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T77 lk@ W CID CY cu 12 > uj 0 0 0 C: 00 I-oE Ln ou LnLn r- 4- > m ZcDm 0 c 0 - 0 @ - U F --7Ta Other CEQ Land Use Publications Availablie at Nationa Technical Information Service Available at U.S. Department of Commerce: U.S. Government Printing Office: Interceptor Sewers and Suburban Sprawl Volume 1: Analysis The Delaware River Basin-An Environmental Assessment of Three Centuries of Change Volume 2: Case Studies by Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., 1974 Land Use (Reprinted from the Fifth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Recreational Properties: An Analysis of the Markets for Privately Owned Recreational Quality), 1974 Lots and Leisure Homes, by Richard L. Ragatz Associates, Inc., 1974 Potential Onshore Effects of Oil and Gas Production on the Atlantic and Gulf of Alaska Total Urban Water Pollution Loads: The Impact of Storm Water, by Enviro Control, Inc., Outer Continental Shelf, Volume IV of OCS Oil and Gas-An Environmental Assess- 1974 ment, by Resource Planning Associates, Inc., and David M. Dornbusch & Co., 1974 Potential Onshore Effects of Deepwater Oil Term i na I-Related Industrial Development The Costs of Sprawl: Environmental and Economic Costs of Alternative Development Volume 1: Executive Summary Patterns at the Urban Fringe Volume I]: Mid-Atlantic Region and Maine Executive Summary Volume III: Gulf Coast Region Detailed Cost Analysis Volume IV: Appendices Literature Review and Bibliography by Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1973 prepared for CEQ, HUD, and EPA by Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974 Land Use Change and Environmental Quality in Urban Areas: Some Comparative Studies The Taking Issue-An Analysis of the Constitutional Limits of Land Use Control, by (Denver, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Baltimore, Riverside/San Bernardino), by Earth Fred Bosselman, David Callies, and John Banta, 1973 Satellite Corporation, 1973 The Quiet Revolution in Land Use Control-Summary Report, by Fred Bosselman and David Callies, 1971 In Preparation: Land use impacts of highway, mass transit, and sewer investments Leisure homes and recreational properties Preferential assessment for open space preservation Land use impacts of Federal taxes Cover photo credit: Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior Energy consumption and land use C913 C-> Lu Cl= =:) LIJ = LAJ LO u M CD LLJ C@) LL- cli U@) CD 0 LLJ CO C-) co cn >1 LLJ U3 C) CL- 0 LA-) co -.3c L" 14 CO A U:) I-Z7 -< C@D, C) " zc C\A (-> 71 V) 0 to E co c 0 LO L) ui c 0 0 0 CL 0 (D 0 0 C: 0 0 CL 5N, z bi A@) For sale bY the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.05 Stock Number 041-011-00027-1 tionally been severely restricted or al- This handbook was prepared through Preface together prohibited. This is particular- a contract with Urban Systems Re- ly true in six states - Connecticut, search and Engineering, Inc., of Cam- Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, bridge, Massachusetts. Technical mate- Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island - rial concerning water supply, recrea- where 47 million people live. It is the tion, and risk to public health was,re- message of this handbook that with viewed by three of the nation's fore- proper planning, management, and most experts on water supply: water treatment facilities, water sup- Dr. J.C. Morris, Gordon McKay ply reservoirs in these states and in Professor of Sanitary Chemistry other restricted areas throughout the Harvard University. country could provide both safe drink- Dr. E.R. Baumann, Anson Marston ing water and greatly expanded out- Distinguished Professor of Engineer- door recreation facilities. ing, Iowa State University. Historically, reservoirs in the North- east have had restricted public access - Dr. E.F. Gloyna, Dean, College of to protect public health. While such a Engineering and Joe J. King Profes- policy in the past may have been es- sor of Engineering, University of sential and workable, today it is Texas. neither. It is not essential because improvements in water treatment Their comments and assistance were technology which are widely used, particularly helpful. In addition, Mr. and which are likely to be required in James McDermott, Director of the the near future on all surface reser- Water Supply Division of the Environ- voirs, make possible the safe use of mental Protection Agency, provided reservoirs and lands for a range of rec- valuable assistance. reation activities. It is not workable We believe this handbook constitutes because restrictions on access alone a valuable guide to many issues of can no longer be relied upon as a sub- drinking water quality and treatment stitute for water treatment. Encroach- which have taken on new importance ing urban areas, increasing security with the enactment of the Safe Drink- 40 costs, and emerging information about ing Water Act of, 197 4. In particular, This handbook is designed to help the quality of drinking water supplies we hope it will de helpful to citizens citizens, especially those living in the make more extensive water treatment in the Northeast who wish to expand Northeastern United States. In most virtually inevitable. Under such cir- the beneficial uses of reservoirs by parts of the country, water supply cumstances, recreation becomes not opening them up to outdoor recreation. reservoirs and surrounding land areas only a compatible use; it is also a very provide a wide range of recreation op- practical way to insure the public sup- portunities, including hiking, boating, port necessary for continued long-term Russell W. Peterson fishing, and even swimming. But in protection of the watershed from the other places public access to reservoirs encroachment of other more intensive Chairman and lands surrounding them has tradi- uses. Council on Environmental Quality Contents 5 The Issue in Brief 1 7 Reservoir Recreation in Perspective 8 History of the First United States Water Systems 13 Establishing Water Treatment 20 A Modern Water Supply System 24 Water Treatment and Recreational Use 25 Types of Recreation Policies 26 Reservoir Recreation Case Studies 30 The Case for Increased Recreation 31 The Health Issue 33 Emotional and Aesthetic Perceptions 35 The Cost of Recreation 2 37 Reservoir Recreation in Six Northeastern States 38 Connecticut 41 Massachusetts 42 New Jersey 45 New York 48 Pennsylvania 50 Rhode Island 3 51 Planning Increased Recreation 52 Recreation Facility Planning 52 Water-Based Activities 58 Adjacent Land Activities 64 Winter Sports 67 Support Facilities 69 Protection of the Water Intake 70 Public Abuse of Facilities 71 Attendance at the Site 71 Population Ratio Method 72 Similar Site Method 73 Statistical Methods 73 Who Will Use the Facilities? 74 Recreation Costs and Financing 74 Costs of Water Treatment 76 Costs of Recreation Facilities 82 Staff Costs 83 Cost Recovery and Financing 84 Costs and Benefits 86 Legal, Social and Institutional Factors 86 Laws 88 Public Opinion 88 Institutional Factors 88 Professional Opinion 91 Determining the Best Level of Use 96 Appendix I The Effectiveness of Modem Water Treatment in Removing Pathogenic Organisms 97 Bacteria 100 Viruses 109 Maintaining Dependable Treatment 110 Conclusions ill Appendix 11 Reference Material for Six States Connecticut New Jersey Pennsylvania Massachusetts New York Rhode Island 129 Notes 132 Glossary of Terms 136 Annotated Bibliography As our urban population grows and watersheds in the Northeast. New and The Issue development spreads into the country- exotic substances are finding their side, opportunities for outdoor recrea- way into our water supplies. Water tion have become both more difficult which was recently pure is now known in Brief to find and more urgently needed - to contain viruses, pesticides, fertili- Recreation facilities close, to popula- zers, salts, heavy metals, and other tion centers are often crowded, and substances potentially damaging to access to more distant natural sites is health. difficult. People are less able to enjoy Fortunately, drinking water tech- the pleasures of natural areas and find nology is now capable of treating and the relief from urban pressures which purifying water at relatively low cost. contact with the natural world can Standard water supply practice recog- provide. nizes the need for more extensive Close to many cities lie beautiful treatment of all surface supplies. water supply reservoirs, protected over These improvements in water treat- the years by careful watershed man- ment technology make most forms of agement. In most regions of our na- recreation - including water contact tion, recreation of all forms is activities such as swimming - com- permitted on these reservoirs. Yet in pletely compatible with the produc- the Northeastern states, where millions tion of safe, high quality drinking of Americans are concentrated, public water. Hence unfulfilled demands for access to reservoirs and the surround- recreation near major urban areas ing lands is generally restricted or pro- could be met through greater use of 5 hibited altogether. This handbook is these beautiful reservoirs. designed to inforrn citizens of the Although modem water treatment Northeast of their opportunity to can eliminate risks to public health make use of these reservoirs for out- from expanded recreation, old tradi- door recreation. tions stand in the way of increased In the nineteenth century, the recreational use of water supply reser- Northeastern states pioneered water voirs. Four of the states considered in treatment