phorus can also be bound to particulate matter as 2.00 . . a part of a phosphorus-iron-solids complex (Up- church et al., 1974). 1.60 4 12L_ COAGULATION AND SEDIMENTATION . . 2 -0.80- . 0 When the nutrient-rich river water reaches the . * A upper parts of the estuary, the current slows as X0.40- - the river broadens. As a result, there is a rapid � sedimentation of particulate matter and also of the 0 00I I4 2 ' !24 phosphorus complex mentioned above. This sedi- Nautical Miles Downstream from Station 1I ment is very phosphorus rich (Fig. 4, the sediments above the 7 mile sample). FIGURE 4.-The amount of phosphorus extracted from Some of the particulate matter is colloidal (ie. sediments by acid treatment (available phosphorus) as a ' ~someall of particleshwihale sfunction of distance downstream from the freshwater end of small particles with a large s urface a rea p er unit the Pamlico River Estuary (from Upchurch et al., 1974, mass). Typically, these colloidal particles are clays Fig. 2). 262 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL O'Melia (1974) for a detailed description). In the Table 5.-Influence of suspended sediments on estuarine water of varying Pamlico ~~~~~~ Estuary (Fig. 4), thphosphate content. Final phosphate values are mean 4- one standard error of Pamlico Estuary (Fig. 4), the decrease in P in the the mean. Phosphate inl moles/liter, 5 March 1964 (from Pomeroy et al. 1965, downstream sediments is possibly caused by coagula- Table 1) tion and release of some of the phosphorus when the salinity of the water increased. Initial P043- Final POt- P04- in sediment of water of water .(g P01-/g Although coagulation undoubtedly occurs in estu- dry sediment) aries, it is a process that is easy to demonstrate in the laboratory and difficult to study in the field. In ------------------ 0.72 0.03 -1.0 7 0.5 .................. 0.73 - 0.02 -0.4 4 natural waters, organic colloids are present in addi- l.0 o . -.. -. .90 . 0.07 +0.6 8 tion to the clay colloids as well as some mixtures of 2.5 .-.... ... 0.89 - 0.05 +7.6 8 the two. In addition, the adsorption sites on the 4.---------------- 0.87 -+ 0.002 +30.o9 3 clays in nature may be filled with a variety of ions both organic and inorganic. Thus, Button (1969) found that natural particulate material did not absorb small molecular weight organic compounds. Lean (1973) and others show that the exchange of Finally, other processes may be acting that obscure phosphorus between the soluble and particulate the coagulation effects. In the study shown in forms is really quite complex. Low-molecular Figure 4, for example, large populations of clams weight phosphorus compounds and colloidal phos- are present in the upper parts of the river that may phorus may be involved as well as the particulate be just as effective in removing the particulate and dissolved inorganic fractions. matter from suspension as the coagulation process. While it is likely that many of the same reactions No matter what the exact mechanism may be, the and processes are occurring with nitrogen com- amount of nutrients deposited in the sediments of pounds, these interactions of nitrogen and sediment an estuary is high. For example, in upper Chesa- have never been investigated in detail. One reason peake Bay, Carpenter, Prichard and Whaley (1969) for this is the great difficulty in techniques; there is, measured a loss of some 45 ug-at of nitrate nitrogen/ for example, no radioisotope of nitrogen and use of liter (610 ug N03-N) during the late spring and the stable isotope '5N requires elaborate instru- summer or 450 mg-at/m2 at the mean water depth mentation and a mass spectrometer. Another reason of 10 m. They calculated that the annual sedimenta- is that phosphorus is much more important in the tion rate of 1 mm per year would add 500 mg-at/m2 eutrophication of fresh waters and much of the of nitrogen to the sediments. Thus, the loss of research has centered on lakes. nitrogen was accounted for by the sedimentation (the authors regard the close agreement as fortui- TuE ESTUARINE NUTRIENT TRAP tous, however, as the sedimentation rate cannot be determined very precisely). There is always some upstream movement of seawater or diluted seawater in estuaries; otherwise EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN there could be no salty water in the upstream areas. SEDIMENTS AND WATER In certain estuaries with a high freshwater runoff, a shear zone is maintained for long periods with Not only do particulate matter and estuarine fresh water or low salinity water on top moving sediments remove phosphorus from solution, but downstream and more saline water on the bottom they also release phosphorus back to the water. moving upstream. If nutrients are moving vertically Thus, Pomeroy et al., (1965) showed that surface from the top to the bottom layers, by sinking or sediments acted as a giant buffer or reservoir for migration of the organisms, then the bottom waters phosphates (Table 5). When the phosphorus in the will be enriched with nutrients that otherwise would water was less than about 0.9 ug-at/liter (28 ug be lost from the estuary. Also, the bottom waters P/liter), then phosphorus was released from the will be enriched because of decomposition of organic sediments to the water. Higher concentrations were particulate matter in the surface sediments. The absorbed by the sediments. Thus, these particular theory of this nutrient trap is given in detail by sediments were in equilibrium with water containing Redfield, Ketchum and Richards (1963). 0.7 to 0.9 ug-at P/liter. A good example of this countercirculation comes This equilibrium level is somewhat higher than from the Gulf of Venezuela (Fig. 5). The seawater, other values for fresh water but this will depend containing about 0.5 ug-at P/liter, moves into the upon the type of sediments, previous history, pH, shallow waters of the gulf. As it does so, it accumu- et cetera. It should be noted that recent studies by lates phosphorus (up to 1.0 ug-at P/liter). An NUTRIENTS 263 0 . =\ deposition rate of the oyster is around 1.5 g dry 20 - wt/individual/week. If the amount of suspended solids is 5 mg/liter, this represents a minimum of 40 . 0.4 300 liters of water filtered per week. Jorgenson 60 .4(1952) gives a rate of 10 to 15 liters per day per I PHOSPHORLUS animal which would be a slower rate than the 300 o 4- liter value. Certainly, a tremendous amount of water is processed by an oyster bed; when this oyster filtering is added to the activity of other 40 - 4 filter feeders, it is enough filtering activity to process the whole of the volume of an estuary in a matter 60f oXY6v " of days or a few weeks. The large rooted plants of estuaries also act as traps for the sediments, both by catching fine sedi- FIGURE 5.-The distribution of total phosphorus and oxygen ments (Van Straatan and Kuenen, 1958) and by in a section along the axis of the Gulf of Venezuela (the depth is in meters). From Redfield et al., 1963, Fig. 11. providing protection (e.g., mangroves) so that the sedimentation rate is increased in the calm water. Various invertebrates and even diatom algae also example of this type of circulation producing a secrete mucus or slimes that trap sediments. sediment trap comes from upper Chesapeake Bay The net result is that estuaries in general and (Schubel, 1968). Sediments were kept in suspension marshes in particular act as giant filters to remove in this part of the bay by tidal currents that mix particulate materials from the water. The vegetation the water column twice each tidal cycle and also of the marshes also stabilizes the sediment and thus transport the turbid matter upstream in the bottom reduces the turbidity (Odum, 1970). The importance waters. of these processes is illustrated by the rapid siltation Although the nutrient trap certainly exists in that took place in many harbors in southeastern estuaries, its importance for the annual nutrient England when the marshes were first diked and budget has not yet been proven. Thus, in Long filled (Gosslink, Odum, and Pope, 1974). In the U.S., Island Sound, Riley and Conover (1956) and Harris Port Tobacco on the Potomac is now landlocked (1959) measured accumulations of phosphorus and but received large sailing vessels during colonial nitrogen in the summer but also found comparable times (D. Flemer, personal communication). losses during the winter. In estuaries at Sapelo Island, Ga., Pomeroy et al., (1972) found no nutrient trap operating. UPTAKE BY ORGANISMS There are four main types of photosynthetic Biological Processes organisms in estuaries, rooted plants, attached algae, phytoplankton algae and sediment algae. The BIODEPOSITION most obvious plants are the marsh grasses and rushes (e.g., Spartina and Juncus). These plants take up A number of biological processes are also removing nutrients only from the sediments (Broome, 1973) particulate matter and its associated nutrients from so are not in active competition with other primary solution. This biodeposition may even be more im- producers for nutrients. As noted, their presence portant than the physical-chemical processes already creates conditions favoring sedimentation and bio- discussed. Van Straatan and Kuenen (1958) found deposition (e.g., the mussels in salt marshes). These that dense populations of molluscs filtered clay plants also tie up a tremendous quantity of nutrients. from the water and produced pellets and flakes For example, the annual production of organic which then behaved like sand grains. Organic matter in a Georgia Spartina marsh is 1600 g/m2 detritus also trapped clay particles and the resulting (Cooper, 1974). Assuming that 44 percent of this is flocs settled faster than those formed by coagula- C and a C:N:P ratio of 125:2:0.3 for Spartina tion. In a more quantitative study, Lund (1957) (Thayer, 1974) gives 11.3 g N and 1.7 g P/m2. Even calculated that oysters filtered and deposited eight more is tied up in roots and rhizomes. times the volume of sediment deposited by gravity In some areas, submerged eelgrass (Zostera) is an alone. In fact, the deposited material was enough to important primary producer. Williams (1973) esti- completely cover the oysters in 36 days. mates that eelgrass may supply as much as 64 From tables given in Chestnut (1974), the bio- percent of the total production of phytoplankton, 264 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Spartina, and eelgrass in the shallow estuaries near (1974) also showed that the bacteria out-competed Beaufort, N.C. This may be 350 g C/m2/yr and the algae for these nutrients and suggested that the other plants in the eelgrass beds (Halodule and bacterial immobilization of nutrients might be a Ectocarpus) may produce another 300 g C. major cause of the extremely low levels of nutrients Attached algae are not important generally in found near Beaufort, N.C. estuaries because the soft substratum and the tidal flooding of the marshes do not offer a suitable habitat. Permanently submerged plants, on the NUTRIENT CYCLING other hand, accumulate a thick layer of attached algae (reds and browns) as they grow. Measure- Once nutrients reach the estuary and either are ments of the primary productivity of these algae transported to the sediments or are taken up by the show a photosynthesis rate equal to that of the biota, they can cycle through various compartments Zostera (P. Penhale, personal communication). before being locked into the sediments or flushed Microscopic algae also live in the upper layers of out of the estuary. For example, Spartina is tall the mud. When these are extensive mud flats, such near the creek banks where fresh sediments are as in the Georgia salt marshes, the primary produc- continually deposited but short farther from the tion may be as high as 420 g C/m2/yr (see summary creek. Broome (1973) traced this effect to deficien- by Cooper, 1974). cies of N in the sediments away from the creeks. Phytoplankton algae are not abundant in many Once the nutrients are taken up into the plant, part estuaries (Table 6) because of rapid flushing and is used for growth, part is excreted or otherwise high turbidity. Yet, they may be the most important lost from the plants, and part is eventually released food for zooplankton and invertebrate larvae (Odum, during decomposition. Some of the complex of 1970). In very large estuaries, such as Chesapeake reactions occurring in a Zostera bed are given in Bay, there is adequate time for the algae to develop Figure 6 where 166 mg P/m2/day are absorbed and primary production may reach several hundred from the sediments and 62 mg P excreted into the g C/m2/yr (Flemer, 1970). water. The well-known efficiency of algae in taking up nutrients from even very nutrient-poor waters,means that they will be an agent for removing nutrients SEAWATER SEAWATER from the water of the estuary. This can come from (25jug P/liter) (25g P/liter) death and sinking to the sediments, from the filtering I I P I action of benthic worms and molluscs, from being I I I eaten and carried away by migrating fish, or from 5 8.61 68.71 8.61 washout from the estuary when strong tides are l present. L -A-'7.22- Green plants are not the only organisms removing LEAVES LEAVES nutrients as bacteria are also important. The only [.48- S 18.80 quantification of this comes from the work of Thayer (1974) who pointed out that the Spartina has low 6.89 1.39 87.50 1.39 amounts of N and P relative to the C (see ratio I I above) while bacteria need a C:N:P ratio of -0.6 - o66- 200:10:1 for their growth. Thus, bacteria decompos- ROOTS a ROOTS ing the Spartina must get the additional N and P RHIZOMES a RHIZOME they need from the surrounding water. Thayer 1.31- 16.64 I II 8.20 0.7.4 104.14 0.74 Table 6.-Organic carbon production (g C/me/year) in salt marshes and adjacent I 1I estuaries at Sapelo Island, Ga., and near Beaufort, N.C. (from Cooper, 1974; INTERSTITIALt INTERSTTIALt Willliams, 1973) WATER IATERA t Georgia salt Beaufortshallow (25Jug P/liter) (2000upg P/liter) marsh ~estuary Salt marsh -......... 700 256 FIGURE 6.-Calculated daily phosphorus flux through 1 g dry Submerged plants - -----.---- 650 wt. of eelgrass. Left: uniform dissolved reactive phosphorus Attached micro algae --- - 350 concentration in water. Right: phosphate gradient similar to PhyMudalgae-----.- - --------- 66 the natural environment. Units are'ug P/g plant-day (from McRoy et al., 1972, Fig. 7). . NUTRIENTS 265 Table 7.-Some contributions to the net increase or decrease of inorganc WATER nitrogen that occurred within the Pamrlico River Estuary PARTICULATE 14,000 PHOSPIHATE 19,000 Increase Decrease PHOSPHATE 19,000 (metric tons N day-') (metric tons N day-) DISSOLVED 'ORGANIC 6,000 39,000 February 1972: net increase of 6.91 PARTICULATE 5,410 ' I3i:i::::::::'::: MORTALITY 21 metric tons N (dby-'1) PHOSPHATE 70 ?s p. ..MODIOLUS i:: GAMETES 11 1. Sediment release-0.52 1. N assimilation-6.68 T75:POPULATI i DISSOLVE ORGANIC23 2. Rainfall -0.11 > ROSDY 25,0000 V"|.i PHOSPHATE 260 SHELL I 000 ........ 0.63 6.68 PSEUOOFECE$4.700 " ,2...lOUOR IZ20 zo,,,. J-"..: 4i R. L, I37,200 zoo FECES 460, August 1972: net increase of 0.10 l 1' ~ ~I.- metric tons N (day-'a ~'d I,_-~.. ~.~..~.~..,.M ~U D ~.':-::'~.-~..-'...- L Sediment release-3.43 1. N assimilation-231.65 2. Rainfall -0.71 FIGURE 7.-Diagram'of phosphorus flow through the mussel population. Values for the water and the mussel population 4.14 231.65 are ug P/mr day. The flux rates of phosphorus in food and pseudofeces are calculated values necessary to balance the ' Calculated from inputs minus output. other, measured flux rates. nication) found a 40 percent reduction in nitrogen Algae and bacteria also excrete phosphorus leaving a salt marsh compared with the amount (Kuenzler, 1971). The phosphorus budget for a salt entering on the flood. In contrast, Heinle et al., marsh mussel (Kuenzler, 1961) illustrates that the (1974) found that the net annual flow of N, P and large amount of P cycling through the animals is C was from the marsh to the estuary while the about equal to the quantities moving into the plants chlorophyll pattern was the reverse. Marshall (1970) (Fig. 7). reported that marshes treated with sewage retained Nitrogen also cycles in the estuary. The general large quantities of N and P. pattern is for nitrate to enter the estuary (see Fig. 2) Finally, nitrogen may be lost from the estuaries, and be rapidly removed from solution. Ammonia is and particularly from the marshes, by denitrifica- continually being formed (by decomposition proc- tion. This is an anaerobic bacterial process that esses and NO0 reduction) and taken up so.its con- requires NO3 and energy in the form of organic centration does not change very much. Organic molecules. Both denitrification, and the opposite nitrogen excretion and decomposition products are process, nitrogen fixation, are occurring in estuaries also continually cycled through the sediments and but their importance, judging from only a little water. In the Pamlico River Estuary, for example, data, is likely small. Harrison (1974) found that urea was recycled every: 1.4 days in,the summer and every 200 days during the winter. His budget for N in this estuary (Table Estuarine Responses to 7) indicates that during a winter month the N NutrientAdditions assimilated during photosynthesis was balanced by In a review of the literature on estuaries that In a review of the literature on estuaries that the N (mostly NOa) left in the estuary as the water receive sewage wastes, Weiss and Wilkes (1974) flowed through (here, this is given as a net increase cncluded that hydrographic conditions, particularly concluded that hydrographic conditions, particularly of 6.91 -tons). The budget is badly out of balance the, rate of flushing, was the most important factor during the summer, however, and it is likely that response of the ecosystem. An ammonia recycling in the water column and coming from the IseIdiment made up the discrepancy of estuary with rapid flushing can handle tremendous tsd m the amounts of added nutrients as long as they are 227.5 tons/day. Similar recycling in the upper quickly transported away and quickly diluted with waters was measured by Carpenter et al., (1969) in low nutrient ocean water. Chesapeake Bay. Thus, the observed photosynthesis rate would result in a recycling of N and P every 1 to 4 days. Because of the large number of zoo- MORCHris BAY AND pla.nkton present, they thought that the algae were GREAT SOUTH BAY, LONG ISLAND, N. Y. being controlled by grazing. It is 'r6asonable that 'marshes are nutrient sinks The first example, from Ryther (1954) and Ryther as they usually accumulate organic matter which, in and Dunstan (1971), describes two connected em- turn, contains nutrients. The actual evidence for bayments, Moriches Bay and Great South Bay. this is divided, however. Byron (personal commu-1 Duck farms around Moriches Bay formerly fed 266 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the Tar from agricultural runoff, presumably from - heavily fertilized tobacco, potato, corn, and soy- L " 15sLAN0 . o:nneco:k bean fields. The total phosphorus entering the By estuary ranges from 2.4 to 6.3 ug-at P/liter (74 to . Moaich.l 8 195 ug P/liter) while the reactive P ranges from 0.4 to 4.1 ug-at P/liter (12.4 to 127 ug P/liter). ~I~ 40' ;" There is always adequate phosphorus in the estuary Asb~cirp~i and also enough ammonia. There are tremendous ...o. ''ro blooms of dinoflagellates (esp. Peridinium tri- quetrum) in the middle reaches of the estuary i r (Fig. 9) in the winter months (January until -, April) whose occurrence is apparently triggered by � .-e_ 6 v (. - !6I E the winter influx of nitrate nitrogen into the estuary c E�~ 5 y \ 2 i(Fig. 10). It should be noted that any chlorophyll concentration above 15 is an algal bloom. US-;- 3 .\ 3 0 CHLOROPHYLL A (UG/LITER) t70-71. C 2 < + 2 to ~~~~~~ H i ' a.--: - ;........ 2e _l a _,hplkn -- 'I 8..... . 10 0 aX Station number . . . . .5. I ,at South By Mk"hs say -. Sh.,,cmek In 2 |... FIGURE 8.-The distribution of phytoplankton and inorganic KMI i . b phosphorus in Great South Bay, Moriches Bay, and Shin- 3 necock Bay, Long Island, in the summer of 1952. Station. . . . . . . . . . . numbers on the map (above) correspond to station numbers on the abscissa of the figure (right) (from Ryther and Dunstan, 40 1971, Fig. 1). ....... wastes into the bay. These nutrients reached Great. .... ..............1..... South Bay which has a retention time of one month. This bay formerly had good stocks of fish and FIGURE 9.-Chorophyll a (ug/liter) in the Pamlico River shellfish but the fishery began to decline in the Estuary for 1970-71. Distance is in km from Washington, early 1940's as the duck population increased. At the N.C. (from Hobbie, 1974, Fig. 55). peak of the algal blooms, their numbers declined on either side of the Moriches Bay peak (Fig. 8). NITRATE (UG-AT/LITER) 70-li Laboratory and field tests showed that the algae : ......... ii. ....... were actually limited by the low nitrogen which. .. was used up almost as soon as it entered the estuary. The damage to the oysters came from a shift of . phytoplankton from a mixed group of species dominated by diatoms to two small forms, Nanno- chloris and Stichococcus. Although oysters will eat . these forms, these algae are nutritionally inadequate. KM ;: Another factor adversely affecting the oysters was 30 . ....... the large production of Serpulid worms which were ........... able to overrun the oyster beds and competitively ...... exclude the oysters. 40 :..ii.i.: i-3 PAMLICO RIVER ESTUARY, N. C. A second example comes from the Pamlico River :i N ::: : : A :; ::: Estuary in North Carolina (Hobbie, 1974). The cities on the Tar River, the main influence, are FIGuRE 10.-Nitrate (ug-at N/liter) in the Pamlico River relatively small but a great deal of nutrients enter Estuary for 1970-71 (from Hobbie, 1974, Fig. 38). NUTRIENTS 267 The ecological effect of these blooms is slight so CONTROL MECHANISMS far. The estuary still harbors a commercial blue crab and shrimp industry and the benthic biota is Control at the Source diverse. The one well-documented result of the rich conditions is that areas of low oxygen bottom water The potentially most successful and least harmful do develop now and then during calm periods of the means of control of nutrient inputs to estuaries is summer. These only last for a few weeks but do kill to control the nutrients at their sources. Obviously, all the bottom fauna in the central part of the some sources of nutrients are more easily identified estuary each year (Tenore, 1972). Another minor than others. Technology is available to institute effect is the apparent increase in filamentous algae. control mechanisms for most point sources, but in In summary, this estuary has reached a high level some cases the costs are beyond social desires. In of production but the species are unchanged. The cases of non-point sources of nutrient pollution the only effect is an indirect one by way of the sediment technology for control has not become feasible. In and their increased oxygen uptake during periods these situations, effective nutrient control is pos- of low flow and calm conditions. sible through changes in land use, cultural practices, environmental manipulations, economics, and other management schemes. CONCLUDING STATEMENT .. S w;. ~ SEwAGE TREATMENT In these two examples it may be seen that the flushing of the estuary plays a central role in Since nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in allowing the effects of high levels of added nutrients domestic sewage are rather high, sewage effluent to be expressed. In both cases, the nutrient levels constitutes an important source of nutrient materials were greatly above the levels that would have (Table 3). Recent developments in technology, ruined any lake. From these findings, and from the however, have made it economically possible to experiments that successfully added sewage to salt control the nutrient emissions from sewage treat- marshes with little detrimental effects, we conclude ment plants. In most instances, however, these that estuaries can handle large quantities of nu- technologies have not been utilized and large nu- trient inputs are still occurring via sewage treatment trients. They do this by removing most of the plants. nutrients to the sediments (by sedimentation, Through the utilization of treatment technology coagulation, biodeposition, et cetera) where they and the enforcement of regulations, nutrient inputs serve to enrich salt marshes. In addition, three from sewage treatment facilities can be controlled. characteristics of estuaries (rapid flushing, dilution Indiscriminate, blanket regulations, however, can be with low nutrient seawater, and quite a lot of tur- unnecessarily expensive when complete control is not bidity) help prevent dense algal blooms from de- needed. Thus, nutrient control at the sewage plant veloping. should be done on a case by case basis and be When the capacity of estuaries to handle nutrients dictated by the location of the treatment facilities is exceeded, algal blooms can result that seriously and the nature of receiving waters. For example, degrade the water quality. Moriches Bay has been very high degrees of treatment and stringent regula- tions may be necessary in very sensitive and deli- mentioned and Back iver, a tributary of Chesa- cately balanced, protected systems. In contrast, less peake Bay that receives Baltimore's sewage, is stringent treatment regulations are required in large, another example (Carpenter, Pritchard and Whaley, open, rapidly-flushed systems or in areas such as 1969). Where conditions are suitable, rooted plants marshes where there are already storages of organic may also reach nuisance amounts as was seen for matter and nutrients. the water chestnut in the 1920's and the water milfoil in 1958, both in Chesapeake Bay (Jaworski FERTILIZATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES FERTILIZATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRACTrOES et al., 1972). As noted, nutrients by themselves can adversely About one-third to one-half of the food and fiber affect estuaries by supporting algal blooms and the production in the U.S. is attributed to the use of production in the U.S. is attributed to the use of deoxygenation that can accompany eutrophication. fertilizers in agricultural practices. Thus, the ap- Perhaps of more importance are the organic matter, plication of fertilizer to farmland is a necessity if heavy metals, and pesticides that often enter estu- we are to maintain the level of food production at aries along with the nutrients. present levels. Studies have shown, however, that 268 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 10 to 25 percent of the nitrogen fertilizer applied to his lawn presents a real nutrient input problemn. cultivated crops leaves the field in drainage water. With very little means of disposing of'suburban Thus, crop 'fertilization is a 'source of nutrients runoff, the ultimate fate of' that water is usually capable of flowing into estuaries. Heavy applications the adjacent surface waters. The main control of fertilizers are applied to cultivated crops par- mechanism available at the piesent time is to cycle ticularly in the coastal plains of the Gulf of M'exico these materials through municipal treatment plants. and southeastern Atlantic areas. Since the rate of food and fiber production in the U.S. must be maintained, application of less fertilizer INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT is not likely in the near future. Possibilities of control at this source of nutrient inputs lie in the areas of Industrial wastes represent. another large source agricultural practices and technological break- of nutrients to surface waters and constitute another throughs. One possibility is the utilization of cover area where treatment technology is available for crops during the non-cropping seasons to help hold the fertilizer in the soil layers. Other possibilities nology has been developed for the control of nu- include timing and rates of fertilizer applications, trient materials in most industrial wastes. The repeated small applications and development of new problem has been in instituting complete and proper crops. Of high potential for control of nutrient waste control facilities in existing industrial com- transport is the control of water drainage from plexes. fields by catchment basins, with re-percolation back The runoff of nutrient materials from the surface areas of industrial complexes presents a separate into the fields between plowings. The very recent problem in the control of nutrient sources. Mecha- development of chemicals to control nitrifying nisms need to be developed for channeling this bacteria, to prevent conversion of ammonia to nitrate, offers great hope for reducing nitrogen loss runoff through treatment or filtering systems to reduce nutrient inputs and drainage. from fields. These chemicals help maintain the nitrogen in the form of ammonia (which has much greater potential for remaining in the soil than RUNOFF nitrate), and therefore allow reduced application rates of nitrogen fertilizer. One of the sources hardest to control is the runoff Animal production techniques are changing from of materials from watersheds. This represents a very small producers with several types of animals on diffuse and highly variable source of nutrient mate- pastures to intense production of one species in rials but is, nevertheless, extremely important. The feedlots. Confinement has allowed increased and main possibilities of controlling nutrients from runoff more economical production, but has also resulted involve watershed management. in point sources of nutrient materials to surface Erosion control can prevent a large source of waters. Although, because of convenience and nutrients entering surface waters from watersheds. economics, these materials are disposed of in liquid Carefully controlled forestry practices, reforestation, systems, land disposal is considered to be another protection of uncovered areas, road maintenance, feasible method of terminal disposal. In either situa- controlled drainage, vegetated filter strips, and tion, however, there is the potential for nutrient contour plowing are management techniques cur- percolation to ground water and surface water rently available for erosion control. runoff. Large areas of urbanized watersheds represent a It is unlikely that conventional sewage treatment tremendous source of nutrients and other materials. facilities will be utilized for animal waste systems Catchment basins and storm drainage mechanisms within the near future. Therefore, the most likely are the best possibilities for control here. means of immediate control of this nutrient source is in disposal practices. Some feasible alternatives include deep well injection, controlled land applica- tion, or recycling through newly-devised feed prepa- Gr d water as a source of utrients for estu- ration systems. This area of activity, however, aries is not very well understood. Drainage 'of probably presents one of the more serious disposal nutrient materials from septic tanks into ground problems facing present day technology. water has been documented in several situations, Where large metropolitan -areas are adjacent to particularly on the Barrier Islands along the U.S. coastal waters the practice of the suburban dweller seashore. Shallow ground water tends to' percolate "keeping up with the neighbors" and over-fertilizing toward the inside of Barrier Island shores, thus, NUTRIENTS 269 leaking into estuaries and sounds. The best means regulated. For example, construction of low dikes of control under these situations is the central or diversions to assure normal percolation can be collection of waste waters and channeling through beneficial. Considerable research needs to be done waste treatment facilities on a regional basis. on this phenomenon before control mechanisms can A problem that must be dealt with is the physical be a significant factor on nutrient inputs into coastal manipulations that allow alterations in ground water systems. drainage patterns. For example, dredging deep channels in estuarine systems may enable ground- water percolation to 'bring in a new source of DENITRIFICATION materials from outside the estuarine system. Con- siderable research must be conducted on this prob- Denitrification offers the best possibilities for the lem before the impact is understood or control control of nitrogen during transport. Considerable legislation can be enacted. reduction of nitrogen can be achieved if conditions are properly maintained over a time period. Holding drainage water from agricultural lands, for example, Control of Transport Mechanisms could be maintained so that favorable conditions could exist for denitrification (considerable research Control of nutrient inputs through manipulation is underway in this area and still more needs to be of transport processes offers scant possibilities. There done). The use of small reservoirs and low level are some subtle changes that may be enacted in dikes in some stream situations could be utilized in various physical processes. By and large, however, denitrification. Sewage holding ponds have long these may have little beneficial effect on the receiving been utilized to achieve reductions in nitrogen con- system downstream because detrimental side effects centrations in effluents. This technique has also may be greater than any benefit from nutrient been used for some industrial waste. control (e.g., reduction of vital freshwater inputs). Within the Estuary STREAM FLOW Control mechanisms for nutrient reduction within Once nutrient materials reach the streams flowing estuarine systems probably offer the least possi- into estuaries, institutional controls offer little bilities of effective reduction in nutrient concentra- benefit. Considerable evidence exists concerning tions. The worst problems include detrimental side decrease in nutrient concentrations downstream effects, high costs, and interference with normal from sources due to deposition, biological cycling, cycling procedures within the ecosystems. A few and so forth, but additional control of nutrient innovations, however, are worth looking into on a inflows is not now technologically feasible. pilot study basis. Utilization of reservoirs on streams may offer some control benefits. Selective release 'of dow'nstream water through reservoir dam structures can be used SELECTIVE HARVESTING to regulate nutrient concentrations downstream. Since certain organisms (e.g., species of algae during blooms) take up large amounts of nutrients, CHANNELIZATION selective harvesting of these species serves as a means of removing the nutrients from the system. The increase in channelization of natural streams This technique, however, offers little hope for in recent years for the purposes of increased drainage effectively removing nutrient materials from estu- and agricultural activities has changed normal arine waters since the cost and engineering of such stream flow mechanisms. Creating faster flowing harvesting systems would be large. Natural means streams has minimized the natural loss of nutrients of doing this have been tried in several cases by as water meanders downstream. Channelization culturing species of algae-utilizing fish, Manatee also allows the water to move downstream rapidly, harvesting underwater grasses in Florida, culturing thus avoiding the natural cleansing action by swamp species of clams and oysters, and so forth. Estuaries soils around these streams where water normally are large dynamic systems, making this kind of percolates (see Transport of Nutrients). control mechanism very difficult. Physical means, Controlled transport of nutrients can be main- such as filtering algae and clipping higher plants, tained if channelization procedures are closely are expensive and ineffective. 270 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL DIVERSIONS RECOMMENDED FUTURE PROGRAMS Creating canals to divert nutrient-laden water Research Needs around estuarine systems is an unlikely means of control because of obvious side effects. There are DENITRIFICATION several examples in the U.S. coastal area where large regional sewage interceptors are diverting large Since nitrogen seems to be a major nutrient factor in estuarine ecosystems and it is difficult to control amounts of waste waters around estuaries for off- estuarine ecosystems and it is difficult to control shore disposal. These are expensive and, in some at point sources, denitrification offers many op- cases, deprive estuaries of the much-needed fresh- portunities for the reduction of nitrogen compounds water input and its flushing action. entering estuarine systems. The biological and physical aspects of denitrification processes are fairly well understood, but the conditions of natural ZONING systems necessary to control the processes are less well known. Utilization of sewage holding ponds has Estuaries in each state might be zoned so that offered significant promise in aiding the denitrifica- some receive added nutrient input while others are tion process. These techniques have been expanded protected. This means of control, however, assumes to include the waste from animal feed lots and that decisions can be made concerning which estu- industrial sources. The diffuse and harder-to-identify aries receive added nutrients and which do not. sources of nitrogen from agricultural practices, run- Considerable research will be required before zoning off, and ground water are places where denitrifica- can become a viable option. tion processes offer considerable promise for imposing controls. ~~IM~~~~~POUNDING ~Experiments and pilot studies need to be con- ducted to determine natural conditions whereby Construction of impoundments at the heads of denitrification can be initiated. For example, we estuaries offer some possibility for selective control need to know the length of time water running off of nutrient inputs into the large estuarine expanse. and through cultivated fields needs to be impounded Impoundments offer the advantage of trapping before denitrification is significant. Some work is - being conducted now in North Carolina, Oregon and water, allowing time for denitrification and deposi California on drainage water from fertilized fields. tion of phosphorus materials into the sediments, and selected withdrawal of water from the im- pounded area. This type of control, however, has NITRIFICATION serious side effects in that the normal flushing activity of freshwater inputs would be altered, Since ammonia nitrogen has greater potential than possibly leading to severe changes in the estuarine nitrate for binding with soils and remaining on the system. fields, prevention of its conversion to nitrate (nitrifi- cation) could provide considerable promise for control of nitrogen loss. Chemical procedures to REGENERATION OF MARSHES reduce nitrification, capable of widespread and effective use in agriculture, have been recently Marshes adjacent to estuaries are known to select effective use in agriculture, have been recently nutrient materials from estuarine waters flushing developed. Still unknown, however, are application nutrient materials from estuarine waters flushing over the marsh areas. The marsh system, with its procedures, timing of application, rates of applica- over the marsh areas. The marsh system, with its tion, economic returns, environmental impact of grasses, algae and accumulated organic muds, acts tion, economic returns, environmental impact of as a filtering system to reduce nutrient content of th e added chemicals an d cultural acceptance. If the surrounding water. This, indeed, is one of the thi s p rocess can be developed and utilized there can be tremendous reductions in nitrogen losses from more beneficial roles of marshes as part of the fie fields through both prevention of nitrate formation estuarine system (i.e., maintaining the balance of and from reduc tion in fertiizer am ounts needed to nutrients and organic materials in estuarine waters). an ro ducti i t maintain productivity. The technology for regeneration of marshes has been worked out. Thus, it is possible to plant marsh grasses and generate new marsh area around estu- FORESTRY TECHNIQUES arine shores. This may serve as an important means of controlling nutrients in estuarine waters and of Recent work has verified that nutrient materials creating desirable nursery habitat as well. in water running off deforested areas is higher than NUTRIENTS 271 water coming from similar forested areas. It is not practical reality. Although regeneration of marshes known, however, how much vegetation needs to is presently feasible, the positioning and physical remain on the forest floor to hold the nutrient arrangements of such systems need to be investi- materials against runoff nor is it known what gated before much practical judgement can be made. mechanisms are at work in adding the nutrients to Utilization of attached algae and rooted plants in runoff water. For example, decaying tree stumps incoming streams and peripheries of estuaries for on the forest land could aid in percolation of water taking up nutrients might be a possibility if the into the soil, thus averting nutrient escapement biology and harvesting problems can be worked out. from the forest lands. Well-vegetated filter strips If harvesting techniques for algae could be developed, adjacent to surface streams might help control the the use of certain species could be feasible for the loss of nutrients from the watershed. These kinds of removal of large amounts of nutrients from estuarine research activities could lead to considerable reduc- waters. tion in the amount of nutrient materials washing from the large expanses of forested areas, particularly in the southeastern section of the U.S. TREATMENT INNOVATIONS Although technology for the removal of nutrient FARMING ACTIVITIES materials from sewage and industrial waste has been developed, the costs and hardware needed for this More research is needed to determine the optimum treatment level are often prohibitive. Thus, addi- rates and timing of fertilizer applications to various tional research needs to be conducted to find ways crops. Although it is well understood that the use to reduce these costs and to provide means whereby of fertilizer is necessary to maintain the production siting benefits can be used. of food and fiber at the present level in the United New treatment technology needs to be developed States, it is possible that additional research could for handling animal waste and drainage from reveal means of preventing fertilizer loss from these agricultural areas. Deep well injection and land dis- crops. The use of certain types of cover crops during posal of these wastes are presently being utilized the non-cropping season might benefit the control without complete knowledge of the fate and changes of nutrient escapement. Controls of water tables, in nutrient components of the waste. drainage procedures and harvesting activities need Disposal of domestic and industrial waste into to be investigated. deep ocean waters is a popular remedy. Before this The treatment and disposal of waste from animal becomes more widespread and waste water criteria feed lot activities need to be researched. It is established, we need to know more about what already known that lagoons and oxidation ponds are kind of treatment is needed and the fate of these very helpful in the reduction of nutrient concentra- materials in the near ocean waters. Further, various tions and effluents, but the land disposal of these innovations concerning the type of disposal conduits wastes still raises problems and the necessity for and outlets need to be investigated and realistic additional treatment is not known. Considerable distances from shore for disposal need to be known. interest has been recently generated for the recycling of wastes from feed lots back into the feed cycle and utilization of valuable nutrients as growth ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE additives. Research needs to be conducted on the ways and In spite of the recent emphasis on the fate of means whereby large areas of forested land are nutrients in estuarine waters, we still lack con- converted to agricultural lands by drainage and soil siderable knowledge about the response of whole conditioning. Very little is known about optimizing ecosystems to nutrient additions. We can predict the drainage patterns, density of drainage ditches, certain algal blooms under certain conditions of and vegetation belts around fields to reduce nutrient nutrient inputs, but we fall dismally short of predict- loss, ing the response of food chains and other ecosystem components to nutrient inputs. Can we, for example, under certain conditions of additional nutrient in- NATURAL FILTERS puts expect larger fish yields in estuarine systems? Since nutrient input controls make little sense The use of natural filters for decreasing nutrient unless the impact on the estuarine ecosystem is loading in estuarine systems offers some possibilities, known to be detrimental, we need to develop better but research is needed before these can become a knowledge and predictability of these inputs on 272 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL various kinds of estuarine systems. More work controlling runoff and possibly improving the eco- needs to be done in the development of ecosystem nomic return for the land owner. modeling as it relates to nutrient flows and the use of microcosms for testing various practical theories. ESTUARINE MODIFICATIONS Management Mechanisms In the management of estuaries, it may become desirable to modify inputs and components to POINT SOURCES e maximize utilization of materials and productivity. If these action programs are to be instituted they Although it is the aim of the Environmental should be identified as an example of a class of Protection Agency to eventually control inputs at action and studied before and after the change so all point sources, it is necessary to initiate a manage- that we can obtain guidelines for future operations ment scheme to make this a reality. These manage- of this type. For example, the diversion of nutrient- ment mechanisms may include the selection and laden input water over and through large, natural mixing of different kinds of materials, particularly filtering systems in estuaries may be a viable pos- regulating nutrients into other selected inputs. For sibility in estuarine management. example, in certain instances auxilliary input of Recently the use of systems analysis and simula- nutrient materials may be beneficial in establishing tions have been effective in assessing management additional opportunities for selected harvesting, food needs. Although it is necessary for the system as a production or ecosystem planning. whole to be managed to avoid detrimental side Some benefit may be obtained in regard to point effects and to maximize system yield, simulations of sources of nutrient materials by the physical place- component parts may be a powerful tool for achiev- ment of the input mechanisms. For example, con- ing the goal. In managing estuaries in regard to the trolled point source release of nutrient materials in desirability of modifications, it is important that estuarine channels or into marsh systems may be a the scientific approach be combined with economic viable management technique. viable management technique. analyses to achieve some management optimization. RUNOFF LAND USE PLANNING Management means to control the nutrient inputs from runoff involves a complicated and well devised By examining the environmental characteristics management plan. A factor complicating manage- of an area, land use planning can be delineated and ment of watersheds for controlled runoff is the fact used as a guide for locating various use categories. ment of watersheds for controlled runoff is the factMotubnaeshvadpd nigriacs that most watersheds are owned by private citizens Most urban areas have adoped zoning ordinances outside the jurisdiction of the water manager. and have developed procedures for exerting some Nutrients from runoff are largely attached to or control er their patterns of development, but incorporated in particulate materials. Various mecha- outside the confines of these municipalities little nisms are available to control the removal of par- has been done in terms of developing realistic plan- ticulate matter, but programs of implementation and ning. To make land use planning a reality in coastal regulation need to be developed. For example silt systems, one must be able to combine and optimize the environmental needs with the economic needs. screens could be used in construction activities to the enol es t conoi ne Since the technology exists for controlling nutrient capture particulate runoff and prevent it from en- at point sources, management of point source inputs at point sources, management of point source tering surface waters. inputs Transport of sediments from the surrounding inputs is a matter of economics and enforcement. Tranportof sdimets fom te surouningBut, the non-point sources present a more difficult watershed to streams entering estuaries offers great the non-point sources present a more difficult potential for control. The sediment transport could problem. Land use planning offers the greatest be minimized by management techniques involving potential for controlling these non-point sources. be minimized by management techniques involving invov Drawbacks include lack of knowledge in instituting improved road maintenance practices, stabilization of uncovered land areas, and drainage of excess a planned program and development of public trust. water through filter strips. Development of vegetated filter strips adjacent ESTUARIES AS ECOSYSTEMS to streams and estuarine shores would minimize the transport of nutrient materials into the surface Any plans for the succdssful development, manage- waters. Changes in forestry and agricultural prac- ment and regulation of estuaries of the United tices by private land owners can be a means of States must be consistent with the ecological and : Nt:TRIENTS 273 economlic principles by which such systenms ope'ate, Goldman -C. R. 1972. The'role of minor nutrients in limiting the productivity of aquatic ecosystems, p..21-33. In G. E. with and without man. Unlike normal land problems, Likens (ed), Nutrients and Eutrophication. Special Sym- estuaries are moving, dynamic systems influenced by posia, v.' I. American Society of Limnol. Oceanogr., Inc. inputs from every direction. For example, many maps from regional planning programs show their Gosselink, J. G., E. P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1974. The value of the tidal marsh. Publ. No. LSU-SG-74-03 of the boundaries lying across bays and estuaries as if Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, they were a piece of real estate. This is unworkable Baton Rouge, La. because any planning and management done on one Harris, E. 1959. The nitrogen cycle in Long Island Sound. side of the bay may be negated if something contrary Bulletin Bingham Oceanographic Collection 17:31-65. is done on the other side of the bay. 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Hydrology of the Ythan Estuary with reference to distribution of major nutrients and detritus. J. Mar. Biol; Assoc. U. K., 51:137-157. 'Chestnut, A;'F. '1974. Oyster reefs, p. 171-203. In H.T.' Odum, B.J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan (eds),.Coastal Ecolog- ical Systems of the United States, v.. II. The Conservation bi D. H: S. 1973. Movements of phosphorus between its *~Foundation, Washington, D.C. biologically, important forms in lake water. J. Fish. Res. Foundation, Washington, D.C. Bd. Can. 30:1525-1536. Cooper, A. W' 1974. Salt riiarshes, p. 55-98. In H: T. Oumrn, B. J. Copeland, and E. A. MclM~ahan (eds), Coastal Ecolo- Lund, E. J. 1957. Self-silting by the oyster and its significance I Cof the United States, v. II. MnThe Conservtion for sedimentation geology. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci: (Texas) ical Systems of the United States, v. II. The Conservtion-327. Foundation, Washington, D.C. ' . Deevey, E. . 1972 Bogeoch y df laes r su- MRoy E. P., R. J. Barsdate, and M. Nebert. 1972. Phos- stances, p. 14-20. In -G. . Likens (ed), Nutrients and system.s cycling in an egrass (Zostera marina L.) eco- Eutrophication. Special Symposia, v. I. American Society of Limnol. Oceanogr., Inc. Marshall, D. E. 1970. Characteristics of Spartina marsh Edzwald, J. K., J. B. Upchurch, and C. R. O'Melia. 1974. which is receiving treated municipal wastes, p. 317-358. Tech.Edzwald, J . . .Ucurhn.. 17 In H. T. Odum and A. F. Chestnut (eds), Studies of Marine Coagulation in estuaries. Environmn Sci. Tech. 8:58-63. tuaries. EnironEstuarine ECosystems Developing with Treated Sewage Wastes. U. N. .C. Institute of Marine Science Annual Flemer, D. A. i1970. Primary production in dhesapeake Bay. Report to NSF, Sea Grant Project Division, Chapel Hill, Ches. Sci. 11:117-129. N. iC. 274 EsTtARINkE POLLUTION CONTROL Odumn, W. E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine Tenore, K. R. 1972. Macrobenthos of the Pamlico RiVer environment. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:836-847. Estuary, North Carolina EcoL Monogr. 42:51-69. Pomeroy, L. R., L. R. Sheuton, R. D. H. Jones, and R. J. Upchurch, J. B., J. K. Edzwald, and C. R. O'Melia. 1974. Reimold. 1972. Nutrient flux in estuaries, p. 274-291. Phosphates in the sediments of the Pamlico Estuary, In G. E. Likens (ed), Nutrients and Eutrophication. Special North Carolina. Environm. Sci. Tech. 8:56-58. Symposia v. 1. The Amer. Soc. Limnol. and Oceanogr., Inc. Thayer, G. W. 1974. Identity and regulation of nutrients Pomeroy, L. R., E. E. Smith, and C. M. Grant. 1965. The limiting phytoplankton production in the shallow estuaries exchange of phosphate between estuarine water and sedi- near Beaufort, N.C. Oecologia 14:75-92. ments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10:167-172. Van Straatan, L. M. J. U., and P. H. Kuenen. 1958. Tidal Redfield, A. C., B. H. Ketchum, and F. A. Richards. 1963. action as a cause of clay accumulation. J. Sediment. Petrol. The influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water, 28:406-413. p. 26-77. In M. N. Hill. The Sea, v. II. Interscience Publishers, New York, London, Sydney. Vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of the eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particular Riley, G. A., and A. S. Conover. 1956. Oceanography of Long reference to nitrogen and phosphorus as factors in eutro- Island Sound 1952-1954. III. Chemical Oceanography. phication. Tech. Report DAS/CSI/68-27 to the Organiza- Bulletin Bingham Oceanographic Collection 15:47-61. tion for Economric Cooperation and Development. Paris. Ryther, J. H. 1954. The ecology of phytoplankton blooms in Weiss, C. M. and F. G. Wilkes. 1974. Estuarine ecosystems Moriches Bay and Great South Bay Long Island, N.Y. that receive sewage wastes, p. 71-110. In H. T. Odum, Biol. Bull. 106:198-209. B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan (eds), Coastal Eco- logical Systems of the United States, vol. 3. The Conserva- tion Foundation, Washington, D.C. Ryther, J. H. and W. M. Dunstan. 1971. Nitrogen, phos- phorus and eutrophication in the coastal marine 1711008-1013.environ- Williams, R. B. 1973. Nutrient levels and primary produc- tivity in the estuary, p. 58-89. In R. H. Chabreck (ed), Proceedings of the Coastal Marsh and Estuary Manage- Schubel, J. R. 1968. Turbidity maximum of the northern ment Symposium. Div. of Cont. Ed., Louisiana State Chesapeake Bay. Science 161:1013-1015. University, Baton Rouge. B)~:; ~-: k�-~t ESTUARINE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT: DESIGN CONCEPTS AND CONSIDERATIONS ERMAN A; PEARSON, S.D. University of Ca lifornia Berkeley, California ABSTRACT The design of estuarine wastewater management systems should consider the cost and effectiveness of specific pollutant removal (treatment), and the cost and efficacy of wastewater transport to and dispersion in areas of high dilution capacity, and of minimal ecological significance. A representa- tive example cost analyses for a city of one million persons (wastewater flow of -4.4 ml/sec.) indicates that the incremental cost of upgrading treatment from secondary to advanced (tertiary) level is adequate to build and operate a land interceptor-transport system about 124 kilometers (--77 miles) in length. Similarly, for a coastal city (Pacific Coast conditions) the same incremental cost for upgrading treatment would build and operate (break-even basis) a deep water outfall- diffuser system about 28.6 kilometers (-17.2 miles) in length. If long-term protection of estuarine resources is to be achieved, all technical and economically feasible steps should be taken to trans- port adequately treated wastewaters out of estuarine systems, to the open coast in well engineered transport and high-dilution capacity outfall dispersion systems. INTRODUCTION The estuaries and coastal regions of the United States are the ultimate recipients of the major Increasing concern about environmental quality portion of conservative (non-decayable) pollutants coupled with limited factual information about waste discharged to inland lakes and rivers directly con- discharge effects and a general ignorance of conven- nectd to the sea. In addition, a substantial addi- tional wastewater treatment systems, contribute to tional load of both conservative and non-conserva- increasing confusion in the development of estuarine tive pollutants is discharged directly to the estuaries and coastal wastewater management systems. Al- from municipalities and industries located on the though this paper is concerned with estuarine waste- immediate estuarine periphery. Obviously, con- water management systems, it will be pointed out servative pollutants as well as some of the non- that one cannot rationally separate the estuarine conservative (dedayable) pollutants will reach the problem from the broader question of coastal waste- coastal area in a relatively short time. Considering water management. Unfortunately, all tdo often the estuary's location in the wastewater recipient- these two problems are treated separately, eveii by transport structure, in the interest of long-term some evolving regulatory policies. If this continues, protection of the estuarine system, it would appear it will result in substantial if not gross damage to prudent to reduce the locally generated waste load our estuarine resources. as much as is economically feasible by either waste- There appears to be a general belief among the water treatment or removal from the estuarine public, conservationists, and even some scientists system. and regulatory agencies that all wastewater treat- Unfortunately, the subject of estuarine and coastal ment systems accomplish the same or similar ob- wastewater disposal has not received as much atten- jectives. Wastewater treatment is conceived as tion as that of inland disposal practices. Con- uniformly good, depending only upon the level or sequently, the advantages and disadvantages of cost of treatment (i.e., the higher the cost the. better); therefore, the higher the level of treatment traditional inland wastewater treatment and disposal for a given discharge location, the better the results. applied to the estuarine/arine systems have not Unfortunately, generalizations of this type may lead Unfortunately, generalizations of this type may lead been elucidated clearly. Of the total effort expended to wastewater system designs that are inappropriate on estuarine problems, most has been devoted to for the particular situation both technically and studying the physical-hydraulic/exchange aspects of economically. In some cases, such systems could the problem, rather than the biological and chemical produce drastic effects on the local ecosystem. effects on the local ecosystem. 275 276 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL THE PROBLEM- tion of organic matter or BOD exceeding the natural WHAT AND WHERE capability of respiration, synthesis, and reaeration TO DISCHARGE? processes (assimilative capacity) of the receiving waters may result in substantial depletion of the The nature of the estuarine wastewater manage- dissolved oxygen content of- the water. Such dbeile- ment problem depends upon the regulatory agency tion may adversely affect its suitability for main- position, the characteristics of wastewater dis- taining a balanced biota, sport or game fish having charges, and of the estuary itself, and the particular some of the highest dissolved oxygen requirements. beneficial uses that are to be protected. Regulatory requirements always affect wastewater management; however, in the estuarine systemn these may play a SUSPENDED SOLIDS/WATER CLARITY special role in eliminating treatment-disposal options that may have both economic and ecological bene- The second major municipal wastewater con- fits. For example, if the minimum degree of waste- stituent that is removed in substantial degree (65-90 water treatment required, regardless of location of percent) by primary and secondary wastewater the discharge, is secondary treatment (such as cur- treatment processes is that of suspended solids. rent federal policy), then the option of using the However, in most estuarine systems the amount of incremental cost between primary and secondary suspended solids contributed by wastewater dis- treatment to transport the waste water to the open charges is a very small fraction ( < 1.0 percent) of coast for submarine outfall-diffuser discharge (fol- the total suspended solids contributed by river in- lowing primary treatment) is not available. flow, surface runoff and resuspension of bottom sediments. Similar, but somewhat less extreme relationships exist for the organic (volatile) fraction Problem Types of the suspended solids. The types of estuarine pollution problems en- countered range from those found in inland lakes and ACUTE TOXICITY/BIOTIC STRESS rivers to those that may be associated with near- shore, shallow, coastal waters. The geometry and A relatively new "lumper" parameter of the characteristics of the estuarine system and the acutely toxic substances (toxic metals, organics, wastewater discharge will determine the type of ammonia, et cetera) present in wastewaters, the fish pollution problem. In estuarine systems as else- bioassay for determination of the median tolerance where, the effects of pollutants can be highly vari- limit (TL50) is being used to an inicreasing degree in able; nonetheless, they can-be lumped into several assessing potential toxic stresses from wastewater general categories that describe roughly the general discharges. One of the major concerns about adverse spectrum of problems and effects. stresses- on the biota of estuarine systems is that of acute toxicity and increasingly stringent require- i\.MICRO BIAL/PTJBLIC HEALTH ments are being imposed both on the concentration HEALH- in the wastewater discharges and in the receiving One of the oldest parameters of wastewater waters 3 . pollutants is the coliform group of bacteria. These organisms are used as presumptive indicators of FLOATABLEs/AEsTHETIC ENJOYMENT the presence of pathogens. Concentrationi levels of coliform organisms (MPN/100 ml-most probable The amount of particulates of identifiable waste- number of coliform bacteria) are established to protect the waters for water contact sports, shellfish water origin and slick forming materials (oil and grown grease) constitute-one of the most significant char- growing and harvesting, aesthetic enjoyment, and so acteristics of public wastewater discharges for which there is no adequate quantitative method for assess- ment. Nonetheless, in terms of potential adverse ORGANIC ENRICHMENT/OXYGEN DEPLETION and obvious effects on the receiving waters, these materials must be given increasing attention. The classic oxygen demand parameter of Waste- Fortunately, the oil and grease fraction of the float- waters is its biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ables can be quantitated crudely, and control levels the removal of which has been the principal ob- established to minimize the physical appearance. of jective of secondary treatment processes. The addi- surface films or slicks. NUTRIENTS 277 NUTRIENTS/EXCESSIVE ENRICHMENT How MUCH TREATMENT AND WHY? Quantitation and control of the discharge of the 'The critical problem in estuarine waste manage- various nutrient forms, nitrogen, phosphorus and ment after resolution of the political-institutional others, is possible in those estuarine situations where problem, is what level of wastewater treatment is adequate information is available to show that required and where should the treated effluent be specific nutrient species are in fact, controlling the discharged? Historically, the general trend in waste- level of phytoplankton in the receiving waters. Un- water management has been to invest heavily in fortunately, adequate information is rarely available treatment processes-frequently as much as can be to show clearly that a particular nutrient (or several financed, and to pay little attention to the location nutrient species) is actually responsible for the and type of dispersal system. This general and existence of excessive plankton concentrations or significant neglect has been and still is being abetted excessive pulses (blooms) in the concentration of by those who believe that the diluting or assimilating particular algal species. Generally, practical control characteristics of the receiving water should not be of the discharge of particular nutrients is based upon considered in the design process. Regardless of one's the presumption that it will help to keep the con- philosophy on this question, the hard facts are that centration of plankton in the receiving waters within the treated effluent must be discharged to and acceptable limits. diluted with the receiving water. The faster that this dilution can be accomplished, or the greater the immediate dilution of the effluent with the EXOTIc POLLUTANTS/SPECIAL EFFECTS receiving water the lower the concentration of On occasion, exotic or special pollutants may give pollutants in the receiving water environment. Con- rise to unusual problems which fall in a separate sequently, for any level of pollutants in the treated category. An example might be that of identifiable effluent, the greater the dilution the lower the con- chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds in public waste- centration, and the effect on the local ecosystem is water systems.4 Such problems may require special reduced proportionately. methods for their solution ranging from extensive In the past, the choice of the level of wastewater source control efforts' to the application of special treatment has been somewhat arbitrarily made b- treatment systems. tween the minimal, or primary (mechanical removal of suspended and settleable solids) and secondary (biological) treatment. However, with the advent Treatment/Discharge of PL 62-500 and EPA's definition of the minimum Location Considerations acceptable wastewater treatment regardless of loca- INSTITUTIONAL/REGIONAL tion as secondary,6 the apparent treatment choices will be between secondary and advanced waste treat- Most estuaries have a substantial number of ment (tertiary). Thus the fundamental question re- discrete public (municipal) and private (industrial) mains, is it preferable to provide advanced waste wastewater management organizations located treatment and discharge the highly treated effluent around their periphery. The number and type of directly to the estuary with little or no concern for these organizations depends upon the historical de- the discharge location or initial dilution; or, is it velopment of the area as well as upon local waste- preferable to employ a lesser degree of treatment water regulatory policies and practices. For example, (i.e., secondary which is cheaper with lower levels in the San Francisco Bay area there are currently of pollutant removal), and transport the effluent to (1974) over 100 different political or administrative a distant area, such as the open coast, where high institutions, each involved with its own particular dilutions (at least 100 to 1) are available. The latter, wastewater management problem. It should be equal-cost alternative, would use the incremental obvious that the development of a coordinated or cost between advanced and secondary treatment to regional wastewater management program will transport the effluent seaward, preferably to the require a tremendous effort to satisfy the legitimate open coast, where greater volumes of diluting water technical, economic and political interests of each are available. organization. Nonetheless, the development of a Unfortunately, an attitude appears to be develop- coordinated and appropriate regional wastewater ing in favor of continuously increasing the degree management plan is essential for the prime reason (and cost) of wastewater treatment with least con- of economy, to say nothing of ancillary benefits, not sideration to the location of the ultimate discharge, the least of which is adequate protection of the local the degree of initial and subsequent dilution of the ecosystem. waste water, or to the decay rate of the pollutants 278 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL in the receiving water. This trend appears to be along open coasts (such as the California coast adja- supported by many of the consulting engineers and cent to San Francisco Bay) can be designed to scientists involved with the design of wastewater achieve immediate dilutions of the wastewater with management systems. If the foregoing concept be- ocean water in the order of 150:1 or more for waste comes accepted and practiced widely, it will discour- flows up to at least 1.5 X 106 m3/day (-400 mgd). age any economic or ecologic incentive to use the While these dilutions may appear to be on the incremental cost between various levels of treatment favorable side, it is difficult to envision any likely to transport the lesser treated effluent to a disposal disposal area along the major U.S. coastlines where site with maximum diluting capabilities and the well-designed submarine outfalls could not achieve least adverse effect on the local ecology. average initial dilutions of 100:1 or more. If one is concerned about pollutant concentrations It is helpful to put the effect of treatment or in the environment and their effects, one must give pollutant removal in terms of equivalent dilution; serious consideration to determining waste discharge that is, the reduction of pollutant concentrations locations where the residual pollutant concentration in the effluent stream. Conventional secondary treat- will have minimal ecological (including human) im- ment plants affect, as an average, about 90 percent pact. To accomplish this, it should be obvious that of the pollutants for which they are designed (essen- quantitative information must be available on pol- tially BOD and suspended solids). Thus, about 10 lutant mass emission rates and concentrations, on percent remains as residual pollutant concentration the efficacy of pollutant removal processes, and on in the effluent. Such treatment efficiency is equiva- the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics lent to a dilution of N10:1, if the diluting water of alternative disposal sites. The practical facts are has negligible concentrations of that pollutant. Simi- that such information is not generally available to larly, advanced waste treatment processes may permit rational assessment of alternative treatment achieve at best an average removal of about 98 per- and dilution combinations. However, this lack of cent, leaving about 2 percent of the original pollutant such information in no way justifies the absence of in the effluent. This is equivalent, on a pollutant rational qualitative assessment of the consequences concentration basis, of an average dilution of only and quantitative assessment of the costs of the 50, assuming of course that the dilution water is various alternatives. essentially free of the pollutant. The foregoing examples do not consider the effi- DILUTION REALITIES ciency of disinfection processes for bacterial removal. Disinfection efficiency is a combined function of The available dilution of wastewaters within an disinfectant dosage and contact time and to be effec- estuary depends upon the size of the estuary the ive must achieve levels equal to or greater than, ~~~~~~~~~~2estuary de s 99.99 percent removal which is equivalent to a amount of advective (river) inflow, tidal exchange, physical dilution of about 10,000:1 wi th bacteria the quantity of wastewater, and the discharge loca- free water. Obviously, the latter physical dilution of about 10,000:1 with bacteria tion. For most estuaries located in urbanized areas, free water. Obviously, the latter physical dilution is tion. For most estuaries located in urbanized areas, the available dilution ranges from approximately the ratio of river inflow to wastewater flow at the head end of the estuary, to a maximum of from 30-50 Example of Alternative Analysis to 1 for a well designed diffuser discharge at the seaward end of the estuary. Obviously, these num- To illustrate most effectively some of the log- bers will vary depending upon runoff, river flow, ical treatment/transport-discharge alternatives that tidal exchange, and waste flow. However, in general, should be considered in designing estuarine waste the available dilution for wastewaters discharged management systems, a simplified example will be within the estuarine systems is markedly less than is considered. Figure 1 shows a typical estuary con- often implied. For example, if all estimated 1,990 nected to the open coast with a major city located municipal and industrial wastewaters generated at its head. The city has several obvious choices around the periphery of San Francisco Bay were with respect to the disposal of its wastewater. One collected and discharged to the central bay in front choice, designated as discharge location A, would of the Golden Gate, the average dilution of the entail a high degree of treatment-say advanced wastewaters would be in the order of only 30 to waste treatment (average of 98 percent pollutant 40:1. And, it must be noted that San Francisco Bay removal)--to meet discharge or effluent require- is a large estuary with appreciable river inflow and ments. A second alternative, designated as discharge tidal exchange. location B, would entail modified secondary treat- In contrast, wastewater disposal systems located ment with an average pollutant removal of about NUTRIENTS 279 Qr so Qw X , ESTUARy *dB it' Co~~OPEN �r . I./ . COAS 7 B CITY,",' : �.i C : I DISCHARGE LOCATION A B C 2 INITIAL WASTE DILUTION, So 10 30 150 (MIN. RIVER FLOW) POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION NEAR SOURCE Co Co Co (AT DIFFUSER) (NO TREATMENT) 10 30 150 TREATMENT (ASSUME) PERCENT 98 90 85 REMOVAL OF POLLUTANT POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION NEAR Co Co Co SOURCE IN RECEIVING WATER 500 300 ~1000 FIGURE 1.-Idealized estuarine-coastal disposal alternatives. 90 percent. The third alternative discharge, location charge' locations B and C with the incremental C, would have the current EPA minimum secondary savings in treatment costs ($A > $B > $C)? treatment with an average of 85 percent removal of 3. What advantages may be associated with each pollutants. Alternatives B and C obviously entail alternative? significant transport and submarine outfall disper- sion systems compared to that required at discharge POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS location A. To make these alternatives economically competitive, the incremental cost between the levels To answer the first question outlined above, a of treatment required at the B and C locations and simple tabular computation analysis is presented in that required at location A will finance construction Figure 1. While the dilution values reported in Fig- and operation of the interceptor sewer and sub- ure 1 are hypothetical, nonetheless, the values are marine outfall diffuser system on a break-even basis. typical of those found in real estuaries. Obviously, The basic questions to be answered are: these values must be estimated for each particular estuary. The crux of the analysis is to illustrate the 1. What are the average residual pollutant con- need to compare the trade-off in costs and conse- centrations in the receiving waters right at the dis- quences of pollutant removal with transport and charge location? Presumably, from an environmental disposal in areas of high dilution potential-with point of view, the system producing the lowest pol- the goal of achieving reduced levels of pollutant lutant concentration in the receiving waters would concentrations and effects in the estuary. be the preferred solution. Line 2 in the table shows the average physical 2. On an equal cost basis, how long an interceptor dilution of the wastewater with the receiving water sewer and submarine outfall can be built for dis- at each of the three discharge locations. At location 280 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL A, a dilution, So, of 10:1 assumed, that is, the ratio that are removed by treatment at the percentages of the river flow'Q and wastewater flow, Qw (Qr/Qw) cited for each level of treatment, namely, 98, 90, is about 10:1. At point A the only dilution available and 85 percent respectively. for the wastewater is the advective river flow: there Two questions logically might be asked concern- is no dilution at the head end of the estuary due to ing the efficacy of the several alternatives. tidal exchange. At location B, line 2, the average 1. Which alternative is preferred relative to possi- dilution, So, is assumed to be about 30:1, a typical ble effects of pollutants that are either unknown or value encountered in estuaries. At location C, the are removed to a lesser degree than the pollutant average initial dilution, So, is assumed to be 150:1 removals stated for each process? which is an easily attainable value with a well de- 2. Although alternate C apparently produces the signed outfall-dispersion system in open coastal lowest pollutant concentration, it also has the highest waters. pollutant mass emission rate to the environment. Line 3 in the table reports the pollutant concen- If the pollutants are concentrated or magnified in trations in the mixed wastewater-receiving water the biota, will not alternate C be the poorest solution right at the discharge location. The pollutant con- rather than the preferred solution? centration is simply the reciprocal of the dilution; Both of the foregoing questions need serious con- that is Co/10 at A, Co/30 at B, and Co/150 at C, sideration. With respect to question 1, and consider- where Co is the pollutant concentration in the un- ing our imperfect knowledge about pollutants and treated waste water. This computation assumes that their effects, one should be concerned about both the pollutant concentration in the diluting water possibilities. Inspection of the table in Figure 1 is negligible. reveals that in both cases, alternate C is the pre- Line 4 introduces the effect of the different treat- ferred solution, because the total' apparent dilution ment levels in reducing the pollutant concentration is less dependent on the "equivalent treatment dilu- in the discharged waste and correspondingly in the tion" and depends in major degree on the physical receiving water. As mentioned previously, it is as- dilution to produce the lowest pollutant concentra- sumed that the highest level of treatment is provided tions. For example, if all treatment processes failed at location A with an average pollutant removal or suffered serious loss in removal efficiency, such efficiency of 98 percent. A lower degree of treatment as has been known to happen, alternate C would with an average pollutant removal of 90 percent is produce a pollutant concentration in the receiving provided for location B. At location C a still lower water of Co/150 compared to Co/10 for alternate level of treatment is provided; however, this is as- A-more than a order of magnitude lower pollutant sumed to be equivalent to the "EPA defined second- concentration Which is not insignificant in terms of ary treatment," the currently specified minimum possible effects on the local ecosystem. Moreover, in level of acceptable treatment, providing an average an era of labor strikes and chemical shortages, the of 85 percent removal of pollutants. possibility of major impact on process performance 'Line 5; the crux of the table, shows the calculated from this standpoint alone must be considered. concentration of pollutants in the receiving water With reference to question 2, it must be remem- resulting from the combined effect of pollutant re- bered that pollutant effects are a function of both moval by treatment and the dilution of the treated the pollutant mass emission rate (i.e., kgms/day), effluent with the receiving water. The pollutant and pollutant concentration for a given exposure or concentration at location A of Co/500 is the result contact time. However, the direct effect of pollutants of the product of the physical dilution, So, of 10:1 on any aspect of the environment is primarily con- and the equivalent dilution of 50:1 due to the pol- centration dependent for a given exposure time. lutant removal (98 percent) by treatment (2 percent This is true for both conservative and non-conserva- remaining), which gives Co/10 X 1/50 = Co/500. tive pollutants, including those materials that may The values of Co/300 at B and Co/1000 at location be concentrated (magnified) in the biota. The rate C are found in the same way. at which any effect is demonstrated by any transport It should be 'noted that alternate C, the coastal mechanism known to the writer is concentration outfall discharge, produces a pollutant concentra- dependent; that is, the higher the pollutant concen- tion at the diffuser equal to one-half (Co/1000 vs tration the more rapid its accumulation or effect on Co/500) that produced by alternate A, advanced the biological system. Consequently, any'wastewater wastewater treatment with discharge at the head of management system that produces the lowest pol- the estuary. Thus, discharge at point C should be lutant concentration in the environment at the dis- the preferred solution to-minimize ecological effects. charge point will have the least effect- on the local The reported concentrations relate to all pollutants ecosystem. NTTRIENTs 281 No mention has been made of the effect of pollut- but transport and disposal to an area of high dilution ant decay rates on the preferred discharge location. capability. Obviously, a rational comparison of alter- For pollutants such as BOD where a significant natives entails quantitative comparison of both sites 'decay rate exists, it should be obvious that for the with respect to dilution capabilities and ecological "within the estuary" discharge locations (A and B), characteristics. oxygen demand will be exerted and in some cases It must be recognized that a rational comparison may impose significant oxygen depression in at least of alternative treatment levels and disposal sites part of the estuary. Thus, some of the estuary's pdl- unfortunately is not often made. We simply lack lution assimilative capacity will be utilized. How- definitive environmental data on dilution capabili- ever, for the discharge location on the open coast, C, ties and 'ecological characteristics of the alternative the oxygen demand imposed with an initial dilution disposal sites, as well as on pollutant parameters of 15.0:1 is generally non-detectable in terms of the and treatment process removal characteristics. The dissolved oxygen level of the coastal water. latter is especially true for the evolving pollutant Several other significant advantages are associated parameters such as floatables, acute toxicity, and with coastal wastewater discharge, alternative C. enrichment. However, the lack of this data should First, by removing the locally generated wastewater not preclude the simple economic comparison of load from the estuary, one preserves the capacity of treatment-transport alternatives, an example of the estuary to handle the ever increasing quantity which follows. To evaluate properly the role and of pollutants generated upstream in the drainage economic justification of the optimum combination basins tributary to the estuary. These pollutants of wastewater treatment-transport, and the appro- are included in the incoming river flow and there priate dilution-dispersion system, it is necessary first are no economically feasible methods for their re- to consider the current unit costs of each component. moval once they reach the head of the estuary. Second, it is likely that the coastal region will have an area available for wastewater discharge that will TREAT ENT be less important and sensitive from the standpoint of the local ecosystem than the estuarine region. Table 1 presents a summary tabulation of the Third, some nutrients such as nitrogen may need 1973 California total unit costs for several' levels of to be removed from the wastewater discharge to treatment and four sizes of treatment plants ranging control excessive enirichment of the estuary. Coastal from a capacity of 1 million gallons per day (1 mgd) waters are generally deficient in nutrients, nitrogen or the flow from about 10,000 persons, to a 1,000 mgd in particular, so there would be no reason for their plant which would handle the wastewater flows from removal. In fact, the nitrogen sources may be valu- about 10 million persons. The unit costs are ex- able for the controlled enrichment of coastal waters. This is a practical example of a pollutant in one This is a practicalt exampleof a pollutantin one ,,Table L--Estimated 1973 unit costs* of wastewater treatment *Capital, operation situation which might become a valuable resource and maintenance in $/million gallons ($/mg) at another location. Plant design flow Treatment system I mgd 10 mgd 100 mgd 1000 mgd -TREATMENT/TRANSPORT-- 3,.780 37,800 378,000 3.78 X 106 DISPOSAL TRADE-OFFS m3/day m3/day m'/day m3/day f , Primary ...........' ......... 280 ' 125 70 55 To answer question 2, how large a transport/dis- ri posal system can be constructed and operated for intermediate (Chemical; filtration, chlorina- the incremental cost between the alternative plans, tion) - 490 280 140 100 it is necessary to deal specifically with the cost func- Secondary tions for treatment, interceptor and outfall sewer (Act. Sludge, filtration, chlo- construction. It should be obvious that the incre- rination) - -490 280 140 .100 mental cost saving between two levels of treatment Advanced can be considered as available for wastewater trans- a) (Chemical, filtration, act. port (interceptor sewer) and submarine outfall/dif- carbon chlorination) 910 430 245 175 fuser construction and operation. Thus, we can b) (Act. Sludge, chemical, fil- compare one system with a high level of treatment nation) a cab 980 . . 475 265 200 and discharge with minimal dilution close to 'the source of waste generation, to an alternate system * Costs: a) Include disposal of waste residuals. with a lower level of treatment (also lower cost) b) Treatment capital costs based upon 20 year life, i = 5%. 282 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL pressed in dollars per million gallons ($/mg) and Table 2.-Estimated 1973 unit construction costs*--interceptor sewers include all costs: capital (based upon 20 year life and 5 percent interest), operation, and maintenance. Design flow Sewer size Construction cost mgd | ma/day inches | centimeters $/foot $Imeter TRANSPORT 1 3,780 10 25.4 18.00 60 10 37,800 36 91.5 63.00 206 The cost of the transport system, principally that 378,000 96 245 205.00 672 of the interceptor sewer depends primarily upon the * Dry Trench Construction. surface and subsurface conditions along the pipeline EPA Index = 200. route. Pumping, if required to overcome the friction loss for the pipeline system, constitutes a small Table 3.-Estimated 1973 uhit construction costs*--suhmarine outfalls fraction (<10-15 percent) of the total cost for a system of reasonable size (10 to 200 mgd). Table 2 Design flow Sewer size Construction cost presents estimated 1973 California construction costs mgd m3/day Inches Centimeters $/Foot $/Meter for dry-trench construction of interceptor sewers of I suitable size to handle the three example flow rates 1 3,780 6 15 100 330 considered. 10 37,800 24 61 425 1,395 100 378,000 76 194 830 2,720 OUTFALL 8 California construction practice. OUTFALL EPA Index = 200. The costs of submarine outfall diffuser systems vary considerably because of differences in construc- water treatment, alternate B, for three wastewater tion (surf, et cetera) and bottom conditions. Also, flow rates, 1 mgd, and 100 mgd. the cost of the inshore-surf section is high where the It is of particular interest to note the considerable outfall must be buried for protection of the pipe. lengths of interceptor and outfall sewers that can be The average cost of outfalls depends upon the length built for a wastewater flow of 100 mgd (equivalent of the outfall and fraction of inshore to offshore to a city of about one million persons). About 77 lengths. For outfalls in excess of one mile in length miles of interceptor or about 18 miles of submarine and for construction to terminal depths of 25 to 60 coastal outfall can be built and operated for the meters, Table 3 presents the best estimate of 1973 incremental cost between secondary and advanced construction costs based upon actual costs of outfalls treatment, alternate B. Obviously, the total incre- constructed along the Pacific coast during the past mental treatment cost would not be used to build 20 years. Essentially all of these outfalls have been only interceptor sewers or submarine outfalls (unless designed to provide average dilutions of the waste the city was located directly on the open coast). A water with the coastal waters of at least 100:1. realistic, break-even solution would permit the con- Actual performance of the built systems generally struction of a 100 mgd secondary treatment plant results in average dilutions higher than the design with about 38 miles (77/2) of land interceptor and objective. about 8 miles (17.8/2) of submarine outfall dis- charging at C on the open coast for the same cost as an advanced wastewater treatment plant' (alternate BREAK-EVEN B) discharging at location A at the head of the INTERCEPTOR-OUTFALL LENGTH estuary. As noted previously, these pipeline lengths neglect the cost of pumping to overcome the friction If one considers the incremental treatment cost loss during transport (i.e., assumed gravity flow). between advanced waste treatment, alternate B (see However, if such pumping were required due to the Table 1) and secondary treatment, assuming that topography, it should be included in the trade-off to be the minimum treatment level allowed, one analysis, but it would reduce the pipe lengths that can compute the length of interceptor or outfall that can be built by less than 10 percent. Obviously, if can be built for this incremental annual cost. Table suitable open coast disposal sites were available 4 presents a summary computation of these pipeline closer to the wastewater source (or a shorter outfall lengths based upon the cost data cited in Tables 1, would suffice), then the coastal alternative (loca- 2 and 3. The table shows the computed interceptor tion C) would be more economical than treatment and outfall lengths that can be built for the incre- and discharge at location A. mental treatment costs between advanced waste- The data presented in Table 4 indicate that waste- NUTRIENTS 283 Table 4.-Lengths of interceptor sewer or submarine outfall that can be constructed for incremental cost between secondary treatment and advanced waste treatment, alternate b+ Incremental unit cost Total annual Flow secondary to AWT Alt.b. incremental cost Equivalent interceptor length* Equivalent outfall length** sec. vs. AWT Alt.b. mgd $/mg $/m3 $ Unit cost Miles Km. Unit cost Miles Km. $/Mile-yr S/Mile -l ---------- 490 0.13 179,000 5,230 34.2 55 30,800 5.8 9.3 10 ...- ......... 195 0.053 712,000 18,200 39.1 63 131,000 5.4 8.7 100 .-.- 125 0.033 4,560,000 59,400 76.7 124 256,000 17.8 28.6 t See Table 1 for process description. * Based upon useful life of 50 yrs, i = 5%; Friction Ipsses (pumping) and O&M not incl. * Based upon useful life of 40 yrs, i = 5%; Friction losses (pumping) and O&M not incl. waters can be transported great distances on either be reclaimed. In many places, such as California, land or in the sea for the cost of upgrading the level this may well be true. If wastewaters are ever to be of wastewater treatment. Certainly, there is ade- reclaimed for beneficial reuse, including public water quate evidence to indicate that in planning an estu- supply, more pollutants must be disposed of than arine wastewater management system, a reasonable at present. Moreover, the major pollutant to be re- extensive investigation of alternative disposal sites, moved to permit continued reuse is salt. Where is a both within the estuary and on the open coast, is better sink for salt and other non-reclaimables, after warranted before decisions are reached to provide suitable terminal treatment, than the sea? Nowhere very high degrees of wastewater treatment with dis- in the writer's judgement-at least for those cities posal to the local environment. It should be noted located in the coastal zone. that the preceding analysis is based upon a compari- Moreover, in the short term, one of the major son of secondary and advanced wastewater treat- adjuncts for wastewater reclamation is the existence ment. Where regulations do not require secondary of a marine outfall not only to handle the treated treatment as a minimum, a similar comparison can be non-reclaimable substances compatible with the sea, made for the incremental cost between primary and but to provide an effective, economic alternate dis- secondary treatment. Surprisingly, the incremental posal system for the wastewater when it is not pos- cost between primary and secondary treatment is of sible to reclaim it all (i.e., seasonal and demand similar magnitude as that between secondary and variations, failsafe provisions, and so forth). advanced treatment used in the example computa- tion; hence, similar transport distances would be obtained. CONCLUSIONS Rational analysis of estuarine wastewater manage- Ancillary Considerations ment requires: (1) consideration of the efficacy of several levels of treatment with respect to pollutant Several additional aspects of the open coast dis- removals and costs; (2) the consequences and costs posal alternative should be mentioned. First, it has of transporting adequately treated wastewaters to shown that it is economically possible to transport disposal sites with high diluting capabilities and/or about 100 mgd of wastewaters over 70 miles at the low levels of significance in the local ecosystem; same cost as upgrading treatment from secondary (3) and the effects of the resulting pollutant concen- to advanced (or from primary to secondary treat- trations in the receiving water environment. The ment). From an environmental or ecological point absence of adequate data on pollutants, their re- of view, it would appear highly logical to expect moval or effects, or on the characteristics of the local that, within a distance of that magnitude from the ecosystem, should in no way preclude the straight- wastewater source, one could find a wastewater dis- forward comparison of alternate treatment/trans- charge location with high dilution capabilities and port/disposal systems on an economic and pollutant of lower ecological significance than discharge at or concentration basis such as presented herein. near the head of an estuarine system. Adequate conceptual design of wastewater man- Yet a valid argument can be made against coastal agement systems requires consideration of the incre- waste disposal. In the long term we cannot afford mental costs between several possible levels of to waste the freshwater sewage to the sea; it should wastewater treatment for assessment of the trans- 284 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL. port distances that the wastewater can be conveyed In short, if long-term protection of our estuarine to a disposal site with high diluting capacity and/or resources is to be provided, all technical and eco- a lesser level of significance in the local ecosystem. nomically feasible steps should be taken wherever An example computation shows that for a 100 mgd possible to transport adequately treated wastes out' (378,000 m3/day) plant the incremental cost be- of the estuarine system to the open coast in* well tween secondary (including filtration) and advanced engineered, high dilution capacity outfall dispersion waste treatment, an interceptor sewer 38 miles systems. (61 kin) long and a coastal submarine outfall -9 miles (-14 km) in length can be constructed at RECOMMENDATIONS 1973 California prices. As has been. shown, in many situations the coastal The federal government in cooperation with the outfall alternative not only provides the lowest states should sponsor large scale field investigations waste concentrations, but also may well be the most of all significant estuaries and adjacent coastal economic. Moreover, the coastal alternative is highly waters. The focus of these studies should be twofold: superior to the high treatment-estuary disposal alter- native for unknown pollutants or pollutants only 1. Development of quantitative descriptions of partially removed by the conventional treatment the estuarine ecosystems to permit realistic assess- processes (i.e., some toxic substances). meht of the characteristics of the flora and fauna, In general, a number of specific advantages can its general condition or "health" and the general be claimed for open-coast, treatment-disposal alter- level of sensitivity and biological significance of the natives as compared to higher treatment level and various portions of the estuary and adjacent coastal disposal within the estuary. These can be summa- waters. rized as follows: 2. To identify, insofar as possible, the significant effects of pollutants on the estuarine ecosystem-at 1. Produces the lowest concentrations of pollutants least to the degree of categorizing what appears to in the receiving waters for conventional levels of be the critical pollutant problems and parameters treatment. associated therewith. 2. Discharge location likely can be in area of lesser significance in the local ecosystem. REFERENCES 3. Reduces pollutant stresses on the estuarine eco- system resulting from locally generated wastewater, 1. Pearson, E. A., P. N. Storrs, and R. E. Selleck. 1970. Final . . ,'increas- Report, A Comprehensive Study of San Francisco Bay. thereby allowing capacity for the inevitable inreas- Vol. 8, Univ. of California Sanitary Engineering Research ing pollutant stress associated with incoming river Laboratory Report No. 67-5. Berkeley. flow and drainage basin pollutant contributions. 4Becauseoft he high terminal diluc tions, greater 2. Kaiser Engineers Consortium. 1969. Final Report, San 4. Because of the high terminal dilutions, greater Francisco Bay Delta Water Quality Management Pro- protection is provided for the local ecosystem from: gram. California Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. a) Unknown pollutants or those not removed by treatment.. ' 3. State Water Resources Control Board. 1972. Water Quality Control Plan, Ocean Waters of California, Sacramento, b) Treatment process malfunction or failure Calif. (strikes, et cetera). 4. Burnett, Robin. 1971. DDT Residues: Distribution of Con- 5. Provides maximum economy and flexibility to centrations in Emerita analoga (Stimpson) along Coastal deal with: California. Science: (174):606-608. deal with: 5. Parkhurst, J. D. 1971. The Control of Pesticide Emissions a) Identification and control of new pollutants. from Municipal Discharges, Report at hearing before b) Major improvements in treatment tech- State Water Resources Control Board, Los Angeles, pFologiy. Calif. c) Future development of engineered waste- 6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Office of water reclamation. Water Programs Operations. Washington, D.C. POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE ESTUARIES OF ALASKA DONALD W. HOOD JOHN J. GOERING University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska ABSTRACT The Alaskan marine coastal systems are classified into 13 categories which represent nearly all systems found in the 48 contiguous states with the exception of tropical systems and those heavily stressed by petrochemical and other complex industrial pollutants. Alaska is the only state that has ice-stressed coastal systems. It also has 54 percent of the United States coastline and 53 percent of its tidal shoreline. The scope of Alaskan coastal poll~tion problems at present and in the future are examined. Minor problems associated with wastes from municipalities and activities of the petroleum, timber, pulp and paper, and the fishing industries are presently evident. Increased petroleum production and the associated transport of oil products through Alaskan coastal systems poses a future large scale pollution risk. An evaluation of previous Alaskan coastal pollution abatement programs and trends is given. Because Alaska has such unique coastal systems it is concluded that any future coastal pollution control program will succeed only if based on sound environmental data rather than on adaptations of standards uniformly administered throughout the 48 contiguous states. Emphasized through the paper is the need for better environmental understanding of Alaska's coastal systems upon which decisions can be wisely made that will protect them, and at the same time utilize them for waste disposal and extraction of the resources needed to benefit man. INTRODUCTION trated on the coast, has had a very limited influence on the natural systems of the 76,100 km of Alaskan Alaska, with its total population of about 350,000 tidal shoreline. But, Alaska is presently experiencing people is very sparsely populated. Centered around rapid economic growth primarily from development Anchorage is a population of 150,000 which consti- of the natural resources (e.g., petroleum,. timber tutes by far the largest population center; Fairbanks and fish) near its coast and certain coastal systems is second with about 40,000, and Juneau third with are therefore already stressed by man's activities. about 20,000. The remaining population is composed of small villages and towns, mostly located on the coast. Most of the villages are native and still adhere Classification of Alaskan Marine to native customs and practices. Coastal Systems Most Alaskans live on the state's coast, a coast that extends from the rain forest of southeast Alaska Alaska's coastal systems are very diverse (Fig. 1, to the arctic tundra (Fig. 1). The gradation from Tables 1 and 2) because its coastline extends over temperate to arctic, which encompasses a very broad a very broad geographical range. The general coast- geographical range in latitude and longitude, in- line of Alaska is 10,680 km long (McRoy and cludes all types of coastal systems found in the con- Goering, 1974), 54 percent of the total (19,924 km) tiguous 48 states with the exception of tropical sys- coastline of the United States (Pederson, 1965). tems and those stressed by petrochemical and other The tidal shoreline, which includes islands, inlets, complex industrial pollutants. Alaska is the only and all shoreline to the head of tidewater, is much state that has ice-stressed coastal systems. There longer and reflects the intricacy of coastal Alaska. are four types: glacial fiords, turbid outwash fiords, This distance is estimated to be 76,100 km in Alaska sea ice systems and ice-stressed coasts. The first and 142,610 km in the United States. Alaska, then two types occur in southeast and southcentral has 53 percent of the total United States tidal Alaska and the last two types are arctic (Fig. 1 and shoreline. The tidal shoreline is greatest in southeast Tables 1 and 2). Alaska (63 percent), where the coast is a maze of The small population of Alaska, although concen- fiords, islands, bays, and rocks, and is minimal in 285 286 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 172� 1560 1400 66� -- " BEAUFORT Permanent Sea Ice S E A - BARROW CHUK CH/ 660 /E7'R/A' ALASKA '� .T ,5ZEBUE0 iFAIRBANKS S v 58�- 8 ERIN G KETC SEA G U L F O F COLD BAY ALAS KA 172� 156� 140� FIGURE 1.-Map of Alaska. Numerals refer to regions described in Table 2. the arctic (2 percent), existing as a series of lagoons a freshwater river system, are termed "turbid out- and barrier beaches (Table 2). wash fiords." In contrast to the clear water environ- Because the four ice-stressed systems are unique ment of the glacial fiord, in the turbid outwash fiord to Alaska their characteristics will be briefly de- large quantities of glacially-ground sediments are scribed. transported into the inlets by glacial-melt water from the sediment deposits between glacier and fiord. These sediments restrict light passage as well GLACIAL AND TURBID FIORDS as influence the inlet geochemistry. The major indentations of the southeast Alaskan coastline are fiord-type estuaries. Glacial and turbid Table I.-Types of coastal systems in Alaska outwash fiord refers to inlets which owe their dis- tinctive physiography to the action of glacial ice on Turbid (terrestrial t) fiord 2. Turbid (terrestrial outwash) fiord mountainous coastal regions. These inlets are usually 3. Rocky sea front and intertidal rocks narrow, straight, have deep water and receive their 4. High velocity tidal channel majrfreshwater runoff from a eglacial sources. 5. Neutral embaymeot and associated shore waters major freshwater runoff from active glacial sources. 6. Medium salinity estuary Those fiords with active glaciers in the intertidal 7. Sheltered and stratified estuary zone are referred to as glacial fiords. In these, most 8. Oligohaline river system 9. Sedimentary river delta of the glacial-melt water (i.e., the major, estuarine 10. Marshes freshwater source) passes directly into the marine 11. High energy beach environment. Fiords whose glaciers terminate on 12. ce-stressed beach land, so that the melt water reaches tide water via NUTRIENTS 287 Table 2.-Distribution of Alaskan coastal systems by regions(See Fig. 1) Ice is the major feature of the Arctic Ocean and northern Bering Sea in winter. Seawater in this Estimated km Percent of Coastal types Region of tidal Alaskan (See table 1) system freezes to an average thickness of 2 to 3 m. shoreline shoreline This thickness varies locally with the severity of the 1. Southeast Alaska ------- - 48,270 68 all but 12 and 13 winter. Losses due to surface melting are replenished by accumulation of new ice on the undersurface. to Cape Elizabeth 10,460 14 all but 12 and 3 The southern boundary of the sea ice varies from year to year. This limit is frequently near the 3. Cooknlet 800 1 4,5 and Pribilof Islands (59� N., Fig. 1). The summer 4. Kodiak Island, Alaska Pe- boundary of the polar ice is between 10 and 100 ninsula and Aleutian ninsulaands -------- 12,070 16 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10 miles off the Alaskan arctic coast. During August and 11 and September the Arctic Sea adjacent to Alaska 5. Bristol Bay to Bering Strait_ 2,900 4 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, has the least ice. Advancement of the sea ice begins 11 and 12 in late September and October but the north flowing 6. Arctic, Bering Strait to Ca- current through Bering Strait tends to keep the nadian Border . . ....... 1,600 2 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 southern Chukchi Sea open longer. Ice closes Bering and 13 Strait by the end of October. In late October and November Norton Sound freezes and the sea ice progresses south to its maximum in midwinter. Commonly, fiords contain an entrance sill, which Breakup begins in mid-April. Open water does not restricts the free exchange of waters within with extend into the Chukchi Sea until June. those outside (Pritchard, 1952). However, all inlets Ice on the sea is not one continuous mass, nor is it in southeast Alaska do not have such sills and the flat and uniform. Winds, currents, and other stresses amount of circulation restriction, a feature which is produce openings, hummocks, and ridges in the ice. very important in pollutant assimilative capacity, The surface topography generally reflects the under- varies from inlet to inlet. Most have entrance sill surface topography. Polynyas and leads, a result of depths which allow continuous contact with the stresses acting on the ice, are present at all seasons. exterior source waters so that a slow circulation The boundary of ice and water may take a variety prevents the basin from stagnating. Where shallow of forms depending upon the given freezing and sills penetrate the low salinity outflowing upper melting conditions. In the open sea, only sea ice layer, exchange of deep basin water is inhibited and formed by the freezing of seawater is important. stagnation is theoretically possible. No fiords in However, near the coast, and in particular near southern Alaska, uninfluenced by man, show stag- river mouths, floating river ice is introduced into nation to the degree that extensive oxygen depletion the oceans, occurs. The circulation in Skan Bay, Unalaska Island, one of the Aleutian Islands, however, is restricted to the extent that complete oxygen de- pletion occurs naturally once every year (Goering and Boisseau, personal correspondence). Stagnation This system is charcteried by ice formed by the as a consequence of restricted circulation also occurs freezing of the arctic seas. Ice along a shore has in areas of limited freshwater inflow. Inflow is profound effects on the fauna and flora of the coast in that it eliminates most organisms from the littoral strongly seasonal with a pronounced primary fresh-t eliminates most organisms from the littoral water input maximum during the period of May water input maximum during the period of May The ice-stressed littoral system reaches a maxi- through July. The major energy sources within the The ice-stressed littoral system reaches a maxi- fiords are the total freshwater inflow and the effects mum intensty on the northernmost coast of Alaska of tides, with the latter usually predominating. Sep tember throw east, where ice is present from September through July and in extreme years may be periodically onshore all summer. The effects of SEA ICE SYSTEM ice on coastal systems diminish with the decreasing latitude along the Chukchi and Bering Sea coasts. Sea ice is a coastal system unique to Alaska. The The southern extent of the ice-stressed system varies ice itself is a type of beach with associated fauna with the intensity of winter; it can extend as far and flora. Seals and walrus breed on the ice; diatoms south as Izembek Lagoon near the tip of the Alaska and other algae grow on its undersurface; numerous Peninsula (55� N., Fig. 1). In these lower latitudes species of birds feed near it; Eskimos depend on it the ice effects are much less than in the Arctic. On for food and travel. the arctic coast the pressure on sea ice from wind 288 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL stress and currents is transferred to the fast ice on TableS.-Alaskancommercialspeclesoflnflshandshellfishwhichare nurtured shore and causes scouring. Ice cover on the open Inestuarneenvironments Bering Sea never extends as far south as the Aleutian Group [ Common name Scientific name Islands. Although the stress of ice influences long portions i. Finfish of the Alaskan shoreline (approximately 4,500 kin), Salmon coho (silver) salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch most studies have been limited to the region near pink (humpback) Oncorhynchus gorbuscha the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Point chum (dog) salmon Oncorhynchus keta king (chinook) salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Barrow. For other regions only inferences can be sockeye (red) salmon Oncorhynchus nerka made based on the Point Barrow work. The best Trout rainbowtrout(steelhead) Salmogairderi studied ice-stressed coasts are those of the arctic arctic char (dolly varden) Salvelinus malma Soviet Union (Zenkevitch, 1963). They appear to- Halibut........ Pacific halibut Hippoglossus stenolepis be comparable to Alaskan coastal systems. Herring ........ Pacific herring Ciupea harengus pallasi Smelt ......... capelin Mallotus villosus SCOPE OF ALASKAN COASTAL POLLUTION PROBLEMS Cod- ling cod Ophiodon elongatus PRESENT AND FUTURE Rockfish ...- redsnapper(yelloweye rockfish) Sebastes ruberrimus Whiting.. ...... shoe fish Stenodus leucichthys Alaska's extensive coastline and corresponding coastal estuarine systems are one of the state's most 2 Shellfish important resources. Estuaries are as beneficial to Crabs -...-. king crab Paralithodes camtschatica man as-forests, lakes and rivers. They are very pro- tanner (snow) crab Chionoecetes bairdi tanner (snow) crab Chionoecetes opilio ductive biologically as well as versatile in usefulness. dungeness crab Cancer magister A vast variety of finfish and shellfish spend all or Shrimp- pinkshrimp Pandalus borealis part of their life cycle in estuaries. These serve as side-stripe shrimp Pandalopis dispar nurseries, as spawning and feeding grounds, and as coon-stripe shrimp Pandalus hypsinotus humpback shrimp Pandalus goniurus passageways between the open sea and the spawning spot shrimp Pandalus platyceros areas of freshwater streams. Most of the commercial seafoods harvested in Alaska are associated with coastal estuarine systems (Table 3). Clams ...