and supply technology in this handbook - Massachusetts, Con- this country. Standard practice called necticut, Rhode Island and New York for rigid restrictions on public access - have laws and regulations which to watershed lands and the water it- prohibit any form of body contact self. This practice was very successful recreation in water supply reservoirs. in protecting public health. No con- The other two - New Jersey and flict with public recreational needs ex- Pennsylvania - limit the activities isted because cities were smaller and available. nearby rivers, lakes, and streams were The managers of water supply sys- less polluted. tems have little reason to expand rec- Today the situation has changed. reational opportunities at the reser- Development has spread into many voirs they operate. Water managers are usually isolated from agencies respon- appropriate solution for individual chapter as well. sible for public recreation. They are reservoirs must be analyzed with care. Appendix.Il contains supplementary often concerned that the cost of in- This handbook is divided into three reference material on reservoir recrea- creased recreation would be paid out chapters. The first chapter describes tion in each of the six states discussed of their budget with no assurance of the issue in its past and present con- in Chapter Two, including transcripts increased revenues to maintain pro- text. It outlines the history of water of the relevant portions of state laws. duction of safe drinking water. They supply in the United States with em- A Glossary of terms and an annotated anticipate added managerial problems phasis on the progress of water treat- bibliography complete the handbook. and even criminal liability for acci- ment and describes the present situa- dents. From their point of view, rec- tion in the Northeastern states . through reation is of no benefit to their pri- case studies. It concludes with a sum- mary responsibility and, therefore, mary of the major concerns which they resist change. have dominated the controversy. Whether to allow recreation on The remaining chapters present refer- water supply reservoirs and the adja- ence material for planning increased cent land is an old controversy in pro- recreation. Chapter Two summarizes fessional circles. This handbook is not the relevant laws and regulations of another study of that subject. Rather the six most populous states in the it is an educational tool, written in Northeast - Massachusetts, Rhode non-technical language, for citizens Island, Connecticut, New York, New interested in the recreational uses of Jersey and Pennsylvania. These dense- water supply reservoirs and the broad- ly populated states have extensive 6 er issues of water supply as well. reservoir systems which could provide This handbook suggests the need for valuable recreational opportunities. new policies under which advanced Chapter Three provides information treatment of drinking water becomes useful for planning recreation at reser- standard and recreation on and near voirs. Different forms of recreation are reservoirs is encouraged. Properly man- examined in terms of their suitability aged recreation is now one of the most and their compatibility. Guidelines are important uses of watershed lands, a suggested to help determine which ac- use which maximizes public benefits tivities are appropriate at a specific from land which must be specially pro- site. Costs and cost recovery mech- tected. But such change in the estab- anisms are presented, and institutional lished policies is a political choice. constraints on recreation are examin- This handbook is designed to assist ed. the public in making that choice. Appendix 1 provides a technical The choice must be based on knowl- description of the capabilities of water edge of local conditions. While this treatment technologies to remove con- handbook presents information and taminants commonly associated with guidelines for planning increased rec- recreation. The recent controversy reation, each reservoir is likely to be concerning drinking water quality unique in some respects. Therefore the and chlorination is discussed in that The issue of recreation on water supply reservoirs is part of the history of water supply. By the first quarter of this century, most of the water- Reservoir Recreation borne pestilences which caused so much suffering had been virtually wiped out by the broad advance of in Perspective public health science. The progress of water supply technology was a princi- pal element of this success. This section of the handbook out- lines the history of water supply in the United States. The emphasis is on sys- tems in the Northeast, but reference is made to conditions elsewhere in this country and in several European countries. The case for increased rec- reation on water supply reservoirs is presented in the light of new circum- The Croton Water Celebration, 1842 stances which are challenging tradi- tional attitudes toward water supply management. This case relies heavily on the as- 7 sumption that recreation will not con flict with the protection of public health. The production of safe drink- ing water has priority over all other objectives of water supply manage- ment. But with adequate treatment, all forms of recreation are compatible It with the protection of public health. The technical justification for this statement is contained in Appendix I, cRQTa@ but modern water treatment techniques are outlined below. Examples of sue- cessful recreational uses of water sup- ply reservoirs are presented, and the chapter concludes with a summary of the case for increased recreational use of water supply reservoirs. History of the First it. As cities grew in the nineteenth United States Water Systems century the wells and local streams be- came insufficient for the populations "There is no truer sign of civilization which grew up around industry. and culture than good sanitation. It Philadelphia was the first American goes with refined senses and orderly city to come to grips with the water habits. A good drain implies as much as a beautiful statue."I supply problem. In 1739, a yellow fever epidemic terrorized the city. In Public water supplies were set up to the course of three months, four thou- counter very real and severe threats. sand people, or ten percent of the Throughout history, disease has claim- city's population, died. Business came ed far more dead than have wars. In to a standstill in the nation's largest fact, wars have sometimes been ended port since more than half of the citi- by outbreaks of water-borne disease, zens had fled to the surrounding such as when Louis IX, leading the last countryside. Most of those who stay- of the crusades in Tunis in 1297, was ed behind avoided all contact with the killed by dysentery along with his son sick. Travelers from Philadelphia were and most of his army. In our own his- quarantined from other cities, and tory, Abigail Adams, wife of John relief supplies and financial aid were Adams, our second President, died of sent to help the striken national capi- water-borne typhoid in 1818, and tal. Later in the decade, the epidemic Zachary Taylor, the twelfth President struck New York, New Haven, Balti- 8 died of it in 1850. Since the scientific more and other cities, and revisited Aqueduct High Bridge During basis of disease transmission was poor- Philadelphia with vengence in 1798. Construction, Croton, New York, 1862 ly understood until comparatively re- Yellow fever is not transmitted by cently, only common sense guided water but by the Stegomyia Fasciata people's behavior in the water they mosquito. But even then it was recog used. Common sense proved insuffici- nized that the filthy conditions of the ent to guard against the invisible or- city contributed to the breeding of ganisms of disease. mosquitos and to the general public Often people were forced to accept vulnerability to disease. Large obviously inferior water. In many in- amounts of new water would be re- stances, there was no choice in the quired to clean up the city. To obtain matter. In the old cities, the only it the Philadelphia Water Works was available water came from polluted developed. The Schuylkill River was shallow wells. These wells were often dammed and water pumped into a near privies and graveyards, and house- small number of households by means hold wastes accumulated in the streets of steam engines. Water was available and drained noxious substances into free from public hydrants on the the groundwater. streets, a policy which contributed to Not only was the water unhealthy, the eventual financial failure of the but there was comparatively little of enterprise. The soft surface water was ............ .10 excellent for washing and cooking, but City of New York. They petitioned for the toll would have been lower had the population preferred the taste of a clean water supply in order that the not so many old wells and privies re- the cool, mineral laden well water. quality of their beer be improved. mained in service. Nonetheless, Philadelphia's Water Sys- New York breweries were rapidly los- The lesson was not wasted on New tem was the envy of many cities, ing their business to those in Philadel- York, but adequate water was not notably Boston and New York, which phia, which had clean water supply available in time to avert another had suffered several water shortages. and better beer. tragedy. By 1835, the massive Croton It must be remembered that one A new disease struck: Asiatic aqueduct project was approved and crucial use of public water was the Cholera. Reports of its existence were construction begun; in December of fighting of fires. The establishment of received in dispatches from Egypt, that year New York suffered the worst the earliest water companies, which then Austria and Germany, and finally fire in its history. A former mayor de- delivered water by truck around the the British Isles. In June of 1832, scribed it as "the greatest loss by fire cities, was often catalyzed by the out- cholera crossed the Atlantic and was that has ever been known, with the break of devastating fires. A pure sup- reported in Canada, and soon moved exception perhaps of the conflagra- ply of water was needed for personal toward New York. Attempts were tion of Moscow."2 Twenty blocks of consumption, and a plentiful supply made by a frightened state legislature valuable buildings were destroyed, was mandatory for fighting fires. The to quarantine Albany, but to no avail; 2000 merchants were ruined, and al- wells were insufficient on both counts. cholera struck Albany and headed most all of the city's insurance com- It remained to be seen which catastro- south. panies were bankrupted. phe - fire or pestilence - would move Thinking that'bad air was responsi- Boston was more fortunate than cities to provide new water supply. ble for the disease, New York did its New York and Philadelphia. It did not For New York, unhappily, it was both. best to clean up its streets to ward off suffer the same cataclysms as New 10 In the early 19th century, New the epidemic. Nevertheless cholera York, and benefitted by the experi- York's only supply of water was from entered the city in July and did not ence of both cities in the design of its wells owned by the Manhattan Com- run its course until October. Thirty- own system. pany. After only a few years of opera- five hundred people died, and at least This background explains why, tion, those wells were impure and 100,000 people Red the city, causing when the water systems finally were manifestly inadequate for the service great losses to business and industry. finished and the first water flowed of such a large city. Worst hit among the population were toward the Cities of New York and In 1831, the New York Lyceum of the poor, and moralists were quick to Boston, the public celebration was Natural History presented a report to blame their disaster on bad habits and nothing short of ecstatic. In New the City Council which alleged wide- intemperance. York, on October 14, 1842, a water spread contamination of the city's The truth was otherwise, of course, festival was held which celebrated the wells by privies and graveyards. The Cholera can be water-borne and was new water works with great extrava- report made the disquieting observa- able to thrive in the poorest areas of gance; the day began with firing of tion that only the absorption of large the city due to lack of sanitation and cannons and ringing of churchbells, a amounts of urine into the well water the contamination of local well water. five-mile long parade, and speeches by prevented it from being worse, as the Philadelphia escaped the epidemic an entourage of political dignitaries. chemical reaction tended to precipi- with relatively few casualties - only Fountains had been built throughout tate out some of the impurities. about 900 lives were lost. The city's the city, and when the parade finished One complaint concerning the water good water supply and adequate passing City Hall at five in the after- was registered by the brewers of the sewerage saved it much suffering, and noon, parties and private celebrations 41 N-E! @E@ -.17M g mmin@ IRS i @I@W MORE_; I I @ MEN . ... ....... . -- --- ---- - LW .......... ....... .. .. .... ..... began in every borough. Establishing Water Treatment Six years later, Boston rivalled New Regarding "animalcules:" York in its civic festival celebrating "It is. . . quite useless to expect to the opening of Cochituate Reservoir, obtain water from a source which known formerly as Long Pond. Ac- will be free from these repulsive liv- cording to the water commissioners, ing beings. The only remedy against Cochituate was an Indian name them is, to avoid too curious a which meant "an ample supply of pure search by microscopic eyes. . ." Nathan H e, Boston Water Com- and soft water, of a sufficient eleva- missioneY tion to carry into the City of Boston, While Hale did go on to recommend at a moderate expense." The entire faculty and student body of Harvard that something be done when "animal- University marched in a parade which cules" get big enough to be seen by the also included Father Matthew's Mu- naked eye, his ostrich-like position did tual Benevolent Total Abstinence little to convince citizens. Though Society, the Sons of Temperance, the some went so far as to reason that Citizen's Water Committee, and vari- animalcules -showed the water was ous scientific, historic and musical pure, since they could not live in societies. When the parade was over, poisoned water, wiser heads ultimately 100,000 spectators watched Water prevailed. Commissioner Nathan Hale open the Since most city water had tradition- valve on an eighty foot tall fountain. ally been drawn from wells, tests for As the sun set, Mayor Quincy an- water purity were aimed at determin- 13 nounced that the fountain would run ing hardness, which is a common prob- all the next day,and that school lem with groundwater supplies. Hard- children would have the day off. The ness can give water a brackish taste, day ended with fireworks and parties and make washing and cooking diffi- throughout the city. cult. Since the germ theory of disease was not yet discovered, microorgan- isms in well water remained unknown and unidentified. Lake water, however, contained large insects and other "animalcules" visible to- the naked eye. Smaller or- ganisms could be seen under micro- scopes. People found the animalcules repulsive, hence Hale's attempt to prove they are of no consequence. Various measures were suggested to Hydraulic Annexe at the Centennial prevent the growth of animalcules in Exposition, Chicago, 18 76 water. When the water began to be drawn from surface sources, the responsible In 1812, John Melish suggested city officials often took steps to iso- that Philadelphia filter its water sup- late the supply. In 1803, the Philadel- ply with a device developed in Paisley, phia City Council passed an ordinance Scotland. Residents of Philadelphia that "every person who should throw already used similar devices called into the basin or canal any kind of "filter jars" in their homes to clarify filth, or should go into the water to the water for consumption. In 1831, wash or bathe, or should cause any Fyler Dibblee of New York noted, dog or animal to go into the water, "The citizens of Philadelphia are a should be fined $5 plus costs." In contented people; they have the 1832, a stricter law was passed with a Schuylkill by their side; and, from fine of $5 to $50. When New York necessity, they improve it to the best advantage; but that water is not built the Croton Reservoir, the City fit to drink without undergoing the Council assessed a fine of $50 on any- process of filtration. I am inform- one who bathed or threw stones or ed, from indisputable authority, dirt into Croton or the aqueduct. that insects may sometimes be seen in it one-fourth of an inch in While these laws were logical as a length.-4 practical measure, there was no under- standing of the biological relation- The process of filtration suggested ships involved. by Melish was the so-called slow filter. Little regard for treating the water In this process, water is allowed to was evident until late in the century. seep through a bed of sand. After a 14 Municipalities tended to believe that a time, a jelly forms around the sand Schuylkill Water Works, Philadelphia, 1844 lake or a stream had the ability to particles of the upper layers of the purify itself if left undisturbed. While bed. After an adequate amount of this this is true to a certain extent - run- jelly has accumulated, it acts biologi- ning water tends to oxygenate itself cally to kill organisms and oxidize and satisfy biochemical oxygen de- organic matter. Later in the 19th cen- mand (BOD) and standing water will tury, the rapid filter was perfected. clarify itself by sedimentation - the For this type of treatment, a coagulat- effects do not sufficiently protect a ing substance such as alum is added to populace from disease organisms. As is the water to produce a precipitate or now being discovered in the field of floc which entraps impurities and is viruses, a relatively small number of then easily removed by filtering. A pathogenic organisms can have a sig- rapid filter permits more water to be nificant health effect. Even if natural processed per acre of filter bed, and processes destroy 90% of the patho- achieves effective treatment at com- gens, the remaining 10% can infect paratively lower cost. large numbers of people. Modem wat- Filtration was popular in Europe, er quality managers feel no organisms which had more severe water supply should remain in water delivered to problems than the United States. the public. Europe's cities, being older, had to 'AIM I K I 3, A -5kd T-1 VI PAP W7 I, .............. ip, id@ ,all 411 ti, It Tiii 1111$l11, MM-1 it I iiH. it ij ,t it cope with higher population densities Filtration of River Water for the Sup- and more, dilapidated sanitary facih- ply of Cities as Practiced in Europe. ties. Cholera was widely feared during St. Louis declined to build a plant, the half century when filtration was but Kirkwood's investigations found proving itself effective in removing an audience