-.... razor clam Siliqua patula These systems also provide habitat for numerous goe-duck Panope generosa species of sea birds and marine mammals. They act as buffers against the ravages of violent storms and provide the harbors and transportation routes for Environmental baseline research is the only mech- commerce, and are the best potential sites for certain anism that can supply the required information industrial plants. Also, Alaskan coastal waters offer needed to upgrade and establish realistic marine a wide variety of recreational opportunities for water quality standards. Once realistic water quality fishermen, boaters, hunters, and wildlife observers. standards are established then research to develop It is thus very clear that Alaska's coastal systems more appropriate methods of waste treatment and are very rich in renewable. and non-renewable re- pollution abatement can begin. Without realistic sources-distinctive, aquatic systems which man standards, the government requirement for indus- cannot afford to use carelessly or destructively. We trial and municipal installation of treatment facilities must obtain a keen knowledge of how these systems is environmentally pointless, morally irresponsible, function naturally before the stresses that they can and fiscally absurd. accept without significant change can be assessed. Marine coastal pollution in Alaska is then caught Procuring information as to how these systems func- in a dilemma. On the one hand are the extremely tion naturally is the greatest challenge to wise man- complex coastal ecosystems of widely diverse nature agement of their use. Without this knowledge for that are sufficiently different from those of other management decisions, failure is inevitable. regions that the same criteria for water quality do Because of the state's great diversity, baseline not apply, and on the other the strong commitment data on many systems is not available. Therefore, on the part of the government to impose standards, the present water quality standards which are based usually the same as for the rest of the United States on the best information available, or taken from even though there is little evidence for their appli- other states and areas, have many weaknesses which cability. To exemplify this point, there seems to be must be corrected as better information is obtained. very little reason to set effluent standards in Alaska 289 to help meet a dissolved oxygen concentratiion ini materials. The metal beneficiation mills that will the environment, as may be necessary elsewhere, result will bring new sets of pollution problems to since Alaskan waters are unusually rich in dissolved the state. oxygen. In one test case in Silver Bay a discharge of The timber stands in Alaska are about the same 112 metric tons/day of 5-day BOD under less than as Washington, Oregon, and Idaho combined, yet ideal discharge conditions led to only a few viola- the harvest is small compared to these three states. tions of the state water quality standard for dis- With the shortages in wood and wood products now solved oxygen (6 mg/l), and this was associated facing the nation and the world a greater harvest with low oxygen water input resulting from coastal of this raw material in Alaska is inevitable. With upwelling. It would seem advisable to. put the in- the increased harvest will come numerous new paper, tellectual resources available to bear on problems wood pulp, and wood mills with their associated other than BOD discharge. Likewise, does it make pollution problems. In addition,. the increased cut- sense to impose the same temperature effluent stand- ting will affect water quality, land erosion, and ards in Alaska; most ecosystems would benefit from stream habitation. higher temperatures, as in Florida or Texas where Marine food production, historically Alaska's most the systems are thermally stressed under natural important product, will continue to expand and conditions. Alaska will long remain as one of the world's great- To protect Alaska's renewable resources it will est fisheries' centers. Pending the adoption of the be necessary to develop environmental standards 200-mile economic zone or some similar coastal state especially directed toward local situations. In such jurisdictional arrangement, the continental shelf of considerations full regard to the investigation of the the Bering Sea, perhaps the most valuable fishery ocean's capacity for waste assimilation and disper- in the world, will fall under Alaska's jurisdiction. sion should be given while being explicit about the In addition, aquaculture should thrive in Alaska, nature of the waste discharged and its effects on especially in the coastal fiords which offer promising the dominant ecosystems present. opportunities for marine food production without The future marine pollution problems in Alaska expenditure of conventional energy. will be well managed, poorly managed, or managed For Alaska to be a supplier of marine foods and not at all, depending on how well the responsibilities at the same time of such materials as petroleum, of the oceanographic scientific community are car- lumber and associated products, places an extremely ried out in the next few years and what kind of heavy burden on those investigating environmental management plan is developed. There will unques- effects to determine what stress the system can take tionably be large offshore oil developments on the without significant damage, and provide for means continental shelves of the Gulf of Alaska, Beaufort to control those stresses found to be incompatible Sea offshore of the Prudhoe oil field, the Chukchi with desirable uses of the marine environment. Gov- Sea, Norton Sound, Bristol Bay, North Pacific south ernment, science, and private enterprise must face of the Alaska Peninsula, and the Bering Sea: These these problems together realistically and with forth- continental shelves represent 74 percent of the U.S. right determination to make this possible. total. With these developments must come a pro- liferation of docks, harbors and transportation cor- ridors to move the product to market. Much of the ALASKAN COASTAL POLLUTION gas will be liquified before transport out of Alaska thus providing enormous quantities of heat, which under proper institutional arrangements, can prob- ably be economically utilized to enhance renewable ~resource production.~ ~Significant pollution of Alaska's coastal systems Some plants will be built to: utilize oil and gas by oil has not yet occurred. Pollution by oil could, Some plants will:be built to utilize oil ;and gas-however, become a problem as soon as large amounts within Alaska, particularly, nitrogen based fertilizer however, become a pro m as soon as large amounts ofit are tankered from Alaska to other areas. This plants and some types of petrochemical plants. is slated to begin after completion of the Trans- Alaska is an underdeveloped mineral rich resource Alaska pipeline, about three years from now. When Alaska pipeline, about three years from now. When area. Large reserves of copper, tin, molybdenum, oil is handled, there is a spill risk, even under the platinum, iron, antimony and coal are yet undevel- best control and intentions. We must develop a oped. Only gold and some copper has been processed data bank of its effects so that cleanup and control until now, largely because of lack of transportation may be systematic and effective. and 'the world economic picture. -Soon this will Ini the development of the vast petroleum reserves change with the imminent world need for these raw located in the state the danger of oil pollution must 290 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL /48� 470 /464 /450 { PPort %, .-. 60'0 abB�#S Gulf of Alaska 1480 /470 126, /45� FIGURE 2.-Prince William Sound. be foreseen and forestalled. The most immediate there. Large numbers of marine mammals and sea problems appear to surround the 800-mile Trans- birds are associated with the rich marine fauna. Alaska pipeline which is to bring oil from the oil-rich When the Trans-Alaska pipeline is completed the North Slope to the ice-free tanker terminal in Port tanker traffic in Prince William Sound and along Valdez in southeentral Alaska. The coastal systems the southeast Alaska coast will almost certainly lead in region 2 (Fig. 1) are particularly vulnerable, to sporadic oil pollution. Chief risk areas are near especially Port Valdez, Valdez Arm, and other sys- the loading terminal in Port Valdez; but with sensi- tems located in Prince William Sound (Fig. 2). ble organization for treating them, such oil spills as Prince William Sound is one of the largest tidal occur need not cause environmental degradation. estuarine systems on the North American continent Oil tankers returning from the west coast under not yet influenced by urban development. It is com- ballast to load at Port Valdez will not be able to dis- parable in size to Puget Sound yet has only a perma- charge dirty ballast water at sea. They will unload nent population of about 5,000. The sound is an it into a ballast treatment plant where the oil con- area of rich biological resources and scenic splendor. tent will be reduced to less than 8 ppm before Important runs of silver, pink, and chum salmon release into the port. Thus Port Valdez will suffer enter the sound each summer to spawn in its numer- planned chronic pollution of a low level. The ous freshwater systems. Large stocks of king and Alyeska Pipeline Company, responsible for opera- dungeness crabs, a variety of clams and scallops, as tion of the pipeline and terminal, commissioned a well as commercially important pelagic fish reside study of the hydrography, geology, and biology of NUTRIENTS 291 the port by the Institute of Marine Science of the of oil with silt and glacial silt will occur, but where University of Alaska to predict the impact of this does the silt deposit, what effects do oil-laden silt chronic pollution. The report (Hood et al., 1973) have on the benthic community and what rates of provides information which has been used in the degradation may be expected? Arbitrary controls of design of the treatment plant and effluent dispersion oil pollution other than cleanup of spills should not system to minimize the impact of this oil on Port be attempted without more knowledge of the fate Valdez waters. The extreme care used to investigate and effect of oil on the marine ecosystems involved. the pollution impact that the treatment plant might Caution should be used when chemicals are used have, and to design the outfall in such a way to to clean up oil because they may, in cold water, as minimize effects, should be a model for all future has been often found in warmer waters, have more industrial and urban developments in the sound. detrimental effects to marine organisms than allow- A study to quantitatively define the magnitude ing natural processes to degrade the oil left after of oil pollution in Alaska's Cook Inlet has been de- physical cleanup. It is obvious that the State of scribed by Kinney et al., (1969). Physical dissipa- Alaska and the U.S. Government must obtain de- tion and biodegradation rates were determined and tailed knowledge of the interaction of oil and the combined with estimates of hydrocarbon input rates marine environment under Alaskan conditions to to assess the extent of oil pollution in the inlet. avoid panic and tragedy in the event of major The authors report that as of the date of their accidental oil pollution incidents. report, accidental spills and effluents contribute from 10,000 to 17,000 barrels of oil per year or about 0.03 percent of the total produced and handled. The most recent spill and discharge analyses show Among Alaska's most important industries now 9 AsAmong Alaska's most important industries now that the 0.03 percent figure is now about 0.01 percent and in the future are those involved with forest and will further decline as NPDES discharge permits go into effect between 1975 and 1977. When oil is logging companies operate within southeat Alaska added to the surface the slick is dissipated rapidly l(StategofAlaskae19 rathei southeast Alaska (State of Alaska, 1971). They supply timber to two by the inlet's large tidal turbulence. This turbulence and its g y ao tlarge pulp mills and about 20 smaller saw mills. In and its geometry also tend to keep spilled oil out, 1970, they harvested 560 million board feet of in the inlet away from beaches, with the exception imber, most of which was hemlock (Tsuga heero- of Kalgin Island. Tidal and river-driven flushing phylla). Much of this timber was 'taken from reduces components in the inlet by 90 percent in Baranof, Kruzof, and Prince of Wales Islands. About about 10 months. Evaporation effectively removes 2.6 square km of water was used for handling and hydrocarbon components smaller than C12 within storing logs. Since some of the logging companies eight hours and the amounts of Cl0 -C25 hydro- eighcarbonst houters and the amounts of C C hydro- move their cutting sites each year, a large area of carbelow 0.02 onsinCookg/li nlet watersandsedimewater has been used for log handling and storage below 0.02 gg/liter. in southeast Alaska. Coastal pollution problems A microflora of hydrocarbon oxidizing organisms . . (about 103/liter) exists and functions as an inoculum originating from the t imber industry are already and suggests the persistence of transient, possibly have influenced theast Alaska. Logging particularly naturally occurring, hydrocarbons. Biodegradation small streams in the logging areas and estuaries of oil in the inlet is complete in one to two months.ed for log storage in log rafts. The absence of Thus biodeg o iutilized for log storage in log rafts. The absence of Thus biodegradation is more important than phys- roads and the distance between logging areas and ical flushing in removing hydrocarbon pollutants roads and the distance between loggig areas and ical flushing in removing hydrocarbon pollutants processing mills have resulted in the extensive use froMany questionthis oncerning the influencedy of oilwater. of salt water for storage and transportation of logs. Many questiorns concwerning the ainuene of oil Wood-boring organisms, such as teredos, inhabit on marine biota remain unanswered. The lack of on marie bt r n un. Te l l southeast Alaskan marine waters, so logs are gen- this information generally results in panic when oiln is spilled, although oil seeps occur naturally in coastal erally stored in itertidal areas of shallow bays waters of Alaska, particularly in southeast Alaska These areas are chosen for extended log storage near-a, laley B aykuta t because grounding at low tide and the relatively near Yakataga, Malaspina, Icy Bay, and Yakutat low salinities minimize infestation by wood-boring (Rosenberg, 1972). The fate of oil once it reaches organisms. Protection from strong winds is another Alaska's coastal system needs to be assessed. Bio- factor considered when choosing storage areas. degradation will occur; but just how fast in the During the log dumping and rafting processes, various systems isn't precisely known. Interaction bark is knocked off the logs and sinks to the bottom, 292 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL often in substantial amounts. This accumulation 5-day BOD per ton of product produced with no can greatly increase oxygen demand, resulting in regard for environmental effects. It is not clear at the depletion of benthic organisms, and also can this time, in the case of the Alaska Pulp Mill at cover the bottom to the extent that repopulation Silver Bay, whether reduction of the 5-day BOD by benthic forms is prevented (Pease, 1974). Or- discharge level to the proposed best practical level ganic compounds leached from logs when stored in will effectively improve the dissolved oxygen situ- water, in addition to exerting an oxygen demand, ation in Silver Bay, since it appears that the largest add color-producing substances to the water, and contributor to the low oxygen values is natural some leachates (e.g. Douglas fir leachates) are circulation and similar processes dominating this acutely toxic to marine and freshwater fish (Schaum- system. More consideration needs to be given to burg, 1973). Steel bands and cables which are used other components of the waste, and their distribu- in the rafting process also often accumulate on the tion in the bay, to provide a sound environmental bottom. disposal system. The exact effects of water-based log handling in southeast Alaska need to be better assessed before restrictions or alternative methods of storage are Fishing Industry imposed. In general, any method which reduces the Alaska ranks as one of the leading states in the accumulation of debris and log leachates in the shallow storage areas would appear to be beneficial. tonnage of seafood landed and processed (fourth in 1972, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1973). In 1972 there were 131 salmon, 72 shellfish and 50 miscellaneous Pulp and Paper Industry fish processing plants operating along the coast of Alaska. The wastes from this industry have already The processing of timber by pulp mills has also brought on serious degradation of water quality and seriously affected water quality in certain southeast impeded the various other important and economic Alaskan bays. A rather serious degradation of water uses of that water. The main areas of environmental quality due to inadequately treated wastes from degradation are in regions where several processors pulp mills in Ward Cove and Silver Bay has been are concentrated, where currents carry wastes on- documented by the Federal Water Quality Admin- shore, or where water circulation is restricted and istration (1970). The Alaska Lumber and Pulp stagnation ensues. Company located in Silver Bay and the Ketchikan A large percentage of the shellfish and finfish Pulp Company in Ward Cove both operate magne- processing in Alaska is done at Kodiak. In 1972, sium based sulphite process pulp mills which produce 113,268,000 pounds of fish were landed there; only a dissolving pulp for the rayon industry. Both plants six other U.S. fishing ports had larger landings. In have relied upon chemical recovery and screening Kodiak, the shrimp and crab industries are faced to remove wastes and both discharge into the marine with a complex problem. The wastes which are left environment from outfalls without the benefit of after the extraction of meat for freezing or canning, dispersers. This treatment has been shown to be the majority of the body weight (mainly entrails insufficient to comply with Federal or Alaska Water and chitinous skeletons), always have been dumped Quality Standards. Sulphite waste liquor concentra- into Chiniak Bay beside the processing plants. This tions known to exceed the level toxic to phyto- practice has created serious environmental problems, plankton and salmon food organisms have been e.g., accumulation of organic debris resulting in near found throughout Ward Cove and Silver Bay. The bottom anoxia, release of toxic hydrogen sulphide waste liquor discharges containing a high 5-day from anoxic sediments, and elevated concentrations BOD coupled with the release of solid materials, of potentially toxic inorganic nutrients such as am- plus the inability of the waters in these systems to monium. The lowered oxygen concentrations have effectively disperse the pollutants, combine to re- undoubtedly affected the natural flora and fauna duce the dissolved oxygen at some times during of the bay. the year. In the summer, coastal upwelling occurs, Iliuliuk Bay, Unalaska Island is a site of increas- resulting in low oxygen containing waters being ing seafood processing. It has been speculated that transported into the inlets. This event, coupled the amount of processing on or near Unalaska will with oxygen depletion resulting from the waste load, surpass that on Kodiak in the next few years. Large causes the dissolved oxygen to fall below 6 mg/liter, concentrations of ammonium and depletions in oxy- the minimum level allowed by the Alaska Water gen have already been observed, in Iliuliuk Bay Quality Standards. The permit requirements now (Brickell and Goering, 1970), and the decomposition being imposed are based on a discharge level for of seafood processing wastes, which are emptied NUTRIENTS 293 into the, bay rather continuously, appears to be the sulfate ion, as the electron acceptors. During responsible for the observed changes in the nitrogen the latter process, noxious hydrogen sulfide is pro- and oxygen chemistry. An examination of the ammo- duced. The reduced compounds (e.g. hydrogen sul- nium concentration at stations off the mouth of the fide) are in reality also an oxygen debt which has bay suggests that ammonium originating in Iliuliuk to be paid before oxygen can again accumulate. In Bay influences the nitrogen economy of the sur- all of the biodegradation reactions carbon dioxide, rounding ocean. However, high concentrations of ammonium, and phosphate are released into the ammonium, organic nitrogen, and oxygen depletion water, and become available for organic synthesis are not restricted to waters receiving waste from in algal growth. Baalsrud (1967) showed that when seafood processing plants. They can occur naturally, a mixture of seawater and sewage, having a certain as evidenced by the natural phenomenon of salmon oxygen demand, was stored in the dark an oxidative carcass decomposition which results .in oxygen de- breakdown occurred, thereby reducing the oxygen pletion and elevated concentrations of ammonium demand. However, when the mixture was inoculated and other nitrogen compounds, closely simulating with a few algae and placed in the light, algal the industrial situation (Brickell and Goering, 1970). growth gave rise to organic matter with an oxygen demand much greater than that originally found in Municipal Wastes the sewage. His experiments clearly demonstrate that the organic matter formed as a result of eutro- Disposal of untreated municipal wastes in the sea phication potentially represents a much greater or- surrounding Alaska is common to coastal cities and ganic load than that added directly with sewage. villages. Household waste is the dominant compo- Therefore, it appears necessary to clearly understand villages Househld wast is thethe secondary as well as the primary effects of nent with minor contributions from small industries. the secondary as well as the primary effects of Larger industries dispose of their wastes separately. sewage addition to seawater. The cheapest means of disposal is often used, i.e., Cook Inlet receives untreated municipal sewage untreated municipal wastewater is released into from all of the Anchorage populace, the largest the open sea. In most instances this appears to have metropolitan area in Alaska. The 30-foot tidal range not seriously stressed the marine environment. Only of Cook Inlet is common knowledge. However, less in embayments with restricted circulation have known are its other characteristics, such as extreme minor adverse effects been documented. turbulence, horizontal velocities of flow, suspended Disposal of sewage into seawater affects the phys- sediment loads, natural biological productivity, the ical and chemical nature of coastal waters. The effects of freshwater inflows, temperature, and wind ical and chemical' nature of coastal waters. The stee.Bcaeofhvyedmnlasinumr specific gravity of the waste products in relation s tresses. Because of heavy sediment loads in summer to the density of seawater will determine whether and treacherous ice flows in winter, the upper inlet the material disperses into water masses, settles to has not been extensively used for commercial or the bottom, or floats to the surface. These materials recreational purposes. Because of these negative will also affect light penetration, poison plants and properties, little concern has, until recently, been animals, destroy bottom habitat by settling, and given to its capacity to assimilate man's wastes. Its strong currents and mixing, however, make it much destroy valuable recreation sites by floating to sur- strong currents and mixing, however, make it much faces and washing onto beaches. More serious are more suitable for waste disposal than most other faces and washing onto beaches. M~ore serious are Aaknsses the primary and secondary consequences of the Alaskan systems. chemical and biological oxidation of the organic In Alaska only isolated cases of water quality matter. Biodegradable organic matter discharged decline, resulting from municipal sewage discharge into the sea is oxidized by microorganisms. The into the sea, have been documented. Physical, chem- initial oxidation is accomplished by organisms enter- ical and biological data indicate that some minor ing with the effluent, and after dilution with sea- pollution of Cook Inlet waters near the Chester water marine bacteria are probably the major oxi- Creek and Cairn Point outfalls results from domestic dizers. The bactericidal properties of seawater are sewage, but the water mass as a whole has not been well documented (etchu et al., 1949). In the adversely affected by it. Because of its extensive welldocuente (Ktchu et l.,1949. Inthe turbulence and heavy sediment loads, large quanti- oxidation process, the dissolved oxygen in seawater turbulence and heavy sediment loads, large quanti- is utilized as the electron acceptor, and when the ties of domestic waste, as much as 7.6 X 10 m/day, rate of removal is greater than the rate of supply can be discharged into the inlet without causing by diffusion and the photosynthetic activity of serious water degradation (Murphy et al., 1972). plants, the oxygen is depleted. Anoxic microorga- Thus a population of two to three million people nisms begin to stabilize the remaining organic mat- could safely dispose of their domestic waste water ter using the nitrate ion first, and when it is depleted, into the inlet. 294 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL In Ketchikan, Alaska, domestic sewage disposal in southeast Alaska and petrochemical plants in consists of septic tanks and drain fields, cesspools Cook Inlet. and seepage pits, or piping raw sewage into the The first modern waste disposal system in Alaska tidewaters of Tongass Narrows (State of Alaska, was that of the Collier Carbon and Chemical Com- 1967). Most of the sewage is believed eventually to pany liquid ammonia and urea fertilizer plant located reach salt water either by surface or underground north of Kenai on the east banks of Cook Inlet. The drainage or by direct piping to points Inear water's company, after careful examination of the waters edge on shore. The raw sewage outfalls are responsi- of Cook Inlet, including circulation, ammonium ble for the large numbers of coliform bacteria found and nitrate cycling, and biological population assays, in the adjacent waters of Tongass Narrows, particu- designed a discharge system which utilizes jet dif- larly Bar Harbor. The eutrophication of the water- fusers and the turbulence of the inlet to lower the front area by nutrients resulting from the sewage concentration of the fertilizer ammonium well below has not been studied. Studies have indicated, how- harmful levels within about 10 feet of the discharge ever, that state bacteriological water quality stand- pipe. This system has operated according to de- ards are exceeded in many areas along the Ketdhikan sign since 1969 with no evidence of harm to the waterfront. Fecal solids and shredded toilet paper, environment. which are potential health hazards as well as aesthet- Municipalities are presently facing the require- ically offensive, are often observed along the shoreline ments for secondary sewage treatment before dis- and floating within Bar Harbor, near Bar Point and charge into the environment. Studies conducted in alongside the Dock, Mission, and Mill Street area. connection with municipal effluents released into The stratification of the low density discharged Cook Inlet from the city of Anchorage give no sewage near the sea surface, slow nearshore tidal evidence that secondary treatment is necessary or currents with net northward movement in Tongass even desired environmentally (Murphy et al., 1972); Narrows, and an onshore wind component all tend likewise there appears to be no reason to demand to concentrate Ketchikan sewage discharges in the this level of treatment of other municipalities who surface waters of the waterfront area, and to move discharge into the coastal waters of Alaska. Each it slowly northward past the city. situation and location should be examined to assess In other areas of Alaska, particularly where re- the capacity of the receiving waters to assimilate stricted flow of seawater is inherent or little has the planned discharge. The decision concerning been done to utilize the assimilative capacity of the secondary waste treatment plant requirements should ocean for waste oxidation, isolated cases of water rest on those findings. To systematically force most quality decline have resulted. Often, as in the case coastal Alaskan cities to construct secondary treat- at Iliukiuk Bay, Unalaska Island, and Kodiak ment plants when the environmental capacity to Island, the combined effects of fishing industry assimilate municipal waste is enormous, is not in the wastes and municipal sewage wastes, have resulted best public interest. in low oxygen water. Low oxygen water is not, Many plants which process the fisheries products however, a very serious problem in Alaska because of the State of Alaska are also being forced to the environmental conditions generally prevailing comply with the secondary treatment effluent re- lead to very high surface water concentrations of quirements. In the past, these plants have dis- dissolved oxygen. The concentration of dissolved charged untreated wastes, often representing up to oxygen seems more controlled by the oceanography 75 percent of the catch by weight, into the water of the continental shelf than by locally imposed immediately adjacent to the plant, and have influences. depended upon tides and scavenging organisms to keep the solid residues at a low enough level to avoid offensive surface exposure. Requirements now dic- EVALUATION OF PREVIOUS PROGRAMS - AND DISCUSSION OF TRENDS tate that solids be removed and processed in some other manner. At Kodiak, the major Alaskan Until recently, waste disposal in Alaska was done fishing port, many of these solid wastes are processed by the least expensive way. Industries and munici- commercially and converted to an animal feed palities have generally discharged their primary marketed on the west coast of the United States. wastes into streams, rivers, or estuaries without The water soluble portion of the fish wastes also has even the benefit of deep water outfall disperser sys- considerable value for protein feed supplements, tems. Little control of effluent quality or quantity but such processing plants have not yet been con- was administered until the advent of the pulp mills structed in Alaska. To treat these water soluble NUTRIENTS 295 wastes by a secondary sewage treatment process improvements and consume 500,000,000 BTU's of appears unadvisable for two major reasons. First, energy per day to reduce its present ammonia the protein in the water has high food value; and effluent (about 3500 kg/day) to meet the best second, discharge of untreated waste through out- practical technology for ammonia effluents. Docu- falls designed to keep concentration levels corn- mentation has shown that the ammonia currently patible with the environment would at least return released by this plant is not harmful and is probably some of the energy to the system from which it was beneficial to the biota of Cook Inlet, and the revised derived, thus yielding some environmental advan- scheme would put the ammonia into the atmosphere tage. This process could in most cases be accom- where the environmental hazards are much greater. plished at a lower cost. The expenditure of energy and capital investments The recent trend in Alaska, because of enforce- for what appears to be of questionable value environ- ment by government regulatory agencies to adopt mentally, cannot be justified. Even if there was effluent standards uniformly administered through- a slight environmental advantage, the justification out the country with no regard to environmental for using large capital and amounts of energy for quality, can only lead to devastation of Alaska's marginal environmental improvement is probably of renewable resources. We must understand the eco- negative social benefit. Other cases in Alaska could systems involved well enough to assess possible be indicated, particularly where heated effluents are damage resulting from the stress of added effluents. concerned, in which large expenditures of both Discharge of any amount of wastes that might result money and energy are being imposed without in damage to an ecosystem is foolhardy. Likewise, realizing any apparent environmental benefits. it is ludicrous to impose restrictions on waste dis- In today's modern world social benefit must weigh charges if it can be clearly established that the heavily on decisions to utilize energy to reduce system can easily handle the loading involved effluent concentrations unless environmental benefits without damage. If the environment itself is the can be conclusively demonstrated as a result of this real concern, as it should be, then industries must energy consumption. Most effluents of the chemical develop and install effluent discharge systems that industry are waste materials to that industry. They are compatible with the environmental situation in could, however, be a feed stock of considerable value which they find themselves rather than being forced to the bioengineering industry. Alaska, with its to meet some general specified waste or water great potential for aquaculture (Kelley and Hood, quality standard. A scientifically alert and flexible 1973), should turn its attention to using these attitude toward Alaska's effluent practices is badly wastes for enhancement of food or marine product needed as we begin developing the state's resources. producing systems. Some institutional barriers will A much better understanding of the oceanography need changing for such a system to be developed, of Alaskan coastal systems should be the first but it seems of such importance in helping meet priority followed by a management plan responsive some of man's future needs that it should be to environmental needs and not political expediency. thoroughly explored and activated as soon as pos- sible. Perhaps a more rational approach, other than imposing strict effluent standards in Alaska, would RES ULTS WHICH OFFER be a requirement for converting waste materials into DIRECT USE IN ALASKAN ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT useful feed stocks for bioengineering projects in- cluding aquaculture. Would this not be an en- Throughout this paper we have attempted to lightened attitude directed toward solving mankind's point out the uniqueness of the Alaskan environment ever increasing needs for food supplies? and emphasize the need for better environmental understanding upon which decisions can be wisely REFERENCES made that will protect it, and at the same time utilize it for waste disposal and extraction of 'the Baalsrud, K. 1967. Influence of nutrient concentration on resources needed to benefit man. The concept of primary production. In: T. A. Olsen and F. F. Burgess trade-offs becomes important in environmental (eds). Pollution and Marine Ecology. Interscience Pub- management and, in general, is a viable philosophy to be used in Alaska. Brickell, D. C. and J. J. Goering. 1970. Chemical effects of To comply with a recent NPDES permit, to salmon decomposition on aquatic ecosystems. In: R. S. becomeffctiveJaury 1197aplntatMurphy and D. Nyquist (eds), International Symposium j become effective January 1, 1977, a urea plant at on Water Pollution Control in Cold Climates. U.S. Govern- Kenai will need to spend $1,500,000 in capital ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.: p. 125-138. 296 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL : . ' Federal Water Quality Administration, Alaska Operations Pease, B. C. 1974. Effects of log dumping and rafting on lthe Office, Northwest Region. 1970. Effects of pulp mill wastes marine environment of Southeast Alaska. USDA Forest on receiving waters at Ward Cove, Alaska. Service General Technical Report PNW-22. Hood, D. W., W. E. Shiels and E. J. Kelley (eds). 1973. Pederson, L. R. 1965. United States. 1. Area and boundaries. Environmental Studies of Port Valdez. Institute of Marine In: Encyclopedia Americana. Americana !Corp., New York Science, University of Alaska. Occasional Publication 27: 473-475. No. 3. Pritchard, D. W. 1952. Estuarine hydrography. In: H. Kelley, E. J. and D. W. Hood (eds). 1973. Aquaculture in Landsberg (ed), Advances in Geophysics. Academic Press, Alaska Workshop: Sitka, Alaska April 10-13, 1972. Insti- New York 1:243-280. tute of Marine Science. Public Information Bull. 73-1, University of Alaska. Rosenberg, D. H. 1972. Oil and gas seeps of the Northern Gulf of Alaska. In: D. H. Rosenberg (ed), A Review of the Ketchum, B. H., C. L. Carey, and M. Briggs. 1949. Pre- Oceanography and Renewable Resources of the Northern liminary studies on the viability and dispersal of coliform Gulf of Alaska. Institute of Marine Science, University of bacteria in the sea. In: Limnological aspects of water supply Alaska, Report No. R72-23: p. 143-148. and waste disposal. American Association for Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. Schaumburg, Frank D. 1973. The influence of log handling on water quality. Office Res. Monitor, EPA, Washington, Kinney, P. J., D. K. Button and D. M. Schell. 1969. Kinetics D.C. of dissipation and biodegradation of crude oil in Alaska's Cook Inlet. Present at the Joint Conference on Prevention State of Alaska, Department of Environmental Conserva- and Control of Oil Spills: American Petroleum Institute; tion, Water Quality Control Section. 1971. Inventory of Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, December water dependent log handling and storage facilities in 14-17, 1969, New York, N.Y. Alaska. McRoy, C. P. and J. J. Goering. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems State of Alaska, Department of Health and Welfare, Division of Alaska. In: H. T. Odum, B. J. Copeland and E. A. of Public Health. 1967. Water supply and waste disposal McMahan (eds), Coastal Ecological Systems of the United in the Gateway Borough. States. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C. 1:124-131. United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Fisheries Murphy, R. S., R. F. Carlson, D. Nyquist and R. Britch. Service. 1973. Fisheries of the United States, 1972. 1972. Effect of waste discharges into a silt-laden estuary: A case study of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Institute of Water Zenkevitch, L. 1963. Biology of the Seas of the U.S.S.R. Resources, University of Alaska. Report AO, IWR 26. John Wiley and Sons, New York. .. ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF .HAWAIIAN ESTUARIES STEPHEN V, SMITH University of Hawaii Kaneohe, Hawaii ABSTRACT Hawaiian estuaries are small but numerous, and they are of importance to the State of HIawaii. With a few exceptions, detailed environmental information about these estuaries is lacking. Circu- lation in the estuaries is sluggish. Many of the estuaries fail to meet water quality standards set by state law; this failure represents the combined effects of unrealistic standards governing excessive discharges. The major human stresses imposed on the estuaries are the introduction of nutrients, freshwater, and sediments. More research directed at the estuaries as total systems is needed. INTRODUCTION - is an index map of the Hawaiian Islands, and Figures 2 through 6 show each of the Hawaiian In simplest terms, an estuary is an area in which Figures 2 through 6 show each of the Hawaiian In simplest terms, an estuary IS an area m whuch Islands which have significant estuaries. The loca- fresh and salt waters come together.* This mixing of tions of these features are noted Most Hawae an waters has led to the development of a rich and tions of these fea tures are noted. Most Hawaiian estuaries are small, with water areas well under productive coastal zone ecosystem, with an influence productive coastal zondte ecosyste, with an influence 1 km2. Existing charts for most of these features are that extends far beyond the physiographic bounda- not sufficient to show significant bathymetric or ries of the estuary. This biotic importance of estu- other detail. The larger estuaries and other embay- aries, together with their widespread use for corm ments are illustrated in the atlas by Grace (1974). mercial and recreational purposes, mandates that a Even the two largest estuaries are small in com- Even the two largest estuaries are small in com- parison with their North American (or other con- available for the intelligent management and preser- tinental) counterparts. These estuaries are im- Svation of such a valua bl e resource. autifulquie portant, nonetheless. Because these features are Some Hawaiian estuaries contain beautiful quiet- small, they are particularly vulnerable when sub- nwater coral reef assemblages unlike any botic corm- jected even to relatively minor environmental insults. munity found elsewhere in the United States (Smith The total estuarine area of the state is estimated et al., 1973). The estuaries are breeding and spawn- here to be about 100 km2. It is impossible to judge ing grounds for a variety of commercially valuable accurately the coastal area outside the estuaries but fishes (Miller, 1973; Watson and Leis, 1974). within the legally defined estuarine zone; however, Several species of seabirds, listed as rare and en- some limits can be imposed. If the mean width of dangered, inhabit the nearshore environment (Ber- the estuarine zone is 50 meters (surely an overesti- ger, in Armstrong, 1973). The estuaries are popular mate for most of the Hawaiian coastline), then only areas for fishing, boating, swimming, and camping. another 100 km2 of estuarine zone are added to the One estuary (Kaneohe Bay) also serves as the site 100 km2 estimated for the true estuaries, bringing for ongoing research by both the state and the the total Hawaiian estuarine zone to less than federal governments. It is in the interest of ecology, 200 km2 economy, recreation, and scientific research that this This figure is probably satisfactory within the report has been prepared. legal limits of the estuarine zone, but it is deceptive According to the report by Cox and Gordon in terms of the importance of the Hawaiian coastal (1970), approximately 50 features in the state may zone Because the State of Hawai as a whole is a be broadly classified as estuarine systems. Figure 1 small watershed in comparison with the North * "... the term 'estuarine zones' means an environmental system con- American continent, the zone of freshwater influence sisting of an estuary and those transitional areas which are consistently t the Hawa l is small in influenced or affected by water from an estuary such as, but not limited about the Hawaiian Islands is small in comparison to, salt marshes, coastal and intertidal bays, harbors, lagoons, inshore with the zone of such influence off North America. waters, and channels, and the term 'estuary' means all or part of the mouth of a navigable or interstate river or stream or other body of water In relative terms, however, the zone vulnerable to having unimpaired natural connection with open sea and within which the impact from activities on land may not be greatly sea water is measureably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage." (P.L. 89-753) different from Hawaii to the mainland of North 297 298 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL IWC 159 IS9 ISV ISA' ISS NIIHAU X & Woieluo Bay, _ i 5 0 k O 10 KM L I, A../ y Ed WAIANAE O A H U ISLANDS OF HAWAII KAILUA K. .I SI (tlleu~~ earlI HAorbr HoI I FIGURE 1.-The main islands of the Hawaiian chain. Of hi L.9A.. A / Ar these, Niihau, Lanai, and Kahoolawelack significant estuaries. KAi on FIGURE 3.-Oahu Island, estuaries. Hanolei River B Bay, Lunabai River Waipa B Waioti Streams Wainiha River IKailiwai B ey B Sir. Pelekunu Bay IMoloua Buy a .. Halawe Bay /M00aA Bay > .MOLOKAI a \ k \ Anrhola Str. AalahAA Str. KAUNAKAKAI Kapaa Stream B -0 0 KM z sCohanab Fi s h p o n d s WRi- ua River ( / K A U A I \4Woilua River FIGURE 4.-Molokai Island, estuaries. Hanamoulu Bay a Sir. LIHU/ f ,. uuE-* ( ... rkohou SAy Waimeo River N wiliwill Bay B Harbor Poreallen \ X~Lawai Bay tSh. 0 - tO KM o Honmenu lay W"ahiawo Bay I I LHAINA WAILUK\a pn FIGURE 2.--Kauai Island, estuaries. America. Indeed, the 'large bights which scallop most of the Hawaiian Islands (Figures 2-6) are already the subjects of concern to local environ- mental scientists and should be the subject of another report such as this one. Table 1 helps to put the scale of Hawaiian estu- . , FIGURE 5.-MaUiIsland, estuaries. aries into proper perspective. The ratio of estuarine area to the state's land area is only about half the equivalent ratio for the total Unid States. How- acted States. How- acted to enhance the utilization of estuaries and the ever, the ratio of tidal shoreline length to total land coastal zone by the people of Hawaii, so that even area is an order of magnitude larger for Hawaii those persons who do not live near the water are than for the rest of the nation. That is, there is a likely to frequent it. close spatial relationship between the land of the There are also small embayments in the state' (e.g., state and the coastline. Hanauma Bay, Oahu; Honaunau and Kealakekua The distribution of population is also instructive. Bays, Hawaii) which are renowned for their beautiful The recent Atlas of Hawaii (Armstrong, i973) reefs. These bays are subject to insufficient fresh- reveals that about one-third of the state's population water inflow to qualify as estuaries, but- nevertheless lives immediately adjacent'to one of the major could be devastated with a relatively small degree estuaries in the state. Both culture and climate have of thoughtless activity. The summaries of the biology NUT-RIENTS 299 no biological information, other than hearsay and lolm Stream very limited biological observations, is available for Waiplo Stream these estuaries. Because of the general lack of adequate informa- ) WAIMEA \ tion, an attempt to document the environmental status of the Hawaiian estuarine zone has proven to be a frustrating undertaking.'Some aspects of this problem for the state as a whole have been recently Wailoo Sr. summarized by Cox and Gordon (1970). That report Keaukaho dealt with estuarine water quality, a subject for K HILO which there is a great deal of information. Even that data base is, for the most part, insufficient for establishing trends through time. The circulation PAHOA- patterns of several Hawaiian estuaries have also been described, although these data have not been so recently summarized as has water quality. Quantitative information about the biological status of most Hawaiian estuaries is almost totally lacking. The biology of only two of the larger Hawaiian estuaries (Kaneohe Bay and Pearl Harbor) has 20 oKM been examined in any detail; some fragmented in- / ' ' ' formation about a few other estuaries is available. Much of the information which has been collected is difficult to locate because it is buried in private FIGURE 6.--Hawaii Island, estuaries. or government files. It would be well worth the expense to retrieve this information. There are Table 1.-Comparison of Hawaiian estuarine dimensions with the scale of numerous studies of particular Hawaiian nearshore estuaries found in the remainder of the U.S. regions aside from estuaries. As discussed above, the degree of terrestrial freshwater influence on these U.S. exclusive Hawaii regions is so small that they do not qualify as part of the estuarine zone, although even these areas may Totalarea (km2)-..9,350,000 16,700 be subject to damage, potentially or presently, by Estuarine area (km') -.- . -.-... 117,000 100 human activities along the Hawaiian coastline. Tidal shoreline (kinm) -... . .......... 136,000 1,700 Estuarine area/total area -. ---------- 0.013 0.006 Tidal shoreline/total area s. ---------- 0.015 0.10 ESTUARINE CIRCULATION Knowledge of the circulation of an estuary is of of Kealakekua and Honaunau Bays (Doty, 1968a particular importance in assessing environmental and b) are particularly instructive in this regard. integrity, because the characteristics of water circu- Kaneohe Bay is the largest well-defined embay- lation determine the residence time of pollutants in ment in the state. This embayment on the north- the system, or portions thereof, and hence determine eastern coastline of the island of Oahu (Figure 3) the possible damage those pollutants may do to the occupies an area of about 50 km2, less than half of system. There is limited information describing some which is truly estuarine in character. Pearl Harbor, aspects of circulation in numerous Hawaiian estu- Oahu (Figure 3), with a water area of about 20 km2, aries. is the second largest estuary in the state and may The most comprehensive survey to date on this be considered a classical estuary throughout its subject is that of Laevastu et al., (1964), dealing extent. These two estuaries are also the most Widely \with the general currents of Hawaiian inshore studied Hawaiian estuarine systems, although even waters. Much of that information, plus some addi- they are insufficiently known. Other large Hawaiian tional observations, is reported in the recent Marine estuaries include the Keehi Lagoon/Honolulu Harbor Atlas of Hawaii (Grace, 1974). Detailed circulation complex, Oahu (Figure 3); Nawiliwili Harbor, studies of a few Hawaiian estuaries are available Kauai (Figure 2); and Hilo Harbor, Hawaii (Figure (e.g., Bathen's 1968 description of Kaneohe Bay; 6). Some data on water quality and circulation are and Buske's 1974 description of Pearl Harbor). available for these last three systems, but virtually Most available studies of Hawaiian estuarine circula- 300 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL tion are far less comprehensive than the ones cited Table 2.-Water quality standards pertinent to Hawaiian estuaries. From Cox and Gordon (1970) above, involving current measurements at only a few localities within any particular estuary and Class of water under a narrow range of oceanographic conditions. AA A B Tidal ranges are relatively small in Hawaii (about 1 meter), and river input into estuaries is generally Substance small. Except during periods of heavy runoff, the A BASIC larger estuaries are not strongly stratified. Largely lacking the energy sources of tidal flushing and 1 Setteable materials forming objectionable de- posits .............................. 0 major river flow, the circulation of the estuaries is 2. Floating debris, oil, scum, etc. .- .. 0 0 0 strongly related to wind patterns (e.g., Buske, 1974), 3. Substances producing objectionable color, odor, taste orturbidity - - ---------------. 0 0 0 to wave-driven flow into the estuarine areas (Bathen, 4. Materials, including radionuclides, in concen- 1968), and to tidal and wind-driven ocean currents trations or combinations which are toxic or sweeping by, outside of the estuaries (Wyrtki produce undesirable physiological responses in human, fish and other animal life and et al., 1967). plants -- ------------.._ - 0 0 0 Despite their small size, Hawaiian estuaries 5. Substances, conditions, or combinations pro- generally flush rather slowly, chiefly because water ducing undesirable aquatic lifer- - -- - 0 0 0 6. Soil from controllable accelerated erosion . movement depends, to a large extent, on the least effective of the previously-mentioned energy sources. B. SPECIFIC Buske (1974) has estimated that some of the water l. Microbiological A. Coliform bacteria ((100 ml) in Pearl Harbor may have a residence time of more M edian -------- 70 1000 than four days. Dr. J. Caperon (Hawaii Institute of Upper decile - .-.. < . 2400 Marine Biology, personal communication) has sug- Maximums - 230 B. Fecal collforms gested that water may reside in the more enclosed 30-day mean - ----------------------- 200 400 parts of Kaneohe Bay for several weeks. These 30-day upper decile .-. ................. . 400 1000 relatively long residence times for estuarine waters 2 re from natural0.5 0.5 0.5 and their included pollutants have obvious implica- Maximum except from natural causes ..------ 8.5 8.5 8.5 tions for the biota of Hawaiian estuaries and Minimum except from natural causes - 8.0 7.0 7.0 (except fresh tidal water) ------------------- i7.0 emphasize the importance of intelligent, informed 3. Nutrients (mg/tidaliter) estuary management. Total phosphorus -. - ---............_-5. - 0.020 0.025 0.030 Total nitrogen -. -.- ....... 0.10 0.15 0.20 4. Dissolved oxygen (mg/liter) ( except from natural causes) - --------------.- 6.0 5.0 4.5 WATER QUALITY 5. Total dissolved solids. TDS departure from natural (% of natural Water quality is surely the best-documented fluctuation) 10 general environmental parameter of Hawaiian estu- 6. Temperature ('�F aries. The fact is undoubtedly true because water Departure from natural .............., <1.5 1.5 1.5 quality standards can be objectively spelled out, 7. Turbidity routinely measured, and thus easily legislated. Secchi disk extinction coefficient, departure from normal (5) .-. ...................... 5 10 20 Table 2 gives the state's definitions for the three 8. Radionuclides coastal water classes; from best to worst, these are (MPCnvalues by NBS) .--. .. 1/30 I 1/30 1/30 (concentration) ............................< USPHS values for drinking AA, A, and B. Cox and Gordon (1970) have: sum- water marized the water quality of Hawaiian estuaries (concentration in harvested organisms) ..-.S.- Federal Radiation Council relative to those standards, and a modified version recommended limits of their summary is presented as Table 3. Seyeral important aspects of water quality emerge from Table 3.-Summary of water quality relative to standards for coastal waters. these data. - ; Modified from Cox and Gordon (1970) ; Most of the waters supposed to be pristine (AA) are considered by Cox and Gordon (1970) to be so. water estuaries meeting not meeting insufficient Kaneohe Bay is probably the most conspicuous standards standards data exception to this generality. It is obvious from.the AA 14 11 3 data presented by Cox and Gordon that as soon A - - - - - - - - - 65 5 39 21 as some deterioration of water quality is permitted B ------10 1 5 4 or occurs (to class A or B)) there is little chance Total 89 17 47 25 that even these lower standards will be met. Over * Estuaries with two or more classes of water quality receive multiple listing in this half the estuaries assesed by Cox and Gordon table. NUTRIENTS 301 apparently fail to meet the legislated water quality Table 4.-Summary of recurrent stresses, by island* standards, and most of the violations involve class A waters. Most of the class B waters for which Development Kauai Oahu Molokai Maui Hawaii Total data are available fail to meet even these very Water ------- 12* 6 0 8 29 permissive standards. Even though water quality 8 3 29 has been cited as the best-known environmental Agricultural Sugar cane -.. -...... 12 5 0 2 3 22 aspect of the Hawaiian estuaries, with rare excep- Pineapple 1 3 0 4 0 8 tion, the knowledge of water quality is also, in Taro -----.... - 4 1 0 1 1 7 itself, insufficient to point to either trends of water Raching------- 14 7 1 6 0 28 Miscellaneous-..0 1 0 0 0 1 quality change with time for a particular estuary or spatial trends within the estuary. Industrial Sugar factory .............. I I 0 0 1 3 Some of the failure to meet legislated standards Pineapple factory . 1 0 1 0 3 lies with the standards themselves; they are arti- Petroleum refinery.. 0 1 0 0 0 1 Thermal discharge 1 2 0 1 0 4 ficially imposed water quality limits with little Quarry -1 0 0 0. 1 Quarry------------------- 0 0 0 O 1 allowance for natural variations within those limrits. Miscellaneous .. .. 5 0 1 1 8 For example, some nearshore areas with natural Urban freshwater seeps may locally exhibit salinities and Sanitary sewage 2 8 0 1 1 12 nutrient levels outside the legislated limits (e.g., Urban cesspools - . ......... 9 11 0 2 1 23 Honaunau Bay; Doty, 1968). Natural freshwater Estuarine seepage may contain, for instance, many times as Commercial/military harbor 2 3 0 1 1 7 Small boat harbor ------- --- 2 5 0 1 1 9 much phosphate as open ocean waters, which form Sewage outfall -.2 5 0 1 1 9 the basis for legislation. Moreover, departures from Fishing** - -- 2 2 0 0 1 5 legislated limits may not harm particular environ- Recreational**- 8 9 0 0 1 18 ments. In other instances these standards are Number of Estuarine Systems. 