elsewhere. In 1872, the disease pathogens from drinking water. first successful slow sand filter was In 1854, an epidemic in London built in Poughkeepsie, New York, to conclusively established the relation- process water from the Hudson River. ship between contaminated well water The next successful plant was installed and disease. In the parish of St. James, in Lawrence, Massachusetts in 1893. which had a population of 36,000, an In this same year, an outbreak of epidemic of cholera killed 700 people cholera occurred in Germany which in 17 weeks. Water in the parish was provided a dramatic lesson in the value drawn from wells lined with porous of filtration and hastened its adoption lime-mortared brick. A thorough in- in the United States. Two cities on the vestigation of the outbreak by Dr. Elbe, Hamburg and Altona, were in- John Snow revealed that almost all volved. While adjacent, they had sep- the cholera victims had drunk water arate governments and separate water from the well on Broad Street. Fur- systems. Hamburg drew.water from ther research discovered that a case of the river seven miles above its sewage cholera had occurred some weeks be- outfall; Altona drew its water seven fore at a house near the well. Seepage miles below the Hamburg outfall. Al- Ice-cutting at Fresh Pond, Cambridge, Mass. from the dilapidated cesspool of that tona was thus vulnerable to the con- 17 1855 residence had penetrated the well's tamination from all 570,000 residents porous brick lining. This discovery was of Hamburg. In 1892, a cholera epi- a milestone in the advancement of demic spread in Hamburg causing public health research. 16,956 cases and 8,605 deaths. Amaz- Between 1836 and 1876, eleven ingly, Altona developed only 500 U.S. cities considered filtration of cases, most of which-were contracted their water but did not adopt it. In in Hamburg, and only 300 people 1836, for example, Robert Eddy ad- died. The explanation of the disparity vised Boston against filtration, recom- was that Altona had a slow sand fil- mending instead that the city go as far tration plant in its system, and Ham- afield as necessary to obtain water burg had not completed the one it was which would not need filtration. then building. Desperate to control the Boston still follows this policy today. epidemic, Hamburg worked 24 hours A turning point in the history of a day to finish its filtration plant. filtration in the United States came in Although the filter went into opera- 1859 when James Kirkwood went to tion a year ahead of schedule, the Europe to study filtration on behalf damage had been done. of the City of St. Louis. His findings In the United States, it was realized were published in a report entitled, at last that the invisible animalcules which Nathan Hale had recommended ly bleaching powder) to disinfect be ignored were indeed significant. water as it entered the London distri- High counts of colon bacillus, itself bution system. In 1908, the Jersey harmless, began to be taken as pre- City Water Company proposed to ful- sumptive evidence of contamination fill its obligation to provide pure water by sewage. This practice is continued to the city by the use of chlorination. today. Newark, which had a mortality The law suit which resulted finally rate from typhoid fever of over 100 proved that chlorination produces bac- per hundred thousand, switched to an teriologically safe water. Poughkeep- upstream source with a lower coliform sie, New York, which had been a count and the city's mortality rate pioneer in the field of filtration, was declined to 20. Paterson, New Jersey among the first to use chlorination. In reduced its typhoid mortality rate. February 1909, they instituted a pro- from 30 to 15 per hundred thousand cess using chloride of lime. Philadel- by filtering its water. phia, came next, in September of the Philadelphia, which had a typhoid same year. In 1912, Philadelphia mortality rate fluctuating between 35 switched to the solution feed process and 70 per hundred thousand, pro- now commonly in use. By use of a reg- crastinated until 1902 before con- ulating chlorinator, chlorine gas is dis- structing filtration plants. It did not solved in a minor stream of water filter its whole system, however, and which is mixed with the major stream in 1906 the rate went up to over 80. before it leaves the treatment plant. 18 By 1911, the whole system was filter- By early 1941, over 85% of the 5,372 The Reservoir at Brookline, ed, and typhoid was finally brought water works in the United States pro- Massachusetts, Early 1900's under control. viding any treatment used chlorina- Mortality from typhoid fever, of tion. Disinfection by ozone, popular course, is now practically zero. During in France,.was tried in several systems the decade from 1880 to 1889, the in this country and is still inuse in a average annual mortality in cities was few cities. Ozonation has several ad- about 58 deaths per hundred thou- vantages -over chlorine: it has higher sand. By 1910, it had dropped to 20, germicidal power, its potency is unaf- and by 1938 to 0.67. While this dra- fected by pH or ammonia content, matic reduction cannot entirely be and it leaves no taste in the water. ascribed to protection of water sup- However, ozonation is not widely used plies, the management.of water sup- today because of its high capital costs Al plies was instrumental in producing and because it lacks residual disinfec- this improvement. tion capability, an issue which will be The use of chlorine for disinfection discussed presently. was not introduced until the twentieth century. Its first application was in England in 1904, when Sir Alexander Hamilton used hypochlorite (essential- 1@ijjI Is j10 A Modern Water Supply System frequently covered to protect the finished water. A modem water supply system has three major parts which are related to Protecting Water Quality recreational use: a sup@ly source, Treatment varies in intensity in a treatment works and an organization modern system according to the quali- to operate the system. The fourth ty of the "raw" water entering the major component, the distribution treatment plant. In 1934, the Ameri- network, does not concern us here. can Water Works Association adopted The Supply Source the position that, although watershed management and protection of the A modem water system which uses reservoir was the "first line of de- surface water may have as many as fense" against contamination, some three separate types of reservoirs. form of treatment is also required. Upstream reservoirs, usually called Some major water quality manage- collection or storage reservoirs, are the ment techniques are discussed below. major source of supply. Rainwater fall- Appendix I of this handbook gives a ing on the watershed flows into more complete presentation of water streams which in turn flow into the treatment techniques and their effec-" collection reservoir. In the Northeast, tiveness in removing contaminants most collection reservoirs are man- Schematic Representation of a Modern related to recreational use of water made impoundments. Water Treatment Plant, Showing supply reservoirs. In addition to these From the collection reservoir, the Coagulation/Sedimentation, Rapid techniques, there are many types of 20 water flows through an aqueduct to a Sand Filtration, and Chlorination water treatment designed to deal with terminal reservoir which is generally smaller than a collection reservoir. Here, several days' supply is held and allowed to settle before it is treated. After treatment, water is some- times put in distribution or balancing reservoirs to facilitate the mainten- ance of even flow throughout the sys- tem. Commonly these hold from a few hours to several days'supply at normal rates of use. While not always necessary, distribution reservoirs are FILTKA71014 useful for maintaining pressure in the L__J 1-14 LORI NA10IOL pipes and form a margin of safety against temporary interruption of flow from the treatment plant. In case of C4VAG"LATiem fire, distribution reservoirs provide an immediate ly available reserve. They are usually artificial structures and are MFZ WA-MX bk9w specific contaminants found in some water feeding reservoir springs may Because it is difficult for chlorine or localities. The accompanying drawing originate outside the watershed and any disinfectant to destroy microbes depicts a typical type of water treat- carry viruses and other contaminants. that are protected by being imbedded ment plant. The settling of air pollutants on the in particulate material, disinfection is Watershed Management Watershed watershed may contribute toxic sub- most effective in conjunction with fil- management is the first line of defense stances to the reservoir water. Animals tration. Addition of the chlorine be- against contamination of the water and birds may carry in diseases to fore filtration provides extra contact supply. It is also, in theory, the best which man is susceptible. time for disinfection and helps to keep By maintaining adequate vegetative While watershed management must the filter beds free of microbial cover on the watershed to prevent continue to be an integral part of growth. siltation, and by preventing pollutants water supply technology, its limita- Other processes are sometimes used from entering tributary streams, reser- tions are becoming more evident. Be- for disinfection, notably ozone, which voir water can be kept at a high level cause perfect control is impossible, is popular in parts of Europe and Can- of quality. Natural purification pro- watershed management cannot func- ada. While ozone is a more powerful cesses are allowed to work to the pub- tion as the only safeguard but must be disinfectant, it lacks one property lic's best advantage. used in conjunction with water purifi- which makes chlorine particularly use- Perfect watershed management cation processes. ful. After both the initial demand and would require that the water company Chlorination The prime purpose of the disinfection demand are satisfied, have complete jurisdiction over the chlorination is disinfection, meaning the water will contain active residual entire watershed, for any development the destruction of pathogenic organ, chlorine as it enters the distribution can cause a variety of contaminants, isms. Although filtration can physical- system. Some forms of residual chlo- including industrial wastes, household ly remove much bacterial contamina- rine give chlorinated water its charac- sewage, lead from auto exhaust, and tion from water, it cannot alone pro- teristic taste and odor. The residual 21 highway deicing salts to enter the vide assurance of a hygienically safe chlorine serves to protect the water reservoir water. In Seattle, the city's supply. Chlorine, by attacking the against additional contamination it watersheds are completely closed to enzyme structure of living cells, de- might encounter in the distribution the public. About one-quarter of the stroys microorganisms. At a greater system. Also, its presence acts as a sig- land area of King County, or 450 concentration, at least one milligram nal to water quality monitors. If the square miles, consists of restricted and per liter for 30 minutes or more ' it residual chlorine is not present when undeveloped municipal watersheds. also inactivates pathogenic viruses. the water reaches the household tap, Elsewhere, such as in the Northeast, When chlorine is introduced into then it has been absorbed by contam- such near perfect control is not pos- water, a certain amount will undergo ination somewhere in the pipes, and sible. In some states, new laws have side reactions with chemical compo- some sort of failure in the system may been proposed to give the state more nents in the water that inactivate it. have taken place. The residual chlorine authority to control development on To ensure disinfection enough chlorine also performs the important service of watershed land not owned by water must be added to satisfy this "chlo- inhibiting the growth of slime in the companies, but even with such laws, rine demand" and to leave additional distribution system. control will not equal that available to active "residual chlorine." Adequacy Most bacteria do not require more a city like Seattle. o,f disinfection is indicated by the pre- than a few minutes with the usual Even total isolation of a watershed sence of an established "residual chlo- chlorine residual for disinfection to cannot assure that the water will not rine" at the end of a specified contact take place. Some viruses, however, are receive some contamination. Ground- period. more resistant. In their case, further contact with the residual chlorine as it there is continuous contamination of and other impurities. The water is then flows through the pipes is useful, for, the raw water supply. filtered to remove fine floe particles if any have survived the treatment Recently, some questions have and substantial amounts of bacteria. plant, they can be destroyed during arisen about the practice of chlorina- Filtering is a complicated biological distribution. tion. Under some circumstances, chlo- and chemical process which involves However, the chlorine residual main- rine can react with organic compounds much more than a mechanical screen- tained in the water is not enough to in the water to form chlorinated hy- ing of particles. protect against a failure in the system drocarbons which are thought to be Slow filtration plants, as their name which involves any substantial con- carcinogenic. This problem has been implies, process less water per acre per tamination. Leakage of substantial observed primarily as the result of hour than rapid filtration plants. Their sewage waters into the pipes would chlorine disinfection of municipal advantage is relative ease of operation, overwhelm the residual chlorine im- waste treatment plant effluents. It is but they are seldom installed in new mediately. not thought to result from chlorina- systems today because of their higher There are two major forms of chlo- tion of drinking water supplies, parti-. costs. rination practice. The simpler techni- cularly if the systems use high quality Filtration will probably become in- que, called "plain chlorination," is to reservoir water. Furthermore, several creasingly widespread in the near add to the water the minimum dosage of the advanced filtration techniques future. The new United States Envi- of chlorine that will leave a set residu- described below are capable of remov- ronmental Protection Agency drinking al chlorine in the finished water as it ing these carbon based compounds. water standards, issued in 1975, call leaves the plant, generally a few tenths The Environmental Protection Agency for a reduction of turbidity to one- of a milligram per liter. No attempt is is undertaking a major study to deter- fifth the currently accepted level. made to ensure any particular form of mine whether the interaction of Almost every surface water supply not 22 active chlorine. Provided the need for chlorine and hydrocarbons does in currently filtering its water will be disinfection is simply to guard against fact represent a public health problem obliged to do so to be in compliance the possibility of minor occasional and, if so, what should be done to with the new standards. contamination, this procedure may solve it. Other Filtration Processes In some function quite satisfactorily. Filtration The purpose of filtration is cases, for reasons of efficiency in the The more complex, more technical- ly sound practice, designated "free I to reduce turbidity and color and to handling of large volumes of water or residual chlorination," is to add suffi- remove the major portion of the bac- where the raw water source is of un- cient chlorine not only to satisfy the teria load. Filtration, unlike chorina- usually poor quality, more intensive normal chlorine demand but also to tion, is not always performed in treat- treatment techniques are used. Two eliminate combined forms of chlorine, ment of drinking water. Although common techniques are anthracite leaving a residual that is the highly ac- highly recommended, filtration is coal filters in conjunction with sand tive "free chlorine" capable of destroy- sometimes omitted where the raw filters and granular activated carbon water supply is judged pure and clear. beds after conventional filtering. Coal ing chronic viral as well as bacterial The most frequently used filtration sand filters are typically used to re- contamination. Satisfactory perform- technique is rapid filtration. This pro- move heavy loads of suspended solids. ance of "free residual chorination" re- cess includes addition of a coagulant, Activated carbon is extremely effec- quires careful monitoring and control such as alum, to the water before fil- tive in removing tastes and odors, and of the chlorine dose to adjust for tration. The coagulant creates a floe is also effective in removing organic changes in the quality of raw water. It which helps settle out color, turbidity, compounds. Both processes permit the should be used, however, whenever use of smaller filter beds rather than the methods described later in the hand- Regional water districts are apt to traditional sand techniques alone. In book. lie somewhere between municipal recent years the cost of activated car- Private water companies, like invest- suppliers and private water companies bon has declined significantly, making or-owned electric or gas utilities, are in their response to expanded recrea- advanced filtration processes economi- generally chartered by the state or tion. They are public agencies, so their cally attractive. However, with the municipal government and operate authority can be reached by the gener- exception of a small number of new under their jurisdiction. Private water al public. But, if their jurisdiction in- treatment plants, these techniques are companies, like any private corpora- cludes several municipalities, they can not widely used at present. tion, respond to the profit motive, be isolated from the wishes of any one pH Adjustment Adjustment of the pH and, therefore, would tend to favor locality. Likewise, budget authority of water is sometimes necessary. High- recreation if it could pay its own way is likely to be beyond the control of ly acidic water can corrode the dis- or make a profit. On the other hand, any single locality so recovery of recrea- tribution system and the treatment these companies are aware of their tion costs may be an important issue. plant machinery and, where lead pipes special position in the community. If the regional agency also provides are still in use, excess acidity can form Like other private utilities such as the,,, recreation, the problems may be eased poisonous salts in the distribution sys- telephone company, they have been somewhat. tem. granted a local monopoly in orderto Cooperatives, like dairy and other Carbonate alkalinity, common in provide cheap and efficient service. To agricultural cooperatives, are formed hard waters, inhibits corrosion. Reduc- protect their privilege they are anxious out of common need. In the Northeast, tion of acidity is achieved by increas- to avoid controversial policies and most water supply cooperatives exist ing carbonate alkalinity. would want a majority of the commun- in rural areas and are quite small. There ity in favor of recreation before they are only a few water supply coopera- Water Supply Organizations would allow it. Once persuaded that tives in the region. 