15 12 3 11 4 45 probably too permissive for maintaining biological integrity. We must conclude that water quality * Niihau, Lanai, and Kahoolawe do not have significant estuaries. standards are not adequate measures of estuarine " Some fishing and recreational use occurs in most Hawaiian estuaries. The estua- rie listed experience heavy use. biological integrity. *** These numbers represent the number of estuaries subjected to each kind of development. RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT RELATED TO HAWAIIAN ESTUARIES ments affecting Hawaiian estuaries, with most estu- aries receiving materials from one or more of these. Cox and Gordon (1970) summarized the resource Industrial developments are about as diverse as development pertaining to Hawaiian estuaries. Their the agricultural activities but are much more list, divided into various estuarine types within each localized. There are miscellaneous industrial devel- estuarine system, is summarized here in terms of the opments, primarily on the island of Oahu. The 45 major estuarine systems within the state. The three major discrete categories of insults from in- resource developments can be broadly divided into dustry are thermal discharges, discharges from sugar water, agricultural, industrial, urban, and estuary; factories, and discharges from pineapple factories. and each of these divisions can in turni be sub- It should be emphasized that these three activities divided. also exert profound influence on the open coastline. Table 4 lists the divisions and subdivisions of The major thermal effect is simply that of heating resource development and their distribution. Water the receiving water. Discharges from sugar factories development, almost entirely in the form of irriga- include sediment, bagasse and other cane trash, tion or storage, appears to be the least disruptive nutrients, soluble organics, and bacteria. The pine- use of the resources. It simply involves reduction of apple factory discharges include pineapple wastes water flow into the estuaries, with consequent and soluble organics. potential alteration of' salinity and circulation pat- Urban discharges affect most Hawaiian estuaries. terns. Most of the estuaries in the state experience Those areas with sanitary sewage disposal will some water loss or diversion for irrigation. nevertheless contribute trash, detergents, miscella- A variety of agricultural developments is felt by neous industrial pollutants, nutrients, and bacteria estuaries of the state. Moreover, the open-coast, during any period of runoff (i.e., heavy rains). non-estuarine zones are subject to much the same Those areas served with cesspools wvill contribute developments. Ranching and sugar cane cultivation all of the above pollutants, at higher levels. Most are the two most recurrent agricultural develop- urban areas, but particularly the multiplying hous- 302 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ing developments less than 10 years old, are par- than 9Ao, then lowering the discharges of stream ticularly susceptible to the erosion and runoff of water into the estuaries should cause an intrusion large volumes of water and sediment. of marine organisms into the estuaries. The last category of resource development is that There is another, perhaps more devastating, of the estuaries themselves. In terms of numbers of salinity variation imposed upon some Hawaiian estuaries affected, various recreational uses prevail. estuaries-that of high freshwater runoff. The These activities, as well as fishing, introduce miscel- effect has been well-documented in Kaneohe Bay, laneous boat sewage and trash into the waters. where changing patterns of land usage (including The uses of estuaries in the state for commercial/ paving a substantial portion of the watershed and military harbors and small boat harbors contribute baring many acres of topsoil during the construction the same kind of wastes (but in larger amounts of housing) have resulted in tremendous flood dis- than recreational uses) plus oil, bilge discharges, charge into that bay. Banner (1974) has demon- industrial pollutants of various forms (including strated that such runoff creates a freshwater wedge heavy metals), and disruptive activities from dredg- on top of the more dense seawater. During a single ing. The stirring of the water column and sediment storm in 1965, such a wedge killed marine organisms has been recently pointed out as almost certainly (most conspicuously corals) to a depth of almost important (Evans et al., 1974), but it is not clear two meters in some portions of the bay. Unpublished whether the net effect of this activity is beneficial studies by Smith, Jokiel, Key, and Guinther (Hawaii or deliterious. Institute of Marine Biology) suggest that biotic microcosms typical of shallow water communities found in the bay can survive two or more days of EFFECTS OF RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT salinities as low as 25%o with little damage, but that ON HAWAIIAN ESTUARINE BIOTA salinities below 20%o are immediately detrimental to most of the biota. Hence, such freshwater dis- Available information is inadequate for providing charges lowering the salinity to near Oo can be an assessment of the biological status of most an . assessmen ofthe os oexpected to be immediately damaging to intertidal Hawaiian estuaries. Only Pearl Harbor and Kaneohe and immediate subtida biota in the marine portions and immediate subtidal biota in the marine portions Bay have been studied in any detail. Hence an of the estuaries. alternative approach for discussing the status of of the estuaries. these communities is taken. The various resource Sedient discharges into awaiian estuaries are a conspicuous parameter arising from numerous developments listed in Table 4 lead to a relatively human activities. As described above, runoff from small variety of kinds of stresses (or stimuli) to whichathe enviroment kis su 1stres. Ir possimul to changing land use is a prominent feature along much which the environment is subjected. It is possible of Hawaiis coastline. Many streams have been either to document or to speculate how the biotic channelized in -urban developments and are now communities could be expected to respond to these more prone to flooding (Banner, 1974). That runoff stimuli. The stresses considered here include salinityner, 1974). That runoff variation, sediment discharges, nutrient enrichment,waiian soil. At least one and theral enrichment. Insufficient data are avail- industry-sugar milling-presently contributes sub- and thermal enrichment. Insufficient data are avail- stantial amounts of sediments (mostly to the open stantial amounts of sediments (mostly to the open able for tropical organisms to judge the damages coast rather than to estuaries). Again, data from from oil, heavy metal, or biocide pollution, but Kaneohe Bay are instructive. Roy (1970) estimated these and related stresses are judged from evidence elsewhere to be severely detrimental to marine life. Hawaiian estuaries are subjected to two directions year are being deposited in that bay. Later estimates salinity. var n by h n in of the fraction of Kaneohe Bay sediments which are of salinity variation by human intervention. Use of land-derived (Smith et al., '1973) indicate that stream water for irrigation lowers discharges into numerous Hawaiian estuaries, hence raises their to the spce dis- Such sediment inputs al!e deliterious to estuarine salinities. Timbol (1972) studied the species dis-a number of ways. They may directly tribution of Kahana estuary (Oahu) and determined smother corals and ot her org anisms which live at the salinity tolerances of selected species. Over the the interface between the substratum and the waters salinity range examined (9 to 1.9%0 (parts per thousand), or 25 to 50 percent oceanic salinity) the of estuaries. They may contain material toxic or number of species increases with increasing salinity, noxious to the biota. In the water they may block It is safe to assume that below 9%oo, the species the light from those organisms which photosynthesize count increases with decreasing salinity as freshwater organic products. They may foul the feeding mech- organisms became dominant. If the bulk of Hawaiian nisms of those organisms which filter food from the estuarine waters are considered to be more saline water. Organic material in the sediments may alter NUTRIENTS 303 the food-web relationships of the community in enrichment. Until recent studies by Jokiel et al., question. (1974) and Jokiel and Coles (1974) it had been Another form of sediment input appears to be assumed that Hawaii, with its largely tropical biota fading from the Hawaiian scene-the discharge of in a subtropical setting would probably not be finely-milled cane trash (bagasse) from sugar mills. greatly damaged by thermal enrichment. That does Grigg (1972) has demonstrated that even on open not seem to be the case. Summertime ambient tem- coastlines there may be tens of meters of accumulated peratures are about 27�C, and that temperature is :bagasse on the sea floor offshore from these mills. about the optimum temperature for corals and, Coral-reef communities subjected to such inputs apparently, for other biota found on Hawaiian have been completely demolished. This material reefs. These organisms may be able to tolerate an is now finding use in the sugar industry as a valuable enrichment of 1 or 2�C above ambient, but further fuel (R. Webb, Hilo Coast Processing Company, temperature elevations are detrimental. Even open personal communication), so this input should water reefs have been damaged by thermal enrich- terminate. Grigg's data demonstrate that the mate- ment (Jokiel and Coles, 1974), albeit very locally. rial flushes from the open coasts within a few years Table 5 lists the various resource developments, after the bagasse input stops. As yet, the time the number of estuaries subjected to each, and the required for community recovery is unknown. Biotic likely stresses from each. The column sums provide population of submerged lava flows is apparently an index of the relative importance of the various measured in decades (Grigg and Maragos, 1973). stresses on Hawaiian biota. Nutrient enrichment, The flushing and repopulation characteristics of an decreased salinity, and sediments are by far the estuary may not be even that rapid. most recurrent stresses imposed upon the estuarine Most Hawaiian estuaries are probably subjected communities: Inputs of biocides and heavy metals to some nutrient enrichment. Of course, elevated are also important. Only 45 estuarine systems were nutrient levels are characteristic of most estuarine used in the construction of Table 4, hence Table 5; systems, and this is one reason (as previously yet all of the above insults appear over 45 times in mentioned) that even some unpolluted waters of the Table 5. This situation addresses the fact that the state may fail to meet the legislated water quality estuaries are for the most part subjected to multiple criteria. Nevertheless, it seems likely that Hawaiian stresses-a consideration which will probably make estuaries may not naturally experience the levels of the job of removing insults all the more difficult. eutrophication which typify mainland estuarine Table 6 summarizes the expected biotic responses systems. Caperon et al., (1971) have demonstrated to five major stresses. It is clear that more experi- that the southern end of Kaneohe Bay is a highly mental data are sorely needed to verify most of eutrophic system which is apparently not limited these responses in tropical communities. Equally by nutrient levels in the water, and Krasnick (1973) needed is an improved data base describing the has shown that this eutrophication has increased the Hawaiian estuaries. In particular, there appears to primary productivity of that bay over the past be a lack of foresight in obtaining baseline data decade. A bulbous green alga which may be found before any projected environmental alteration- as small fist-sized masses on most Pacific coral reefs, whether that alteration is predicted to be good, bad, has grown to gargantuan size (some masses being a or benign-or to combine that data with post- meter or more across) in Kaneohe Bay, apparently alteration descriptions, in order to describe the in response to this eutrophication (Banner, 1974; biotic responses to that alteration. Soegiarto, 1972; Smith et al., 1973). There is evidence (Banner, 1974; Maragos, 1972) that this alga has severely damaged the coral community of NEEDS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL the bay and has also otherwise altered the commu- MANAGEMENT OF HAWAIIAN nity structure of the reefs. The growth of the alga UARINE SYSTEMS is likely to represent the combined effects of high Table 5 suggests that nutrients may be the primary nutrients and low grazing pressures by fishes or stressing parameter imposed upon Hawaiian estu- Other reef herbivores. stressing parameter imposed upon Hawaiian estu- sother re a wheiaries. Virtually every human activity appears to have the potential of delivering nutrients to these subjected to high nutrient inputs. Apparently estuaries. Thus, any regulation to lower discharges phytoplankton blooms ("red tides") are occurring appears likely to improve the nutrient status of with increasing frequency and over an increasing Hawaiian nearshore waters. Various considerations portion of that harbor. (Evans et al., 1974). suggest that a change from uncontrolled nutrient Some Hawaiian waters are subjected to thermal input to controlled input may be as satisfactory as 304 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 5.-Stresses imposed by various resource developments. co ffw 5= E E ., = Water -----.. .. . . ........... 29 X Agriculture Sugarcane .------------------------ 22 X X X X Pineapple . 8 X X X X Taro -.............. 7 X X X X Ranching 28 X X X Miscellaneous I X X X X Industry Sugar --- - ---------------------- 3 X X Pineapple - 3 X X Petroleum I X Thermal ----........ . 4 X Quarry ---- 1----------- I X Miscellaneous ...---................ 8 X X X Urban Sanitary sewage .-..... ... 12 X X X X X Cesspool ...- ....---- 23 X X X Estuaries Commercial/military harbor . . ........ 7 X X X Small boats 9 X X X Sewage - -----..-------------------. 9 X X X Fishing ... .. .------ 5 X Recreational 18 X Total ...-............................ 124 29 113 3 163 4 17 60 73 no input-or perhaps more satisfactory. Without local agencies are working towards this goal; the going into these considerations, suffice it to point out 15,000 ma/day of sewage presently being discharged that the uncontrolled discharge of nutrient-laden into Kaneohe Bay is scheduled to be diverted by water into Hawaiian estuaries must be slowed if these the end of 1977. Runoff from agricultural regions environments are to be preserved and maintained. may be more difficult to control, but it should be Improved sewage treatment facilities are a major minimized. Dumping of material from ships is a move in the direction of controlling this nutrient debatable practice at sea; in harbors, it should not flow. The State of Hawaii is moving toward this be allowed. goal. Discharges of treated or untreated sewage Slowing the freshwater and nutrient inputs into into the estuaries must stop. Indeed, federal and the estuaries should simultaneously stop much of the sediment input. Hence that input need not be Table 6.-Likely effects of major stresses on estuarine blota. discussed as a separate topic. Finally, more data are needed. The water quality Nutrient Enrichment data, which are collected routinely, are certainly Eutrophication, algal blooms (benthic and planktonic), oxygen stress, alteration of vital, but they do not substitute for an adequate community structure through food-web modification or competitive pressures, knowledge of the organisms themselves. Because buildup of.organic material in sediment. biotic data are more difficult to gather, the tech- Lowered Salinity niques for gathering and reporting these data Abrupt destruction of marine communities. should be increasingly researched and developed. Sedimentation Some sort of local data bank for central storage of Smothering, light blockage, blockage of feeding mechanisms, introduction of ad- these data is also needed; with adequate funding, sorbed toxicants. the Hawaii Coastal Zone Data Bank (University of Biocides Hawaii) could serve that function. Increased fund- Possible abrupt destruction of marine communities or portions thereof. Buildup in ing is necessary to demonstrate quantitatively the marine organisms, with possible long-term effects on these organisms or on man. biotic responses to various environmental stresses. Such work should include both field observation and HeSimilar to biocide effects. laboratory experimentation. The biotic experimental and observational work cannot be expected to yield NUTRIENTS 305 short-term results. Because of the great disparity Bathen, K. H. 1968. A descriptive study of the physical oceanography of Kaneohe Bay, Oahu Hawaii. Univ. in the longevities of organisms in any community, Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Marine Biol. Tech. Report 14. the total community responses to external stimuli take years. Therefore, the necessary field or labora- Berger, A. J. 1973. In: R. W. Armstrong (ed), Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. Hawaii Press. tory observation times must be of similar magnitude. Particular attention needs to be paid to low stress Buske, N. L. 1974. Tides, runoff and currents. Section 3.3. levels as they affect total communities. The day of In: E. C. Evans, III et al., Pearl Harbor biological survey- assessing environmental insults from lethal bioassays final report. Naval Undersea Center TN1128, Hawaii over periods of days on a few arbitrarily chosen organisms should be over. For the most part, Caperon, J., A. S. Cattell and G. Krasnick. 1971. Phyto- Hawaiian estuaries, or any other ones for that plankton kinetics in a subtropical estuary: eutrophication. Limn. Ocn. 16:599-607. matter, are not subjected to that kind of stress regime. Yet Hawaiian estuaries are obviously chang- Cox, D. C. and L. C. Gordon. 1970. Estuarine pollution in the ing in response to human perturbations. A new look State of Hawaii. A statewide study on estuarine pollution in the State of Hawaii. Univ. Hawaii, Water Resources is necessary to learn why. Research Center Tech. Report 31, V. 1. It is certainly desirable that EPA fund a portion of the much-needed research, but other federal, Doty, M. S. 1968a. Biological and physical features of state, and local governmental agencies, and private Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Botanical Science Paper No. 8. industries should fund environmental research as it pertains to the effects of their activities on the Doty, M. S. 1968b. The ecology of Honaunau Bay, Hawaii. estuarine environment. Much of this funding could Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Botanical Science Paper No. 14. be handled in terms of some kind of "blind trust" be handled in terms of some kind of "blind trust" Evans, E. C. III et al. 1974. Pearl Harbor biological survey- and be administered by an appropriate agency, so final report. Naval Undersea Center TN1128, Hawaii that the funding agencies or industries could not be Laboratory. questioned about their influence on the research. Multidisciplinary, total-system research and moni- Grace, J. M. (ed). 1974. Marine Atlas of Hawaii, Bays and Multidisciplinary, total-system research and moni- Harbors. Sea Grant Misc. Report UNIHI-EAGRANT_ Harbors. Sea Grant Misc. Report UNIHI-SEAGRANT- toring must be encouraged and amply funded. It is MR-74-01. Univ. Hawaii Press. the lack of efforts such as these which makes realistic assessment of the total environment not entirely Grigg, R. W. 1972. Some ecological effects of discharged satisfactory. Research by the Hawaii Environmental sugar mill wastes on marine life along the Hamakua Coast, satisfactory. Research by the Hawaii Environmental Hawaii. In: Papers presented Jan. 1972 to May 1972. Simulation Laboratory (University of Hawaii) is a Water Resources Seminar Series No. 2. Univ. Hawaii, step in the right direction. Their work is also not Water Resources Research Center, pp. 27-45. entirely satisfactory; it concentrates primarily on Grigg, R. W. and J. E. Maragos. 1973. Recolonization of terrestrial considerations (hence inputs to estuaries) hermatypic corals on submerged lava flows in Hawaii. without adequate consideration of effects on receiv- Ecology 55:387-395. ing waters and their biota. Nevertheless, that kind of study carries the needed potential for interaction Jokiel, P. L. and S. L. Coles. 1974. Effects of heated effluent on hermatypic corals at Kahe Point, Oahu. Pac. Sci. between research units and governmental planning 28:1-18. agencies. That kind of effort needs expansion to include the marine environment. Jokiel, P. L., S. L. Coles, E. B. Guinther, G. S. Key, S. V. The small size of both the Hawaiian estuaries and Smith and S. J. Townsley. 1974. Effects of thermal loading on Hawaiian reef corals. Final Report for EPA Grant the watershed draining into them makes these sys- # 18050DDN. tems particularly tractable to total-system descrip- tion and analysis. It is therefore appropriate that Krasnick, G. J. 1973. Temporal and spatial variations in Hawaii be the site for concentrated efforts to describe phytoplankton productivity and related factors in the surface waters of Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. M. S. Thesis, and improve the environmental status of estuaries. Univ. Hawaii. Laevastu, T., D. E. Avery and D. C. Cox. 1964. Coastal cur- REFERENCES - rents and sewage disposal in the Hawaiian Islands. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Geophys. Report 64. Armstrong, R. W. (ed.). 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. Univ. Hawaii Maciolek, J. M. and R. E. Brock. 1974. Aquatic survey of Press. the Kona Coast ponds, Hawaii Island. Univ. Hawaii, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-74-04. Banner, A. H. 1974. Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii: urban pollution and a coral reef ecosystem. In: Proc. Second Int. Coral Maragos, J. E. 1972. A study of the ecology of Hawaiian Reef Symp. V. 2, p. 685-702. reef corals. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Hawaii. 306 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Miller, J. M. 1973. Nearshore distribution of Hawaiian Timbol, A. S. 1972. Trophic ecology and macrofauna of marine fish larvae; effects of water quality turbidity and Kahana Estuary, Oahu. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Hawaii. currents. Proc. Int. Symp. on Early Life History of Fish, Oben, Scotland. Watson, W. and J. M. Leis. 1974. Ichthyoplankton of Kaneohe Roy, K. J. 1970. Change in bathymetric configuration, Bay, Hawaii. A one-year study of fish eggs and larvae. Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, 1882-1969. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Univ. Hawaii, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-75-01. Inst. Geophys. Report 70-15. Smith, S. V., K. E. Chave and D. T. O. Kam (in collaboration Wyrtki, K., J. B. Burks, R. C. Latham and W. Patzert. 1967. with others). 1973. Atlas of Kaneohe Bay: a reef ecosystem Oceanographic observation during 1965-1967 in the under stress. Univ. Hawaii, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-72- Hawaiian Archipelago. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Geo- 01. phys. Report 67-15. Soegiarto, A. 1972. The role of benthic algae in the carbonate budget of the modern reef complex, Kaneohe Bay. Ph.D. This paper is Contribution No. 470 of the Hawaii Institute Thesis; Univ. Hawaii. of Marine Biology. 2' x , . 0' . , , , . '; - 'I' A,~~~r; ;'t ED "' Z ' . ','. X,' . . -, ,'lw INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE ESTUARY ROBERT B. BIGGS University of Delaware Newark, Delaware ABSTRACT Industrial dependence on the estuary is restricted to those industries which rely on the estuary for waterborne transportation, for process water, or for products derived from the estuarine waters or bottom sediments. Among these, crude oil handling, refineries and petrochemical plants, utilities, iron and steel production, paper manufacturing, and sand and gravel extraction are the more im- portant industries. Channel dredging, spoil disposal, and a wide range of pollutants resulting from industrial discharge are described. Responsible federal agencies seem to be approaching the problem of industrial pollution from the perspective of reducing impacts by adopting water quality standards. In the short term, that is the most expedient solution. In the longer term, though, we must assess the possibility of reducing impacts by relocating certain estuarine-dependent industrial centers to new, more environmentally acceptable sites. INTRODUCTION as a spawning and nursery ground for a significant part of the entire coastal area. Oceanographers When the United States was still an agriculture learned that circulation of waters in estuaries is based society, ports were developed to transport generally weak, and that they have a limited goods and products from the hinterland. Ports were capacity to absorb pollutants. generally located as far inland as possible and road- We find ourselves in the present situation of rail transport systems were developed in response to having major industrial centers, dependent on water port location. As the country evolved into an in- transportation, located on estuaries which are not dustrialized society, these ports became the hubs deep enough to handle modern ships, are not large of industrial activity. Industrialists took advantage enough to assimilate wastes, and which are incred- of the fact that water transportation for the ship- ibly valuable as a biological-recreational natural ment of raw materials and products was cheap, resource. the harbors contained abundant water for cooling When dealing with the effects of industrialization and waste disposal, and a supply of workers was on the estuary, this paper will address those problems already available. Through the late 19th and early unique to estuarine areas which have arisen through 20th centuries, industrial activity, the quantity and increasing industrial activities in the estuarine diversity of effluents, and the population all increased environment, and will delineate individual industrial- around these ports. Technology of ship construction estuarine pollution problems and discuss possible developed so that drafts of larger ships grew beyond solution. More specifically, the report will examine the water depths in most of these ports. Because pollution problems in estuaries, identify factors that major industries were located at the ports, large actually pollute, investigate the effect of control on dredging programs were undertaken to deepen the the estuarine environment as a whole including channels. After the channels were deepened, new human activities, and describe the procedures, if industries had to locate along them to receive or possible, for gaining control of such factors. For the ship materials. purposes of this report, the period from 1970 to the present will be emphasized. Throughout the development phase of the ports, present wi be emphasized. Throughout the development phase ofls the ports, This paper will not deal with pollution resulting occasional fish kills would occur and there was a directly from agricultural activity, from domestic directly from agricultural activity, from domestic general decline in commercial fishery production of sewage or from non-point source discharges such as our estuaries. Beginning in the mid-20th century, storm runoff. Industrial effluents discharged into researchers studying estuarine processes began to the freshwaters or the nation's air and carried to document the biological importance of the estuary the estuary will not be considered. 309 310 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL INDUSTRIAL DEPENDENCE ON Table 2.-Industrial discharges by industry group* THE ESTUARY rmi Number of Permits Uses and Projections Chemical and Allied Products - . .-.......................... 522 Paper and Allied Products --.---------------------------- 401 For purposes of this study, industrial "depen- Electric and Gas Utilities -..-..4.. . .. 392 dence" on the estuary will be restricted to those Textiles------ ------------------- -- 151 Fabricated Metal Products- -- -. . ................ 149 industries which rely on the estuary for waterborne Iron and Steel -. ...... . . 142 transportation, for process water, or for products Petroleum and Coal Products ----------------------------- 136 derived from the estuarine waters or bottom sedi- All Others - ---------- ---------------- 902 merilts. * Source: National Water Quality Inventory, 1974 Waterborne transportation of bulk nmaterials for the year 1971 is summarized in Table 1. Data are presented for coastal U.S. ports, excluding the Great surface waters of the United States. Some of these Lakes. large water users are the same ones which utilize Our basic industries (petroleum, coal and coke, the estuary for transportation. These include the iron and steel) are the principal users of our coastal iron and steel (including metal fabricating) and waterways both for foreign and domestic commerce petroleum and coal industries. The chemical industry (sand and gravel are significant commodities in (including inorganic acids and salts, organic fibers, domestic commerce). The transportation of large plastics and pigments, and drugs, cosmetics and quantities of these bulk commodities implies that soaps), paper industry, and utilities industry have related processing/refining/utilizing industries are been added to the list. also located on our coastal waterways. From the The third group of industries which are estuarine point of view of marine transportation, we have at dependent are those which extract materials directly least three candidate industrial complexes which are from the water or bottom of the estuary. Desaliniza- dependent on the estuary: tion plants extract fresh water from estuaries while other industries extract bromine, magnesium, cal- 1. Crude oil handling, associated refineries, and cium, and sodium that is dissolved in the waters of petrochemical plants; the estuary. Sea shells (a source of calcium and 2. Iron, steel, and closely allied metal fabricating lime), and sand and gravel, are taken in large industries; and quantities from the bottom of our nation's estuaries. 3. Industries using coal; coke, asphalt, and tar either as an energy source or as a raw material. Industry Projections An estimate of the kinds of industries dependent Where data are available, projections for future on large volumes of process and/or cooling water requirements in each of the estuary dependent can be obtained by examining Table 2. Industries industries have been made. These projections are having major surface discharges have been cate- for the entire industry in each case, and do not gorized by the EPA. Three of these industries, the necessarily indicate the pressure to locate new chemical, paper, and utilities industries represent facilities on estuaries. 47 percent of the major industrial discharges to the The industry profiles for petroleum refining, petro- chemical manufacturing, and paper products have been developed by D. M. Bragg, associate research Table L.-Total waterborne commerce (Calendar, 1971). Coastal ports of the United States (millions of short tons). engineer, Industrial Economics Research Division, Texas A & M University and have been extracted Foreign | Domestic here with the author's permission. Total -------------' ... .. 506.5 242.9 Imports -..-.-...... _-.......... 333.8 - PETROLEUM REFINING Exports --------------------------------- 172.7 Petroleum and Products ..-.. . ....... . ... 38.7% 44.0% Coal and Coke .-.. ...il... 11.7% 14.9% In the U.S. today, there are 247 petroleum refine- Iron Ore and Steel .......-........ 12.5% 8.2% ries with an average daily capacity of 57,555 barrels. Sand, Gravel and Stoneno-2----------% i2.1% Three refineries have capacities of over 400,000 Chemicals ..-..... ---- 5. 8% 5.2% barrels per day each and four have ovdr 300,000. Logs and Lumber- -- -------.-------------- 3.8% 2.5% Many of these refineries can be expanded but some All Others.- .-..--. _ 18.5% 11.1% cannot-either because of litations of space or cannot-either because of limitations of space or INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 311 Table 3.-Refineries planned but not constructed Company Location Size (B/D) Final Action Blocking Project Shell Oil Co...- ........ Delaware Bay, Del. 150,000 State Reacted by Legislature Passing Bill Forbidding Refineries in Coastal Area. Fuels Desulfurization (1) ....-...... Riverhead, L.I. 200,000 City Council Opposed Project and Would Not Change Zoning. Maine Clean Fuels (1) .- ...... South Portland, Me. 200,000 City Council Rejected Proposal. Maine Clean Fuels (1) -. - ------------- Searsport, Me. 200,000 Maine Environmental Protection Board Rejected Proposal. Georgia Refining Co. (1) .- ... ... Brunswick, Ga. 200,000 Blocked Through Actions of Office of State Environmental Director. Northeast Petroleum ...- ..-- Tiverton, R.I. 65,000 City Council Rejected Proposal. Supermarine, Inc... Hoboken, N.J. 100,000 Hoboken Project Withdrawn Under Pressure From Environmentalist Groups. Considering State Near Paulsboro, N.J. Commerce Oil - - -----------------. Jamestown Island, R.I. Narrangansett Bay 50,000 Opposed by Local Organizations and Contested in Court. Steuart Petroleum (2) .-.... .. Piney Point, Md. 100,000 Withdrawn Due to Pressure From Environmental Groups. Olympic Oil Refineries, Inc ..- .......... Durham, N.H. 400,000 Withdrawn After Rejection by Local Referendum. (1) Maine Clean Fuels and Georgia Refining Company and subsidiaries of Fuels Desulfurization and the refinery in question is the same in each case, so the capacity in BID is not additive, but the incidents are independent and additive. (2) Again being introduced. Source: "Trends in Refinery Capacity and Utilization," Federal Energy Office, Washington, D.C., June, 1974. because they are not well sited logistically to meet will be up to 24 percent of the total by 1975; and the increasing demand. by 1980, it is expected that just under 50 percent The gulf coast currently has 16 percent of the of all ethylene produced will be generated from U.S. demand but has approximately 40 percent of heavy liquids. As a result, consumption of heavy the country's refining capacity. On the other hand, liquids in the manufacture of olefins will rise from the east coast has 40 percent of the demand but 130,000 barrels a day at present to 780,000 barrels only 12 percent of the refining capacity. Based on a day by 1980. The heavy liquids, such as naptha assessments of site availability and limitations and gas oil, are produced from petroleum. And, arising from environmental pressures, it is now because of this, the locations of future petrochemical anticipated that a number of the new refineries, complexes will be even more closely linked to those which otherwise would have been built in the east, of oil refineries than in the past. will be constructed instead on the gulf coast. Table 3 The location of future expansion in the industry lists a large number of announced or planned will be determined more by the availability of refinery projects which have been postponed or feedstocks than by any other factor. In view of the have doubtful promise. It is significant to note that transition to heavy cracker feedstocks, potential all of the refinery sites listed in Table 3 are located feedstock availability will increasingly be determined along estuaries. by refinery location which, in turn, will be deter- mined by crude oil supply. Therefore, the gulf coast would no longer continue to have a clear-cut PETROCHEMICAL MANUFACTURING locational advantage, and the advantages of freight savings on finished products should make the east Historically, petrochemical production has been .istorically, .etrochemical .roduction ha we 1- coast a more attractive location. If the oil refining closely tied to the output of natural gas liquids (NGL) p e n lcapacity of the east coast experiences large increases, In these plaroduced ints natural gas, comprised of oessing plants. ver g then a strong likelihood exists that there would be a In these plants natural gas, comprised of over 90 corresponding increase in basic petrochemical capac- percent methane, is stripped of its butane, propane orresponding n basic petrochemical capac- and part of its methane. As a result of the decreasing supply and increasing price of NGL, the future expansion of olefin manu- ELECTRIC POWER facturing facilities will be based almost exclusively on heavy oil feedstocks. Facilities using heavy oil Fossil and nuclear energy sources form the basis feedstocks accounted for only 12 percent of all for almost all U.S. electric production. Presently ethylene produced in 1970. This type of production designed systems generate large quantities of waste 312 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 4.-Growth of summer peak electric demand 1974-1983 as projected by downstream or satellite industries and their product regional reliability councils April 1, 1974; contiguous United States can be sipped over long distances at modest cost. can be shipped over long distances at modest cost. Year MW Annual Increase(%) 1974 .-........ . .........-.-. 364,244 - PAPER PRODUCTS 1975 -.......... . ..... 394,005 8.17 1976 -------- - ----- ---------- 427,995 8.63 1977_--------------------- 4460,3977 757 Demand for paper and paper products has in- 1978 ......-..... . ......... 494,848 7.49 creased about 3.5 percent per year. Capacity esti- 1979-------- - -------------- - 531,699 7.45 mates for the 730 paper plants are presented in 1980 -..----------------...... . 570,798 7.35 1981 ...-........... 612,252 7.26 Table 5. 1982. -'...-- ........... 656,793 7.27 In addition to the basic fiber raw materials, water 1983 ----------------------- 703,774 7.15 and limestone are used in paper making. The lime- stone can be acquired from either mines or oyster Source: Federal Power Commission, Bureau of Power Staff Report, June 24, 1974. shells. Both sources are used quite extensively, shells. Both sources are used quite extensively, depending upon the proximity of the source, the heat which must be removed from the plant site, abundance of the material, and other factors. either by cooling towers, cooling ponds, or once- There are two major papermaking processes, the through cooling with discharge into a body of water. sulfite and the kraft. The sulfite process, however, is Demand for electrical energy, recently revised a major water polluter and is gradually being downward due to conservation practices resulting phased out. Although the kraft process does not from the "energy crisis" are presented in Table 4. pollute water as does the sulfite method, it has an A fossil fuel plant with once-through cooling odor problem resulting from the sulphur used in requires about 600 gallons per minute (GPM) of manufacturing. cooling water for each megawatt (MW) of electricity Large quantities of wastewater are discharged produced. Nuclear plants require about 900 GPM into rivers and streams. Pollutants are either of cooling water per MW of electricity. Some of the stripped from the discharge or nullified by sufficient waste heat of fossil plants goes directly up the stack treatment. Solid wastes, such as bark and particu- but nuclear plants dissipate almost all their waste lates, are burned. heat through the cooling system. In both cases, the temperature of the discharged water would be 15�F SAND AND GRAVEL PRODU higher than the intake water. Environmentalists had initially been most con- cerned with thermal pollution of estuaries because These products, used for fill, building, and paving of the large volumes of hot water discharged. It now amounted to 944 million tons in 1970. About 90 appears that the major impact of once-through million tons were mined from the estuaries of the U.S. cooling is not thermal pollution of the discharged in that year. As land values increase in onshore water but the killing of most or all of the organisms areas and as industry recognizes that large quantities sucked up by the pumps and passed through the of sand and gravel occur offshore and in our estu- plant. Fortunately, the installation of cooling towers aries there will be increasing pressure to utilize these can reduce the quantity of water required to 1 to materials. 3 percent of the volume needed for once-through cooling. Table 5.-United States paper and paperboard capacity; annual summary 1972-1976 (thousands of short tons) The solutions to this critical problem are: (1) to locate power plants along the open coast where there is deep- Grades 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 water nearby for strategic placement of intake and outlet structures, and, (2) to reduce the volume of cooling water by requiring plants to use closed cycle systems Total All Grades Paper and which recirculate cooling waters, rather than the open Paperboard-61,868 :64,431 66,098 68,377 69,736 cycle systems which continuously withdraw and dis- charge large volumes of water from the environment (Clark and Brownell, "Electric Power Plants in the Total Paperboard ..-.. ..... 29,328 30,565 31,482 32,986 33,749 Coastal Zone," American Littoral Society Publication #7, 1973.) Total Construction Paper and Board and Other -..... 5,995 6,472 6,662 6,776 6,862 Power generation facilities can be sited on the Source: "1972-1975 Capacity Survey,"' American Paper Institute, New York, N.Y., coast; they do not require docks, large labor forces, May, 1974. INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 313 IRONl AND STEEL IMAN'UFACTURING - Table6.-Tonnageofironore importstoNorthAtlanti byoriginand detination (millions of short tons) Since 1950, the demand for metals in the United States has tripled. By the year 2000 it is expected Destination 1970 1980 1990 2000 to triple again. Recent forecasts put crude steel requirements by the year 2000 at 293 million tons Baltimore-- ---9.2 14.8 17.3 20.3 Delaware River ---- 12.5 14.1 16.6 17.5 for the United States. Total -Rive 21.7 28.9 33.9 37.8 Total iron ore requirements for the United States should reach 156 inillion tons per year by the year Source: "Interim Report-Atlantic Coast Deep Water Port Facilities Study," U.S. 2000. As Table 6 shows, imports of foreign iron ore Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia, Pa., June, 1973. through east coast ports should attain an annual level of 37.8 million tons by the same year, nearly one-fourth of United States consumption: It seems Table 7.-Projected vessel characteristics 1970 to 2000 as though there will be increased reliance on foreign ore, shipped by water to U.S. ports, and presumably, 1970 1980 1990 2000 processed there. - Freighters Maximum DWT in worldfleet 25,500' 33,500 43,500 50,000 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS BLenth (feet).--. 10850 193 1,127 132,050 Beam(feet) - - -----------108 117 127 132 OF INDUSTRIALIZATION Depth (feet) - - --_,- . '.74 80 85- 88 OF THE ESTUARY Draft (feet) . 36 ' 39 40 ' 40 AVerage DWT in werldtlebet. 8,168 8,853 9,043 9,350 The environmental effects of industrialization Bulk Carriers include physical modifications of the estuary,'the Maximum DWTinworldfleet. 105,000' 185,000 317,000 400,000 introduction of substances toxic or harmful to aquatic Length (feet)- 870 1,040 1,230 1,325 organisms, and the introduction of materials hazard- Beam (feet) -. -,. 125 152 1834 198 ous to human health or which impact aesthetic Draft (feet) _- - -------. 48 57. 66 71 values. AverageDWTin world feeL. ., 14,750 18,750 23,575 27,350 Tankers' MaximumDWTinworldfleet 300, 00 760,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 Physical Modification -Length (feet) _ _ .- -_.-.- 1,135 1,460 1,570 1,570 of the Estuary Beam (feet) 186 252 276 ' 276 Depth (feet) .- . ...... 94 -129 - 142 ' 142 Our ports are located at or near the heads of Draft (feet)-72 98 104 104 Average DWT in world fleet 39,825 76,225 94,325 94,325 estuaries and channels need to be dredged and maintained to serve these ports. The size of ships Source: Science and Environment, Vol. 1, Panel Reports of the Commission on serving U.S. ports projected to the year 2000 is Marine Science, Engineeringand Resources presented in Table 7. Note particularly the draft of the vessels. ' - The maximum channel depth of any U.S. harbor Table 8.&Summary of federal investments in coastal harbors,'1824-1966 is 45 feet. It is quite clear that a large amount of (in thousands of dollars) dredging must be accomplished or the 'docking' facilities must be moved out of the upper reaches of Expenditures ExpenMaintenance Txpeotal on-ederal our estuaries. Inyestment in existing harbors is quite large (Table 8) ahndwill serve as a deterrent to Depth:30reetandover moving the facilities. Atlantic coast ' 420,910 406,275 827,085 29,624 tfor' these U.S. hrbors, Gulfcoast__L-_ 181,593 122,596 304,189 29,844 Of the total investment for' these U.S. harbors, Pacificoa __ 127;684;: 128,363 256,047 38,227 a significant portion is expended for dredging and Subtotal _- _ '731,519 657,314 1,388,833 97,695 related spoil disposal activities. Reled vtnt Related Investments2 * Atlantic coast__ ,' 23,147 5;665 28,812 2,579 The Corps of Engineers, in fulfilling its mission in the Gulfcoast- . .... ' 12,065 6,387 18,452 3,609 development and maintenance of these (navigable) Pacific coast -..._ 32,483 23,723 56,206 14,215 waterways, is responsible for the dredging of large :Subtotal_ . 79,402 ' 49,958 129,360 20,479 volumes of sediment each year. Annual quantities are currently averaging aboit 300,000,000 cubic ykrds of maintenance dredging operations and about 80,000,000 X Monetary value of local contribution identified in project authorization documents. cubic yards in new work dredging operations with the Additional federal construction items required to sustain functional utility of total annual cost now exceeding $150,000,000. (Boyd projects, but not incorporated in basic project. et al. Corps. 'Tech. Rpt. H-72-8). Source: Science and Environment, Vol. 1. 314 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The most obvious environmental effect of dredging are less likely to be encountered at port locations on is the destruction of bottom-dwelling organisms and the shelf than at locations inside the estuary. habitat. All other factors being equal, the same Estuarine silts also 'have a higher probability of kinds of organisms will repopulate the new bottom being polluted with materials transported from thq so long as the substrate is the same as that of the upper estuary. original bottom. If the material being dredged contains silt or clay, a "plume" of turbid water will drift down current from the dredging operation. In Effects of Construction extreme cases, the turbid water can cause clogging of Breakwaters or Islands of the gills or filtering apparatus of marine organisms and/or smothering of bottom living organisms under These structures remove from productivity the a blanket of deposited materials. bottom environment beneath them. However, riprap Other potentially serious effects of dredging in- or other protective materials surrounding islands elude changes in water circulation patterns (tidal and breakwaters create new habitat for marine exchange, flushing rate, stratification, et cetera). organisms. So long as these structures are not built on ecologically "rich" bottom, the new habitat created probably represents a neutral or beneficial Effects of D isposal effect on the biota. Breakwaters and artificial islands undoubtedly cause changes in the current and wave patterns in If the material dredged for the channel consists cause changes in the current and wave patterns in If the mater~ial dredged for the channel consists nearby areas. These structures can disperse or focus mostly of sand and/or gravel it is usually referred wave energy on nearby coasts, or by canisperse or fcu to as "fill" and is suitable as a core for a breakwater rent veloities, can c ause erosion or by changing cur- or an artificial island. On the other hand, if the sediments with associated effects on or deposition of material is silt or clay it is referred to as "spoil" organisms. Breakwater and island design must con- and is a problem to dispose of without potential sider the ecological effects of altered current or environmental effects. wave patterns. The worst possible environmental conditions for spoil disposal would probably be similar to those encountered in a dredging operation in northern HEAT Chesapeake Bay. The material to be spoiled was all silt and clay, was hydraulically dredged, and was Table 9 illustrates the use of cooling water by dumped on a submerged disposal area. Even though U.S. industry. the end of the discharge pipe was directed down- One of the major reasons why temperature is so ward, a large plume of suspended sediment moved biologically important is that the rates of chemical down current from the discharge point. The disposal reactions are temperature-dependent. Since biologi- area did not contain the deposited sediment within cal processes are ultimately controlled by the rates its limits. The spoil apparently spread as a semi- of enzyme-regulated reactions, it is not surprising liquid across the relatively flat bottom, covering a that digestion, circulation, respiration, and reproduc- larger area than outlined as the disposal site. The character of semi-liquid silt and clay is such that maximum slopes measured are 1:100 (on a flat Table 9.-Use of cooling water by U.S. Industry bottom, a pile of spoil built to a height of 1 ft. will Industry Cooling Water Intake Percent of Total spread at least 100 ft. horizontally in all directions) (billions of gallons) and average slopes are 1:500. Biological effects observed in the Chesapeake Electric power. .. 40,680 81.3 Primary metals .....-..... 3,387 6.8 disposal operation were not severe. The bottom Chemical and allied products . 3,120 6.2 dwelling organisms in the spoil receiving area were Petroleum and coal products_. 1,212 2.4 wiped out but new populations quickly reinvaded Paper and allied products - 607 1.2 Food and kindred products . 392 0.8 the spoil. It was found that some seasons of the year Machinery _ .. 164 .3 have less potential for damage both because or- Rubber and plastics 128 .3 ..Transportation equipment .... 102 .2 ganisms are less active and/or migrate from the All others ti-n .qupmnt. 273 .5 region. If silt and clay are anticipated in the dredg- I ITotal. ................- . 50,065 ' 1O0.0 ing operation, then methods of dredging and sites and seasons of disposal should be chosen to minimize Source: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, "Industrial Waste Guide on biological effects. As a generalization, silt and clay Thermal Pollution," September 1968. INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 315 tiori increase with rising temperature. In fact, it has Table I0.-Polluting spills in U.S. waters1970 been noted that in the vicinity of power plants Source Incidents Gallons Spilled Percent of Total which discharge heated effluents into temperate (millions) waters, many species will reproduce earlier in the spring and continue to produce larvae later into the Spills in excess of 10,000 gals. fall than species in the ambient water. The use of Bulk Storage Facilities ... 9 6.676 43.5 cooling towers and cooling ponds, although more Offshore Wells. 4 3.553 22.8 expensive, is replacing once-through cooling with Barges 19 1.238 8.4 discharge to the estuary. Transfer Operations . . ..... 8 1.021 6.5 An innovative concept has been the proposal to Dumping ----------- 1 .500 3.2 construct floating nuclear power plants. All of these Industrial Accidents 5 .367 2.3 plants would be uniform in construction (present Source: U.S. Coast Guard. ground based plants are custom made) providing less difficulty in licensing procedures, and, presum- ably, cost savings by production line construction include compounds that have a high biological techniques. The construction of a sea defense system oxygen demand (BOD), which cause a reduction in (breakwater) to protect the plant from storms and the levels of dissolved oxygen in the receiving waters. ship collisions is very costly, though. Perhaps such The food processing, textile, refining and petro- plants, built at remote sites and placed in coastal chemical industries all contribute significant quanti- lagoons using the barrier island as a natural break- ties of BOD to the environment. The 1974 National water and cold seawater as a cooling medium would Water Quality Inventory showed a decrease in the be economically attractive and environmentally BOD on 74 percent of the major waterways on acceptable. which water quality trends have been measured. Industries most often control BOD of effluent waters by secondary sewage treatment. Such secondary Addition of Substances treatment can reduce BOD levels by 80-90 percent Harmful to Estuarine Organisms but produce about 0.75 lbs. of sludge per pound of BOD reduction. A problem then involves disposal Oil spills in United States waters and documented BOD reduction A problem then involves disposal by the Coast Guard are presented in Table 10. Bulk of the sludge. Significant progress is being made in storage facilities account for almost twice as muchOD, phe n ol and ammonia dis- spilled oil as the next highest contributor, offshore charges from refineries. wells. YOrganic wastes from petrochemical, crude oil handling, and refinery effluents may be toxic to Major spills on water are difficult to control and aquatic organisms.ery effluents may be toxic to can cause great environmental damage, especially Trace metal concentrations, first publicized by if they reach beaches or marshes. The least harmful the levels of mercury in swordfish, have come under spill is one that never occurs. Terminal location and close scrutiny. The major industrial sources of these design should be such as to minimize the possibilities metals are chemical, metal refining and metal proc- of a spill. The less handling that the crude oil essing effluents. Toxicity levels of some of these receives, the less likely the chances of a spill. For metals to estuarine organisms are presented in instance, a transfer operation involving pumping Table 11. Trace metal levels may be low in effluents from tankers to offshore tanks to lighters to refineries but quite toxic to organisms in receiving waters. requires three handlings while pumping from tankers They are difficult and expensive to remove. to pipelines to refineries involves only two. Given thatf sooner or later, a spill will occur during the operation of a terminal, then containment Health Hazards and recovery operations should begin immediately. Their success depends on the size of the spill, the Industrial effluents are not major sources of most availability of personnel and equipment, and wind human pathogens regarded as health hazards. and sea conditions. The closer that a terminal lies Depending on the particular area, though, industrial to shore, the more rapid must be the response to effluents may serve as the source of toxic concentra- prevent contamination of coastal margins. In an tions of trace metals concentrated in organisms environmental sense, then, there is greater risk of which are consumed by man. shoreline contamination if a port is located within Concentration by biological processes is a phe- an estuary or near the coast. nomenon which is readily demonstrable. It is through Organic wastes resulting from industrial processes biological concentration that toxic metals find their 316 ESTUARINE POL-LUTION- CONTROL Table 11.-Toxicity levels'of metals for several marine organisms (in ppm of Table 12.-United States Public Health Service 1968 interim standards for shell- dosage) fish, In ppm of wet tissue weight Numbers in parenthesis represent average levels In organisms from Atlantic Coast (after Pringle, 1969) Metal Organism Tested Lethal Level Time Metal Eastern Oyster Soft Shell Clamw Northern. Cadmium . Eastern Oyster 0.10 15 Weeks at20C Quahaug Eastern Oyster 0.20 8 Weeks at 201C Zinc -_. .------- 1500.0 50.0 50.0 Chromium-......_. : Eastern Oyster - 0.102 - - (1428.0) ,(17.0) (20.6) Nereis sp. 2-10 2-3 Weeks Shore Crab 50.0 12 Days Copper _ - 100.0 15.0 15.0 Small Shrimp 10-80 1 Week, 100% (91.5) (5.8) (2.6) Copper .-... SoftShell Clam 0.50 3'Days atiC Cadmium . 0.2 0.2 0.2 Soft Shell Clam 0.20 23 Days at 10C (3.1) (0.27) (0.19) Soft Shell Clam 0.20 8 Days at 200C Soft Shell Cl 0.1 10 Days at '20o -Lead_-- -----0.2 0.2 0.2 0.10 10Daysat20�C Mussels 0.05 10 Daysat 20C0 (0.47) (0.70) (0.52) Mussels 0.025 24 Days at 200�C Mercury 0.2 0.2 0.2 Nereis sp. 1.5 '2-3 Days -' Nereis sp. 0.5 4 Days Cadmium, Lead, Chromium and Mercury Combined - ------- 2.0 Mercury_ ...- .. Five Marine 0:006 10 Days Phytoplankton Nickel -------------. Eastern Oyster --' 0.21 - although' costs may be much higher for some in- Lead ..- . ............ Eastern Oyster 0.50 12 Weeks dustries. - Our major industries are easily identifiable and the effluents that they discharge are subject to close way into the food web. As an example, let us look at scrutiny. In 1968, though, 45 percent of the munici- phytoplankton, the root of the marine food web. One pal waste treatment water came from industrial thousand pounds of phytoplankton support-in the sources. These can prove very difficult to monitor, food web the'following: particularly in our older metropolitan areas. We are just now beginning to quantify and categorize 100 pounds of zooplankton or shellfish the pollutant sources to theestuary. 50 pounds of small food fish (anchovies) The greatest difficulties still to be solved involve 10 pounds of small carnivores the effects of industrial activity on the biology of I pouwid'of carnivores harvested by man 1 pouncdi onf carnivores harvested by man - estuaries. Decision makers need answers to questions (Council on Environmental Quality, 1971) like "How much marsh can be filled without signifi- cantly affecting the estuary?" and "Where is the Each level in the food Web results in the concentra- tion of at least some of the 1he avy e tals concen- *best' place to locate the next power plant and to tion of at least some of the heavy metals concen- dispose of 1000,000 cubic yards of spoil? The trated in the previous levels. In addition, at anye s estuarine system including its organisms, is suffi- point in this food web, biological concentration may occur by uptake directly from the surrounding ciently variable in time and space that several water, thereby further enriching metal concentra- years (3-5) are required to get adequate data on the major components of the area. Only in the last tion levels. Table 12 illustrates the interim stand- the major components of the arine ards for acceptable concentrations of metals in we learn organisms' nutritional and environmental require- shellfish compared with the average levels found in sms' nutro allow the consideration of contal require- ments to allow the consideration of controlled en- Atlantic coast organisms. vironmental laboratories. Results will not come 'quickly from these labs, but they seem to be the -SUMMARY, l' real hope for understanding the effects of environ- mental perturbations. The technology is available to curb most industrial By lacking a national policy, we are continuing to water wastes. Much has been done, by treatment encourage industrial development in the estuaries, and by designing production processes that minimize particularly those areas which are already stressed. waste. More efficient production processes save Let's look at an example, the refining industry. As money and may improve product quality. Where has been mentioned, refineries (at least east coast improved production processes are not available or refineries) have been established at most of, our are not economically feasible, treatment processes ports. A number of new refineries have been proposed usually exist. Their total estimated costs, as a but abandoned, usually on environmental grounds. percentage of gross sales, are well under l percent, Clearly, the proposal to establish a refinery indicates INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 317 that a market exists for the products. But if the Federal Power Commission. 1974. Bulk Power Load and Supply Information for 1974-1983. Bureau of Power Staff refinery isn't built, where does the product come Report, Washington, D.C. from? Existing refineries, located on stressed estu- aries, expand to increase production. We need a Federal Power Commission. 1974. Bulk Power Load and > strong national policy to help "noxious but neces- Supply Projections for 1984-1993. Bureau of Power Staff strong national policy to help "noxious but neces- Report Washington D.C. sary" industries to find new locations. Offshore industrial islands (out of state jurisdiction) whose Annual Review-Developments in the Iron and Steel In- effluents must meet water quality standards may dustry. 1974. Iron and Steel Engineer, Vol. 51, No. 1: be an alternative to continued development in PP ecologically stressed estuaries. Agencies of the federal Federal Energy Office. 1974. Trends in Refinery Capacity government have been quite innovative and respon- and Utilization, Washington, D.C. sive in dealing with water quality problems. As an sive in dealing with water quality problems. As an Gross, M. -G. 1970. Analysis of dredged wastes, flyash, and ai:- example, the EPA developed "Criteria for Deter- waste chemicals-New York Metrop6litan Region (Stony mining the Acceptability of Dredged Spoil Disposal Brook: Marine Science Research Center, SUNY), technical to the Nation's Waters." The criteria are strict, and report no. 7. a number of dredging projects, particularly estu- Hedgpeth, J. W., and Gonor, J. J. 1969. Aspects of the po- arine projects, could not pass the EPA criteria. The tential effect of thermal alteration on marine and estuarine Corps of Engineers was responsive to the EPA benthos. Biological Aspects of Thermal Pollution, edited by P. A. Krenkel and F. L. Parker (Nashville: Vanderbilt criteria and launched a 5-year, $30 million "pro- University Press), pp. 80-118. gram of research ... to develop the widest possible choice of technically satisfactory, environmentally IDOE. 1972. Baseline studies of pollutants in the marine environment and research recommendations. The IDOE compatible, and economically feasible disposal Baseline Conference, May 24-26, 1972 (New York: IDOE practices." Baseline Conference). :-:- Inherent in the above case of cooperation is that dredging of channels to the ports located at the Ketchum, B. H. 1969. Eutrophication of estuaries. Eutro- phication: Causes, Consequences, Correctives (Washington, head of the estuary will continue indefinitely. The D.C.: National Academy of Sciences), pp. 197-209. question that has been posed seems to be "How can we reduce the impact of industrial pollution in our Livingstone, D. A. 1963. Chemical composition of rivers and lakes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey, prof. estuaries by adopting water quality standards and/or paper 440G. allotments?" Federal policy seems to be responsive to that most important question. McAleer, J. B., Wicker, C. F., and Johnston, J. R. 1965. submit that there is another, longer-term but Design of channels for navigation. Evaluation of Present I submit that there is another, longer-term but State of Knowledge of Factors Affecting Tidal Hydraulics equally important question that may not have yet and Related Phenomena (Vicksburg, Miss.: U.S. Army been asked and certainly has not yet been answered. Engineer Committee on Tidal Hydraulics) report no. 3. It is "How can we reduce the impact of industrial MacCutcheon, E, 1972. Traffic and transport needs at the pollution in our estuaries by assisting industrial land-sea interface. Coastal Zone Management: Multiple centers dependent on water transportation, located Use With Conservation, edited by J. P. Brahtz (New York: on estuaries which are not deep enough to handle John Wiley and Sons), pp. 105-148. modern ships, are not large enough to assimilate Miller, G. W., Garaghty, J. J., and Collins, R. S. 1962. Water wastes, and which are incredibly valuable as a Atlas of the United States (Port Washington, N.Y.: Water biological-recreational natural resource, to find new, Information Center, Inc.) more environmentally acceptable sites?" Moss, J. E. 1971. Petroleum-the problem. Impingement of Regional groups must initiate work on the iden- Man on the Oceans, edited by D. W. Hood (New York: tification of the areas, in an environmental sense, Wiley-Interscience), pp. 381-419. i that can better accept the industrial wastes now discharged into our estuaries. The National Coastal Odum H. T. 1963. Productivity measurements in Texas discharged into our estuaries. The National Coastal turtle grass and the effects of dredging on intercoastal Zone Management Act (16 USC, Sec. 145-1464) channel. Publications of the Institute of Marine Science may serve as an excellent vehicle to achieve this (Texas), 9:48-58. long-term objective. Pearce, J. B. 1969. The effects of waste disposal in the New York Bight-interim report for 1 January 1970. REFERENCES Reynolds W, WW. 1972. Investing in primary petrochemicals. API 1972-1975 Capacity Survey. 1974. American Paper eical En ering Progress Vo 68, No. 9, pp 29-35 Institute, Now York, N.Y. themical Engineering Progress, Vol. 68, No. 9, pp. 29-35. Bartsch, Perry. 1974. The Pulp and Paper Industry. American SCEP. 1970. Man's Impact on the Global Environment Paper Industry: pp. 24-25. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press). 318 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Simmons, H. B. 1965. Channel depth as a factor in estuarine with a systematic list of species. Fishery Bulletin, sedimentation. (Vicksburg, Miss.: U.S. Army Engineer 68:299-306. Committee on Tidal Hydraulics), technical bulletin no. 8. Turekian, K. K. 1971. Rivers, tributaries, and estuaries: Simmons, H. B., and Herrmann, F. A. 1969. Some effects of Impingement of Man on the Oceans, edited by D. W. Hood man-made changes in the hydraulic, salinity, and shoaling (New York: Wiley-Inter�cience), pp. 9-73. regimens of estuaries. Proc. GSA Symposium on Estuaries (in preparation). U.S. Tariff Commission. 1968. Synthetic Organic Chemicals. U.S. Production and Sales (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Simmons, H. B., Harrison, J., and Huval, C. J. 1971. Pre- G overnment Printing Office). dicting construction effects by tidal modeling (Vicksburg, . Miss.: U.S. Engineer Waterways Experiment Station), miscellaneous paper H-71-6. U.S. Department of Interior. 1970a. Mineral facts and problems (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Sisselman, Robert. 1973. Iron Ore in the United States: Office), Bureau of Mines bulletin 650. A Profile of Major Mining, Processing Facilities. Mining Engineer, Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 45-65. Engineer, Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 45A65. Zitko, V., and Carson, W. V. 1970. The characterization of petroleum oils and their determination in the aquatic en- Sykes, J. E., and Hall, J. R. 1970. Comparative distribution vironment. Fisheries Research Board, Canada, technical of molluscs in dredged and undredged portions of an estuary report no. 217. )"/i 4; 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ XV 4. ::i II :1 :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* I P I.-ii -�~I ~ "1_ INDUSTRIAL WASTE POLLUTION AND GULF COAST ESTUARIES ROY W. HANN, JR. Texas A&M University College Station, Texas ABSTRACT The status of gulf coast estuaries is explored with regard to degradation of water quality from a variety of sources and mechanisms, emphasizing industrial waste effluents. The typical features of gulf coast estuaries, particularly the limited tidal action, the presence of bays behind barrier islands, and in many cases, limited flushing, are outlined. Environmental modification as differentiated from environmental pollution is presented and exam- ples of the impact of each on Texas gulf coast estuaries is discussed. A hierarchy of water quality problems is presented and used to document the principal water quality problems in seven selected Texas estuaries. The causes of the degradation which lowers water quality in these seven estuaries are listed with emphasis on waste-generating industries. The Houston ship channel is used as a case study to outline the potential solutions to each of the individual water quality problems. A plea is voiced for the consideration of novel or innovative solutions to water quality problems such as the concept of supplemental aeration which is proposed for the Houston ship channel. INTRODUCTION flushing time of 38 days and a flushing time as great as 80 days over 10 percent of the time. The This presentation will explore the status of gulf median flushing period for the ship channel above coast estuaries with regard to degradation of water Morgan's Point is 30 days and that for Galveston quality from a variety of sources and mechanisms Bay is 175 days. with emphasis on the role of industrial waste This combination of limited tidal mixing and effluents. Since the author's major work has centered limited freshwater inflow creates a condition which on the gulf coast of Texas, the greatest attention is particularly susceptible to the buildup of pol- will be directed at these estuaries as typical of the lutants and, consequently, to a significant impact gulf coast area. A map of the Texas gulf coast is of these pollutants in the water quality. shown as Figure 1. In the deeper estuaries or in dredged channels, gulf coast systems are partially stratified with TYPICAL GULF COAST ESTUARIES lighter, less saline water overriding a more saline deeper layer. The degree of salinity difference varies The major feature that differentiates gulf coast from day to day as a function of freshwater inflow estuaries from those on the east and west coasts is and turbulence generated by tides, wind, ship the limited tidal range found along the gulf. This traffic, and other forces. phenomenon is demonstrated in Figure 2 where it In the shallow bays and the deeper systems after may be noted that the tidal pattern for several gulf extensive mixing, the salinity in the top and bottom coast estuaries follows a pattern from diurnal to layers is the same, creating what is defined as a semidiurnal with a range of only one to two feet. homogeneous estuary. Evaluation of the impact of The most significant gulf coast estuaries have man's activities on estuaries requires a thorough large, shallow bays, separated from the Gulf of understanding of the movement of water masses Mexico by barrier islands. These typically have one and pollutants in these systems. or more major rivers entering their landward ends which bring freshwater into the system. In the ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION Texas gulf, the inflows to the major estuaries west of the Neches River are often small, leading to Gulf coast estuaries as they existed in the 19th relatively slow flushings of the estuaries. For exam- century have been exposed to a wide range of en- pie, the upper Houston ship channel has an average vironmental modification, as well as environmental 319 *320 EST-IARINE, POLL-UTION CONTROL RIVER 10 0 10 20 360 40 ORANGE SCALE IN MILESBEUN Pom ~~~RIVER ARPCU ABINE LOCATION MAP BRAZOS R. HA BRAZOS JFFKS FREEPORT CHAMBERS~ LAK~E SAN BERNAYD CO~~~~~~~~~T B ND I AS FIGURE 1.-TexAs Zcoslie INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 321 DAY 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 BOSTON I io - I I F 9 St-(-fttt II II II I II I I I I II I A ,, ,rlll ,1 I I I II A lII I IC II II ! [I I I I I' " I 'I I I' I -I * I I. NEW YORK- A 4. - A - It glA ii I!1 AIA AP In ! II I I i , I 2~ I' I I 1111 l ii I It I I It I 1 I ii Iiin 0 3 1/ !~ V I V II Vhlit 11 1 il I !11i I I I11 ll I v i - I I I U I I' I I II Ill -I I w 5I, & A n 3~~~~~~ V/%i'j /-l /l t ii ITI! It ilt I!!111I 1 ~ V'. vA v - .yvI V ~ , -/ '( I f SAVANNMAL- RIVER O4TR.A 7 A r , A I A tl v it A I i 1111 11i II It I I1 I Ill lItll I iI I t II ItI It11'll.1 1 lil I I I III 111 ii iiU 1I I I I'l I HI till. II I vU II U V V IJ V 1. U It Il IWIIII Ill v- q- o - cII I % 11 II II ! II \ -I v V KEY WSST -. - ~~~~~~~I' 11I PENSACOLA . I ,, -. i J ,~n ~ ' i ! IJ II~ l .,o I II III!1Iti11It I i. I1II/I~!I II I L ,,'.11i1111 11 ,1 I 111111 II GALVESTON ' -I; 1 vI - ;; ~~~~~~~~~~~FIGUJRE 2.-Typica tide curves for the United States. r~~~~~~~~~~~~ 322 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL pollution. The environmental modification may be Table 2.-Hierarchy of water quality problems. described in this context as changes in the physical, described in this context as changes in the physical, Pathogenic Bacteria and Related Coliform Indicating Organisms chemical and biological characteristics of a system Oxygen Demanding Organic s and Resulting Oxygen Depletion as a result of engineered works and changes in land Inorganic Ions use. Environmental modification may result in both Nutrients and Resulting Eutrophication Sediments: Both Organic and Inorganic environmental costs and benefits. Temperature Changes In contrast, environmental pollution involves the Heavy Metals direct and indirect discharge of pollutant materials Radionuclides Pesticides and Herbicides as effluents from man's activities. Environmental Refractory Organics pollution predominantly results in environmental Oil Pollution Costs or degradation with only occasional environ- Hazardous Polluting Substances mental benefits being demonstrated. A list of the most important environmental modifi- cations which affect gulf coast estuaries is shown in freshwater streams. However, with our present Table 1. The most significant of these in many technology, any parameter can be the dominant estuaries has been the dredging of ship channels problem in any given estuary. across shallow bay systems and river channels to Table 3 examines the relative significance of each higher, more protected land as much as 50 miles of these parameters in selected Texas gulf coast inland from the coastline. estuaries. For each estuary, the relative significance These channels have changed estuarine flushing has been rated as H (highly significant, i.e. major and circulation patterns and altered their salinity problem), M (moderately significant), L (slightly structure. The upstream modification of the river significant), and Blank (no known problem). Addi- systems by reservoirs and other structures has also tional categories are N for not known and P to drastically altered the estuarine systems by affecting freshwater inflows, altering salinity structure, and reducing sediment and nutrient inflows. Table3.-Hierarchy of water quality problems related to selected Texas estuaries These environmental modifications have wrought substantial and continual changes in these estuarine _ systems, generally making them more useful to man. They have also created the physical and , " a economic climate in which cities, industry, and . commerce have flourished and have brought the S spectre of environmental pollution to our estuaries. 1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Pathogens- H H N Oxygen Demanding Environmental pollution is defined as the dis- Organics . H H L L M L charge of-man's waste products into the environ- Nutrients M M L L L ment. A convenient mechanism to consider environ- mental pollution is to follow an outline which may be called the "Hierarchy of Water Quality Prob- Temperature-------- L H L L lems" and assess the applicability of each parameter Heavy Metals .-.. M H L M H M at it relates to the estuarine environment. This Radionuclides .. ..... N hierarchy is shown in Table 2. The ordering of the Pesticides & initial items generally conforms to the order in Herbicides L L L which water quality problems were perceived in Refractory Organics_. M H M L L Inorganic Ions ... H Table 1.-Environmental modifications affecting Texas estuaries. Oil Pollution .- ...... L-P M-P P M-P P P 1. Ship Channels Hazardous Polluting 2. Upstream Water Resource Development Substances ------. P P P P P P P 3. Water Withdrawals and Returns 4. Drainage of Marshlands 5. Urbanization H-Major Problem Blank-no problem at this time 6. Sand, Gravel and Shell Dredging M-Moderate Problem N-Not Known 7. Dikes, Jetties and other Structures L-Slight Problem P-Potential for Major Problem from Spill Situation INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 323 Table 4.-Pollution sources for selected Texas estuaries report is concerned with the lower 23 miles of the estuary (up to Beaumont, Tex.), which has been 0= = dredged for deep draft navigation. Saline water , penetration above this point will in the future be ( ~ prevented by a salt water barrier. .~ .� = . I Since the city of Beaumont diverts its domestic X = 8 dl m 6 sewage to Taylors Bayou which does not enter the : e Neches Estuary, very little domestic waste reaches this estuary. Similarly, urban runoff loads are not Domestic Sewage ..-- L H L H L H a major impact. Thus, for all practical purposes, the Urban Runoff- L H L L Neches Estuary pollution problems result solely from wastes discharged by the industries which line Agricultural Runoff . L L. L L its banks. These include a pulp and paper plant, a Petrochemical sulphur mining operation, a metal processing plant, Industry~ ---------- 1 H I I L H L L two fossil fuel electrical generation plants, and Petroleum Refining._ H H M H L almost a dozen refinery and petrochemical plants Pulp and Paper .- H H L and related shipping terminals. The development of these industries during the 1950's and 1960's led to a grossly overloaded condi- Metal Processing.- L H L H H H tion with regard to the water quality of the Neches Fertilizer . H L River. A study carried out by the author in 1969 Power Generation ... H L HL I indicated that a freshwater inflow of over 5,000 Dredging of Virgin Dredging of Virgin cubic feet per second would have been necessary to Mts ... . ........... M M achieve the stated water quality standard for dis- Maintenance Dredging H H M M j H H L solved oxygen of 3.0 mg/l. Consistent flows any- where near this figure are not possible from the Marine Commerce_. L-P L-P P P I P L'P P Neches River system, particularly as most if not H--Major Waste Source Blank--No Significant Waste all of the summer freshwater flow is diverted from M-Moderate Waste Source P-Potential for Major Problem from Spill the river for domestic use and irrigated farming. L.-Minor Waste Source Situation An initially aggressive program to reduce the then-loading of 278,000 lbs. of BOD inflow per day indicate a potential problem exists, but is not a was begun in 1970, but was delayed to investigate chronic situation. regional waste treatment. Since that time, the stream Table 4 carries the analysis further to identify the standards have been drastically lowered to require sources of the pollution by class in each estuary. only 2.5 mg/l dissolved oxygen one foot below the Each of these estuaries, its individual problems and water surface at a flow of 1000 cfs. These standards status will be discussed in following sections. are questionable because roughly 25 percent of the time periods of flows below 1000 cfs are expected in the Neches and the one foot below the surface sampling location is not considered adequately Seven Texas estuarine systems were selected for representative. consideration in this presentation. The ones chosen The target waste loadings specified by the Texas span the Texas coast from the Neches estuary near Water Quality Board call for waste load reductions the Louisiana border to Brownsville, the southern- by 1977 to 20,400 lbs/day of ultimate oxygen most ship channel-estuary only a few miles from the demanding wastes above River Mile 11 and 26,187 Rio Grande River border with Mexico. The unique lbs/day for the entire estuary. If these targets are features of the individual estuaries and the role that achieved along with similar reduction of heavy industrial waste pollution plays in the overall water metals and other contaminants, substantial im- quality problem will be discussed. provement should be realized. Further improvement could involve either further The Neches Estuary treatment, supplemental aeration, or diversion of the cooling water discharge from the Gulf States The Neches Estuary has its beginning at the Power Generation Station to the upper estuary in confluent of the Neches and Sabine Rivers, some order to assure a minimal flow throughout the 20-30 miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico. This estuary. 324 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The Houston Ship Channel equals or exceeds the domestic waste ldading thus The city of Houston has achieved the distinction making it the dominant biodegradable pollution. The ty of Houston has achieved gthe dstptinttion The urban runoff also brings nutrients, sediments, of becoming the third largest port in the nation and heavy metals into the channel. even though it is located some 50 miles from the The author has argued that specific pollutants coastline. Houston is connected to the Gulf of such as heavy metals, unusual nutrient loads, oil such as heavy metals, unusual nutrient loads, oil Mexico by a dredged deepwater channel across 25 and hazardous materials, and so forth must be miles of the otherwise shallow Galveston Bay and reduced at each individual source and precautions then, another 25 miles upstream from Morgan's taken to insure against major shock loads from spills Point, up what was once the lower reaches of the and plant upsets. He has also argued that organic San Jacinto River and Buffalo Bayou to its terminus waste loading, being common to all polluters, is at the turning basin near downtown Houston. a problem susceptible to a novel cooperative solu- This deep draft channel is the major lifeline of tion. This Houston ship channel problem and the the city of Houston and it is along the upper 25 mile options for solution are discussed in greater depth in stretch of the channel that the major industries of a later section. the Houston industrial complex are located. The dominant industries, of course, are petroleum refin- ing and petrochemical production, but others found Galveston Bay along the channel include: pulp and paper, metal processing, fertilizer, power, cement, grain elevators, Galveston Bay is the largest bay on the Texas and manufacturers of offshore oil field structures. gulf coast and considered to be most productive, Warehouses and tank terminals also serve the both economically and ecologically. The bay is area's marine commerce. By 1969, the waste loading approximately 520 square miles in surface area. The from this industrial complex coupled with the major freshwater source is the Trinity River which domestic waste effluents and urban runoff reached, drains central Texas, including the Dallas-Fort after treatment, the loading of over 500,000 lbs/day Worth area. Other sources include the San Jacinto of ultimate oxygen demand. Almost all the other River, Buffalo Bayou, Clear Creek, and other small pollutants discussed earlier as part of the hierarchy creeks and bayous. of water quality problems were also discharged in The bay is generally believed to be of good quality large amounts. The BOD ultimate load overtaxed with the exception of coliform bacterial pollution the allowable loading of 20-25,000 lbs/day as deter- and the unknown effect of refractory organics dis- mined by mathematical modeling by a factor of charged by the Houston ship channel complex, and between 20 and 25 to 1. thermal discharges. The major pollution sources During this time the waters in the upper 16 miles which impact on the bay and the major environ- of the channel were completely depleted of oxygen mental modifications to the bay system are listed in every month of the year, black anaerobic sludges in Table 5. The solution to the pollution problems were building up on the bottom at the rate of 2-5 of this important bay is that of insuring that each feet per year from sediment and organic waste dis- of its inputs is of acceptable quality. charge and the waters were so bacterially polluted The impact of environmental modification will that one gallon of ship channel turning basin water probably be of more importance to the bay in the added to a 20,000 gallon swimming pool would future than environmental pollution. cause it to be unacceptable from coliform bacteria count standards. The industrial waste loadings to the' channel Brazos River have been reduced dramatically. Whereas in 1969, two-thirds of the loading excluding urban runoff The Brazos River differs from the other estuarine was due to industry, now only one-third is industry systems in that the river runs directly into the Gulf related, according to Texas Water Quality Board of Mexico without having a large bay at its mouth. figures. The Brazos River has the largest drainage area in The domestic waste of the city of Houston now Texas and is partially controlled by upstream rivers. is the major biodegradable organic pollutant load. Flows range from near zero to major floods. Natural In addition to heavy overloads by infiltration, the freshwater quality is affected by salt spring dis- city still discharges large quantities of digested charge and agricultural runoff. The major industrial sludge into the channel. discharges consist of saline waste streams from During qeriods of high runoff from Houston, it is seawater processing, and petrochemical production estimated that the urban runoff pollution loading wastes from several plants of a single company, INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 325 Table 5.-Environmental pollution and environmental modification of Brownsville Galveston Bay The port of Brownsville is a unique estuarine sys- tem in Texas. Unlike most other Texas ship channels, 1. Houston Ship Channel the Brownsville shipping channel was not dredged 2. Bayport Industrial Complex 3. Texas City Industrial Complex up an existing river. Dredging the Rio Grande would 4. Trinity River Inflow have had international implications as well as in- 5. Galveston Ship Channel and City of Galveston volving the sediment and other pollutants of the 6. Power Plant Discharges 7. Clear Lake Drainage Area river. Thus, the channel is entirely manmade for commercial and industrial purposes. The channel is Significant Environmental Modification also blessed with good quality water and the govern- 1. Houston Ship Channel and Associated Dredge Spoil ing authority, the port of Brownsville, is carefully 2. Galveston, Texas City, Bayport and Cedar Bayou Channels and Associated Dredge programming development to insure maintenance of Spoil this quality. Only in Brownsville can one fish 3. Upstream Water Resource Development on the Trinity River Including the Wallis- ville Reservoir successfully in a ship channel turning basin. 4. The Water Diversion from Tabbs Bay and the Houston Ship Channel as Part of the Cedar Bayou Power Generation Station 5. Upstream Water Resource Development on the San Jacinto River TRENDS AND SOLUTIONS 6. Land Subsidence by Excessive Ground Water Production Centered Around the TRENDS AND SOLUTIONS Upper Houston Ship Channel 7. Urban Development and Associated Runoff Characteristic Changes Around the The Houston ship channel is an excellent system Bay 8. Various Dikes, Jetties, Fish Passes and Other Structures to consider with regard to water quality manage- ment because the system receives almost all types of pollutants in significant amounts from nearly every discharged a few miles above the river's mouth. The class and type of polluter. The upper 25-mile segment lower reaches of the river also suffer from domestic of the Houston ship channel is shown in Figure 3. waste discharges from cities in the Freeport area. The system is also significant because classical Current plans for the construction of a superport solutions to water quality problems will not achieve off the Texas coast near Freeport will undoubtedly required or desired water quality in this system. lead to increased industrial waste loading in the Thus, innovative techniques which go beyond tradi- lower portion of the Brazos River. tional "dilution is the solution," "treatment at the source," and "classical complete treatment" must be Corpus Christi and the developed. Corpus Christi Ship Channel These include new analysis techniques for exotic pollutants, novel advanced treatment methodology Corpus Christi Bay and its inland companion and in situ processes such as supplemental aeration bay-Nueces Bay, form one of the larger bay systems to improve quality. A brief outline of ship channel on the Texas Coast. A ship channel has been dredged problems and the appropriate solutions are shown in across Corpus Christi Bay to the city of Corpus Table 6. Christi and thence alongside the city for a distance The problem of oxygen demanding wastes will be of 8.5 miles. It is this inner harbor which receives discussed in depth as it demonstrates several of the the heaviest industrial waste loading and which is points to be made in this presentation. As mentioned included as a separate system for rating purposes. previously, the Houston ship channel in 1969 was The quality in the inner ship channel is poor with receiving a daily loading of over 500,000 lbs. of regard to some parameters, but is substantially BODu per day. In layman's terms, this is roughly better than the major ship channels in eastern Texas the equivalent of 500,000 lbs. of sugar per day. mentioned previously. The channel is a useful study By 1973, the loading had been reduced to those area to indicate how the Neches and Houston ship shown in Figure 4. In 1969, about 60 percent of the channels will behave when their quality improves. problem was industrial wastes, 20 percent domestic The channel is subject to oil spills from a variety wastes, and 20 percent urban runoff. By late 1973, of commercial and industrial sources, and govern- the ratios were more like 45 percent urban runoff, mental entities have joined to form the most effective 35 percent domestic wastes, and 20 percent industrial Oil Spill Control Cooperative on the Texas coast. wastes during periods of urban runoff, and 65 per- This group has cleaned up almost 100 oil spills cent domestic waste and 35 percent industrial waste ranging from a few gallons to 13,000 gallons. This during periods of no runoff. organization is serving as a model to potential groups Also plotted on Figure 4 is the value range for the elsewhere. / assimilative capacity for oxygen demanding material A. NORTHSIDE &T.R K. ETHYL CORRLI B. H.O. S.T.P L. SHELL CHEM. C. PETRO TEX. M. ROHM a. HAAS LGN D. ARCO N. DIAMOND SHAMROCK -LGN E. CHAMPION PAPER 0. ENJAY CHEM. TAMU MILE STATION E OLIN R UBERFWASTE DISCHARGER G. ARM CO H. DIAMOND SHAMROCK I. PASADENA S.TP.R J. SOUTHLAND PAPER S A J C I T - . RI VER APPROX. SCALE IN MILES BURNETT HOUSTON SHIP CHANNEL CRITICAL ZONE .- . BAY TAMU R.M. 9 TO R.M. 24 SCOTT BAY 1OS CREEK HOU~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~STO PEGG ~~~~~~~~~LACKE ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6BRAYS /BAYOU U, (PPER SA Sims VINCEUPRSA BAYOU~ BAYOU JCNT A JACINTO DAY GALVESTON BAY FIGURPE 3.-Location of domestic and industrial discharges on the Houston ship channel. INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 327 Table 6.-Solution matrix, Houston Ship Channel problems SUPERIMPOSED STORM Problem' | ~~Solution /400,000 - 1. DARUNOFF DEMAND Problem Solutio A Pathogenic Organisms Higher level domestic waste treatment, effluent chlorination reduction of sewer infiltration. ~ 300,000 Oxygen Demanding Organics Improved secondary waste treatment, advanced DME A L NITROGENOUS (Domestic) waste treatment and supplemental aeration. 200,000 - Oxygen Demanding Organics Supplemental aeration. (Urban Runoff) Oxygen Demanding Organics Improved waste treatment and supplemental < DOMESTIC a INDUSTRIAL CARBONACEOUS DEMAND o 100,000 - aeration.5 / ASSIMILATION CAPACITY Nutrients Advanced domestic and selective industrial waste '\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\g treatment. Sediments Better sewage sludge handling and control of N D sediment from land and highway development. Temperature No major solution needed. FIGURE 4.-Oxygen demand and assimilation capacity, Houston ship channel, mile 9 to 24 (1972 values). Heavy Metals (Industrial) Process change and selective waste treatment. Heavy Metals (Domestic) Elimination of heavy metal discharges to the sewer system and waste treatment plant opera- with supplemental aeration which can be achieved tion for heavy metal removal, at a very reasonable cost. In addition to its cost Heavy Metals (Urban Runoff) effectiveness in terms of social cost and energy Refractory Organics Better identification of pollutants-waste treat- efficiency, the proposed system also provides a ment with existing or new treatment processes- reserve or fail-safe capacity for shock loads and/or little known in some areas. future system loads by new discharges. Oil Pollution Better preventive action. Contingency planning The concept is enthusiastically endorsed by the equipment and training of industry and govern- local Gulf Coast Waste Disposal Authority, the ment personnel. waste management entity with the authority to Hazardous Polluting Substances Better preventive action. Contingency planning finance, build and operate the system, but acceptance equipment and training of industry and govern- f the concept has been slow on the federal evel ment personnel. of the concept has been slow on the federal level because of the resistance to novel or innovative solutions to achieve the desired end product of a cleaner environment. for each month of the year based on federal-state Surely, more objective consideration can be given water quality standards for the upper Houston ship in the future-particularly, when it is realized on channel. the national level that the goal of zero pollutant The solution is obvious: namely, the load curve discharge is unachievable and that alternate tech- must be below the assimilative capacity curve. The nology which protects the environment must be traditional manner is to only reduce the waste sought. loading; however, in this case, the residue waste loads from high level industrial and domestic treat- ment plus the urban runoff will still overload the SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS system. The current reduced loadings still overload the channel by a ratio which varies from 6:1 without The author has presented the unique factors urban runoff to 10:1 during runoff periods. The concerning gulf coast estuaries which must be con- channel still remains depleted of oxygen in its sidered in managing these systems. Foremost are upper 10 miles during most of the year. tide range, geometry inflow varieties, and density Occasional sitings of marine life in the channel structure. These parameters make their behavior after prolonged high inflow-cool temperature situa- quite different from most east and west coast estu- tions, do demonstrate a modest improvment in aries. Environmental modifications within and with- quality over that found five years ago, but this has out the estuarine system which will continue to been publicized out of proportion to the true bring about change in the physical, chemical and situation. biological characteristics of these estuaries in the The author has argued that an acceptable interim absence of waste loadings are reviewed. They include solution to the Houston ship channel oxygen balance ship channels, upstream water resource develop- is to increase the assimilative capacity of the system ments, water withdrawals and returns, drainage, 328 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL urbanization, sand, gravel and shell dredging, and the country as a whole and particularly, for con- dikes, jetties, and other structures. sideration for gulf coast estuaries. The classical hierarchy of water quality problems is examined to determine their applicability and RECOMMENDATIONS importance in the gulf coastal zone in general and the Texas gulf coast in particular. Included are the Texas gulf coast in particular. Included are 1. Programs to reduce industrial waste discharges pathogenic organisms, oxygen-demanding organisms, should be continued. We still have a long way to inorganic ions, nutrients, sediments, temperature, go with some industrial discharges to achieve even oilsand therfloaable, hevy mtals r d go with some industrial discharges to achieve even oils and other floatables, heavy metals, radio- basic levels of treatment. a'-basic levels of treatment. nuclides, pesticides and herbicides, refractory or- 2. Additional programs to characterize wastes ganics, and hazardous polluting substances. Fganics, and hazardous polluting substances. aand their impact should be carried out. There are For several of the Texas gulf coast estuaries, a still wastes that are not characterized and for which matrix is presented which outlines the relative sig- environmental impact is unknown. nificance of these parameters in each system, This 3. Greater effort should be made to use appro- is followed by a matrix which summarizes the source priate parameters in assessing impact and develop- priate parameters in assessing im.pact and develop- of the pollutants in these selected Texas estuaries. ing manageent plans. Particular attention is given to industrial waste 4. Equal effort should be pla ced on reducing discharges, with oil refining and petrochemical, pulp 4 a t od b pace rein domestic waste loadings with particular attention and paper, mining and metal processing, fertilizer, given to reducing the industrial wastes discharged and power plants predominating. Particular atten- into municipal systems. tion is given to the problems of the Houston ship 5. Greater effort should be placed on the problem channel as these display trends and make pertinent of urban runoff from cities whose runoff drains into points. points.ilwse otnet etedmnn estuaries. This must include erosion control to limit Industrial wastes continue to be the dominant sediments. pollutant source in many gulf coast estuaries and sits a significant loading in others. Industrial attitudes 6. It must be recognized that every estuary is tf public different and should be evaluated for its unique sto ward pollu tion control still range from pouti situation, preferably using local scientists and engi- spirited companies who lead the way in pollution neers who understand the system. control to those few bad actors who resist an 7. Policy should permit innovative and unique 7. Policy should permit innovative and unique avoid any major commitment toward pollution solutions, i.e. different solutions are appropriate for control until dragged to the courtroom. different estuaries. different estuaries. Industry as a whole, however, has generally 8. Solution choices must include consideration of proved receptive to carrying its load when it has social cost and energy efficiency. Policy must be been effectively demonstrated that a problem really upgraded to consider the realities of the times. exists and that a true solution will be achieved by 9. Failsafe systems are necessary to prevent a the steps they have been asked to carry out and single plant breakdown from overpowering the effect the costs they are expected to bear. All too often, of expensive control programs. however, an individual industry has been asked to 10. Realistic terms should be used to describe clean up when his counterparts have not. This is estuary quality or loading as compared to the particularly evident in the Houston ship channel, allowable loadings based on quality standards. For where some industries have had effective treatment example, claims of modest improvements in Houston programs for almost a decade while some foot- ship channel quality, particularly, during high dragging industries and the city of Houston have flow periods should not be allowed to hide the fact lagged far behind in cleaning up their effluents. that the system is still overloaded by a ratio of 10: 1. Even the most responsible industry personnel have 11. Effective control programs for industrial doubts as to the need and economic justification of wastes and domestic wastes should improve the some of the requirements they are being asked to quality of sedimenits and reduce pollution potential meet-particularly, toward the goal of zero pollution of dredged materials. discharge. 12. Enforcement activities to stimulate com- It is validly argued that policy must be more pliance by the few "bad actors" should be renewed. closely tailored to individual situations and to the 13. Expanded activity to identify and control the social costs and energy resource situations which danger from hazardous chemical substances shipped exist today. in marine commerce should be instigated including With these thoughts in mind, the following list of routine bioassay analysis of hazardous materials recommendations is formulated for consideration for shipped in bulk. INDUSTRIALIZATION EFFECTS 329 14. The quest to determine the true-cost of zero "Waste Load Evaluation for Segment 601 of the Neches River Basin," Hann, R. Mr., Jr., prepared for the Texas pollutant discharge and the accompanying ultimate Water Quality Board, Austin, Tex., May 1974. disposal of residues should be pursued with the goal of achieving reasonable solution of dur estuarine "Waste Load Evaluation for the Houston Ship Channel," Hann, R. W., Jr., prepared for the Texas Water Quality problems without generating a backlash which will Boa Board, Austin, Tex., September 1974. stop us short of our goals. 15. More attehiion should be placed on the effect "Management of Industrial Waste Discharges in Complex of environmental modification on estuarine ecology. Estuarine Systems-Second Annual Report," Hann, R. W., Jr., Estuarine Systems Project Technical Report No. 15, June 1970. REFERENCES "Management of Industrial Waste Discharges in Complex Estuarine Systems-Third Annual Report," Hann, R. W., "Waste Management in the Texas C oastal Zone," Environ- Jr., Estuarine Systems Project Technical Report No. 22, mental Engineering Division, Civil Engineering Depart- September 1971. ment, Texas A&M University, prepared for the Office of the Governor, Division' of Planning Coordination, The Coastal Resources Management Program, Interagency "The Case for Inchannel Aeration of the Houston Ship Council on Natural Resources, September 1972. Channel," Hann, R. W., Jr., and Ball, John, presented at .-~ ~ the Texas Meeting of the American Society of Civil Engi- Tide Tables-High and Low Water Predictions-East Coast nee, Austin, Tex., 197. of North and South America Including Greenland, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973. "Field' and Analytical Studies of the Corpus Christi Ship Channel and Contiguous Waters, Hann, R. W., Jr., "A Study of the Flushing Times of the Houston Ship Channel Withers, R. E., Jr., Burnett, N. C., Allison, R. C., and and Galveston Bay," Hann, R. W., Jr., Sparr, T. M., Nolley, B. W., prepared for the Texas Water Quality Sprague, C. R., Estuarine Systems Project Technical Board, August 1973. Report No. 12, May 1970. "Environmental Study of the Brownsville Ship Channel "Neehes Estuary Water Quality Study," Hann, R. W., Jr., and Contiguous Waters," by Withers, R. E., Jr., Slowey, Estuarine Systems Project Technical Report No. 14, J. F., Garrett, R. L., prepared for the Brownsville Naviga- October 1969. tion District, October 1974. POWER PLANT EFFECTS IMPACT OF WASTE HEAT DISCHARGED TO ESTUARIES WHEN CONSIDERING POWER PLANT SITING J. W. BLAKE United Engineers & Constructors, Inc. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ABSTRACT With present experience certain efficiencies can be brought to bear on evaluation of proposed power plant sites. These concern (1) ways and means of determining what data are really needed for thermal discharge impact evaluation, and (2) optimization of efforts to obtain such data. Data relevance cannot be determined through comparison with a list of parameters which must always be studied at every site, but rather through a list of topics to be considered for possible study, i.e., questions to be asked (the answers to which determine the parameters which need study at the specific site under consideration). Optimization of data acquisition could be greatly improved through addition of geographic indica- tors to all environmental data publications and indexing/storage systems, following the examples set by EPA STORET and NODC listings for water quality parameters. Such complete data avail- ability will make possible better predictions of significance of impact, and therefore more realistic and consistent decisions on utilization of our environment. INTRODUCTION standardized criteria for the amount and kind of data required for any given site, and second, im- It is encouraging to see that progress is being provements in how such data are acquired. made in some quarters toward devoting appropriate These then are the two topics which will be ad- effort to evaluating the effects of thermal discharges dressed in this discussion: (1) ways and means of on the estuarine environment. Now is the time to determining what data are needed for thermal dis- take advantage of the experience of the past few charge impact evaluation; (2) optimization of years, and move into more efficient protection of the efforts to obtain such data. environment and more productive utilization of scientist and engineer hours. The power industry has now docketed some 200 DETERMINATION OF DATA NEEDS nuclear generating stations, and each of these has required an environmental report-new ones of Obviously, the first question-determination of massive proportions (on the order of 1,500 pages to data needs-has been addressed, consciously or summarize studies). Similar, though generally less subconsciously by every scientist, engineer, admin- massive, environmental impact statements have istrator, elected official, and voter confronted with been filed for new fossil-fueled generating stations. a change in his or her environment. Each of us is Certainly in producing these documents con- either unfortunately vulnerable to bias, or fortu- siderable independent effort has been oriented to- nately able to perceive the true picture, due to our ward obtaining data of much similarity. While it is own experiences, training, and our career objectives. certain that many have long wished for standardized We may be highly motivated to: descriptions of environments and environmental impacts, biologists and ecologists have been more (1) Preserve the environment in its pristine modest, perhaps because of their familiarity with condition; environmental complexities. Their wish has been (2) Make possible most efficient utilization of the for standardized programs for collection of the data earth's resources; or necessary for such descriptions. In fact, that item (3) Take advantage of every opportunity to gain which is of major concern in this paper is actually further knowledge of the detailed interactions of composed of two subtopics: first, the seeking of all creatures in the complex ecosystems. 333 334 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Of course, all of these sometimes diverse inter- land/sandbars along the coastline of Louisiana and mediate goals are expressed in terms of everyone's adjoining states. Thus there is a reversal in the more final goal of "Betterment of Mankind." Certainly common rank of the estuary and coastline areas for within reasonable limits we should all be striving utilization as sites for energy production. This is not toward all the above three intermediate goals as well to say that unlimited development should be allowed as the final one. But, before we rush to accomplish to take place along the river, but only that overall, one and all, we must look to the aforementioned the order of thoughtful utilization is somewhat dif- "reasonable limits" as we direct our efforts and re- ferent. Thus one may minimize the potential for ta sources toward achieving one of the goals, or better, large scale study of possibly non-useful parameters, toward some multiple use concept. and find that a more directed study is really needed. Thus, this paper will discuss means of determining This paper is intended as an aid to, not a substitute the logical responsibility for environmental studies for, professional judgement on a case-by-case basis. which should be assigned to the power industry, or Designed to promote uniformity and- efficiency, this indeed to any other industry wishing to utilize a guide will assist those not familiar with some of the portion of our environment. complexities of the natural environment. Using it, It is important to note at the very beginning that the executive or engineer may better understarnd a aquatic ecological surveys and monitoring must be specific environment's interrelationship with a steam carried out to ensure that impacts of thermal power electric generating station, plants on aquatic communities do not exceed' ac- A survey of environmental regulations, the biologi- ceptable levels. To formulate these specific protec- cal state-of-the-art, and recent power plant license tive standards, an integrated overview approach review cases, suggests some general needs for aquatic must be set up to identify potential for significant ecological surveys. These basic needs (Table 1), effects upon important organisms at the earliest briefly described in this section, should help shape possible time. Similarly, such a scheme should the general philosophy of thermal impact surveys. quickly identify those areas in which limited or no The first need is to recognize the limitations in- effort is needed. As a step toward providing a frame- herent in the current biological/ecological state-of- work for such an overview, this presentation will the-art. Aquatic ecology is not generally a predictive draw upon a draft version of American National science. Determination of cause and effect relation- Standards Institute's Standard No. N224 "Aquatic ships where natural variables cannot be controlled, ecological surveys required for the siting, design, make data analyses of plant-induced impacts diffi- construction, and operation of thermal power plants." cult. This is not to imply that monitoring for im- This standard has been drawn up by a committee pacts should not be attempted. Rather, it means composed of representatives of utilities, architectural that surveys should be designed on the basis of what and engineering firms, consultants, universities, can be accomplished with current sampling methods private laboratories, and government agencies, and statistical analyses in differentiating aquatic including the Environmental Protection Agency, changes caused by various factors. A possible short- the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the National cut to site-by-site impact prediction based on specific Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the field and/or literature data, is the use of national Fish and Wildlife Service. chemical or temperature tolerance criteria. However, This ANSI draft standard has been constructed such national criteria generally tend to overestimate on the theory that while no one set of prescribed impacts at many sites in order to be completely safe procedures will permit evaluation of all sites, a uni- at the most sensitive. If using these criteria requires form set of questions can serve to rank parameters costly designs, then would it be more appropriate to and permit concentration of efforts on those actually derive specific data for that site through field or worthy of specific studies, for individual sites.' laboratory bioassays. Another approach may be to For example, the lower Mississippi River is, in collect and review the thermal impact data at operat- terms of saline distribution, a fairly typical estuary, However, after only a brief investigation, one can Table I.-Factors to be considered in design of thermal impact studies see that the river itself has been channelized and (1) Recognize predictive limitations imposed by ecological state-of-art confined by levees for many miles, so that it now (2) Obtain ecological information appropriate to stage of project development resembles a smooth walled pipe characterized by (3) Limit ecological effort to those impacts relevant to specific site-plant combination high-speed, frequently unidirectional flow. The (4) Concentrate initial efforts on most sensitive organisms, with later expansion only if necessary classical estuarine functions of providing habitats (5) Incorporate good biometric techniques in design of surveys and nursery areas for aquatic organisms, have been (6) Recognize value of uniformity in design, conduct and analyses of ecological studies fulfilled in this area by the bayous and onshore is- in sofaras appropriate POWER PLANT EFFECTS 335 ing power plants having similar site-plant configura- largely on approximate evaluation methods based tions and interrelationships. In short, survey pro- largely on observational studies. Such an approach is grams should be developed from a practical stand- presented in a recent report by Eberhardt and Gil- point of what can be accomplished in the field. bert (1974). A second need is to recognize the specific objec- A sixth need is for greater uniformity in design, tives with respect to schedules for planning, con- conduct, and analysis of aquatic ecological surveys. struction, and operating steam electric power plants. The advantage in working toward uniformity is This includes examining aquatic ecological informa- twofold. First, it will result in making the license tion appropriate to the stage of project development. review process more efficient, qnd secondly, it will Information supplied out of sequence is often un- allow comparison of data from one site to another. necessary. Also, the considerations used in the en- This comparison could result in the development of vironmental assessment should be integrated with a body of information for examining the ecological design engineering to weigh design cost against trends in a region and for making better estimates potential environmental costs. of the possibility of power plant induced impacts. A third need is to develop aquatic ecological in- This could also lead to more efficient design of en- formation based on impacts that are critical for a vironmental surveys for future power stations, and specific plant and site combination. General survey better design of the power stations themselves. Com- information is often useful. It appears, however, that plete uniformity of surveys is not desirable because time, effort, and money have been wasted by surveys of the uniqueness of each site-plant situation. How- that were too broad and general. A rational assess- ever, special or unusual surveys that are proposed ment of effects of power plantson aquatic ecological on the basis of uniqueness should be carefully evalu- systems requires well-planned ecological surveys ated to avoid unnecessary surveys based on arbi- which can detect impacts. Massive data collections trary personal preference of investigators. which fail in this objective or achieve the objective A series of matrices (for examples see Figures 1-3 with excessive redundancy, represent wasted effort. and Table 2) has been proposed corresponding to a Compliance with regulations, and a utility's own checklist of possible data needs, or questions to be economic interest, are both served by critical survey asked of the environment. These are to determine designs which address specific problems related to relative significance of parameters which have a specific plant and site situations. credible connection to the proposed construction A fourth need concerns the sequence and pricrity and operations of a power plant. Each matrix repre- of surveys for potential aquatic impacts. Some sents a survey stage and specifies parameters to be regulatory agencies request aquatic ecological in- considered, indicates the temporal distribution of the formation for essentially all trophic levels. This data collections, and the quality of data to be gath- seems to stem from the fact that all trophic levels ered. It should be noted that the survey matrices are interrelated so an impact at one level may be were developed as a tool to determine information felt throughout an ecological system. However, from needs, not necessarily study requirements, since the a practical standpoint, impacts initiated at one level desired information may be available from alternate take time to be reflected in others and are not gener- sources. ally reflected to the same degree. Thus it is more The sequential information-need phases can be efficient to concentrate surveys on biota which are functionally subdivided into as many of the following most sensitive to plant construction and operation stages as are useful in the specific case under con- and can be expected to be the first to be affected. sideration (Figure 4). The Site Selection Phase can These first-order groups are more often called indica- be divided into an Initial Evaluation Survey to tor organisms. An early focus on these would allow select candidate sites from candidate regions and a surveys to be expanded to other trophic levels only Site Selection Survey to rank those candidate sites. if unacceptable impacts on indicator organisms were The Preconstruction Phase can be divided into an detected. Initial Plant Design Evaluation Survey to obtain A fifth need is to incorporate good biometric tech- data needed for preliminary engineering, a Baseline niques in survey design so that, significant plant- Survey to obtain data needed for the environmental induced impacts can be distinguished from natural report and impact prediction, and where site explora- stresses. The experimental approach to assessment tion may be expected to cause significant environ- of impacts in the field is often not possible because of mental impacts, a Site Exploration Monitoring lack of controls. The evaluation of data obtained Survey. The Preoperational Phase can be divided from sampling can only yield estimates of population into Construction Monitoring Survey to monitor size and survival rates. Impact evaluation must rely construction activities and, if warranted, to sample 386 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Currents & Existing Bathymet- Bottom D.O. of Manmade Survey Other Water Flushing Tempera- ric Condi- Sediments & Salinity Water and Turbidity Dissolved pH Nutrients Chemical Stage Circulation Rate ture tions & Sediment Sediments Solids Stresses Patterns Patterns Contours Transport Initial Eval ... 1,A,I 1,A, 1,A, 1,A, 1,A,I Site Select ...2,All 2, 2, A, 2, 2,A, 2,A, 2,A , II ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ Baseline .