23 In the Northeast, four major types of recreation would be popular, they agencies own water supply reservoirs: might be willing to bear some or all of public agencies, private water compan- the costs as a public relations expense. ies, regional water districts, and coop- Water districts and other regional eratives. suppliers (like Boston's and Hartford's Most suppliers are public agencies, Metropolitan District Commissions) serving only a single town, but there are are less numerous but serve several of numerous private water companies in the region's major metropolitan areas. the region as well. Public water depart- Regional agencies are usually establish- ments which serve a single municipal- ed under state enabling legislation to ity are usually an agency of the govern- achieve effective management of water ment like the school or highway de- resources at low cost. The idea of a partments. Although they collect water district is said to have originated revenues from water users, their bud- in Maine, when a country lawyer miss- gets are usually authorized by the ed the last train home: he walked municipal government authority, and through adjacent communities on his any increased costs which recreation way to Waterville and realized they might incur could be covered through formed a natural grouping for the increased budget authorization and by purpose of public water supply. Water Treatment and ment plants and would not affect the every effort was made to isolate sup- Recreational Use quality of the finished water. plies from human contact. Consider- Historically, body contact with In Illinois, for instance, water sup- able shoreline was available elsewhere drinking water has been rigidly pro- ply reservoirs generally are available for recreation, and water managers scribed at the major reservoirs of the for recreational use. The reservoir serv- saw no reason to open their properties Northeast. Despite advances in water ing Springfield has two swimming to increased public use. treatment technology, these restric- beaches, hiking trails, a wildlife sanc- Circumstances in the Northeast have tions are still in effect. The idea that tuary, a scout camp, and a yacht club. changed. New toxic substances have treatment is an expensive nuisance has In Indiana, the privately owned Mun- been introduced into the environment not entirely died out despite recom- cie Reservoir has been leased to the which make reliance on watershed pro- mendations from health departments city for 60 years for a nominal fee of tection to insure high water quality and water supply experts that drinking $10 in order to provide golfing, swim- obsolete. More advanced treatment is water from surface sources should be ming, -fishing, skating, and ice boating. now required to provide safe drinking both filtered and chlorinated before Similarly, multiple use has been gen- water. At the same time, development use. eral practice in Kansas, Oklahoma, has consumed much of the available In the Northeast, as in the rest of the Utah, and many other states. The shoreline, encroached on former wil- country, virtually all water supplies reservoirs serving Wichita Falls, Texas derness areas, and- has limited the rec- are chlorinated. Relatively few systems even allow commercial fishing in ad- reational opportunities available to an which use reservoirs as their supply dition to boating, swimming, sailing, expanding urban population. Recrea- source have installed filtration plants, and other activities. Although several tional opportunities for the poor and however. states have restrictions against swim- aged in particular have been reduced Elsewhere in the United States cir- ming, few prohibit boating and fish- as the result of urban development 24 cumstances were different. Many new ing. and water pollution. With provision of water systems were built in the 1930's. Today we see two contrary atti- treatment required by our contem- By that time, a great deal more was tudes toward recreation on water sup- porary understanding of the problems known about water treatment than ply reservoirs. In the Midwest, West, of safe water supply, all forms of rec- when the first water supply systems and South, recreation has been in- reation would be possible at water sup- were constructed in the Northeast. In stituted as a matter of course in con- ply reservoirs. the more and areas of the country, junction with full-scale treatment. Water managers in the Northeast large water supply reservoirs provided Water managers accept supervision of are still generally opposed to multiple the best, and sometimes the only, recreation as part of their basic res- use of water supply reservoirs. They water for recreation. Since the water ponsibility. Since the population of believe that increased public recreation impounded in these reservoirs was these states never experienced the hor- on the lands and reservoirs they man- often not of the same high quality as rors which plagued early public water age will degrade water supply. They that found in the wooded watersheds supplies during the seventeenth and feel watershed protection with mini- of New England, both filtration and eighteenth centuries, the people do mal treatment is adequate to protect chlorination were provided as a matter not feel threatened by multiple use of the public health. To institute recrea- of course. In such a situation it was their reservoirs. 5 tion would require them to relinquish logical to allow recreation on the new In the Northeast, exactly the op- a valued tradition and assume new reservoirs, for recreation would place posite is true. Epidemics were repeat- responsibilities. To date there has been only an imperceptible additional treat- edly shown to be the result of water little incentive for water supply man- ment load on the high-quality treat- contamination by human wastes, so agers to favor increased recreation. As it becomes clear that higher levels agers believe recreation constitutes too ticular form of recreation outweigh of treatment ought to become standard great a risk. the benefits in terms of user reve- even at protected reservoirs, more Recreation is prohibited at many nues of public goodwill? recreation opportunities will open up. major collection reservoirs as well. The Is there a demand for this kind of They will be a valuable side benefit to most common explanation for this recreation? the installation of more filtration plants policy is the lack of adequate water Would permitting the recreation of- and to the more careful monitoring of treatment, but such a policy is ex- fend any water users? drinking water quality. treme. The large size of most collec- Are there any side-effects of this Recreation on reservoirs is not an all tion reservoirs allows for considerable recreation activity which are dan- or nothing matter; restrictions on purification of the water by natural gerous to water quality? some forms of recreation may be en- means. They usually are far enough In many cases, water managers do tirely appropriate, depending on the from centers of population so that the not feel the benefits of providing a local conditions. Types of restrictions level of recreational use could be readi- particular kind of recreation are worth and the attitudes of water managers in ly controlled. the costs. Many are conscious that the the Northeast are examined below. Where complete water treatment public would like to see recreation ex- This section concludes with descrip- (filtration and chlorination) is avail- panded but feel that the public would tions of successful recreation at four able, the policy of total restriction on not be willing to pay the costs, and reservoirs in the Northeast. recreation needs thorough reexamina- that public gratitude is not sufficient tion. to justify the additional responsibility Types of Recreation Policies Parti .al Restriction Most reservoirs entailed. Although general sightseeing Total Restriction Total restriction of limit recreation to some degree. In the and other low intensity activities may recreational activities is essential at Northeast, swimming is almost univer- require almost no expenditure of distribution reservoirs, whose water sally prohibited. It is also very com- funds, many water managers feel that 25 will receive no more treatment. Any mon to find restrictions against boat- collecting the refuse from picnickers, pollution would flow directly to con- ing and often against fishing. Hunting, or buying boats to rent, would repre- sumers. These reservoirs should be hiking, snowmobiling, picnicking, and sent unjustified inconvience, responsi- covered to protect them from all riding are among other activities re- bility and expense. sources of pollution. stricted at various sites. Closely allied in the minds of water managers is the question of demand. In the Northeast, recreation is also Partial restrictions make sense as a They feel the public would not actual- generally restricted at terminal and general policy since, except at the very ly use facilities as much as recreation collection reservoirs. At terminal reser- largest reservoirs, all forms of recrea- advocates claim. For most recreation voirs it is argued that total prohibition tion can not be made compatible with facilities, demand will increase over is easier to administer than a program one another. The degree