- ... 4,E,111 3,B,111 4,E,111 4,A,lII 4,A,lll 4,E,11 4,C,111 4,C,111 4,C,111 4,C,111 4,0,111 4,C,111 Site-Plant De- sign Eval .... 4,E,111 3,A,lll 4,E,1ll 4,A,lll 4,A,ll 4,E,II Site Explor Monitoring_.. 4,A,III 4,E,11 4,A,IV 4,E,111 4,A,IV 4,A,IV 4,A,IV 4,A,IV Construc. Monitoring_.. 4,A,lll 4,A,lll 4,E,II 4,B,IV 4,E,IV 4,B,IV 4,B,IV 4,B,IV Preoperation Survey ..- 4,B,11 3,8,11 4,E,II 4,A,ll 4,A,11I 4,8,11 4,C, IV 4,C,IV 4,C,IV 4,C,IV 4,C,IV 4,C,III11 Startup Monitoring._. 4,E,11l 4,E,111 4,E,111 4,A,III 4,E,11 4,A,IV 4,E,IV 4,A,IV 4,A,IV 4,A,IV 4,E,IIl Operation Monitoring... 4,8,111 3,8,111 4,8,111 4,A,lII 4,A,IIl 4,8,111 4,B,IV 4,B,IV 4,B,IV 4,B,IV 4,B,IV Figure 1.-Physical-chemical matrix. for significant ecological changes; a Preoperation specifications, but greater detail would normally be Survey to collect data necessary to provide baseline obtained for the initial operating years of the plant information for operational monitoring; and Start- as opposed to later years of operation, in order to up Monitoring Survey to include any special studies determine operating effects of the plant and to com- needed to identify significant changes in the eco- pare them with those predicted in the environmental system caused by various activities occurring during impact statement. start-up. The duration of the Operation Phase is All these aquatic ecological surveys should be determined by imposed environmental technical considered, but implemented only if appropriate and necessary. If implemented, they should be designed Macroin- Any Survey Peri- Phyto- Zoo- verte- Macro- Fish Organism Table 2.-Key to level of biotic survey information Stage phyton plankton plankton brates phytes Category If Used QUALITY OF INFORMATION Initial Evalua- 1. qualitative from available existing sources tion ...- ... I I I 1 1 1 2. qualitative from field observations 3. quantitative from field studies with statistical precision adequate for impact Site Selection. 2 2 2 2 2 2 evaluation Baseline.... 3 3 3 3 3 3 FREQUENCY OF INFORMATION COLLECTED* Site-Plant A. at least once by end of survey or annually if appropriate Design B. quarterly Evaluation_. 2 2 2 2 2 2 C. monthly D, weekly Site Explora- continuously E. continuously tion Moni- F. periodically"* toring .... 3 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA STUDIED Coristruction Monitoring. 3 1. regional II. general site area Preoperation III. site impact area (for particular parameter) Survey _ _ 3 a 3 3 3 3 IV. site impact area (particular parameter) plus control area Startup Moni- toring ... . 3 * While the key gives some guidance to the frequency of sampling, it does not provide guidance on best geographic spacing of sampling points. This is considered to Operation be a site specific parameter best decided on a case by case basis. Monitoring. 3 ** Periodically means sampling as often as a professional in charge of a survey considers necessary to identify a biotic change during the time it is likely to undergo Figure 2.-Highest quality level of information collected. the change. PowER PLANT EFFECTS 337 Ocean Estuary Lake River Organism IS PA A PR S SS IS PA A' PR A SS IS PA A PR S SS IS PA A PR S SS Groups Periphyton.... Phytoplankton Zooplankton.. Macroinverte- brates ----- Macrophytes __ Fishes ...--.- Physical- Chemical .-. Refer to appropriate stage of Physical-Chemical Matrix 4.6 Figure 3.-Sample ecological matrix. Project Recognize Need for Power Milestones Site Selected Nuclear Steam Supply System Contract Awarded Apply for Construction Permit Award of Construction Permit Award of Operating License Major Preliminary Engineering Operation Project Prepare ER & PSAR Startup Activities Construction Site Clearance & Excavation AEC Review. AEC Review Detailed Engineering Update EIS Survey/Monitoring Initial Evaluaticn Survey Stages Site Selection Survey Baseline Survey Initial Site-Plant Design Evaluation Site Exploration Monitoring Construction Monitoring Preoperational Survey Startup Monitoring Operation Monitoring Major Site Preconstruction Preoperation Operation Survey/Monitoring Selection Phases I. Figure 4.-Typical development schedule for nuclear power plants in the United States in 1974 with major survey phases and their corresponding survey stages indicated. to evaluate potential impacts of plant operations on 5. Changes in water level or quality due to con- the biota of the immediate site area and to determine sumptive use; other information required by regulation. The po- 6. Changes in currents in intake and discharge tential major aquatic impacts to be considered are: areas; 7. Thermal exposure of aquatic biota within mix- 1. Attraction and impingement/entrapment of ing zone; organisms by intake structures; 8. Blockage or delay of fish and shellfish movement 2. Entrainment of aquatic biota through the cool- by thermal or physical barriers; ing system and resultant exposure to changes in 9. Removal of habitats by structures. thermal, chemical, physical and mechanical param- eters; The potential for these impacts will vary in im- 3. Alteration of water quality in intake and dis- portance between once-through and closed cycle charge areas; cooling systems; therefore, plant design alternatives 4. Scouring and silting of bottom habitat near for the biological matrices acknowledge these varia- intake and discharge structures; tions. 338 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Similarly, the ecological role or relative importance tive or critical biological aspects of the site that need of each grouping varies from site to site. Some sites to be designed around. The following are examples of for example may have few or no important fish, or structures, systems, and plant outputs which could macrophytes, or may have poor substrate for sup- affect aquatic ecological conditions and for which porting benthic invertebrates. Groupings actually alternatives exist for modifying the potential im- selected for study at each site should be based on pacts: maximum thermal power output, locations of professional biological judgement. The life stage of a major structures, type of cooling water system, loca- particular group to be studied should depend on tion of access roads, rail lines, and transmission line specific site circumstances and the potential impacts rights-of-way, locations and designs of intake and to be evaluated. Thus the matrices present the high- discharge structures, and types of radiological, est level of information suggested for each organism chemical, and biocide waste discharge systems. grouping in relation to various survey stages. The Initial information must be available from the eco- purpose of the matrix is to serve only as a check list logical studies at the early baseline survey stage to be certain such groups are considered for possible so that such data can be used in a timely evaluation inclusion in studies, and it may frequently happen during preliminary engineering of the plant. The that study will show that some groups should be in- aquatic ecologist in charge of the baseline survey eluded, and that others have no credible link to a should consider, even on the basis of just a few specific proposed power plant project. months of data from the initial survey, what aquatic Consideration ought to be given to those organism aspects of the site are important to safeguard. groupings and important species within each which would be utilized to evaluate the aquatic community OPTIMIZING SEARCHES at a site. Important species or groups are those most FOR EXISTING DATA valuable and/or vulnerable by the criteria set by civilization, but presumably will include protection Finally, one must adress efficient solutions to the of maor fod-we pathays.Certanly t woud beFinally, one must adldress efficient solutions to the of major food-web pathways. Certainly it would be problems presently inherent in obtaining necessary unnecessary (and impossible) to study all or most biological information for environental eports biological information for environfniental reports species within each organism grouping at a site. from literature. Currently, it is not really possible to Species considered should be of commercial or keep up with the tremendous quantity of data, and recreational value, threatened with extinction, or interpretation, appearing each year in the published dominant at the specific site. If a species is essential technical literature, and very difficult to even learn to the maintenance of an important species it should what data have been collected but not published at also be considered. Important species should have all, or published only in the "grey" literature of in- some plausible relationship to power plant operation. formal or internal reports. Abundance or biomass of the species should be such One may first try to use available biological that sampling can occur without serious depletion literature research tools, such as BioAbstracts, Oce- of the organism population. Species selected would anic Index, et cetera, and within limits they are hopefully have taxonomic characteristics which rather easy to use, if one wants to locate information would facilitate accurate identification, either in very broad categories such as physiology, For those important species or organisms, detailed or taxonomy, or in very narrow categories such as studies may need to be conducted so plant-induced one specific organism. While these indexing categor- impacts can be estimated and separated from natural ies are quite helpful to research projects concerned variations. In the early survey stages preliminary with a single species, and perhaps a single aspect estimates should be made of the particular role of thereof, they are of extremely limited use to those each organism grouping, at the site under considera- who need to quickly and efficiently locate existing tion, in order to determine whether important species knowledge relating to a specific geographic location. are within the group. Following selection of a site, This then is a basic need of bio-environmentally greater consideration should be given to determining oriented scientists and engineers working with both important species and important organism group- industry and regulatory agencies. ings. A checklist of organisms likely to be especially It appears, however, that several potential solu- vulnerable to the specific stresses proposed should be tions are almost available; that is "almost available" developed. in the sense that they have been applied successfully Throughout all surveys, the site-plant design to similar purposes. evaluation should be performed through evaluation At least two computerized systems are now in use of site specific information. The purpose of this for storage and recovery of physical-chemical water evaluation is to note ecological information on sensi- quality data: The Environmental Protection Agency POWER PLANT EFFECTS 339 (EPA) STORET system and the National Ocean- assume of course that authors would cooperate, and ographic Data Center (NODC) files. In each of provide the needed information in the paper/report these a search can be conducted on the basis of (and in its abstract submitted for use of literature geographical location (and by chronology). The search tools). Once that habit was ingrained, the NODC data can be retrieved by Marsden Squares- addition of this one extra index would represent a each of which includes a large number of square very low cost to index services in absolute terms, let miles, but a size which is not inappropriate to the alone in relation to the benefits accrued in being relatively gentle gradients characterizing oceanic certain all relevant data are integrated into impact parameters. The EPA STORET system is accessible statements. If such geographic locators were to by specification of either geographic points (river- include latitude-longitude, in addition to a named mile, or latitude/longitude) or area (between river body of water (lake, ocean, watershed, river basin), miles indicated as up and downstream boundaries, or land area, utilization would be greatly enhanced or within a polygon each apex of which is indicated by the easier incorporation of references into the by latitude and longitude). The further ability to STORET/NODC type systems with a numerical sort the data chronologically to contrast recent vs. index access, without need for knowledge of the .older data, or to look for seasonal patterns, is a signif- name of each body of water or land area. icant additional aid to ecological analysis. Similar organization of air quality data by "air- Another major source of information, which also shed" would greatly enhance full use of existing needs improved indexing, is the vast compilation of knowledge in overall evaluation of more complete data in the variety of water-use permit applications: environmental interactions. NPDES, Section 316, and federal, 'state and local Thus the key to continued progress in making environmental impact statements. A comprehensive knowledgeable, realistic, and consistent evaluations index to these on a geographic locator system would on environmental impact lies with improving both be extremely valuable. the comprehensiveness of the data base available- Other major literature search services, e.g., Bio- at reasonable cost-and improving our ability to Abstracts, Oceanic Index, and the Smithsonian determine which data are indeed important to the Institution's Science Information Exchange, are set decision under consideration. up for "keyword" access searches. Only a negligible, relatively minor expense would REFERENCE be involved to ensure that a geographic locator, a keyword, or latitude-longitude specification, were Ebehardt, L. L. and It. O. Gilbert, "Environmental Impact used also in all papers/reports that relate to field Monitoring on Nuclear Power Plants, Section 3--Monitor- biological studies, or even those studies which utilie ing Methods, Part 9-Biostatistical Aspects," National ~~~~b~~~~Environmentlogical Studies, Project No. 4, Atomic Industrial organisms collected at field-locations. One must Forum, Inc., Washington, D.C. (1974) 181. THERMAL DISCHARGES AND ESTUARINE SYSTEMS JOSEPH A. MIHURSKY University of Maryland Solomons, Maryland ABSTRACT Interactions between steam electric station operations and estuarine aquatic systems are de- scribed. Environmental problem areas are discussed under two broad categories: (1) the predator role of a power plant in terms of larger organisms impinging upon water intake structures, or of effects on smaller organisms upon passage through cooling water condenser systems; and (2) the discharge water or plume impact on resident and migratory organisms in the receiving water. Biological damaging effects are described from many factors other than excess heat alone e.g., mechanical, biocides, et cetera. A number of siting and operating design options to achieve better compatibility are described. Integration of field and laboratory programs is urged at both national and regional levels. Present trends are reviewed. Four recommendations are made with regard to national and regional policies. Eleven recommendations are made with regard to research activities. INTRODUCTION c. A relatively large segment of the research community being reluctant to engage in Management, research and legislative concern applied research. with the environmental problem of excess heat pro- 2. Adherence to traditional economic-ecologic phi- duction from the electric generating industry have losophies or activities. spawned the development of many new terms in a. As stated by recent administrations in Wash- the last 10 years. Thermal pollution, thermal load- ington, energy independence and economic ing, thermal addition, thermal enrichment, and recovery are believed best achieved by re- calefaction are the more common ones now used. r axing environental concerns. This same period, especially the last five years, has b. External diseconomies are still permitted seen the production of numerous bibliographies, with regard to environmental losses, some- national and international symposia and workshop times because of an inability to factor en- volumes, review treatises, journal publications on vironmental values into economic input- basic and applied research results, legislative corn- output models mittee documents, "pre- and post-operative" survey reports, consultant reports, and environmental im- Thus, the man-environment excess heat problem pact statements, all in some manner pertinent to has not been solved, or resolved, and with regard to the problem caused by excess heat release due to an waterways, the volume of thermal discharges has activity of man. been increasing. In spite of the above described efforts, a consensus of opinion as to whether thermal discharges have significant environmental effects on a site or region WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? is difficult to obtain. This difficulty can be traced to a number of factors, among them: Although all excess heat must eventually enter the atmosphere, traditionally water has been used 1. Inadequacy of research data, attributed to: as a "middle man" to carry excess heat energy away a. The inability of field studies to overcome from steam electric stations (SES). Water's unique the "noise" in natural systems caused by characteristics have provided useful economic and inherent natural variations. engineering advantages to the electric utility indus- b. A lack of coordinated and well-designed in- try. These advantages have in turn been reported vestigations (both field and laboratory) of as disadvantageous to aquatic resources (see Clark a regional or national scope. We are still and Brownell (1973) for one such treatment). shot-gunning and not always asking the In general, for every 1 megawatt of electricity right questions. produced, 1.7 megawatts of heat are rejected by a 341 342 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL steam electric station, corresponding roughly to 33 chemistry of chlorine in seawater is imperfectly percent energy conversion efficiency for a typical known, information indicates that not only can fossil fuel plant (Engstrom, Bailey, Schrothe, and chlorine kill organisms but it can oxidize the organic Peterson, 1972a). New fossil fuel units achieve about component of bottom sediments and thus release 40 percent efficiency while nuclear units achieve absorbed heavy metals (Hill and Helz, 1973). These about 32 percent efficiency. A typical water require- effects, especially when combined with heavy metal ment for a 1000 MWel installation is about 1,500 releases from SES condenser systems due to erosion cubic feet per second. Taking into account differ- or corrosion (Leschber, 1972) can result in magnifier- ences in plant and stack heat losses, fossil fuel units concentrator organisms such as shellfish incorporat- reject about 4.2 X 109 BTU/hr., while nuclear units ing and accumulating excessive levels of metals and reject about 6.6 X 109 BTU/hr. to the condenser consequently being rendered unfit for human con- cooling water supply. Thus, average increases across sumption (Roosenburg, 1969). Becker and Thatcher condenser systems are 120F for fossil and 20�F for (1973) have produced a review publication entitled nuclear (Committee on Power Plant Siting, 1972). "Toxicity of Power Plant Chemicals to Aquatic Increasing size of single installations may require Life." This review discusses the various chemicals up to 50 square mile feet of water per day to be actually or potentially associated with power plants. pumped for condenser cooling purposes if open once- Eighteen chemical categories and over 125 separate pass systems are used to dissipate excess heat. En- chemicals are listed. viromnental concern with regard to excess heat in From an aquatic resource viewpoint, two major aquatic systems stems from the acknowledged role considerations are important when SES employ of temperature as the biological master factor in open, once-pass cooling systems (Figure 2). The these same systems (Kinne, 1963; Mihursky and first is the concept of the SES acting as a predator Kennedy, 1967). and "cropping" or consuming organisms, the so- called pumped-entrainment and/or pumped-entrap- ment effects. Thus, site selection, engineering designs OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF and operating characteristics for minimum biological OPEN ONCE-PASS COOLING SYSTEMS damage becomes critical under such circumstances OF STEAM ELECTRIC SYSTEMS PERTINENT TO BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS and the relative rates of destruction and recovery must be determined. If plant operations "crop-off" organisms at a rate faster than organisms can regen- Given on Figure 1 is a schematic of an open erate in open receiving systems, depletions in natural once-pass cooling water system used in a typical populations can be expected (Mihursky, 1969). steam electric station design. Included also are three The second consideration deals with discharge columns: (1) Design Parameter, (2) General Pref- plume effects on near-field and far-field biota. Dis- erence and (3) Ecological Basis. Although thermal charge plumes may have various physical configura- effects have gained the most attention as a possible tions depending upon the characteristics of the limiting factor of SES on biological systems, the receiving water body and the design and location above figure calls attention to a number of addi- of the discharge structure itself (Committee on tional features that may affect resident biota. Me- Power Plant Siting, 1972). Biological effects of chanical damage may occur to organi smas such as plumes are determined by the following factors: fish, crabs, cornbjellies, jellyfish, and salps that im- pinge on intake screening. Smaller organisms, e.g., 1. Temperature elevation phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish eggs and larvae, 2. Rates of temperature change that are pumped into and through the cooling water 3. Chemical characteristics system can be mechanically damaged from impinge- 4. Hydraulics ment on the ends of condenser tubes and from moving parts of pumps. These same "pumped- Abnormal migrations of mobile animal species into entrained" organisms can be subjected to pressure and away from discharge plumes (Elser, 1965; changes, turbulence (shearing forces) as well as to Moore, et al., 1972; Trembley, 1960) and occasional damaging effects from biocides such as chlorine massive kills (Alabaster and Downing, 1966; which are used to keep metal surfaces clean of Mihursky, 1969; Trembley, 1965;Wagenheim, 1972) fouling organisms (Coutant, 1970). under various seasonal and SES operating conditions Still other more complex consequences of SES are recognized facts. Positive as well as negative operations must be understood. One, for example, responses on the part of non-mobile benthic plant is the use of chlorine as a biocide. Although the and animal species are also known to occur (e.g., Anderson, 1969; Cory and Nauman, 1969; Nauman 1000 MW: 1,000,000 kilowatts of electricity. and Cory, 1969; Warinner and Brehmer, 1966). POWER PLANT EFFECTS 343 Steam Turbine Boi...,. .:::::::: lel [Rio ...Generator Boiler Condenser Discharge (Warmer) ----Water Source - -- - Heat . DESIGN PARAMETER GENERAL PREFERENCE ECOLOGICAL BASIS l.Intake design Behaviorally avoidable or Poorly designed intakes trap providesafe return to fish, crabs, etc. environment 2.Volume of water pumped Low (but site dependent) Numbers of organisms affected 3.Turbine backpressure Lowest feasible heat rates Lowest backpressure permit low temperature discharges to environment (7) highest feasible efficiencies *4.Temperature rise Site and season dependent Temperature-time relationships of effects 5.Length of cooling water Short (minimum transit time) Temperature-time relationships piping in plant of effects on entrained organisms 6.Length of transit to receiv- Short (minimum transit time) Temperature-time relationships ing waterway (canal or pipe- of effects, fish entrapment line) 7.Discharge location Beyond littoral contact Shoreline abundance of organisms (may be seasonal) 8.Discharge depth Semistratified plume Keep highest temperature water away from resident bottom organisms 9.Turbulence (exit velocity, High Temperature-time relationships port size or number) and areal extent of effects lO.Dilution (near field) High Plume entrainment, temperature- time relationship 11.Circulation (far field) High Temperature buildup for recircu- lation may change overall species composition *Subject to mutual trade-offs at specific sites. FIGURE I.-Schematic of once-pass cooling water design and a summary of cooling system design needs (from Committee on Power Plant Siting, 1972). SOME MAJOR (1) pumped-entrainment and entrapment (= pre- UNANSWERED QUESTIONS dation) and (2) discharge plume effects (= behav- ior, growth and reproduction), and many studies In brief, although the major interactions between have attempted to sort out biological responses and SES and aquatic environments can be reduced to identity limiting factors, no single study has really 344 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ORGANISMS NOT ENTRAINED BUT DEPENDENT ON SUSCEPTIBLE ORGANISMS STRIPED BASS IMMATURE AND MATURE ADULTS YOUNG-OF-THE YEAR (20DAYS- 1 YEAR) ' ' � , _ * '. STRIPEDBASS EGGS AND LARVAE STRIPED BASSPREY \ AND NO CROAKER OR YOUNG OF I MENHADEN EGGS) MENHADEN G# o ZOOPLANKTON < WHITE PERCH h H M i A CROAKER 40 SHRIMP 4P AND SPOT BLUE CRABS MACROPLANKTON MUD CRABS (WATER FLEAS. COPEPODS MYSIDS, ETC.} - SHRIMPANDMUDCRAB X PHYTOPLANKTON LARVAE AND YOUNG ORGANISMS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ENTRAINMENT FIGURE 2.-Potential power plant effects on striped bass and associated food items (from Bongers et al., 1972). answered the two most important questions: physical and chemical threshold levels for biological success at the species and com- 1. Regardless of whether biological community munity level. structure has been altered (different species mix or c. Determine sources, cycles and sinks of criti- different relative abundance of various species), is cal (or limiting) items, e.g., heavy metals, biological energy flow still going into the production biological energy and material flow. of a similar quantity of useful biological material as 2. Develop biogeographic maps of estuarine sys- occurred before any SES influence? tems, identifying the following for key species: 2. If concern is for one or more target species, are socially (= man's interest) acceptable sustained a. Quantitative seasonal and daily distribu- yields still produced within the estuarine system or tional patterns in both horizontal and ver- subsystem for the species in question? tical gradient systems for all life history stages. These questions are not easy to answer; however, b. Spawning areas. let us briefly examine some of the information that c. Nursery areas. should be acquired if -we seriously try to answer d. Over-wintering areas. them and thus manage the energy-ehvironment question from a scientific as opposed to a political, economic or emotional point of view. FIELD VERSUS LABORATORY RESEARCH 1. Develop a better understanding of the processes operative within estuaries. The importance of properly coordinated field and a. Understand the population dynamics of key laboratory programs cannot be overemphasized. De- estuarine organisms. velopment of typical information needed requires b. Determine limiting factors to a species' sue- considerable laboratory as well as field efforts to cess, e.g., predator-prey, host-disease, host- understand the processes operative within estuarine parasite relationships, food web relation- systems; biogeographic mapping must depend on ships (who eats what and how much), extensive field operations. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 345 The variability inherent in field data due to patch- iness in distribution of organisms both temporally Merca mrcenaria and spatially, will require one of two approaches: cleavage stages (l}.improve the design, sampling effort, and meth- odilogies to increase field quantification; or (2) / 10 assist judgements through the use of appropriately designed laboratory experiments. 80 Approach # 1 will add greatly to the cost of tra- ditional field studies. As an example, our present 4o program to understand the population dynamics of 2 one species, the striped bass, and the relationship to power production in the Potomac Estuary, Md'., required the following for 1974: Sub-program Staff Direct Costs Spawning stock assessment__ 8 $ 90,000 Ichthyoplankton ---------10 / 125,000 Hydrography --- --- 7 75,000 FIGURE 3.-Mercenaria mercenaria cleavage stages. Response surface generated from multiple regression analysis of per- 24 $S90,00 O centage mortality on temperature and time (from Kennedy et l1., 1974). If indirect costs are added, the total dollar expense would approximate $500,000 for a coordinated field Mercenarta mercenaria project that is attempting quantification for a single trochophore larvae fish species. As-another example, Carpenter's (1974) recent analysis of the number of zooplankton field samples needed to' accurately- quantify the com- munity at a single station for a single collection date at the 5 percent confidence level was over 300 discrete samples! Carpenter's work also is being applied to power plant investigations. Such large o field efforts are not always possible due to limited funds or staff. 0 Lack of statistically valid field quantification forces one to resort to judgements. Such judgements can be greatly improved if laboratory studies, co- > ordinated with field programs, are permitted to assist in decision making. In many cases, laboratory . I B. programs can provide exceptional insight and in- formation at modest cost. For examples recent laboratory work on time-temperature mortality FIGURE 4.-Mercenaria mercenaria trochophore larvae. Re- experiments on egg and larval stages of some estu- sponse surface as in Fig. 3 (from Kennedy et al., 1974). arine shellfish species (Kennedy, et al.j 1974) re- quired the direct capital outlay of less than $2,000/ SOME EXAMPLES OF SITING year. Indirect costs (inhouse salaries) were less than AND ENGINEERING DESIGN OPTIONS $30,000/year. This latter,. work singled out various temperatures and time exposure combinations neces- From an aquatic resource viepoint, SES sites sary for survival (Figures 3, 4, and 5). Such data should be selected on the basis of two considerations: sary for survival (Figures 3, 4, and 5). Such data (1) Avoid sites that are environmentally vulnerable cannot be acquired under field conditions; however, to SES activity; (2) Locate in estuarine areas that they are useful and necessary to be incorporated have environmental and biological flexibility to into population dynamics studies, pumped-entrain- accept. SES operations. In order to achieve the ment effects and development of engineering designs above one must first have adequate knowledge of and operating characteristics of SES. the biogeography of the region and understand the 346 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 1970). Thus, if a given volume of water must be utilized or sacrificed, lesser biological damage per straight- hinge larvae unit volume of water would occur as one progresses from the lowest to the highest (oceanic end) salinity V.,oo reaches. Concurrently, SES engineering design and opera- / tional characteristics must factor in other biological / / \information to avoid damaging effects on existing biota: 1. Multiple intake and outfall options must be considered for any given site. A surface water intake may be desirable in the daytime when plankton are concentrated in bottom waters, while a bottom night-time intake location may be desirable when plankton organisms tend to migrate to surface waters (Figure 7). Such strategies are capable of minimiz- ing pumped-entrainment of planktonic organisms. FIGURE 5.-Mercenaria mercenaria straight-hinge larvae. Re- Similarly, an offshore deepwater intake may be opti- sponse surface as in Fig. 3 (from Kennedy et al., 1974). mum in summer while a nearshore shallow intake may be optimum in winter due to temperature and processes responsible for maintaining its biological water quality advantages as well as differences in integrity and utility. For example, within the Chesa- distributional patterns of organisms. peake system the striped bass is an extremely impor- 2. Volume of cooling water pumped can be manip- tant commercial and recreational species providing ulated in order to increase or decrease temperature social and economic value to the region. The species' elevations or the number of pumped-entrained or- spawning sites have been identified (Fig. 6) and ganisms. This approach may have value if mechan- are recognized as important geographic areas that ical or shearing forces are limiting, rather than seasonally contain concentrations of critical life temperature. Under these circumstances, minimizing history stages of this species. water volume pumped can minimize cropping below A number of such critical estuarine zones can be limiting levels for planktonic organisms. On the identified and located. Similarly, within the Chesa- other hand, if an absolute temperature is limiting peake system, oyster growing areas, and areas of to a site, and "spreading it thin" is possible without important "seed" or spat production have been other limiting factors operative, then simply increase described. Protection of this extremely important pumping volumes. economic species dictates that areas of high seed 3. Similarly, if biocide use for cleaning purposes production not be encroached upon by industrial is limiting (Becker and Thatcher, 1973), dilution operations requiring large volumes of water for proc- may be one solution; however, use of mechanical ess purposes. The oyster management program in cleaning devices such as recycled sponge or brush the bay system depends on redistribution of the balls in condenser systems are decidedly to the spat from these areas of high production, but slow advantage of the biota. growth, to other areas of low or no production, but 4. Manipulation of discharge plume characteristics high growth. (Committee on Power Plant Siting, 1972) has de- Certain environmental flexibilities can be recog- cided biological advantages. Where important, one nized within estuarine systems if one appreciates may wish to (a) keep the plume in surface waters their basic characteristics. For example, greater in order to avoid impingement on important benthic volumes of water (mass flow) move by a point in species, (b) minimize surface to bottom gradients an estuary as one proceeds from the low salinity so as not to interfere with diurnal vertical migration inland reaches to the higher salinity, oceanic end. patterns (Gehrs, 1974), (c) maximize high grade Thus more water is available for dilution purposes. heat zone, or (d) maximize low grade heat zones. Biologically speaking, along this same salinity gra- 5. Alternation of cooling systems to accommodate dient (from low to high salinities) the biological the biota also has utility. Critical and entrainable value of a given cubic meter of water seems to early life history stages may be present at a site decrease, e.g., primary production rates decrease, only for one or two months (Figure 8); at such time quantities of fish eggs and larvae decrease (Dovel, an SES could switch from an open once-pass cooling POWERn PLANT EFFECTS 3417 77.T N o -W - - po -.- - _ 70073 76,00, -Chesapeake --B a _ Region SUSQUEH4ANNA - H~~~~~~~~I: RA~~~~~~~~~~~HP NKNN N~~ATUTIAXIE IERSANINTRA LA...j OF THE STRIPED BASS~~~~~~~~~~C P2O5 ?700'~ ~ ~ ~~R CDPJ7OO,73 70 FIGSI 6.flstibuio o stipd assspwnng res n te he apek a ein. 348 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION #2, 17-18 MAY 1974, WHITE PERCH LARVAE- POST- FINFOLD STAGE PERCENT: 50 50 50 0 50 50 . 50 50 0 50 50 0 50 50 0 50 surface mid - bottom? 7 - TIME: ' 0700 1100 :' 1500 1900 2300 0300 , 2 LU0, . INCIDENT l 0.29 1.17 1.14 0.26. 0 0 {LANGLEYS/Min RADIATION 1 I . I . I I I I TIDE: E F HS F F E FIGURE 7.--ite diagrams giving percent vertical distribution of white perch larvae (post-finfold stage) at a single station in the Potomac Estuary over a 24-hour period. system to a closed or semi-closed one to minimize Hinamon, Metz and Maugh, 1973). Landsberg (1970) indicated that increases in per capita consumption has damage. accounted for 90 percent of electric generation since 1940. It seems that in spite of possible changes in life PRESENT TRENDS styles, and consequent energy use and consumption patterns, substantial growth demands for electricity Many projections have been made on regional, national and world-wide energy needs. The increase P..r. STRIPED BASS EGGS in our national energy demand curve has been im- - 28 pressive. Exactly what our growth will be in view of recent energy supply developments is difficult to - . I ascertain. The recent discussion by Mihursky and 20 Cronin (1973) gives one prediction: / Based on 1960 estimates of U.S. population of 300 million by 2000 A.D., energy usage per capita is expected to increase some 250 percent, and electrical energy is " / ,i..0 -Igg 'o expected to increase by 1,350 percent in the same period .3 (Figures 9 and 10). Electrical energy use is projected to , / .20 5 go from 24 percent of the national energy consumption .-o total in 1970 to 34 percent in 1980, 42 percent by 1990 (Anon, 1970) and to 52 percent by 2000 (Jaske, 1970). . F.b .r Apr I. J.un July A.cg S.pt 0o Now oDe However,... Lees (1971) stated that.. . even assuming near zero population growth, a drop to one half of the present rate of growth in individual wealth, and a corre- FIGURE 8.-Percent weekly abundance of striped bass eggs sponding 50 percent reduction in the current rate of in Potomac Estuary for 1974 plotted against total hours of increase in power use in the next decade, U.S. consump- sunlight and 20 year average surface water temperature at tion of electricity will still triple by 19901 (See also Solomons, Md. POWER PLANT EFFECTs 349 s600- I will continue. Present methods of electricity produc- tion still require large volumes of water for excess data based on reference 2 heat dissipation. Examination of alternative elec- tricity production schemes for the near term (to of 500- year 2000) and long term (after year 2000) is pos- sible. Table 1 lists information on electrical power generating technologies and presents data and esti- C 400- /TOTAL ENERGY mates for three categories: (1) present systems such as hydroelectric, fossil and nuclear fueled SES, and 400 : /OTAL ENERGY gas turbines; (2) developing systems for the short term (1970-2000) such as breeders, magneto-hydro- dynamics, and geothermal; and (3) developing sys- 1 � tems for the long term (after year 2000) such as thermoelectricity, fusion, and -solar. In summary, - 200- the major energy conversion systems presently em- ployed and available for the near term (to year 2000) ,,, z dictate that great quantities of waste heat will be 00 - ELECTRICAL ENERGY / discharged into our environment. The next question is where -and how the waste heat should be discharged. Recent studies evaluating waste heat assimilation capacities of various river o 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 basins of the U.S. as determined by limitations FIGURE 9.-Per capita energy use by decades through 2000 imposed by present state water quality standards, A.D. (from Jaske, 1970). conclude that much of these existing water resources are insufficient to cool on a once through basis, the 200- anticipated growth in the electrical generating in- / CRESIDOMMENRCIAL/ dustry (Engstrom, et al., 1972a, b). CIMMERCIaLa beoFIt seems, therefore, that SES siting efforts by data based on FPC industry will continue towards larger water bodies projections and on INDUSTRIAL* such as the Great Lakes, estuaries, coastal and reference 2 nearshore coastal zones. Recent rulings by the En- 150- /vironmental Protection Agency (1974) with regard to the possible use of cooling systems other than TRANSPORTATION once-pass, e.g., cooling towers, has recently added - '// / * �excluding Table L.-Estimated reduction In striped bass young of the year* electrical // consumption Percentage Reduction According to Flow Year Simulated m 100- 1949 1955 1964 1967 1968 1969 1970 CONDITION No plants (base) ..... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 REJECT Danskammer .-.... 5.9 4.5 10.5 6.7 1.8 3.4 4.8 HEAT Lovett50 .... EE... ett12.4 16.0 9.5 9.7 4.5 15.6 15.1 50 - /� I \ELEC. GEN. Bowline ....-....... 13.9 18.4 10.6 9.7 21,9 22.6 18.5 Roseton, Danskammer 15.1 12.2 23.7 16.9 5.3 9.4 12.8 /' / IP 1 & 2 -........ 32.9 42.8 25.6 26.8 14.4 41.7 39.9 / ELECTRICAL Ret Dnkmer, - ~ENERGY P Lovett, Bowline... 37.1 40.9 40.4 33.3 29.2 41.5 40.5 PRODUCED .. r. i, Roseton, Danskammer, 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 IP 1 & 2, Lovett, Bowline,..-...... 55.4 64.0 54.4 48.7 38.2 63.8 61.4 FIGURE 10.-Projected total energy demand in U.S. (from Jaske, 1970). * Assuming flow conditions similar to the year specified. 350 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL another dimension to the economic and engineering R -2C7 Hollrs - - RIVER CONDENSERS EFFLUENT CANAL RIVER aspects of SES construction and siting by the --- ---- - . industry. As presently stated: With respect to any point source otherwise subject to TEMPERATURE CHANGES the provisions of section 301 or section 306 of this Act, /'+6esc-- 1/2 whenever the owner or operator of any such source, ,_".s after the opportunity for a public hearing, can demon- / strate to the satisfaction of the Administrator (or, if A appropriate, the State) that any effluent limitation pro- AMBIENT posed for the control of the thermal component of any discharge from such source will require effluent limita- FIGURE 11.-Cooling water system design, temperature tions more stringent than necessary to assure the pro- changes and discharge time for the Chalk Point SES on tection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous the Patuxent Estuary. population of shellfish, fish, and wildlife in and on the body of water into which the discharge is to be made, the Administrator (or, if appropriate, the State) may impose an effluent limitation under such sections for Scheme two (Figure 12) is the design of a new such plant, with respect to the thermal component of such discharge (taking into account the interaction of such thermal component with other pollutants), that cooler and deeper zones (30-50 ft.) and water trans- will assure the protection and propagation of a balanced port time is 15 minutes from intake to the estuary. indigenous population of shellfish, fish and widlife in and on that body of water. Ambient temperature estuarine water is added im- mediately on the discharge side of the condenser in order to augment temperature reduction. Maximum The final operating procedure may or may not temperature differential between intake and outfall require a greater use of alternate cooling systems water is designed to be 5.2�C and the summer dis- such as cooling towers, than as had been required charge maximum is designed to be approximately in the past. Many alternate wet-evaporative cooling 32.2�C, which is about equal to the maximum methods require considerably less water than open reached by surface waters in the bay under natural once-pass systems (_2 percent) ; however, chemical conditions. The above conditions meet the new discharges are increased from blow-down cleaning state water temperature standards. In addition, con- of cooling towers (Becker and Thatcher, 1973). denser cleaning is assisted by using sponge rubber Hence, in estuarine systems the investigator may balls forced through the cooling system. Scheme have a new task to contend with, namely, cycles, two has less effects on entrained organisms than sinks and biological responses to a large array of scheme one. chemical compounds. The existing temperature isotherms for a cross The interaction between the electric utility indus- section of the Chesapeake Bay for a typical summer try and biologists is expected to continue. In- day are given in Figure 13. Notice that the hottest creasingly, industry will continue to develop less temperatures occur at the surface and on the shelf damaging operations in response to biological and zone. SES have typically pumped cooling water environmental data. from this shallow shelf zone, the zone that naturally Examples of such improvements are given in is the hottest during the summer. In the Chesapeake Figures 11 and 12, which are schematic illustrations Bay a number of important animal species are at of water intake and discharge arrangements of two SES on tidal arms of the Chesapeake Bay in Mary- land. These illustrations indicate temperature eleva- <- 1 5 Minutes .> tion patterns and transport times of cooling water RIVER EAFFEL CONDENSERS EFFLUENT CANAL RIVER from point of intake to point of discharge into the ............ estuary. Scheme one (Figure 11) reflects an old Rwae ... design (built in the early 1960's) that has summer TTOM temperature elevations across the condensers of TEMPERATURE CHANGES 6.5�C and a transport time from intake to discharge +51oC in the estuary of 2.7 hours. Discharge temperatures /- Tempering to32.20C reached nearly 38�F, within the old water quality AMBLENT standards of the state. The recessed cooling water BOTTOMWATER intake is located in a relatively shallow shelf zone. FIGURE 12.-Cooling water system design, temperature This installation used chlorine to keep heat exchange changes and discharge time for the Morgantown SES on the surfaces clean of fouling organisms. Potomac Estuary. POWER ~PLANT EFFECTS 351 92400 918T 908 848E 818P 1652A 92s 914ST 904N 50 34G 13D 804C 744 724R 7$0 657 6~~~~26 7 26 li2@ ted 284 / 0 628/ ITEMPERATURE (DC) SECTION 3-a JULY I TO AUG.3,1949 -:93 3'"0' 3900' 38 30' 38'00' 37 30 FIGURE 13.-Various temperature isotherms in a cross section of the Chesapeake Bay (from Whaley and Hopkins, 1952). their southernmost limit of distribution on the east of and response to environmental vulnerabilities and coast, e.g., the soft shell clam. Its southern dis- flexibilities. tribution appears to be limited by high natural The field of ecology is also gaining in sophistication temperatures, and any relatively small heat addition by developing predictive models with regard to pro- in its shallow shelf zone habitat can therefore have posed environmental modifications. Figure 15 is one detrimental effects (Kennedy and Mihursky, 1971). such thermal-biotic predictive model for an estuarine It has been observed that below about 40 feet in system developed for use in the Chesapeake Bay. depth the bay system between Annapolis and the The model presents optimal and sub-optimal summer mouth of the Rappahannock (Figure 14) tends to temperature levels for the bay animal community. become deficient in oxygen during the summer, and Figure 16 presents a model that describes the as a result probably contains fewer organisms than flexible temperature zone existing for bay species for surface waters. Waters from these cooler depths the various seasons. From the maximum allowable may be useful as an industrial cooling water supply temperature elevation line (MATE-dotted line) in summer. A new nuclear SES is locating in the one is able to predict the maximum increase in tem- bay midsection (Figure 14, arrow) and will pump perature that will still permit optimum functioning in a cooling water supply from a depth of 28 to 40 and production of the bay ecosystem throughout feet. This same installation will also have a short the year (Mihursky and others, 1974). intake-discharge passage time (about 4 minutes) Biological data and analysis will continue to pro- and will use sponge balls for cleaning condenser vide sound guidance to the establishment of proper tubes instead of chlorine. A number of design deci- water quality criteria and standards pertinent to sions have been made that reflect a certain awareness thermal discharges. Coutant's (1972) recent review 352 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Chesap~ake BOY SCALE INVUTICAL M`L A SALTIM R CRUISE I TEMPERATUR~E (C)AT 40'P > JULY I TO AUG.3, 1949 - FIGUR 14.-Forty-foot dPthaes(nwie nteCeaek a n xsigwtrtmeATUre.ArwXidct ENT lctos(RomHpIVsadWaER 92 POWER PLANT EFFECTS 353 (SUMMER- CONDITION based on natural resource interests. In addition, Sp o.jo. .efco considerable reliance is still being placed upon in- o100 -L .. .........dustry's data, or analysis and interpretation by ") Spe,.swbhn"pi"la.".'\ *- their consultants in 'describing "effects" and their - J 7 5 U - mp e o ureren~ e \ \, / <"s i g n i f i ca n c e . " U 5 - U' \ ' / � x- i \ Lo yntlm RECOMMENDATIONS-POLICY /\ \/'., 25 - t " . Everyone now recognizes that we have had in the Spenies in sub-optimol, ,K / '' -/ .I / >, . ., past, two important unwritten national policies with ..... , .--- -' , i-<., regard to energy and water. Namely, that both 70 75 80 85 90 95 oo00 105 o F shall be abundant and cheap. It is quite clear that 21 27 32 38 43 'C our growing inability to provide our human popula- tion with cheap and abundant energy and water is FIrGRE 15.-Thermal-biotic predictive model for an estuarine forcing changes in our conceptual and operational system (summer condition). strategies. . National and regional energy policies must be entitled "Biological Aspects of Thermal Pollution established. Obviously we must establish energy II. Scientific Basis for Water Temperature Stand- priorities and sound energy use policies National and regional management strategies should dictate ards at Power Plants" is an excellent example of that we meet legitimate social objectives by means such guidance. of least energy use pathways. Regional thermal Another continuing and unfortunate trend is that loading should not exceed thresholds that cause un- the initiative for selecting SES sites is still residing wanted natural resource or climatological responses. with the electric utility industry. State and federal . The objective of achieving a quality environment management and regulatory agencies are still re- in order to achieve a quality society should not be sponding to industry's initiatives that are often. not compromised. Recent commentary that we cannot afford to maintain necessary environmental quality 50 63 86 - FO standards fails to incorporate all hidden costs and , 0 mI x F+ is an improper conclusion. C . Federal and Estate' management and regulatory LD50 max .9 '. agencies must maintain a high level of internal expertise "o \ '"',LD50min in order to assess and evaluate actual or proposed E 30 M.ATE. 86 environmental changes. Reliance must not rest solely ' ,, a. - upon the resource user to design studies, gather, and _ X \ ". Ievaluate data. c O 20 \ 63 � Initiative and guidance for siting and operation cp .a X \of SES must emit from agencies having national or regional responsibilities, and step by step methodologies must be followed in order to achieve siting and operating 10, -X .. \ 50 of SES with the best environmental fits. The Water Working Group of the Committee on Power Plant X"' ' a 1968 "Md. Law- Siting (1972) illustrated in a schematic fashion o i I*.. N \ (Figure 17), and discussed in some detail, the types 0 of procedures to follow. Their recommendations are C0�.. 10 20 30 still valid. Ambient or Acclimation Temp.- RECOMMENDATIONS--RESEARCH FIGURE 16.-Summary of laboratory TLm testing on estu- arine organisms. Individual lines have been omitted and only It is quite clear that we must proceed to manage the extreme (minimum and maximum) TLm slopes are ourselves from an objective scientific basis, more so plotted. The "old" and "new" (1968) Maryland temperature than ever before. Environmental costs and benefits standards are also plotted. M.A.T.E. is the predicted maxi- mum allowable temperature elevation permitted to protect are indeed social costs and benefits. Objective deci- estuarine species. sions must be based on quantitative data, with "all 354 ESTUTARINE POLLUTION CONTROL estuarine systems. Such mapping can provide dy- namic regional impressions of priority resource char- NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY acteristics. Lippson's (1973) recent atlas of the major natural resources of the Maryland portion of the Chesapeake Bay is an excellent example of one such effort. NATIONAL SITING POLICY a Management and research dealing with thermal discharges should be based on natural estuarine biotic zones. The Water Working Group of the Committee on Power Plant Siting (1972) proposed the following REGIONAL PLAN zones: 1. Canadian border to Cape Cod. 2. Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. 3. Cape Hatteras to Ft. Lauderdale, Fla. MATRIX OF SITING AREAS 4. Fort Myers to the Mexican border. 1. Ocean 4. Lake 5. Mexican border to Point Conception. 2. Estuary 5. Reservoir 6. Point Conception to Canadian border. 3. River 6. Cooling Pond 7. Coast of Alaska-probably should be two or three zones. 8. Tropical islands and tip of Florida south of a line from Fort Lauderdale to Fort Myers. SPECIFIC AREA A list of important species should be determined for each estuarine zone in order to establish priority of target species for which critical data are to be developed. Important species must meet one or more of the SPECIFIC SITE following criteria: 1. Important as a commercial species. I-- 2. Important as a recreational species. SPECIFIC DESIGN 1 3. Important in biological energy flow. SPECIFIC__________DESIGN_____I 4. Present in large biomass. 5. Unique, e.g., for research, aesthetic value, endangered. OPERATION � Quantitative data must be provided concerning population dynamics of these important estuarine species. Information should at least include the following: FIGURE 17.-Flow diagram for power plant siting considera- 1. Quantitative estimates of numerical abun- tions (after Committee on Power Plant Siting, 1972). dance, as well as location of various life history stages, from eggs to adult. the cards on the table." Future generations should 2. Estimates of natural mortality rates for each not resent our present decisions due to our lack of life history stage. 3. Longevity times for each life history stage honest objectivity in meeting legitimate social goals. I L - Basic research activity must be maintained, e.g., and generation time (egg to egg) for each important species. the process important in estuarine systems must be import ant specie- 4. Minimum numbers of spawning stock re- understood. In order to factor in proposed perturba- quired to produce the next generation at tions! due to SES operations, a full quaitfitative some desirable sustained yield. understanding must be achieved as to how estuaries 5. Second order effects on population dynam- function. ics from any altered predator-prey, host- * Biogeographical mapping must be completed for parasite, host-disease changes in the system. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 355 * It must be determined whether cropping rates Table 2.-Electrical power generating technologies (after Anon., 1972) from SES activity on these various life history stages are interfering with production of a desirable sustained Method of Generation Cooling Water Total Capacity yield of the important species. SES site and operational BTU (KWH Year 2000 speCific, pumped-entrapment and pumped-entrain- PRESENT SYSTEMS ment studies, must be coupled with laboratory experimentation to assess what, if any, cropping Hydroelectric (Conventonal& Pumped rates may be assigned to specific SES operating Storage) ..- ---------�..... 0 5 sites and to specific operational conditions. Fossil Fuel -..... ... 3,900 10-20 * Quantitative biological responses to physical and Shale Oil, Coal Gasification & Coal Liquiica- chemical changes attributable to near and far-field dis- tion (new fossil fuel) ...- . .... ... 3,900 10-15 charge plume characteristics must be acquired. Behav- Internal Comb. Eng.................... 0 <1 ioral, growth, and reproductive responses of species must be determined. Gas Turbine 0 <1 * The effects of entrainment and plume characteris- Topping G. T. w/Waste Heat Boiler ..- <1 ics on biological energy flow in estuarine systems must Light Water Reactors -.... ... - 6,600 30-40 be evaluated. Basic information on who eats who DEVELOPING SYSTEMS FOR THE and how much, i.e., bioconversion, must be devel- SHORT TERM (1970-2000) oped. In the final analysis, from a management viewpoint, changes in species composition or relative Gas Cooled Reactors - -4,800 10-20 abundance may not be as important as maintaining Nuclear Breeders --4,500 10-15 desirable quantities of energy flow into useful species. Fuel Cells-- 0 <5 . Regional physiological-ecology facilities must be EGD established to carry out much needed studies under controlled laboratory conditions. Single variate and MHD ---- 0 <5 multi-variate experiments must be performed in MHD Topping Cycles --...... . .. 1,700 <5 order to assist in evaluating the effects of physical Geothermal <1 and chemical changes proposed by SES operations DEVELOPING SYSTEMS FOR THE upon behavior, growth, and reproduction of impor- LONG TERM (AFTER 2000) tant species. Such laboratory studies should also determine optimum and sub-optimum environmen- tal conditions for a species. Thermoionic 0 * The above developed estuarine field and laboratory Fusion small 0 data must be used to produce biostat models, e.g., pre- olar <1 dictions as to what conditions are to be maintained in order to produce desirable crops, i.e., sustained yields. Although Goodyear (1973) has come under some has already been said that should or could be stated. criticism, his attempt to predict the effects of various The challenge is to affect priorities, procedures or SES on the Hudson River estuary upon striped bass policy, traditionally a difficult task for environmen- yields (Table 2) was an excellent pioneering effort. tally oriented interests in our society. He has conceptually pointed the way. . Quantitative biostat predictions must be converted to some economical equivalent to permit incorporation REFERENCES into regional and ecosystem input-output models in order to assist decision makers in establishing ecosystem Alabaster, J. S. and A. L. Downing. 