of the restric- time. A water company may open a to keep recreational uses within safe tions should be reasonable, however. picnic area, find that few use it, and limits. Terminal reservoirs tend to be Aside from the technical requirements close it after a short time before many close to urban areas, where use would of protecting the water supply from people become aware of it, Good plan- be substantial, and they are generally unwanted contamination, managers ning is crucial to encourage use. A too small to permit reliance on natural often find justification for extensive poorly designed recreation area can processes to destroy contamination. In restrictions on recreation in their discourage use even though it costs cases where the only treatment avail- answers to the following questions: juIst as much as a well designed one. able is chlorination, some water man- Do the costs of supervision of a par- Some recreational activities, espe- cially swimming, may be offensive to ming, boating, fishing, and all manner Reservoir Recreation Case Studies: some water users, and managers are of adjacent activities. At present, no Reservoirs in the Northeast justifiably anxious not to alienate their artificial reservoirs in the Northeast In the Northeast, as well as in other clients. In areas of the country where have such a policy. Sebago Lake in parts of the United States and the rest swimming has never been allowed on Maine is unique in the region in its of the world, there has been consider- reservoirs, some people are repulsed at tradition of open recreation. Many ar- able experience with various types of the idea, despite the fact that uncon- tificial reservoirs could sustain virtually recreational activities at water supply trolled illegal swimming regularly oc- unrestricted recreation without hazard reservoirs. Examples of recreation per- curs. In areas of the country where to the water supply, but the decision mitted at four Northeastern reservoirs swimming has always been allowed, to open them would require a major are presented below to describe a people are perfectly accustomed to it. change in accepted policy. range of possible recreation p'olicies. In areas where objections of this sort The only restriction necessary for Case Study: have been voiced, it may be desirable protection of the reservoir in such a Fresh Pond Reservation to phase in new recreation gradually. situation is to cordon off a radius Cambridge, Massachusetts Contemplating the change from re- around the water intake. A two mile striction to permission is emotionally radius such as at Sebago Lake would Fresh Pond is a terminal reservoir difficult for a small minority of the be appropriate with minimum water serving Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its public, but familiarity seems to lead treatment (chlorination). With com- treatment plant includes facilities for to acceptance. plete treatment, the restricted area coagulation, filtration, and chlorina- Dealing with the side effects of rec- could be smaller. Policing of the reser- tion. Access to the pond is prevented reation is an important issue to water voir would be necessary, and in heavi- by an eight-foot chain link fence managers. Often the recreation itself ly populated areas this could involve around its 2.5 mile circumference. 26 may be acceptable but activities which significant costs. But, if the public is Just outside the fence but within a accompanythe recreation may be un- willing to accept such costs, there are few feet of the water is a paved road desirable. Public abuse of recreational many reservoirs at which large scale wide enough for the passage of a facilities is an unfortunate reality. recreation could be instituted. patrol vehicle. Well-kept lawns and Other secondary effects of recrea- woods surround the treatment plant. tion can include destruction of vegeta- The park facilities include trash recep- tion and littering. While none of these tacles at a few convenient locations constitute a serious health hazard, and a small children's play area with they do indicate substandard reservoir one set of swings, a slide, and a climb- management. Maintaining a high stan- ing gym. At an elevation of about 30 dard involves considerable expense. feet above the water are two semicir- Unless funds are available to maintain cular terrace outlooks, and at another recreation areas properly, the littering attractive site there is a group of park problem is a powerful argument benches overlooking the water. The against expansion of recreation at grounds are carefully maintained by reservoir areas. the Cambridge Water Department. A Minimal Restriction Some areas are parking lot serving the facility holds large enough to sustain virtually un- approximately 150 cars when fully restricted recreation, including swim- crowded. The site is open from dawn to dusk year-round. In 1932, the State Legislature pass- which protects the water. Although 412 billion gallons. Quabbin provides ed an Act enabling the establishment mended two to three times per month, 116.8 billion gallons per year to serve of a municipal golf course on Water it is broken through again within a day two million people in 34 Eastern Department land. The course lies to or two of repair. In the summer there Massachusetts cities and towns, in- the west of the reservoir and is furnish- is surreptitious swimming, and fisher- cluding Boston. Water from Quabbin ed with a complete drainage system men use the reservoir illegally during Reservoir flows through two major connected to the city sewers. the spring, summer and fall. Dogs easi- reservoirs and several smaller ones on According to the manager of the ly reach the water year-round. its 60 mile journey to Boston. The treatment plant, his first purpose in Although the manager disapproves of entire system is operated by the Met- caring for the reservation is to main- swimming and fishing in terminal ropolitan District Commission, a state tain high standards.of watershed man- reservoirs as a general principal, he agency established to coordinate re- agement. The public's use of the park tolerates this comparatively low level gional services in Boston and Eastern is secondary, but he is pleased that the of abuse. .While additional recreational Massachusetts. public uses it as much as it does. usecould be supported by the treat- Despite Quabbin's impressive size, Activities at the park are various. ment the water receives, the shore is recreation on it is minimal. Limited The circuit road, built primarily for quite steep and rocky. New facilities fishing is allowed both on shore and inspection of the grounds, is used as a would be required for boating, fishing from boats, which are available at promenade, a bicycle path, and a run- or swimming, and the level of manage- three rental areas. Fishermen may ning track. Its ten foot width allows ment required would be higher. bring their own boats provided the multiple use without conflict between Fresh Pond Reservation is an ex- motors are less than ten horsepower. walkers and runners, though bicycles ample of a very successful user-orient- Some picnic areas are provided, as are constrained to a slow pace when ed recreation facility at a terminal well as toilet facilities, an observation the road is crowded. The lawns are reservoir. Its success is predicated on tower, and marked hiking trails. No 27 used for p 'icnicking, informal games, the adequate provision of high quality swimming is allowed because it is sunbathing, and for exercising dogs@ water treatment, on the simplicity of against Massachusetts law. Also pro- Because users tend to live close by, the its recreational facilities, and on the hibited are wading, fires, trail bikes, lack of toilet facilities is not inconven- attitudes of the people who use it. hunting, trapping, sailboats, canoes, ient. and the launching or landing of boats Accor .ding to the manager, a ten- Case Study: except in designated mooring areas. fold increase in use over the past Quabbin Reservoir The water from Quabbin is given twenty years has not noticeably dam- Petersham, Massachusetts minimal treatment - simple chorina- aged the grounds and water. He attrib- Quabbin Reservoir, completed in tion - just as in Sebago Lake in Maine utes this in large part to efficient po- 1939, was the result of an enormous with its extensive recreation. Clearly, lice patrol. In addition, frequent users water engineering project. Two rivers more extensive recreation would not of the park are likely to report abuses (the Swift and the Ware) were im- be a threat to public health. Why then of the facilities directly to the Water pounded, four towns were obliterated, is it not allowed? Department personnel. He feels that and the boundaries of two others were The legislation authorizing the con- the public has a high sense of responsi- changed. Its 118 square miles of shore- struction of Quabbin specified the bility about the grounds and that only line encompass 39 square miles of present level of recreation. The Metro- a small minority abuse the facility. water containing 60 islands totaling politan District Commission has always Foremost among the maintenance 3,500 acres. Seven years were required followed a policy of going as far problems is the integrity of the fence to fill Quabbin's storage capacity of afield as necessary to obtain water 7-1 47 ,IV WWI- 4 7 AA, 4 -4. Sebago Lake: Water Supply Source for Portland, Me. Sebago has long providec a wide range of recreational opportunities. Ar kr -Xi Z't Ilk, A 14 w > E4 OCU a) M 164 0 V 3-4 cn 064 > In Quabbin Reservoir: Water Supply Source for Boston, Mass. Despite