1966. A field and labora- tory investigation of the effects of heated effluents on fish. strategies and objectives. (Cumberland, 1966). Fishery Invest., London, Ser. I 6(4) :1-42. Anderson, R. R. 1969. Temperature and rooted aquatic CONCLUSIONS plants. Chesapeake Sci. 10:157-164. The tasks outlined above are substantial and Anon. 1972. Water use and management aspects of steam electric power generation. NWC-EES-72-046. Report to costly; their completions however, will have impor- the National Water Commission prepared by the consulting tant spin-off value to many other resource manage- panel on waste heat. Nat. Tech. Info. Ser. Springfield, Va. ment and regulatory problems. Many of the major Becker, C. D. and T. O. Thatcher. 1973. Toxicity of power points made in the text have been made before. plant chemicals to aquatic life. Battelle Memorial Institute, Indeed one gains the impression that everything Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Wash. 356 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Bongers, L. H., W. F. Furth, A. J. Lippson and H. J. Obrem- Hammond, A. L., W. P.& Metz and T. H. Maugh II. 1973. ski. 1972. An aquatic program strategy-power plant siting Energy and the future. American Association for the Ad- program. Research Institute for Advanced Studies. Martin vancement of Science. Marietta Corp., Baltimore, Md. Hill,; J. M. and G. R. Helz. 1973. Copper: and zinc in estuarine Carpenter, E. 1974. Copepod and Chlorophyll a concentra- waters near a coal-fired electric power plant-correlation tions in receiving waters of a nuclear power station and with oyster greening. Environ. Letters. 5'165-174. problems associated with their measurements. Estuarine and Coastal Mar. Sci. 2:83-88. Jaske, R. T. 1970. Thermal pollution and its treatment-the Clark, J. and Brownell. 1973. Electric power plants in the implication of unrestricted energy usage with suggestions for moderation of the impact (Mimeo). Paper for presenta- coastal zone: environmental issues. American Littoral tion and publication in session notes of Environmental Society, Publ. No. 7. Highlands, N. J. Management for Industry and Government training course sponsored by -the Industrial Management Center Inc., Committee on Power Plant Siting. 1972. Working Group Austin, Tex., 1970'-71 sessions. l(b) Environmental Protection: Water. pp. 81-150. In: Engineering for Resolution of the Energy-Environment Kennedy, V. S. and J. A. Mihursky. 1971. Upper temperature Dilemma. National Academy of Engineering. Wash., D.C. tolerances of some estuarine bivalves. Chesapeake Sci. 1972. 12:193-204. Cory, R. L. and J. W. Nauman. 1969. Epifauna and thermal Kennedy V. S., . H. Roosenburg, M. Castagna and J. A. additions in the upper Patuxent Estuary. Chesapeake Sci. Mihursky. 1974. Mercenaria mercenari Catagna and bi A 10:210-217. valvia): Temperature time relationships for survival of embryos and larvae. Fish. Bull. 72:1160-1166. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Biological aspects of thermal pollution. I. Entrainment and discharge canal effects. C.R.C. Critical Kinne, 0. 1963. The effects of temperature and salinity on Reviews in Environmental Control. 1 (3) :341-381. marine and brackish water animals. I. Temperature. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 1:301-340. Coutant, C. C. 1972. Biological aspects of thermal pollution. II. Scientific basis for water temperature standards at power plants. C.R.C. Critical Reviews in Environmental Landsberg H. E. 1970. Man-made clmat changes. Sci. Control. August, 1972. Lees, L. and others. 1971. People, power pollution, environ- Cumberland, J. H. 1966. A regional interindustry model for mental and public nterest aspects of electric power plant analysis of development objectives. Regional Sci. Assoc. siting EL Rept # 1. Calif. Inst. of ech.,c p ower plant Papers. 17:65-95. Qual. Laboratory, Pasadena. Dovel, W. L. 1971. Fish eggs and larvae of the upper Chesa- Leschber, E. W. 1972. Premature failure of type 316 stainless peake Bay. Univ. of Md. Natural Resources Institute Spec. steel condenser tubing in brackish water. (Mimeo). Pre- Rept. # 4. sented at the American Society for Metals (ASM) Show and Materials Engineering Congress. Clev. Ohio. Oct. 17-19, Elser, H. J. 1965. Effects of a warmed-water discharge on 1972. angling in the Potomac River, Md., 1961-1962. Prog. Fish. Cult. 27(2) :79-86. Lippson, A. J. (Ed.) 1973. The Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, an atlas of natural resources. The Johns Hopkins Univ. Engstrom, S. L., G. F. Bailey, P. M. Schrothe and D. E. Press. Baltimore, Md. Peterson. 1971a. Thermal effects of projected power growth: North Atlantic River basins. HEDL-TME 72-141. Han- ford Engineering Development Laboratory, Richland, and Recommendhursk A. 1969ns. Patuxeniv. Tof erMd Natural Resources Wash. Institute Spec. Publ. #1. Engstrom, S. L., G. F. Bailey, P. M. Schrothe and D. E. Mihursky J. A. and L. E. Cronin. 1973. Balancing needs Peterson. 1972b. Thermal effects of projected power growth: of fisheries and energy production. Proc. Thirty-eighth South Atlantic and Gulf Coast River basins. HEDL-TME North American Wildlife and Na tural Resources Con- 72-131. Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory, ference. Wash., D.C. Richland, Wash. Mihursky, J. A. and V. S. Kennedy. 1967. Water tempera- Gehrs, C. W. 1974. Vertical movement of zooplankton in ture criteria to protect aquatic life. In: Symposium on response to heated cwater. In:0Thermal Ecology.at.rupo- ture criteria to protect aquatic life. In: Symposium on response to heated water. In: Thermal Ecology. Sympo- water quality criteria. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub. 4:20-32. slum Proceedingsfield, Va.CONF-730505 Nat. Tech. Info. erv. Mihursky, J. A. and others. 1974. The thermal requirements Goodyear, C. P. 1973. Probable reduction in survival of and tolerances of key estuarine organisms. Tech. Rept. Goodyear, of the year stripbasse intheHudson Rviveras a No. 26. Water Resources Research Center, University of young of the year striped bass in the Hudson River as a Maryland, College Park, Md. consequence of the operation of Danskammer, Roseton, Indian Point Units 1 and 2, Lovett and Bowline steam electric generating stations. (Mimeo) U.S. Atomic Energy Moore, C. J., G. A. Stevens, A. J. McErlean and H. H. Commission. Hearings on Consolidated Edison Company's Zion. 1973. A sport fishing survey in the vicinity of a steam Indian Pt. nuclear generating unit No. 2, Docket No. electric station on the Patuxent Estuary, Md. Chesapeake 50-247. Sci. 14:160-170. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 357 Nauman, J. W. and R. L. Cory. 1969. Thermal additions and Problems in Water Pollution. 3rd. Seminar, Aug. 1962. epifaunal organisms at Chalk Point, Md. Chesapeake Sci. PHS Publ. No. 999-WP-25 pp. 334-345. 10:218-226. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. Proposed Roosenburg, W. H. 1969. Greening and copper accumulation guidelines for administration of the 316(a) regulations. in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the vicinity Draft. of a steam electric generating station. Chesapeake Sci, 10(344) :241-252. Wagenheim, K. 1972. Oyster Creek fish kill. Smithsonian Trembley, F. J. 1960. Research project on effects of condenser Institution, Center for short-lived phenomena. Event 7-72, discharge water on aquatic life. Prog. Rept. 1956-59. 26 Oct., 1972. Institute of Research, Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa. Warinner, J. E. and M. L. Brehmer. 1966. The effects of Trembley, F. J. 1965. Effects of cooling water from steam thermal effluents on marine organisms. Int. J. Air Water electric power plants on stream biota. In: Biological Pollut. 10:277-289. EFFECTS OF THERMAL DISCHARGES UPON AQUATIC ORGANISMS IN ESTUARINE WATERS WITH DISCUSSION OF LIMITING FACTORS LOREN D. JENSEN Ecological Analysts, Inc. Baltimore, Maryland ABSTRACT A descriptive summary of both thermal and nonthermal power plant effects is presented with an attempt to provide an insight into the total ecological impact of power generating stations operat- ing in estuarine systems. Specific effects of thermal and other plant associated stresses are sum- marized for aquatic organisms exposed to a range of time and temperature exposures resulting from once-through cooling systems. This review presents specific summaries of representative case his- tories of thermal effects in east coast, gulf coast, and west coast estuarine systems with an attempt to identify regional characteristics that may influence the response of aquatic populations to therma! effluents. INTRODUCTION FREQUENCY OF DATA COLLECTION PROCESSES Considerable attention has been given to the Considerable attention has been given to the Biological monitoring programs have been used effects of thermal elevations in the condenser cooling for the past 10 to 12 years to assess the influence of for the past 10 to 12 years to assess the influence of system upon aquatic organisms exposed to the dis- thermal discharges upon surface waters used in charges for once-through cooling systems. Certainly, the condenser cooling systems of both fossil and much of this concern is justified on the basis that nuclear power plants. Initially, studies were limited aquatic organisms are vulnerable to physiological in both biological scope and frequency, stimulating shock caused by such exposures. Indeed, thermal considerable confusion and debate over the value of deaths have occurred and short of outright death, individual data programs. Although such studies considerable stress has been detected within surviv- were intended to monitor effects from specific power ing members of individual species populations. While plant systems, necessary plant operational fluxes we should attempt to keep thermal exposures to a were frequently omitted from data collection pro- minimum in terms of both amplitude and duration grams. Such operational data is relatively easily obtained but, due to the necessity of using power of exposure, other flow related influences should not an et o th ecif uing per plant personnel with specific engineering expertise, be overlooked. Indeed, in attempting to reduce the it was often not included by aquatic scientists during effects of thermal exposures, many design and either the formulative period in the data collection operational changes at once-through power systems processes or the interpretable phase of biological have created new problems for aquatic organisms. data review. My comments are brief and summary in scope. We Earlier studies of aquatic biological populations can assume that our interests in protecting the influenced by individual power stations were con- fisheries populations adjacent to electric power ducted by teams of specialists, on a quarterly or at generating systems require the consideration of best, bimonthly basis. Such studies were assumed those aquatic organisms that are of ecological sig- to be sufficient to indicate significant effects, but nificance to the survival of fisheries populations they often resulted in the documentation of seasonal, nificance to the survival of fisheries populations. temporal, and spatial fluxes of populations within Briefly then, I would like to discuss biological temporal, and spat i a fluxes of popula tions within each surface water system with such statistical monitoring programs and the kinds and levels of variability from period to period as to make sub- effects that have been noted in connection with sequent correlation with physical data exceedingly power generating stations operating within estuarine difficult, if not impossible, to make. systems. More recent biological monitoring programs have 359 360 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL been conducted on a much more intensive basis. incidents involving fish populations was that the Data on daily fluctuations in vertical and horizontal fish as a biological group were quite prone to suicide. stratification are now commonly collected for all Since his retirement, I have found many a power major biological groups on a seasonal basis with the plant engineer who agreed with him. An obvious results that monthly data efforts reflect a tremendous explanation for the accumulation of fish at intake range of technical skills and sampling techniques. screening structures involves the fact that screening, These studies involve an increasing effort to conduct equipment does collect debris relatively efficiently presiting data programs that can be used to avoid and dead or dying fish are easily collected along with the location of power plants within areas of critical other debris at intake equipment. Obviously, not or high biological significance. Moreover, presiting all fish at such screening equipment are there on data collection programs have the potential value the basis of chance. The attraction of fish to hydraulic of improving design criteria for minimizing biological flows is explained both physiologically and ecologi- impacts at appropriate sites. cally in terms of energy conservation. If fish are The incorporation of intense presiting biological prone to suicide, they, like many other biological data programs to new power plant programs pro- groups, do not waste energy looking for a food vides quantities of data spanning a longer number source when they can remain relatively stationary of years before thermal and other condenser system and just select appropriate food as it comes by. effects are initiated. The result of such programs is Even predator species can take advantage of the to provide much more confidence to the documenta- concentration of prey species in these current sys- tion of the normal biological distributions around a tems. The end result is, of course, the establishment specific site. Annual pulses or fluxes in numbers of of a relatively concentrated biological food chain individuals of a given species are also much more within the area where these abnormal flow gradients readily disassociated from the effects of the com- occur for the system. Other aquatic organisms such bined influences of the condenser cooling systems of as crabs, shrimp, and forage feeders can be found individual power plants. The following lists of levels at intake systems of gulf and coastal system intake of data and areas of potential effects represent areas. common efforts of current estuarine thermal research At those power stations where water quality is projects. uniformly high and where approach velocities are not so high as to entrap and then impinge these WATER INTAKE AREA EFFECTS organisms, no particular significance can be made for these accumulations. However, when the water The first engineered interface of a power plant withdrawn and used for cooling purposes periodically The first engineered interface of a power plant fluctuates to sub-optimum values for individual with its surface cooling water supply is the water fluctuates to sub-optimum values for individual intake structure including, of course, screening species, stressing conditions and, ultimately, death ha rdwa re and associated structures. Design engi- of concentrated populations in these areas occurs hardware and associated structures. Design engi- neers currently expend both effort and ultimately an d the screeng equipment must handle the considerable expense to control approach velocities removal and disposal of the bodies of these organisms. considerable expense to control approach velocities S to reduce the potential for hydraulic capture of uch events as upwell eching, and surface currents can also produce these events. both debris and fish. Although most new screen intake structures have velocities of 1 fps or less, the Unfortunately, many intake structures and areas experimental basis for this constraint is based more have been built with such high velocities that ex- upon the demonstrated fact that such velocities haustion and physiological collapse by fish in front have much less impingement potential than higher of the screenng equipment occurs. The result is, velocities. Unfortunately, while these numbers are of course, that such fish populations are highly vulnerable to additional and extraneous stresses that on a practical basis useful to design engineers as a general guide, the fact of life is that even at can cause an incident" atthe screeningequipment these relatively low design velocities, hydraulic Unfortunately, discharges of heat ito itake areas, discharges of chlorine and other products capture of fish populations occurs on an all too areas, discharges of chorine and other products required by the condenser cooling system for either frequent basis and the reduction or the solution of required by the condenser cooling system for either the problem is much more of an art than a science. A more experienced applied biologist colleague of influence the survival of relatively dense populations mine once offered a very useful observation to me of fish in such intake areas. Solutions to these intake on the occasion of his retirement from the faculty and screening equipment problems will require con- at our institution. His observation was, essentially, siderable research relative to the ability of fish to that the best explanation of natural events ahd maintain both sustained and darting swimming POWER PLANT EFFECdTS' 361 efforts in a mixed assemblage of species involving primary producers of organic energy, they represent both predator and prey species. Age-class differences a highly important and vulnerable level for entrain- in endurance must also be considered in such experi- ment damage. Phytoplankters reproduce within mental systems. Observations of plants where intake minutes to hours and thus the recovery potential of problems are relatively scarce, or at least less these organisms is relatively high. That is, should- detectable, suggest that short, stubby cul-de-sac destruction of a portion of the population occur due or funnel shaped intakes have considerable potential to either pump or plume entrainment damage, the for the capture and impingement of fish. Such species population has a relatively high reproductive systems have 'very few areas where recuperation and potential for recovery within a few hours. Moreover, resting by swimming organisms can 'occur.' Flush death of these algal cells does not change the shore intake systems have not been involved with nutriment value of the population since most aquatic fish impingement problems as frequently as have predators do not distinguish between dead and intake channel sites. Presumably, opportunities for living cells. bypassing screening equipment' provide for 'the Experience in attempts to measure the stresses escape to lower velocity areas by swimming fish. upon phytoplankton during exposures to the com- Tidal and shoreline currents also act to carry fish bined experiences in the condenser cooling system away from screening surfaces in this area. suggest that the response of phytoplankters is most related to the prevailing ambient water temperatures CONDENSER kCOOLING SYSTEMI EFFECTS and the temperature rises (AT) of particular con- denser 'cooling systems. That is, if death of living The term "entrainment" has been borrowed from plankton occurs it is most predictable on the basis the hydraulics field and used to describe the coim- of seasonal high water temperatures, usually occur- bined experiences of planktonic organisms from the ing only'a few weeks or months during each year. time of their first exposure to the intake pumps, At other times of the year the phytoplankton appear through the condenser cooling system and sub- to be stimulated by the entrainment experience as sequent mixing with receiving waters downstream indicated by increases in the rates of photosynthetic from discharge structures or canals. A distinction is processes, chlorophyll levels, and absolute numbers made between i"psumjp- entrainment" of planktonic of cells of individual species found in discharge and organisms that are subsequently exposed to maxi- mixing areas (Warriner and Brehmer, 1966, Gurts, mum thermal elevation, turbulence, sheer, and 1973, Brooks, et al., 1974, Jensen, et al., 1974, pressures, and "plume entrainment" or planktonic Smith, et al., 1974). interaction with the thermal plume by organisms The above effects should not be considered as that have not experienced the combined experiences necessarily beneficial to the aquatic population of the condenser system. Obviously, the experiences residing in a cooling water body. Numerous water of these two types of entrainment are quite dif- bodies do not need such stimulation by living plank- ferent and they should be distinguished because the ton populations andin some cases the destruction of temperature and time of exposure as well as turbu- phytoplankton can contribute to oxygen problems lence, sheer, and other mechanical stresses are dis-e BOD demands of the dead plankters tinctly different for the two types of experiences, downstream from the discharge areas. Thus, the Research has shown strikingly different results from significance of damage to this level of aquatic these two types of 'entrainment experiences. The populations should be determined on a site specific term plankton refers to organisms that are at or basis. near neutral buoyancy and thus, the term is more indicative of the relatively free floating character Zooplankton rather than taxonomic relationships between or- ganisms composing the plankton. Thus, three major This term describes a very rich assemblage of groups of planktonic organisms' can be described, invertebrates that are, in most cases, microscopic. each'with relatively different individual response Many zooplankters are truly planktonic, and only and population susceptibility to the entrainment a few groups are consistently neutrally buoyant. experience. Thus, effects of the entrainment experience at this level is likely to be much more species specific, and, Phytoplankton in fact, current research appears to verify this assumption. Moreover, potential mechanical damage These microscopic algal cells are, by definition, to these types of organisms is considerable, especially always planktonic (Euplanktonic) and thus as with larger crustacean forms of the zooplankton; 362 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL such damage has been found to be both size and Damage to these stages can influence the population species dependent. structure of individual species and communities. Behavioral excursions of zooplankton from lower Thus, the ecological significance of this type of to upper water levels has been shown by Kelly, 1971, planktonic entrainment within the condenser cooling Kelly, et al., 1971, Kelly and Chadwick, 1971, system is rather obvious. Experience by biologists Icanberry and Adams (1972), Davies and Jensen studying this problem suggests that considerable (1974) and others to bring these zooplankters into physical damage occurs with the rather delicate water volumes where they can be affected by both larval forms of both invertebrates and vertebrates. pump and plume entrainment experiences. Con- Egg stages appear to be less susceptible to such siderable variation has been found relative to the physical damage. Excessive turbulence and pressure vulnerability of different life cycle stages of zoo- such as cavitation tend to promote this type of plankters to the effects of both thermal and mechani- damage. Indeed, some power stations have been cal damage; eggs, early naupliar stages, appear to reported to produce near total destruction of mero- be more resistent than larger, older and somewhat plankton while other stations seem to produce much more physiologically complex stages. Moreover, less damage to the plankton. Current research and prolongation of thermal exposures by residence modeling of condenser cooling structures should within long discharge canals has been shown by reveal the reasons for these observed differences. Davies and Jensen (1974) to promote thermal Obviously, the ecological significance of point damage to zooplankters. Sheer and mechanical tur- source types of entrainment such as has been bulence of discharge structures may inflict physical described above must be considered by the use of damage on larger plankters. Little evaluation of biological modeling that has, unfortunately, not zooplankters during turbulent plume mixing has been developed successfully at the present time. been made. Research by Carpenter (1974) suggests Thus, the ecological significance of these types of that alterations in behavioral activities of micro- entrainment damage can bnly presently be approxi- crustacean zooplankters can result in decreases in mated on the basis of percent of waters used for the population downstream from once-through power cooling versus total water available for the support plants. Depending on levels applied and individual of such planktonic stages. Special or peculiar con- toxicity of each species, chlorination activities can centrations of these stages such as clusters or destroy all plankton organisms when and if used for patches can lead to disproportionate effects of en- the control of biofouling in the condenser system. trainment damage upon tthe individual populations Recirculated heat, as a control system, appears to and thus, considerable sampling effort should be achieve the same degree of damage. made of the near and far field areas to ascertain such distribution differences of individual power plants and plant sites, Such sampling efforts represent a relatively unusual and rather expensive effort. By definition, these transient plankton forms are only present for a brief period during which growth DISCHARGE AREA EFFECTS and development proceed to either a sessile or swimming juvenile stage, leading ultimately to either the sessile or nectonic adult form. Numerous The geometry and site specific characteristics of invertebrates such as crabs, lobsters, shrimps, clams, the discharge area have, like the intake area, a highly oysters, and other taxonomic groups have mero- plant specific impact on aquatic organisms. The oysterso and lar ae. Mo st fish have mero- decision to either rapidly mix thermal discharges planktonic eggs and larvae. s (known as ichthyo- into the receiving water body through such devices planktonic egg and larval stages (known as ichthyo- plankton) that are present for a period of days to weeks following spawning activities. Thus, prevailing tions, effectively reducing discharge effects, espe- currents and tidal flows can bring these temporary tions, effectivng discharge effects, espe- plankton into contact with thermal plumes with cially those affecting fish populations attracted into plankton into contact with thermal plumes with effects that are not readily measured. the discharge area. Moreover, entrainment damage of meroplankton Discharge canals have been shown to produce stages can have considerable influence upon the highly variable results in terms of impacts upon populations of fishes and invertebrates well beyond local aquatic populations. Effects of thermal ex- those detected in the near field mixing area. These posures, cold shock, chlorination "incidents," and organisms are likely to have a reproductive potential other adverse influences have been promoted by the considerably less than that of euplanktonic forms. use of long, low velocity discharge canals. These POWER PLANT EFFECTS 363 effects have'been shown at west coast, gulf coast, only the least populated water levels. When the and east coast estuarine areas. cooler and more saline bottom waters are used as a cooling water source, considerable research should precede plans for the discharge of the thermally elevated, saltier waters. Such discharges have been Considerable effort has been expended by hydrol- shown to sink to a-mid-depth in response to combined ogists in an attempt to describe the dimension of thermal-saline density factors. When and if this thermal effluent mixing areas. These modeling efforts occurs, the influence upon local populations must be provide an existing and exceedingly useful series of predictable before alternative discharge plans are time-temperature distributions with information rejected. ,relative to changes in these plumes caused by tidal Moreover, in smaller bays and estuaries, with- and other natural currents. Their high value and drawal of large fractions of water have altered significance to biologists who are attempting to circulation patterns in local areas (Jensen, 1974). assess the ecological effects and interactions of these As mentioned above, such influences can change effluents in surface waters is obvious. In fact, it behavioral patterns with local populations of fishes would be quite impossible to accurately model the and invertebrates. Tidal influences in terms of the stresses of near field and far field distributions of direction of discharge plumes complicate the above waste heat without such predictive hydraulic and predictions to the extent that hydraulic models are mathematical modeling research. often used to simulate flow patterns. Such an Measurements of these downstream effects from application has been made in the James River the combined pump entrainment and plume entrain- estuary model located at the U.S. Corps of Engi- ment experience suggest that some of these effects neers Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, are so subtle as to not be readily detected by existing Miss. The model has a horizontal scale of 1: 1000 field population census techniques. Certainly some and a vertical scale of 1:100. The time scale is avoidance of and attraction to the thermal plume 1:100 so that one day in the prototype occurs in has been historically seen by many workers. 14.4 minutes time in the model. The proposed dis- charge of the Virginia Electric and Power Company Surry Nuclear Power Station has been simulated SUMMARIES OF REPRESENTATIVE in the model, and temperature measurements have CASE HI ESTORIES OF T AHRMAL been recorded along various transects across the EFFECT IN ESTUARIME AREAS model through many tidal cycles and under different freshwater inputs. Since it was not possible to Te ene simulate all conditions in the model, theoretical con- complex ecological system. Indigenous finfish, migra- tory fifish anadromous seies ish, ,and such ditions were applied, and the empirical data were tory finfish, anadromous sies, shellfish, and such thereby adjusted to conditions expected in the crustacea as crabs and shrimp depend upon the prototype. The predicted distribution of excess heat estuaries for at least some part of their life cycles. The economic i rtan e c sheres in in the estuary will be verified in the James River The economic importance o:specific fisheries in the above categories can b considerable, estuary, after the Surry Power Plant begins opera- Large tidal bodies of Water, such as the Chesa- tion during the spring of 1973 peake Bay, Galvesto ' Bay and others, could, Another such model is being planned for the entire Chesapeake Bay. Several hydraulic models of limited theoretically, offer considerable quantities of cooling areas of the ay and its tidal arms have been built areas of the bay and its tidal arms have been built waters if the aquatic pppulations of each estuarine by the Alden Research Laboratory of the Worcester system could be protected, from a uniform and cpsysltem could be pratectedl froum a uniform and Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, Mass., and are complete thermal elevation throughout the system. used to predict the physical behavior of thermal Again, considerations of specific sites must consider discharges. A similar model of the San Francisco the amount of "new water" passing by a given site Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has been and the relative quantity of such waters needed for used to simulate thermal distribution at various cooling waters by particular plants. Behavioral and reproductive phenomena such as schooling, spawn- ing, and nursery areas must be protected from The control of biofouling in tidal systems is con- thermal elevations: In such systems, mixing of dis- siderably more difficult than in freshwater systems. charge effluents 'into tidal waters can reduce the The application of wide-spectrum biocides for such effective temperature rise (AT) to only one or two fouling control, both within the intake system as degrees above ambient levels. Caution must be given well as the condenser system, must be made with to intake and discharge levels so as to withdraw caution to avoid killing fish and invertebrates 364 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL residing in discharge canals and receiving waters. tubing. Cory and Nauman (1969) reported that: the Excessive chlorination and use of widely active number of fouling organisms, including barnacles, compounds such as copper sulfate have lead to increased at the locations influenced by the, dis- dramatic incidents that have mistakenly been re- charge of the Chalk Point station, decreased upriver ported as thermal kills. from the power plant, and that the increase was As mentioned previously, the temperate estu- associated with the warmer effluent waters. arine populations of southern latitude species are Studies by Patrick (1968) on the Chalk Point often living close to their upper thermal tolerances station indicated a well-diversified flora, throughout during summer periods. These species have much the area influenced by the thermal discharge in narrower thermal tolerance ranges than northern August, 1968. Nutrient additions upriver from the populations of the same species which can withstand plant were reported by Patrick to complicate -the wider thermal fluctuations. Thus, if an appreciable assessment of the plant's effects on the standing heat load is introduced into a mid-latitude estuary, crop of algae, though the cyclic seasonal patterns it must be recognized that the local thermal distribu- observed before the plant went into operation were tion might actually favor the growth of more lost at stations above and below the.discharge canal. southerly species (or subspecies) in limited areas. Morgan (1969) studied the effect of temperature One difficulty with such changes is that it is likely and chlorination procedures on the passage of that some disagreement will occur between local phytoplankton through the condensers at the-Chalk biologists as to what constitutes a "desired species." Point Plant and found that when the effluent tem- A conservative ecologist might contend that only peratures were between 88.7 and 92,4 F (chlorina- those species that exist normally in the outfall area tion levels were not known), photosynthetic capacity are the desired ones, while other ecologists might be was reduced by 68.6 to 94.3 percent. During.colder willing to settle for a slightly different fauna and seasons, photosynthesis was reduced by as much as flora in a limited area. - 85.7 percent. However, Morgan (1969), Mihursky 'Studies made at the Chalk Point Generating (1967), and others believe that chlorination proce- Station on the Patuxent River estuary in Maryland dures were responsible for much of this reduction. before and after the operation of the power plant Patrick (1968) found no significant difference in showed that local populations of striped bass the composition of the zooplankton and/or phyto- increased while concentrations of white catfish and plankton at the Chalk Point station at similar times hogchokers declined. White perch; populations re- of the years 1963, 1967, and 1968i, mained constant during the study. Total gillnet Two microscopic crustacea, the copepods Acartia catches by commercial gear were approximately the tonsa and. Eurytemora affinis,. were the dominant same at the station nearest the power plant and species, 'and Acartia tonsa *standing crops were increased at the two other stations farther down- greater during the summers after the Chalk Point stream. Sport fishing in the area has increased in station began operating. Two jellyfish, Mnemiopsis winter months (Maryland Department of Natural leidyi (a comb jelly ctenophore) and Cryasora Resources, 1969). quinquecirrha .(a sea nettle) were more prevalent Studies of the oyster Crassostrea virginica on beds before the plant began operating. Mihursky (1967) within 1,200 feet of the discharge canal at the reported that thermal changes were responsible for Chalk Point -plant showed no major effects on the this decline. growth, condition, and gonadal development as a Warriner and Brehmer (1966) studied the effects result of plant operation (Rosenberg, 1968, Patrick, of condenser discharge water .on the benthic inver- 1968). Invertebrates harmful to the oyster, the tebrates in the York River estuary at the Yorktown oyster crab Pinnotheres osterumn, and the worm Generating Station of Virginia Electric and Power Polydora were no more common in 1965-67 after Company. Community composition and abundance the plant went into operation than in 1962-63. The were affected over a distance of 980 to 1,300 feet accumulation of copper in oyster tissues was also from the discharge canal. All sampling stations, reported from beds in the vicinity, of the Chalk including the controls, showed a marked seasonal Point plant. Subsequent investigations showed that change in abundance, with a minimum in summer the copper concentrations in water upstream from and a maximum in winter. The lowest diversity of the power station were 1.97 parts per billion, while species was found in a small area within 980 feet that in the outfall was 3.01 parts per billion (Patrick, of the discharge, and this was interpreted by the 1968). This apparently is not common to power authors to be an indication of stress on the benthic plant operation in estuarine areas, but was the result community in which only the more thermally toler- of improper design and metallurgy in the condenser ant species could survive. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 365 Studies with a laboratory heat exchanger using noted above. In the absence of more definitive data, natural York River water without chlorination however, such conclusions are speculative. Recent showed that primary productivity of natural phyto- observations by Lackey and Lackey, 1972 suggest plankton was depressed by -a 10.10 F increase in a recovery of the impacted area in the discharge water temperature when the ambient temperature canal and adjacent Biscayne Bay areas since the was 59 to 68� F. A temperature rise of 6.3� F was observations of earlier workers in 1968. Because of sufficient to depress production when the ambient the tropical and relatively shallow nature of the summer water temperature was 80� F. In cold Biscayne Bay, these ecological effects may suggest weather, productivity was enhanced after passage the types of effects that can occur in such estuarine through the exchanger (Warrinei and Brehmer, systems. 1966). Research on the thermal impact of a power gener- Thermal studies at a power plant at Turkey ating station on Galveston Bay, Tex., was reported Point, a unique tropical area in South Biscayne Bay, by Strawn and Gallaway (1970). Seasonal abun- Fla., have been reported by Tabb and Roessler dance, distribution, and growth of commercially (1970), Reeve and Cooper (1970), and Lackey and important crustaceans were investigated. Tempera- Lackey (1972). The benthic macroalgae Acetabularia ture, conductivity, dissolved oxygen levels, pH, and crenulata and Batophora oerstediwere the only species biological samples of blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, observed at the mouth of the discharge canal during white shrimp, Penaeus setiferus, and brown shrimp, the period of February to September, 1969. The Penaeus aztecus, were taken oncel a month through number of species of macroalgae increased at in- 1968 and 1969. Collection stations were in and creasing distances from the discharge canal out into around the discharge canal of the power plant. The the Biscayne Bay. The stations nearest the canal impact of the thermal effluent upon the above species mouth had the lowest numbers of species and thus was related, significantly, to the season, the relative the lowest diversity index (Tabb and Roessler, abundance of each species, thermal tolerance, and 1970). However, these reductions in benthic algae thermal preference of each species studied. Blue have been suggested to be due to the combined crab populations appeared to be beneficially in- effects of dredging and construction of the power fluenced by the power-plant activities (thermal plant canal system along with the hydraulic scour increases and circulation improvements caused by that the discharge canal system imposed upon the pumping activities). White shrimp populations ap- areas of Biscayne Bay immediately adjacent to the peared to show both detrimental as well as beneficial plant site. ' effects, but the overall effect was judged by the In September 1968, turtle grass, Thalassia testudi- authors to be beneficial. Brown shrimp were ad- num, was reported to be killed over a 30-35 acre versely affected in a limited area of the Galveston area which had apparently increased to 50 acres a Bay surrounding the power plant (Strawn and year later. Benthic invertebrates and fish popula- Gallaway, 1974). tions associated with the turtle grass and macroalgae A study of the thermal impact of a Pacific Coast populations were also reported to show decreased generating station at Morro Bay was reported by numbers in an area of 170 acres surrounding the North (1968). Results of studies of the discharge discharge canal. An unspecified number of dead canal and the coastal zone immediately adjacent fish were reported to have been associated with the to the power station indicated that seaweeds were impact area in June of 1969. 1 almost completely eliminated from the discharge Studies by Tabb and Roessler (1970) have sug- canal, while in a transition region beyond the canal, gested that these effects were primarily dueto the seven algal species of a total of 20 species in normal, thermal effluent from the Turkey Point Power Plant. non-thermally influenced areas were found. The However, unusually low salinities (16-17 ppt) and transition area was fished rather intensively, and relatively high copper concentrations (15 mg/l) North suggests that schools of grazing Opaleye were also detected in waters with temperatures of (Girella migricans) and various invertebrates ac- 91 to 95� F (Lackey and Lackey, 1972). Such low count for some of this reduction. Thus, the marine salinities for the area (normal summer salinities are flora of Morro Bay appears to be much more ther- 27-33 ppt) coupled with the toxic levels of copper mally sensitive than the fauna and the impact of could have been partially responsible for the reported the Morro plant effluent on the seaweeds might be fish kill. explained by the thermal sensitivity of reproductive Moreover, the presence of such levels of copper cells in association with relatively heavy grazing by could also account for the reductions in benthic fish and invertebrates within the area. grasses and their associated animnal populations, as Mitchell and North (1971) examined the tempera- 366 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ture and time of contact of marine plankton which conditions (discharge temperatures lasting 12-24 were passed through the cooling water systems of hours) do not occur due to the mixing and dilution two Southern California Edison Generating Stations of the thermal discharges with cooler Pacific coast located on the Pacific coast. Sampling at intake and waters. Thus, this research suggests that the very discharge structures and subsequent incubation on small increase in mortality (approximately 11 per- site at the San Onofre and Huntington Beach cent) due to passage through the cooling water Generating Stations simulated temperature time system of these four power plants does not (in all exposure met by plankters passing through the probability) significantly affect the zooplankton condenser system and traversing the discharge and populations of the Pacific Ocean in the areas sur- mixing areas. Typical zooplankton mortality ranged rounding the power plants examined by these from 12.7 to 28.4 percent with the high mortalities researchers. due to sampling error introduced during sample Extensive research has been underway over the examination. The copepods Acartia tonsa, Euterpe past five years to evaluate the impact of once- acutifrons, Corycaeus acfnis, and Oithona helgolandica through cooling systems of power plants located and the mysid shrimps represented nearly all of the within the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta area mortalities. Smaller soft-bodied invertebrates (poly- under the sponsorship of Pacific Gas and Electric chaete larvae, Sagitta sp.) and protozoans showed Company. Field studies of the temporal and spatial little effects of passage. Analysis of carbon-14 and distributions of thermal effluents of the Pittsburg chlorophyll studied of phytoplankton populations and Contra Costa Power Plants in the central delta passing through the condenser cooling system suggest area have been supplemented by biological sampling that little damage to the populations occurred as in and out of the thermal plumes to locate popula- evidenced by comparisons of 14C uptake rates and tions of striped bass (Morone saxatilis), king salmon chlorophyll a, phaeophytin a levels after a standard (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), and other fish as well incubation-culture procedure of intake and dis- as fish food organisms such as the opossum shrimp charge samples collected from the two generating Neomysis awatschensis (Adams, 1969, Adams and stations. Some evidence of phytoplankton stimula- Doyle, 1971, Chadwick, 1971, Hair, 1971, Kelly, tion in discharge samples was noted during these 1971, Wickmire and Stevens, 1971, Kelly et al. 1971, studies and normal chlorination procedures resulted Kelly and Chadwick, 1971, Orsi, 1971, Rogers and in obvious damage in the plankton populations Stevens, 1971, Gritz and Stevens, 1971, and Gritz, collected in the discharge area during the chlorination 1971). Distribution of young striped bass indicated period. that densities were always greatest at mid-depth Icanberry and Adams (1972) have described the and bottom as contrasted to surface areas in strati- survival of zooplankton after passage through the fled areas of the delta. Intensity of stratification cooling water systems of four California coastal fluctuated with the stage of tides and size of fish. power plants. A statistically significant increase in Small bass less than 9 mm were higher than larger discharge mortalities of less than 11 percent corn- fish and densities increased at all depths during pared to intake mortalities was found at all plants, flood tide. Lateral distribution varied but densities suggesting average overall survival of approximately were lowest in surface and mid-depths of the Pitts- 90 percent. A statistically significant linear relation- burg thermal plume suggesting preference for the ship was noted between the discharge temperatures cooler bottom areas in the vicinity of the thermal and percent mortality in all four of the power plants effluent. examined. Twenty-four hour delayed mortality did Further studies on fish distribution within the not occur when intake and discharge samples were thermal plume of Pittsburg (Gritz, 1971) have held at ambient intake water temperatures. Con- revealed that striped bass, splittail, carp, white siderable mortality occurred when discharge samples catfish, American shad, Sacramento western sucker of zooplankton were held at discharge temperatures and Sacramento blackfish were more abundant for periods up to 24 hours of continuous exposure. within the thermal plume of the plant than in Immature zooplankton stages exhibited increased control areas of ambient water temperature* but mortality only after the first six hours, followed by equivalent habitat type. Stomach contents of striped adult copepods which died between 12- and 24-hour bass suggest that the importance of the opossum periods. Soft bodied invertebrate larvae were resis- shrimp Neomysis awatschensis diminished and the tant to these combined effects of temperature and importance of fishes (including small king salmon) time of exposure. Surveys of actual temperatures increased with striped bass size (Gritz, 1971). occurring around the discharges of these four power Unfortunately, these studies did not distinguish plants revealed that these time and temperature between increased predator concentration (striped POWER PLANT EFFECTS 367 bass) within the thermal plume and physiological been shown by Kelly et al. (1971) to be influenced stress of king salmon which increased their vulnera- by light, tidal stage, and water velocity. During the bility to predators as was suggested by Coutant, daylight period, density of Neomysis population who described similar reactions within a thermal increased with depth and lateral densities indicating plume discharged into the Columbia River (Coutant, little ability to avoid being carried by intake and 1969). In a laboratory study, Kelly and Chadwick discharge flows in the vicinity of the Pittsburg (1971), examined the tolerance of young striped plant (Kelly et al., 1971). The mortality of N. bass in the size range of 5 to 38 millimeters in length. awatschensis caused by passage through the Pitts- The LD60 for striped bass held for 48 hours ranged burg plant was determined by Kelly (1971) from from 86 to 91� F with variations within this range comparisons of live and dead Neomysis at the plant's not related to either acclimation temperature or size intake and outlet. Observed mortalities correlated of fish. Instantaneous temperature increases (0 to with the water temperature of the discharge (less 6 minutes duration) followed by return to ambient than 10 percent at temperatures of 80-86� F com- temperature resulted in little mortality until the pared to approximately 65 percent at temperatures maximum temperature approached 90� F. Below approaching 900 F). Those Neomysis surviving this temperature instantaneous increases of up to higher temperatures showed no evidence of delayed 18� F caused little mortality. However, loss of mortality when held under laboratory conditions for equilibrium was often noted at temperatures above up to 36 hours. 85� F. These mortalities were similar to those induced by By contrast to the distribution food habits and Hair (1971) under laboratory conditions in which thermal response of striped bass, Gritz and Stevens the upper lethal temperature of adult Neomysis (1971), studied the distribution of king salmon in awatschensis was found to be within the range of relation to the thermal plume of the Pittsburg 75.6 to 77.8� F under conditions of 48-hour static station. Occurrence of this salmon was primarily at bioassay. Tolerances to rapid laboratory exposures the surface (in contrast to the location of striped decreased as acclimation temperatures increased but bass at lower depths). Numbers of king salmon this species resisted temperature elevations of up decreased from the north shore to the power plant to 25� F provided the ultimate temperature did on the south shore. Numbers of salmon caught in not reach 87� F. Temperature rises above 25� F the plume of warm water discharged from the plant caused significant mortality even though the upper were significantly lower than numbers caught at temperature did not reach 87� F. As has been shown ambient water temperature. Catches of marked with numerous other aquatic organisms, survival hatchery-reared salmon released upstream suggest decreased rapidly with increased exposure time at that these young king salmon migrate rapidly temperatures approaching the lethal temperature for through the section of the estuary influenced by the these mysid shrimp. thermal discharges of the Pittsburg plant. Gritz In summary, these excellent field and laboratory (1971) suggested that some of these salmon might studies of ecologically significant aquatic organisms be more vulnerable to predation by the increased in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta have revealed number of larger (> 16 inches) striped bass residing both techniques and information that can be used in the thermal plume. Orsi (1971) studied the to evaluate the impact of similar industrial opera- thermal tolerances and thermal shock of king sal- tions in other estuarine systems. These studies have mon. Rapid temperature rises within the limits of shown no significant adverse effects upon aquatic an 18� F increase and a 0-6 minute exposure period organisms in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuarine did not cause mortality until the acclimation system. Volumes of water used for cooling purposes temperature exceeded a temperature between 60 to constitute but a small fraction of tidal and river 65� F. The ability of young salmon to withstand flow in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta area at short exposures to relatively high temperature im- Pittsburg. Consequently, thermal elevations (above proved as acclimation temperatures were elevated. demonstrated upper lethal levels for important Exposure time was crucial to survival at 83� F with aquatic organisms) occur over a relatively small all fish surviving at 0-2 minute exposures to 83� F area and for a relatively short period of time. Thus, and only half the test fish surviving at exposure consideration of these physical and biological factors periods of 4-6 minutes. should permit the siting, design, and operation of The opossum shrimp Neomysis awatschensis has power plants in similar systems-where the volumes been shown to be an important food source for game of cooling water are sufficient to preclude adverse species of fish in the Sacramento-San Joaquin local or system-wide impacts. Delta. The distribution of these mysid shrimp has Lauer et al. (1974) have studied the response of 368 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL aquatic organisms in the Hudson River at Indian trainment was subsequently found to be 54 percent. Point from 1971 through 1974. An upper area of All three species showed diel periodicity with higher the Hudson River estuary between Newburgh and abundances at night. Gammarus sp. occurred on a Yonkers, N.Y., was sampled in order to establish year round basis at Indian Point while N. americana the kinds, numbers, and seasonal fluctuations in occurred primarily during summer periods. M. aquatic organisms residing within this section of the edwardsi was a year-round resident except for early estuary. In these studies emphasis was placed upon summer periods when it was not detected in the estimating the effects of both pumped and plume area. Although laboratory studies of the design entrainment of planktonic organisms during both AT of 15� F suggested no direct mortality would day and night sampling periods. occur to Gammarus sp., direct measurement of dis- The rated thermal capacities of the combined charge samples of entrained animals indicated a three units at the Indian Point Station, was approxi- small but statistically significant mortality had oc- mately 15� F during these studies. Laboratory curred with this species. Chlorination levels during studies of bacterial decomposers indicated that the daytime periods did not produce statistically signifi- above thermal exposures did not decrease popula- cant effects due to the low densities of these macro- tions except during periods of intermittent chlorina- zooplankton forms. At higher nighttime densities, tion when decreases in discharge samples were noted. mortality was approximately 40 percent of entrained Primary producers indicated variable degrees of organisms. effect during similar and varying thermal exposures Results of studies of egg and larval fish entrained above ambient temperatures suggesting that season- into the Indian Point Plant were variable as to ally variable populations of algae respond with species, life stage, and plant operational features such increases, decreases, and relatively little change in as number of cooling water pumps in operation rates of primary production as measured by 14C during sampling periods. Only six of the 50 species uptake and algal biomass. During periods when dis- of fish occurring in the Indian Point area were charge rates were depressed over intake rates, actually represented in the ichthyoplankton entrained recovery of populations as measured by restoration into the condenser cooling system. These were, in of intake rates was noted. Chlorination, when it order of decreasing abundance: anchovy, alewife, and occurred, always reduced primary production rates blueback herrings, striped bass, white perch, and for algal populations entrained into the condenser tomcod. Most of the anchovy and clupeid larvae cooling units. No population shifts from the pre- were dead in both intake and discharge canal sam- dominant diatom populations to any other algal ples. Striped bass were too sparse to permit statis- group within the Hudson River in the study area tical evaluation of entrainment effects. were observed. Jensen et al. (1974) studied the thermal response Laboratory studies of zooplankton populations of aquatic organisms in a small mid-Atlantic estuary suggested that calanoid copepod populations might in Delaware just south of the confluence of the experience some mortality at the rated AT of Delaware River estuary with the Atlantic Ocean. 15� F. Unfortunately, during these studies, discharge The Indian River Plant is situated midway between temperatures did not reach design levels and field the freshwater and saltwater boundaries of a small verification of these laboratory results was not pos- estuary east of Millsboro, Del. Cooling water at sible. Some degree of stratification of zooplankton 148,000 gpm is elevated an average of 12� F and was noted in the area of thermal influence by the rejoins the Indian River estuary 1-3 hours later Indian Point plant, but both species lists and via a 2 mile discharge canal. Temperatures at the abundance of river populations of zooplankton were mouth of the canal are typically 50 F above ambient similar, suggesting that the combined thermal and and are reduced to about 1� F above ambient within chlorination effects that occurred within the con- about two miles downstream of the mouth. denser cooling system were not affecting populations Chemical data collected in the vicinity of the plant within the Hudson River in a significant way. suggests generally high water quality; dissolved Laboratory studies of the dominant zooplankters oxygen levels, for example, never fall below 5.00 mg/l at Indian Point (Gammarus sp., Neomysis americana, at the surface nor below 3 mg/l near the bottom. and Monoculodes edwardsi) suggested that a 15� Diverse flow and fauna inhabiting this region of the F AT during summer ambient water temperatures estuary reflect both high water quality as well as would result in 50 percent or greater mortality of the strong salinity gradient existing along the length entrained N. americana while the other two species of the estuary. would not suffer mortalities as a result of the en- Destruction of algal cells during passage through trainment experience. Actual mortality due to en- the condenser system was consistently apparent POWER.,.PLANT EFFECTS , 369 during periods of chlorination. (30 min. duration, .of fish. Undoubtedly, the power plant has some 2-3 times daily), but was never observed in the :effects on the distribution of resident fishes in the absence of chlorination. Algal production rates estuary, but this would seem to be in a rather small, measured at the discharge of the power plant were well-defined area within and adjacent to the dis- depressed due to temperature elevations for approxi- charge canal from the plant. These distributional mately four months of the year when ambient tern- effects appear to be restricted to the summer months peratures were about 71.6� F, although there was no when ambient water temperatures reach the seasonal evidence of lowered production rates at any distance and annual maxima. At other periods, the plant did -from the discharge canal. During the cooler periods, not appear to seriously affect the survival, distribu- (eight months), temperature elevations at the plant tion, or well-being of any of the native or anadromous discharge resulted in up to two-fold stimulation of species residing within the estuary. production rates and up to 20 percent increases approximately 2 mile downstream from the mouth SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS of the discharge canal. Little effect on the zooplankton behavior or The rapid' reduction of excess temperatures near population distribution could be attributed to the existing thermal discharges into relatively large operation of the Indian River Plant, This lack of estuarine waters is largely a result of dilution rather influence was presumably related to the :average than heat dissipation to the atmosphere. The spatial thermal elevation of only 10:8� F and the less than distribution curves for heated discharges can be two minute travel time through the: plant. It shown to be directly related to the momentum of was concluded that the naturally wide range of the discharge volume. In large, natural surface salinity in the vicinity, of the plant (2.2-19 ppt) was waters such as the Chesapeake Bay, it can be shown more influential to zooplankton ecology in this estu- :that such momentum jet discharges offer consider- ary than direct effects of thermal, discharges from able advantages in terms of thermal decay curves. the Indian River Plant. Little change in mortality of Thermal losses of waste heat to the atmosphere from zooplankton was observed throughout the entire such large bodies of water involve rather large seasonal range of ambient intake temperatures, even surface areas . at relatively small temperature in- during. periods of chlorination, which produced up creases (5-10 percent of original AT). to 0.5 mg/l free residual chlorine as measured in:the With the possibleexception of tropical waters, the discharge canal.. . location of power-generating stations on large estu- During the summer, however, prolonged contact aries and open coastal locations appears to provide with the thermal effluent resulted in a decrease in the relatively large volumes; of water. needed for population densities .of zooplankton passing down modern once-through generating plants without the discharge canal. By contrast, short-term intake- producing. serious, damage' to the biota of such discharge evaluations to the .same temperatures areas. Ecological impacts can be minimized by during passage through the condenser cooling system careful siting, designi and operation so as to reduce showed no die-off of zooplankton. Other factors not temperature elevation and duration of aquatic detected in these studies resulted tin a decrease in organisms to thermal effluents. Momentum mixing discharge canal populations, In spite of these reduc- of the heated discharge waters into receiving waters tions, zooplankton populations in the receiving appears to rapidly reduce the temperatures to only waters of the Indian River estuary did not appear to a fraction of the original thermal rise. Such tem- be affected by these losses. . . perature reductions, -within a few minutes after the The distribution of benthia invertebrates was passage through the cooling water condenser system, :shown to be associated with the large salinity -would also appear to minimize the effects of entrain- gradient (0-22 ppt) within .the study area,.of ment upon planktonic forms residing in surface approximately .6.8 miles, Sediment . temperatures waters used for once-through cooling. were highest in the discharge canal and decreased to ambient temperatures through the mixing zone. RESEARCH NEEDS-THERMAL EFFECTS Effects from the thermal discharges were limited to the discharge canal and the confluence point of 'Physical Mixing Process the canal with the Indian River. ' . . The upper Indian River estuary' supports.a large 1. Knowledge of buoyant jet diffusion is nearly fishery biomass in the form of forage . species. The adequate for the design of thermal outfalls, including estuary is also essential as a spawning and nursery multiple port diffusers, to' achieve a prescribed area for game and-commercially important..species initial jet dilution and mixing plume. Further 370 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL research is needed to fully understand line sources situations involving once-through cooling in surface and to determine how well multiple jet diffusers may waters. Unfortunately, much of the existing labora- be represented by line sources. tory data does not appear to be relevant to such 2. Research is needed to develop better methods thermal histories due to the atypical temperature- for predicting the size and shape of heated effluent time exposures. Additional field studies of existing mixing zones that are developed at the end of the thermal discharges are essential if adequate -con- initial jet-mixing stage. Research is also needed (in sideration of the biological response (both physio- close concert with the above dimensional data) to logical and behavioral) is to be used in predicting understand the phenomena of lateral spreading the ecological impact of proposed thermal dis- caused by density differences between the thermal charges into natural surface waters. plume and receiving waters. 2. Long-range, properly designed, detailed, quan- 3. In coastal waters, submerged diffusion struc- titative baseline studies of the structure and dy- tures are not yet in use, and some problems of large namics of animal and plant communities 'and their single jets, such as the behavior of a buoyant, relationship to increasing domestic and industrial surface jet injected into a cross-current, need special influence should be established and supported. These study. The impact of potential scouring of bottom areas should include those that are presently areas adjacent to such momentum discharges is relatively little affected, those that are being af- also needed. fected at an increasing rate, and those that are already seriously affected. Heat Dissipation Processes 3. There is enough promise in the various possi- bilities of beneficial uses of heated water effluents 1. More research is needed to establish the natural that research and demonstration-level work should temperature variations of future receiving waters, be encouraged as adjuncts to energy development. especially large water bodies such as the Chesapeake Discharges have been used to provide water flow and Bay. Such information pertinent to diurnal and favorable temperatures for the culture of molluscs, seasonal temperature fluctuations is essential for crustaceans, and fishes such as catfish and pompano. the prediction and assessment of the relative impact Major fish kills due to low-water temperatures are of proposed thermal discharges. of regular occurrence in shallow inshore waters of 2. As more information becomes available on the the Gulf of Mexico and many lakes in temperate biological responses to thermal discharges in terms areas. Heated effluents could be �used to save fish of both thermal amplitude and duration relation- that otherwise would be lost from such systems. It is, ships, as well as rapid rates of temperature change, of course, important that all possible benefits of improvements will be needed in methods for predict- thermal effluents be included in site selection plan- ing these characteristics of thermal discharges ning, and projected cost-benefit analysis. relative to short-term fluctuations in power demand, 4. Evaluations of the effects of the entrainment meteorological conditions, and operations of auxiliary and subsequent exposure to condenser cooling sys- cooling devices. tems are specifc to individual power plants operating 3. More effort is needed to evaluate and verify on specific estuarine systems. Studies of macro- temperature predictions based on hydraulic models zooplankton and meroplankton effects appear to be of thermal discharges, particularly models of large worthy of much of this entrainment research effort. prototype receiving waters in which surface cooling 5. Impingement and post-impingement studies of processes are not negligible and are generally rep- intake systems are also highly site and plant specific resented inadequately. and they should be conducted with sufficient fre- 4. Relative to item 3, more work is needed in quency to permit a determination of the relative developing techniques for computer simulation of importance of such effects upon local populations thermal discharges in three dimensions, taking into of important species. Research efforts designed to account all the effects of momentum, entrainment, clarify behavioral characteristics of fish in intake buoyancy, surface cooling, wind, coriolis forces, and systems should be intensified to provide data for other factors affecting receiving water behavior. the refinement and redesign of both operational and mechanical characteristics of screening devices used Biological Processes at power plant intake systems. 6. Research is also needed relative to the environ- 1. Both field and laboratory research is ieeded mental impact of alternative cooling devices, such as concerning the biological response to time-spatial cooling towers. The impact of mineral loss through and thermal amplitude levels characteristic of drift upon vegetation and setalic surfaces in sur- POWER PLANT EFFECTS 371 rounding areas has not been evaluated for cooling Fisheries Branch. Adm. Report Number 71-14. Sacramento, Calif. towers of a size applicable to modern fossil or nuclear-fueled plants. The blowdown of dissolved Gritz, W. J. and D. E. Stevens. 1971. Distribution of young solids and biocides such as chlorine and heavy king salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in the Sacramento- San Joaquin River near Pittsburgh. California Fish and metals from such towers must also be evaluated in Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Adm. Report terms of their impact on receiving waters and their Number 71-13. Sacramento, Calif. associated biota. Gurtz, M. E. 1973. Field investigations of the response of phytoplankton to thermal stress. Dept. of Environ. Sci. REFERENCES and Eng., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Hair, J. R. 1971. Upper lethal temperature and thermal Adams, J. R. 1969. Ecological investigation around some shock tolerances of the opossum shrimp Neomysis awat- thermal power stations in California tidal waters. Chesa- schensis from the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, Calif. peake Sci. 10(3-4) :145-154. Cal. Fish and Game (67) (1) :17-27. Adams, J. R. and M. J. Doyle, Jr. 1971. Thermal power Icanberry, J. W. and J. R. Adams. 1972. Interim report- plant site studies in California-State of the art-1971. zooplankton survival after passage through the cooling Presented at the American Fisheries Society, Western water systems of four thermal power plants on the Cali- Division Annual Conference, Aspen, Colo., July 19-23, fornia coast, March 1971-January 1972. Pacific Gas and 1971. Electric Company, Department of Engineering, Research Report Number 7598. Emeryville, Calif. Brady, D. K., J. C. Geyer and J. R. Sculley. 1971. Analyses of heat transfer at cooling lakes. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. Jensen, L. D., et al. 1974. Environmental Responses to Symposium Series, 67(119):120-125. Thermal Discharges from the Indian River Station, Indian River, Delaware. Cooling Water Studies for the Electric Brooks, A. S., R. A. Smith and L. D. Jensen. 1974. Chapter Power Research Institute, Research Project RP-49, Report 3, Phytoplankton and Primary Productivity. In L. D. Number 12. The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Jensen (ed.), Environmental responses to thermal dis- Geography and Environmental Engineering. charges from Indian River Plant, Indian River, Delaware. The Johns Hopkins Univ. Cooling Water Res. Project, Kelly, R. 1971. Mortality of Neomysis awatschensis Brant Report No. 12, Electric Power Res. Inst., Palo Alto, Calif. resulting from exposure to high temperatures at Pacific pp. 77-93. Gas and Electric Company's Pittsburgh Power Plant. California Fish and Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Carpenter, E. J., et al. 1974. Summary of entrainment re- Adm. Report Number 71-3. Sacramento, Calif. search at the Millstone Point Nuclear Power Station, 1970 to 1972. In L. D. Jensen (ed.), Proceedings of theSecond Kelly, R. 0. and H. K. Chadwick. 1971. Some observations Entrainment and Intake Screening Workshop. February on striped bass temperature tolerance. California Fish and 5-9, 1973. Cooling Water Studies for the Electric Power Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Adm. Report Num- Research Institute, Research Project RP-49, Report Num- ber 71-9. Sacramento Calif. ber 15. The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering pp. 31-35. Kelly, R. 0., J. R. Hair and D. E. Stevens. 1971. Neomysis awatsehensis Brant distribution in the Sacramento-San Chadwick, H. K. 1971. Thermal effects of power plant dis- Joaquin Delta with regard to physical parameters at Pitts- charges on fishery resources in the Sacramento-San Joaquin burgh and Collinsville. California Fish and Game, Anadro- estuary, California. Presented at the American Fisheries mous Fisheries Branch. Adm. Report Number 71-8. Society, Western Division Annual Conference, Aspen, Sacramento, Calif. Colo., July 19-23, 1971. Lackey, J. B. and E. W. Lackey. 1972. Thermal Effects at Cory, R. L. and J. W. Nauman. 1969. Marine fouling and Turkey Point-A Study. Consultants report to Florida thermal additions in the upper estuary of the Patuxent Power and Light Company, Miami, Fla. River. Patuxent Thermal Studies, Supplement Report, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.. ULauer, et al. 1974. Entrainment studies on Hudson River organisms. In L. D. Jensen (ed.) Proceedings of the Second Coutant, C. C. 1969. Responses of salmonid fishes to acute Workshop on Entrainment and Intake Screening. Electric thermal shock. In Biological effects of thermal discharges: Power Research Institute, Research Project RP-49, Annual progress report for 1968. Battelle Memorial Insti- Report Number 15. The Johns Hopkins University, De- tute, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Research and partment of Geography and Environmental Engineering. Development Report Number BNWL-1050:1-8. pp. 37-82. Davies, R. M. and L. D. Jensen. 1974. Effects of Entrain- Maryland Department of Water Resources. 1969. Report of ment of Zooplankton at Three Mid-Atlantic Power Plants. the Thermal Research Advisory Committee. Annapolis, Cooling water studies for the Electric Power Research Md. Institute, Research Project RP-49,. Report Number 10. The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Geography Mihursky, J. A. and V. S. Kennedy. 1967. Water temperature and Environmental Engineering. criteria to protect aquatic life. In A Symposium on Water Quality to Protect Aquatic Life. American Fisheries Gritz, W. J. 1971. Distribution and food habits of fishes in Society, Spec. Publ. Number 4, pp. 20-32. relation to the thermal plume at Pacific Gas and Electric Company's Pittsburgh Power Plant in the Sacramento- Mitchell, C. T. and W. J. North. 1971. Temperature time San Joaquin Delta. California Fish and Game, Anadromous effects on marine plankton passing through the cooling 372 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL - - --. water system of the San Onofte Generating Station. Marine Rosenberg, 'W I. 1968. A study of the 'ffects bf thermal Biological Consultants, Inc. Costa Mesa, Calif. pollution on Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in the. Patuxent River estuary. November 1966-1967; Final Report, Sub- Morgan, R., et al. 1969. Phytoplankton studies. Patuxent project Number 3-23 R-2. U.S. Department of the Interior, Thermal Studies, Supplemental Report. Natural Resources Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Inst., Ref. Number 69-6, University of Maryland. Smith, R. A., A. S. Brooks and L. D. Jensen. 1974. Chapter North, W. J. 1968. Biological effects of a heated water dis- 4, Primary Productivity. In L. D. Jensen (ed.) Environ- charge at Morro Bay, Calif. Symposium Proceedings IV mental response to thermal discharges from the Chesterfield International Seaweed Symposium, Madrid, Spain, Sep- Station, James River, Virginia. The Johns Hopkins Univ. tember 1968. Cooling Water Res. Project, Report Number 13, Electric Power Res. Inst., Palo Alto, Calif. Orsi, J. J. 1971. Thermal shock and upper lethal temperature tolerances of young king salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Strawn, K. and B. Gallaway. 1974. Final report on the for the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. California seasonal abundance, distribution, and growth of commer- Fish and Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Adm. cially important crustaceans at a hot water discharge in Report Number 71-11. Sacramento, Calif. Galveston Bay. Cont. Mar. Sci., University of Texas, September, 1974. Patrick, R. 1968. Patuxent River, Maryland, Statistical studies of oysters and associated organisms. Acad. Natural Tabb, D. C. and M. A. Roessler. 1970. An ecological study of Sci. Philadelphia, Dept. of Limnology. South Biscayne Bay, Florida. Progress Report to FWPCA. Univ. of Miami, Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Fla. Reeve, M. R. and E. Cooper. 1970. Acute effects of power plant entrainment on the copepod Acartia tonsa'from a sub- Warriner, J. E. and M. L. Brehmer. 1966. The effects of tropical bay and some problems of assessment. F.A.O. thermal effluents on marine organisms. Int. J. Air Water World Conf. on Mar. Pollution in the Ocean. Mimeo. Pollution. 10:277-289. Rogers, R. D. and D. E. Stevens. 1971. Distribution of young Wickmire, R. H. and D. E. Stevens. 1971. Migration and dis- striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in the Sacramento-San tribution of young king salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Joaquin Delta at Collinsville and Pittsburgh. California in the Sacramento River near Collinsville. California Fish Fish and Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Adm. and Game, Anadromous Fisheries Branch. Adm. Report Report Number 71-12. Sacramento, Calif. Number 71-4. Sacramento, Calif. EFFECTS OF SELECTED: POWER PLANT COOLING DISCHARGERS' ON REPRESENTATIVE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS . R. H. BROOKS M. L.'BREHMER ' Pacific Gas and Electric Co.,; Virginia Electric and Power Co., San Francisco; California ; Richmorhd, Virginia A. S. AUTRY F. N. MOSELEY Tampa Electric Co., Central Power and Light Co., Tampa, Florida Corpus Christi, Texas . ABSTRACT: . Results of investigations into the effects of power pltant cooling water discharges into selected, representative estuaries are presented. 'These studies performed at mid-Atlantic, mid-Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico locations indicate that, at these stations, the cooling water discharges have not adversely affected the surrounding, estuarine receiving water environmeht. The conclusion is reached that power plants can be operated on estuaries without adverse effects with the result that each potential or existing estuarine site should be evaluated on a "'case-by-case" basis. INTRODUCTION arine environments. Two plants, Pittsburg Power Plant and Contra Costa Power Plant, are located on Large estuaries around the continental United the Sacramento-San Joauin Estuary, the great States are used for the cooling and dissipation of heat tidal estuary at the head of the San Francisco Bay. resulting from thermal electric generation. It is The third station, Moss Landing Power Plant, is realized that estuaries generally constitute ecosys- located on Elkhorn Slough, a coastal lagoon that tems of unique importance where adverse intrusions drains into Monterey Bay and then into the Pacific should not be tolerated. However, actual field studies Ocean. have failed in most instances to reveal such adverse effects resulting from power plant cooling. As an example, the results of environmental studies con- Facility and Site Description ducted at electric generating stations on selected representative estuaries are described in this paper. SACRAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN ESTUARY The power plants' studies as described herein employ conventional once-through cooling systems Pittsburg and Contra Costa power plants are with one exception where thermal dilution is also located in similar environments, on the south shore of utilized. The information presented herein is sum- the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. (Contra Costa marized from reports on studies conducted by: Power Plant is actually on the San Joaquin River, 1. Pacific Gas and Electric Company-Pittsburg, just above its confluence with the Sacramento Riv- Contra Costa, and Moss Landing Power Plants, er). Typical vegetation types in the area include Pacific Coast of California. tidal and impounded salt marsh, and drained land 2. Virginia Electric and Power Company-Surry that is used agriculturally. On the northern shore of Power Station, Surry County, Va. the estuary is Suisun Marsh, a large and productive 3. Tampa Electric Company-Big Bend Station, area for waterfowl and shorebirds. Several federal Hillsborough County, Fla. and state wildlife refuges are found in the area. 4. Central Power and Light Company-E.S. The nutrient-rich waters of this system are well- Joslin Power Generating Station, Cox Bay, Tex. mixed by the diurnal tidal cycle. Salinity variations are seasonal, with ranges from 4 to 10 parts per PACIFIC GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY thousand (ppt). Regulated freshwater inflows de- termine these salinity profiles. Ambient water tern- Pacific Gas and Electric Company (P G and E) peratures also vary with the season, ranging from operates three electric generating facilities in estu- 45-720F. 373 374 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL This nutrient-rich system supports a diverse fish, such as perch and Pacific herring, spawn in aquatic food chain, at the top of which are king Elkhorn Slough. salmon and striped bass. These anadromous fishes constitute a major sport fishery. Shad, sturgeon, and catfish also form the basis of a growing sport OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS fishery. These fishes feed largely on opossum shrimp, which in turn is supported by a variety of other These three power plants are fossil-fuel fired and plankrtonic species. employ once-through cooling water systems. Signifi- The turbid waters of this system, and other cant characteristics of these facilities are as follows: available evidence, lead to the conclusion that primary production is limited by low light penetra- Cooling Tempera- tion. The phytoplankton of the estuary is dominated Year of Rated water ture by diatoms, green algae, and flagellates, with some initial output, flows, increase, seasonal variation in species composition of these Power plant operation MW cfs "F organisms. Bluegreen algae are rare in this estuary; Pittsburg thus, noxious blooms associated with eutrophication Units 1-4 _- 1954 630 900 15.0 have not been a problem. Units 5-6--- 1960 650 722 18.0 Contra Costa Units 1-3_ __ 1951 348 600 16.0 ELKHORN SLOUGH Units 4-5 --_ 1953 232 245 12.0 Units 6-7--_ 1964 680 681 24.0 Moss Landing Power Plant takes in water from the Moss Landing oceanic Moss Landing Harbor and discharges into Units 1-3-- 1950 348 629 15.5 Elkhorn Slough. This body of water has experienced Units 4-5 - __ 1952 234 223 24.0 several shoreline changes, beginning as a freshwater Units 6-7 - - 1964 1,478 1,354 20.0 lagoon draining the Pajaro River. In the early 20th century, the area was developed as a whaling station Moss Landing's Units 6 and 7 do not affect the and smuggling port. Construction of Moss Landing estuarine environment, as the cooling water source Harbor in 1946 altered the flow characteristics, so and discharge sink is the Pacific Ocean. that Elkhorn Slough was left with an outlet to the ocean and became subject to the resultant tidal Results of Studies Performed' action. Elkhorn Slough exhibits characteristics of both a true estuary and a coastal lagoon, depending upon five other coastally-located power plants during the time of year. During the fall and winter rainy 1971-1972. R equirements for these physical and 1971-1972. Requirements for these physical and season, runoff from local creeks and land drainage biological studies were set bythe Regional Water provides the slough with sufficient freshwater to dilute the salt incursion from the ocean. In the sum- Quality Control Boards. The general objectives of mer dry season, however, the creeks dry up and land the studies were to determin the areal distribution drainage decreases, so that salinities rise and Elk- of the thermal plume in the physical environment, to investigate the effects of each thermal discharge horn Slough displays most of the characteristics of a on the principal levels of the local food chains, and Water qulagoon. Slough is primarily to determine measures of protecting the beneficial Water quality in Elkhorn Slough is primarily uses of the receiving waters. dependent upon tidal action and the dairy and cannery waste discharges that have contaminated the Slough and Moss Landing Harbor for several PHYSICAL STUDIES years. Salinity in the system ranges from approxi- mately 20 to 37 ppt. Ambient temperatures range Synoptic physical studies were performed to from 50-61�F. simultaneously measure water-quality characteris- The marine environment of Elkhorn Slough is tics over a wide area at each power plant. Parameters characterized by muddy bottoms, with a benthic measured included surface water temperature, fauna dominated by venus clams. Crabs, shrimps, horizontal and vertical water temperature profiles, and oysters are also found. Stands of eelgrass provide salinity and dissolved oxygen at three depths, ba- sheltered spawning areas for flatfish, which are a thymetry and temperature decay rates. Analysis of major sport fish in the area. Other important sport these measurements not only delineated the extent POWER PLANT EFFECTS 375 and physical impact of the thermal plume, but also 3. Different fish species showed preferences for enabled the biological investigators to select appro- different temperature regimes. In the Sacramento- priate sampling stations and methods. San Joaquin estuary, for example, white catfish were Physical studies showed that the average extent most often found near the power plant discharge of the thermal plume (area enclosed by the 4�F areas. isotherm) was 50 acres at Pittsburg and Contra Costa and 230 acres at Moss Landing. No effects Summary of Effects were: found on salinity and dissolved oxygen con- Upon Receiving Waters centrations. The studies conducted at Pittsburg, Contra Costa, BIOLOGICAL STUDIES and Moss Landing Power Plants have shown that the major detectable influence upon the environ- Quantitative biological studies focused on three ment is the thermal plume. No other physical-chemi- major groups of organisms: zooplankton, benthic cal parameters have been affected. Biological studies organisms, and fish. Standard methods of collection, show that the aquatic communities have not been such as Ponar grabs for benthic sampling and otter significantly altered. Finally, the power plant opera- trawls and gillnets for fish sampling, were used tions have had no detrimental effects upon beneficial wherever possible. Some situations required the uses of the receiving waters. development of special equipment. In most studies, organisms were collected in a systematic fashion, VIRGINIA ELECTRIC AND POWER COMPANY usually by transect, and identified as precisely as possible. The data were analyzed to give the total Facility and Site Description number of individuals present, the total number of species present, and an index of species diversity. The Surry Nuclear Power Station of the Virginia These parameters were correlated with physical Electric and Power Company (Vepco) is located on parameters such"as temperature, salinity, depth, Gravel Neck in Surry County, Va. adjacent to the and time of year. tidal James River, a major tributary of Chesapeake The zooplankton studies at Moss Landing Power Bay. The station consists of two Westinghouse Plant made a further analysis of mortality to zoo- pressurized water reactor units, each capable of plankton passing through the cooling water system. generating 822.5 MW. Water is required at a rate of This was done by sampling with a specially-designed 1871 cubic feet per second (cfs) per unit to handle a filter pump at the intake and discharge, coordinating heat rejection rate of 11.8 X 109 Btu/hr by once- the sampling with the measured travel time of 10.9 through cooling. This results in a temperature rise minutes. Live and dead zooplankters were manually across the station of 14�F. counted under a stereomicroscope and percent mor- The cooling water discharge structure, located on tality due to passage through the cooling water the upstream side of the Gravel Neck peninsula, is system was determined by subtracting intake mortal- about five miles from the intakes, and is designed ity from discharge mortality. with an exit velocity of 6 feet per second to promote In general, the biological studies yielded the rapid mixing with ambient water in the three-mile- following results: wide James River. Physical model studies at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers facility at Vicksburg, 1. Zooplankton mortality varies from plant to plant Miss., were conducted to determine the optimum and from species to species, within a range of zero to design of the discharge structure. 15 percent. At Moss Landing, the average net mor- The James River in the vicinity of the station is tality was about 11 percent. That is, 89 out of 100 shallow, but has a maintained shipping channel. zooplankters passing through the cooling water River widths vary from about three miles at the system can be expected to survive the expected discharge to about four miles at the intakes. Salinity physical and thermal effects. varies from freshwater to about 15 ppt, being de- 2. Benthic species diversity was not significantly pendent on freshwater inflow from the upstream correlated with temperature differentials. This re- 9,886-square mile watershed of the James. suit is consistent with the observation that the Surry Units 1 and 2, which began commercial dominant plant influence, the thermal plume, lies in operation in late 1972 and early 1973, are base-load a buoyant surface layer separated from the benthic units that operate at an annual average capacity organisms by water of ambient temperature. factor of approximately 80 percent. .376 ESTUARINE POLLtUTION CONTROL Results of Studies Performed adverse publicity when fish numbers become-:rela- tively large even though the biological significance PHYSICAL STUDIES might be small. The James River around Surry has been, and is; To alleviate the problem, Vepco invented and the object of a continuing and intensive physical mstalled at Surry a uniql e intake screen designed the object of a continuing and intensive physical specifically to return impinged fish to the water alive. study that began in 1969. As stated previously, the specifically to return mpged fish tothe water alive. distyribution of the sumertime thermal plume was Results of studies to date show that an average of predicted through the use of a physicral pmodel. 85 percent of the impinged fish are returned alive to Winterdtime thermal predictions were made by the water; survival of most species approaches 100 Pritchard-Carpenter, Inc., using a mathematical percent. This screen represents a significant develop- model. ment in the industry and may prove to be one of Several methods are being used to field-test model the best available technologies in dealing with the predictions. Tower and buoy locations in a 10-mile section of the river encompassing the station have been instrumented to provide continuous tempera- Summary of Effects ture data. In addition, monthly boat surveys are Upon Receiving Waters conducted to determine surface to bottom profiles. Since, during the course of a year, salinity in this The data developed from comprehensive biological part of the James is highly variable, monthly boat (phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos, fouling or- surveys are also used to determine cross-sectional ganisms, and finfish), chemical, and physical studies and longitudinal salinity profiles. These studies will in the tidal segment encompassing the Surry Power determine if the pumping of 3740 cfs of slightly Station indicate that operation has not modified any higher salinity water into an area of lower salinity of the measured parameters beyond the limits of will alter the natural salinity regime. natural associated variation. Finfish, the major class Results of the temperature studies indicate that of organisms with commercial or recreational im- the physical model predictions were conservative; portance in this tidal segment, have exhibited con- that is, the excess temperature plume mixes rapidly sistent diversity, evenness, and richness during the with the river water, and water at a given tempera- four years of study. This is illustrated by the enclosed ture does not encompass as large an area as had been figure. predicted. Studies 'have shown that the salinity regimens of the river have not been significantly TAMPA ELECTRIC COMPANY altered by the present station operation. Biological studies at Surry have attempted to Four years of intensive investigation at Big Bend determine the preoperational "health" of the aqutic Station have shown that the operation of the plant ecosystem by examining specific food chain compo- ecosystem by examiningspecific food chain ompo- has not significantly altered the marine life of Hills- nents; and to determine the effects, if any, of Surry borough Bay. The study began in April 1970, seven Power Station operation on that health. Studies to months before the startup of the first unit and has date, which include both preoperational and post- continued through the operation of two 375 MW operational data have shown that operation of the coal-fire Surry Pbwet Station has had no observable adverse effect on any of the. various'components of tlie aqua- tic community in the Ja;mes River. Facility and Site Description Studies' that are site-specific td Suifry were begun in early 1969 by Virginia Institute'of Marine Studies. Big Bend Station is located on the eastern shore of These studies encompass almost every level of the Hillsborough Bay, an extension of Tampa Bay, in food chain and include phytoplankton, zooplankton, Hillsborough County, Fla. Tampa Bay is located on bottom organisms (benthos), and fouling organisms. the west central gulf coast of Florida and is a complex In the spring of 1970, Vepco personnel began a study system of bays and estuaries including the Hills- of the young' fishes that inhabit the shallow water borough River, Manatee River and Alafia River zones of the area. estuaries, and Tampa Bay, Old Tampa Bay, Hills- Although many theoretical, but as yet unproved, borough Bay, and McKay Bay. implications of thermal discharges have received Hillsborough Bay, a natural arm of Tampa Bay, widespread publicity, one parameter of power station is approximately 'eight miles long and four miles operation is of immediate concern. That parameter, wide. Two rivers,-.the Hillsborough River and the fish impingement on intake trash screens, receives Alafia River, and numerous streams flow into Hills- POWER PLANT EFFECTS 377 10 2. 1.5 3.0L .I -- '! . . d; - .0 -- :~ __TRAWL ' ,5 : * l ' : I r S S F W S S F . W S S - *W. S S F . W S . 9I.o70 . . .. 173 1974 F-IGURE 1.-Composite of numbers of species, diversity (H'), evenness (J), and richness (D) by season for seine and trawl samples-Surry Power Station. 0.5* _ .:: I S . v:*, ':' . . . ..-.. TRAWL borough Bay. The natural shore line'is typical of this stands of rooted algae. Most of the biomass is Present section of Florida, with coastal mangrove lowlands as plankton anddfloating algae. and pine-palmetto uplands. Much of the natural Benthic organisms present in the bay are mostly shore line has been developed and altered by dredge filter feeders, which utilize the large amount of and fill activities. plankton present. The maximum natural depth in Hillsborough Bay Big Bend Station is a coal-fired station consisting is 28 feet with improved ship channels maintained at of two operating units rated at 375 MW each. One 34 feet. The surface area is 39.6 square miles. The 425 MW unit is under constructon. diurnal tide range is 2.8 feet and the mean level is 1,.,4 Unit No. 1 went into operation in October 1970 feet. The average depth at mean tide is 8.95 feet. with once-through cooling and a maximu'm tempera- Waterquality in Hillsborough Bay is the worst of ture increase of 17'F. The cooling water flow rate the bay systems. Effluent from numerous industrie s was 240,000 gallons )per minute '(gpm) Because of and several sewage treatment plants flows into the pressure from the Florida Department of Pollution ay.onthlytemperatureaveragesvaryfrom618- Control','sampesUnit No. 2, which ent into oeration 884roF over the year. The salineity range is 0.5-30.0 in Aprithis st nds A construcItedh.with a thermal dilu- ppt.; tion cooling system. This system'consists of a 400,000 High chlorophyll a dete inations (maxng imurove of gpm pumankton and associated sheet pile walls to deliver 48.76 mli grams per lideveloped andicat ethat Hillsboy dredugh the unheated mixing water to the disarge point of Bay exists in a high trophic state carrying a large Units 1 and 2. This 1:1 dilution reduces by 50 percent plant biomassn This is consistent with the high nutring tand amaxim temperature rise-to thebay, so that the maximum ent levels generally found in these waters Ligt temperaue incr e as e from both units is Dow approxi- penetration is sufficiently low to preclude significant mately lution I ~~penetration is sufficiently low to preclude significa~nt mately 9�F. 378 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Unit No. 3, which should go into operation in the be little significant difference between the number of spring of 1976, will have a closed-loop spray cooling species and individuals in the intake water and the system for control of thermal effluent. discharge water. The biggest variations in numbers occurred during plankton blooms, and were not associated with plant operation. Results of Biological Studies Performed Over 70 species of zooplankton have been identi- fied during the study. These represent a normal, Beginning in April 1970, regular sampling� was balanced community typical of waters of this type. done near the Big Bend Station to determine the Benthic populations in the vicinity of the plant effects of operation on the bay. Trawls, seines, trapsi and other portions of the bay are sparse, primarily planlkton nets, bottom dredges, sample bottles, et because of the poor substrate in the area. Years of cetera, were employed to gather the necessary data. improper dredge and fill operations and other activi- The program began with two full-time scientists con- ties have left a layer of soft, silty mud over much of the bottom. ducting the study and peaked last year with six full- time biologists and several other part-time people As menti oned previously, turbidity of the water working on the project. Seven months of preopera- precludes significant stands of rooted algae and the tional data were gathered, and data collection has are Gracilaria and Ulva. Both of these occur in continued through the startup and operation of two are Gracilara and Uva Both of these occur in units. The area around the plant was divided into nuisance proportions and are indicative of the nu- four ecosystems with 20 sampling stations. The trient-rich bay waters. stations were visitesd at least monthlyg many sere Differences in chlorophyll a readings at the in- sampled weekly and some daily. The samples were take and discharge were slight. The biggest variation collected, analyzed in the TECO Marine Research occurred during plankton blooms that were not as- Laboratory, and the data reported to Tampa Elec- sociated with plant operation. tric Company in four quarterly reports and one an- After evaluating all of the data gathered in four nual report per year. years of study at Big Bend Station, the staff con- The water around Big Bend Station was analryzed eluded that the operation of Big Bend Station has for the following parameters: temperature, salinity, not significantly altered the marine life in the vicinity transparency, depth, dissolved oxygen, pH, carbon oftheplant. dioxide, phosphate, hydrogen sulfide, trace metals, and pesticides. Summary of Effects Studies to date indicate there is little difference Upon Receiving Waters between the intake water and the discharge water with the exception of temperature, which can be Studies completed to date show that little change attributed to the operation of the power plant. attributable to power plant operation has occurred. The following biological parameters were studied Although temperatures have increased in the re- in the vicinity of Big Bend Station: fish, plankton, ceiviilg waters, other physical and chemical effects benthic organisms, algae, invertebrates, chlorophyll are undetectable. The biological studies have shown a, and miscellaneous observations. that phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish popula- Collections of fish from the Big Bend study were tions near the plant have similar, if not greater di- compared with a 22-month study of the fish of versity and richness than that found in all of Tampa Tampa Bay conducted during' 1957-1959 by the Bay. The benthic community is sparse, but this is Florida Department of Natural Resources '(DNR). probably unrelated to plant operations. At Big Bend a total of 86 species of fish were caught in a relatively small area near the plant, compared to 73 species caught by DNR in all of Tampa Bay. CENTRAL POWER AND LIGHT COMPANY The Department of Natural Resources collected 11 species not collected by the Big Bend Lab. The Big The E. S. Joslin steam electric power generating Bend Lab collected 24 species not found by the DNR station is owned and operated by Central Power and study. It would, therefore, appear that the area Light Company and is located near Point Comfort, around Big Bend Station contains a fish species di- Tex., on a small, tertiary estuary called Cox Bay. versity indicative of a low stress condition. Cox Bay is part of a larger estuarine system known More than 150 species of phytoplankton have been as the Matagorda Bay System located in central found in the vicinity of the plant. There seemed to south Texas. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 379 Facility and Site Description water is taken from the Matagorda ship channel and discharged into the northern portion of Cox Cox Bay, the receiving bay for Joslin Power Bay. Pumping rate of the power plant is approxi- Station, is similar to most Texas estuaries. It has an mately 150,000 gpm with a maximum 15�F increase area of approximately 6,000 acres with an average across cooling condensers. Two additional waste depth of five feet or less. It generally varies from an stream discharges enter into the cooling water prior oligohaline (brackish water) to a mesohaline (medi- to its discharge into the bay. These are the waste um salinity) bay. It serves as a nursery area for many material from a secondary sewage treatment plant marine organisms and is valuable as a shrimp nursery located on the power plant property, and a de- area, particularly for white shrimp. mineralizer waste discharge that has been treated Texas estuaries are among the most productive of for neutralization. the estuarine systems. A number of characteristics Originally, the power plant was equipped with separate them from many of the classic examples amertap as a cleaning device for cooling condensers. referenced in the literature. Among these character- However, after one year's operation, the system istics are: 1) Lunar tidal influences are slight (less was found to be inefficient for keeping condenser than 1 foot), and as a result, tidal variations are tubes cleaned, and chlorination was added to the more susceptible to wind velocity and direction. 2) treatment facilities. Chlorination generally occurs Texas estuaries are generally very shallow and often two hours a day, five days a week, with a discharge vertically mixed rather than stratified (exceptions residual of 1 part per million. being deep areas in channels). For this reason, these The power plant began operation in June 1971 areas are subject to wide temperature ranges. Sudden and has continued to operate until the present time. temperature variations may occur within a short Two years prior to power plant operation, an envi- period of time, resulting in fish kills due to cold ronmental study was initiated on the Cox Bay weather. 3) In many areas, primary productivity is estuary. That study has continued to the present from the watersheds of the coastal streams or by time. Therefore, data are available to evaluate the marine grass flats rather from phytoplankton. 4) bay prior to the operation of the power plant and to Salinities vary widely from low saline systems along determine its effects upon the receiving waters. the northern coast to high saline systems in the south. Salinity characteristics of these systems are governed primarily by freshwater runoff via coastal Results of Studies Performed streams, which also regulates to some extent the abundance and types of organisms present in each ! Biological samples were collected monthly at 21 sysndance and tem's present in each stations, beginning in August 1969, and continuing As in the case of most coastal systems, Texas to the present. Samples consisted of phytoplankton, estuaries serve as important nursery areas for many zooplankton, benthos (bottom-dwelling organisms marine organisms. Most of the organisms present in such as clams and worms), and nekton (free- these bays are migratory, and spawning occurs off- swimming fish and large invertebrates) In addition shore in the Gulf of Mexico. Postlarvae and juveniles to these biological samples, chemical samples such migrate into the bays to grow up. This immigration as dissolved oxygen, salinity, temperature, and pH movement is timed so that peaks occur in spring and were taken at all biological stations. Additionally, autumn, corresponding to peak annual precipitation plume analyses were made by plant personnel and patterns. These two peaks coincide because most occasionally by biological sampling crew. Results of nutrients and organic materials are available in the these studies have been written up in a report en- estuaries following heavy freshwater runoff, so that titled, "Final Report Ecology of Cox Bay, Texas, "dinner is on the table" when the young organisms 1969-73." Results shown here are excerpts from the arrive. Thus, Texas estuaries are very dynamic sys- Final Report. tems, varying continuously on a daily, annual, and Typical summer plumes vary considerably de- tseasonal basis. pending upon several factors. One is the electrical load of the power plant at the particular time the data were taken. Since the intake pumps at a con- POWER PLANT stant rate, temperature at the discharge varies with OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS the load on the plant at any given time. Maximal temperature increase above ambient varied from 6 Joslin Power Station has a generating capacity of to 13�F at the discharge. The shape and extent of 240 MW and utilizes once-through cooling. Cooling the plume is also dependent upon wind speed and 380 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL direction. Prevailing winds in the area are from the swimming organisms) .indicate that no significant southeast and tend to keep the plume pushed against change occurred after the power plant went into the northwestern shore. However, in wintertime operation. These data, coupled with no significant when northern winds are common, the plume may changes, indicate clearly that there is no significant extend over a larger area of the bay surface. impact on the bay resulting from power plant Another way of looking at temperature effects~ is operation. to determine the average temperature rise at the It should be noted, however, that there are vari- discharge, and to determine the temperature-die-off ations from season to season and from year to year. and distance away from the discharge. In 1971-72, These are deemed natural fluctuations and are influ- when average temperature increase was slightly less enced little, if at all, by power plant operations. than 12�F, a sharp temperature decline occurred White shrimp exhibit some avoidance of- the im- about 1,000 to 1,500 feet away from the discharge. mediate area of power plant discharge, especially Temperatures were then steady for some distance during summer months. Since these data were. col- out to about 3,000 feet away from the discharge. It lected, additional studies have indicated that white should be noted that the discharge area in the shrimp generally avoid the, hottest portion of the northern portion of Cox Bay is extremely shallow, discharge. However, at certain times, especially with depths of less than five feet along the shoreline. during early fall and late sumnmer, the white shrimp Thus, plume size nmay be larger than would be ex- tend to congregate in the general mixing zone area pected in deeper water bodies, especially where where temperatures are generally 3 to 4�F above bottom discharges are feasible. ambient. Circulation changes resulting -from power plant Patterns similar to white shrimp distribution'have operations were minimal. Prevailing winds are from been indicated for other organisms. It generally the southeast, and currents in the bay are for the appears that most organisms avoid the immediate most part wind-driven. Little change could be seen vicinity of- the discharge during extreme summer from power plant operation except, of course, the conditions. However, these same areas are often flow of water southward from the north shore in the used even more heavily during spring, winter, and vicinity of the discharge with some eddying effect, fall. Thus, considering the overall annual utilization in that area. Circulation patterns over the rest of of the area, there appears to be little, if any, total the bay remained the same. No recirculation of loss of habitat. As in the case of nektonic organisms, heated water was determined during the course :of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthic samples the study. seem to follow the .same general distributional Diversity indices were calculated for all groups patterns.. sampled, i.e., phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos, and nekton. In all cases, no significant changes in Summary of Effects diversity patterns were observed after the power on Receiving Waters plant went into operation. This is true of both the discharge area as well as the unaffected areas of the Study results indicate that the thermal plume bay. In fact, during the two years of power plant generated by the E. S. Joslin Power Station is rela- operation, nekton diversity indices remained higher tively small, with rapid temperature die-off occur- in the outfall area than anticipated. Diversity indices ring within approximately 1,200 feet of the discharge were generally highest in Cox Bay at the discharge under normal wind conditions. It appears that spe- area, both before and after power plant operation cies diversity indices at various trophic levels re- began. Since diversity indices, not only of nekton mained relatively unchanged after the power plant but all other trophic levels, were relatively un- went into operation, and that the overall health of changed resulting from power plant operations, it the community is not endangered. Additionally, appears that the overall health of the community seasonal and spatial distributions indicated that, has not been significantly affected by the operation with some minor exceptions, minimal distributional of the power plant. change had occurred. Thus, it appears that little Another way of examining the effects of the power environmental degradation has occurred as a result plant is to look at spatial distributions in Cox Bay of the operation of the power plant. related to seasonal occurrence. As stated earlier, Texas estuaries are highly transient systems with CONCLUSION migrations of organisms occurring in and out of the bays almost continuously. Seasonal distribution data Examples have been selected to demonstrate that for total nekton biomass (total weight of free- power plants can be sited and operated on estuaries [~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ POWER PLANT 'EFECTS" 381 without adverse effects on the receiving water envi- Virginia Electric and Power Company ronment. However, since it is recognized that there Information contained in this report was derived from are instances where adverse effects have been found Semi-Annual Operating Reports submitted to the Atomic due to a variety of site dependent reasons, any Energy Commission in compliance with Technical Specificar tions for Vepco Surry Power Station, Units 1 and 2, Docket conclusions as to the effects of power plants on Nos. 50-280 and 50-281. estuarine environments must be drawn for site spe- cific factors as supported by actual field data. Tampa Electric Company Hagen, J. E., III. et al. 1969. Problems and management of water quality in Hillsborough Bay, Fla. Southeast Reg., Fed. Water Pollut. Contr. Admnin. - Pacific Gas and Electric Company Ingle, R. M. 1973. Preliminary notes on the ecology of Tampa Bay. Rep. to Tampa Elec. Co. Browning; B.: M. 1972. The natural resources of Elkhorn Stewart, V. N. et al: 1973. Third annual -report to Tampa Slough: Their present and future use. Calif. Dept. Fish & Electric Company. Conservation Consultants,,Inc., Game, Coastal Wetlands Ser, No. 4 p. 33. Stewart, V. N. et al. 1974. Fourth annual report'to Tampa Cayot, R. F., R. H. Brooks, M. J. Doyle, Jr., and J. W. Electric Company. Conservation Consultants, Inc. Warrick, 1974. Environmental studies at eight thermal power plants. Presented at ASCE Nat. Meet. on Water Resour. Eng. Los Angeles, Calif. Jan. 21-24, 1974. Central Power and.Light Company PGandE, 1973a. Evaluation of the effect of cooling water Carpenter, E. J. 1971. Annual phytoplankton cycle of the discharges on the beneficial uses of receiving waters at Gape Fear Estuary, N.C. Chesapeake Sci. 12:95-104. Contra Costa Power Plant. Rep. to Calif. State Water Resour. Contr. B~oard. Copeland, B. J., and E. G. Fruh. 1970, Ecological studies of Galveston Bay. Rep. to Texas Water Qual. Board. PGandE, 1973b. Evaluation of the effect of cooling water discharges on the beneficial uses of receiving waters at Gunter, G. 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Univ. of Moss Landing Power Plant. Rep. to Calif. State Water Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. 1 (1) :1-190. Resour. Contr. Board. Moseley, F. N., and B. J. Copeland. 1972. Ecology of Cox. PGandE, 1973c. Evaluation of the effect of cooling water Bay, Texas. Rep. to Central Power and Light Co. discharges on the beneficial uses of receiving waters at Pittsburg Power Plant. Rep. to Calif. State Water Resour. Odum,-E. 1971. Fundamenrt of ecology. W. B. Saunders Co., Contr. Board. Philadelphia, Pa, I*~~~~~~~: � . , . - ... . - . ., . � ... : ,. .:. - : . , ., ;~~~~~I �! Q ~~~~~~~~, i . -: .: - -. ..