its large size, recreation at Quabbin is strictly limited. Credit: Metropolitan District Commission 7@ A V @0 -ZR -Ai v 164 :a 0 gz 0 which does not require filtration. By nificant, but the margin of safety of water, hardwoods for charcoal, and building Quabbin, this objective was without filtration is getting progress- accessible ores provided the raw ma- achieved. Public pressure was largely ively thinner. Quabbin is a typical case terials for meeting the expanding de- responsible for the level of recreation of a major reservoir with excessive mand for iron in the American colon- which does exist. Without such pres- restrictions. With or without more ies. By the early 1900's, however, iron sure and the consequent legislation, treatment, there is opportunity for production had largely ceased. Quabbin might have been operated as greater public use of this area. How On this history of intensive human Scituate Reservoir in Rhode Island is much more recreation should be al- use, water supply in the Pequannock today, where no recreation is allowed lowed is an open question - Quabbin's Watershed was developed. In 1889, at all. unique resources as a semi-wilderness after a lengthy political wrangle, New- In defense of the limited recreation area should not be disturbed. ark contracted with the East Jersey is the unique quality of the reservoir Case Study: Water Company to build three reser- itself. Quabbin is by far the largest ar- Pequannock Watershed voirs with the watershed and an aque- tificial impoundment in the area and Newark, New Jersey duct to Newark. From that time to possesses a natural beauty which could the present, the system was gradually not be duplicated. The low intensity The Pequannock Watershed @ is one expanded. Now there are five water recreation it provides has considerable of the three major water supply supply reservoirs and several other merit; more intense use might drive sources of Newark, New Jersey. Plans lakes in the watershed. The City of away the abundant wildlife and change for relaxing the traditional restrictive Newark owns 86 percent of the water- its character. On the other hand, policies on the recreational uses of this shed or about 35,000 acres. Quabbin is sufficiently far from major valuable resource are currently under- Water is collected in Oak Ridge cities so that it might not face exces- way. The watershed lies 35 miles from Reservoir (482 acres), Clinton Reser- 28 sive pressures if regulations were relax- the center of Newark and contains ap- voir (423 acres), Canistear Reservoir ed. proximately 64 square miles. The (350 acres), and Echo Lake Reservoir Because of its large size, any type of reservoirs in the watershed produce an (300 acres).and flows into the lowest recreation, including body contact ac- estimated yield of about 55 million reservoir on the Pequannock River, tivities, could be permitted at Quabbin gallons per day. Charlotteburg Reservoir (375 acres). Quabbin could be opened for sailboats, The watershed lands were first Chlorine and lime are added to the boats, canoes, and rowboats without settled by Algonquin Indians who water before it is transmitted to the great problems. More mooring facili- maintained hunting and fishing rights terminal reservoir, Cedar Grove Reser- ties would probably need to be con- until the 19th Century, long after voir (100 acres), located on a moun- structed, but these could be made self Europeans had moved into the area. tain above Montclair. Chlorine is add- supporting through user fees. A swim- In 1715, Dutch farmers founded ed to the Cedar Grove water to main- ming beach could be maintained. The Rockaway in the watershed lands. The tain a free residual in the distribution Quabbin watershed supports a large region expanded around a diversified system. Newark is under mandate number of deer and upland birds. Se- agricultural base which included from the State of New Jersey to con- lective or unrestricted hunting could wheat, corn, rye, lumber, and naval struct a filtration plant for the water be permitted on the surrounding lands. stores. The ample soft water in the from this supply system. The lack of filtration capability in area encouraged an extensive leather Traditionally only very limited rec- the MDC system is an obstacle to rec- tanning industry. reational activities have been permit- reation on all its reservoirs. The cost In 1765, iron production was start- ted in the watershed. Several towns of filtering all its water would be sig- ed in the watershed. The vast amounts operate small municipal parks at the fringes of the watershed, but the reser- was created to plan and administer The lake covers 46 square miles voirs and streams have been closed to the development of the Pequannock and holds 3 million acre feet of water. the general public for fishing and boat- Watershed. User charges levied on rec- Sebago's watershed area is 400 square ing, and camping has been discourag- reational activities are to go toward re- miles, and its shoreline is about 50 ed. Swimming, horseback riding, skat- ducing the watershed property taxes. miles. The lake is very deep, reaching ing and other activities are specifically This case study provides a good ex- 308 feet at its deepest point. Within forbidden. Access for any reason has ample of increasing the recreational two hundred feet of the water are been allowed only by special permit, uses of water supply reservoirs. Rec- some 1,600 homes, and the total and a five-man continuous patrol is reation at an upland collection reser- reaches 3,500 if housing further back maintained to enforce the regulations. voir with free residual chlorination is from the water is included. Other rec- But for several reasons, these poli- being expanded in consonance with reational facilities include resorts, cies are changing. In Northern New public health objectives. The addition camps, camping areas, motels, lodges, Jersey, recreational opportunities are of the planned filtration plant will guest houses, marinas, landings, and in very short supply. At the same further protect public health and ex- picnic areas. There are no restrictions time, the population of the area is pand the opportunity for recreation in on boat sizes or engine power on the growing and exerting even greater the downstream reservoirs. The devel- lake, though boats are prohibited pressure on the existing sites. The opment will help defray the enormous from having on-board toilets of any watershed also represents a significant costs of maintaining compatible land kind. financing burden to Newark, which uses in the watershed. An innovative The safety radius around the intake, must pay nearly $1 million yearly in institutional arrangement has been es- which lies about 1, 600 feet out into property taxes to the towns of the tablished to implement the program. the lake, is marked by on-shore mark- watershed. The people of Newark and others ers and buoys. Access to the water de- In May 1971, Newark's Mayor Gib- throughout Northern New Jersey will partment land is somewhat restricted,, 29 son initiated a study of the potential benefit from this revised recreation though the managers do not worry uses of the Pequannock watershed's policy, Those planning for more ex- about pedestrian use of their land. The lands and waters. The study conclud- tensive recreational uses of water sup- land is posted against snowmobiling, ed that more intensive recreational ply reservoirs can benefit from New- but effective control of them has development would be compatible ark's experience. proved to be impossible. with providing high quality drinking Case Study: During the summer the lake is super- water and conserving the natural Sebago Lake vised by four Water District em- beauty of the area as well. It advocat- Sebago, Maine ployees, one in a boat, two on shore, ed a policy of multiple use and pro- and one analyst to record @,,.,ater quali- tective development. As a result, new Sebago Lake is a natural lake, not ty. They inspect the operation of.sep- recreation opportunities were recom- an artificial reservoir, but it is used by tic tanks, which operate under no mended, including @swimming, fishing, Portland, Maine for its water supply. stricter regulations than the state sani- boating, ice skating, nature trails, hik- There has always been recreational tary codes. Despite the intense recrea- ing, team sports, camping and an am- use. When Portland began to take its tional use of the lake, the water quali- phitheater. Some of these activities water from the lake, no effort was ty is very high. Average coliform levels were implemented during the summer made to restrict recreational activities for Sebago are presented in figure 1. of 1974. A non-profit public corpora- except to establish a radius around the Samples taken in October of 1974 tion, the Newark Watershed Conserva- water intake within which no recrea- show no degradation from these levels. tion and Development Corporation, tion is permitted. Within the two mile limits, many Figure 1 The Case for Increased Recreation Sebago Lake Coliform Counts "AlII land is watershed, in addition to Location Average Coliform/100 lnl* whatever else we may use it for.,,6 Tributaries 315 It is no longer possible to reserve Recreation Areas 168 whole watersheds simply for the pro- Within Protected duction of drinking water - there are Intake Radius 16,7 too many competing demands on the .At Intakes 5 land near urban areas. Today land must *Based on 15,000 samples taken over 11 years serve multiple purposes. Further, the notion that we can perfectly protect a Source: Robert P. Grady, "The Effect of Recreational Use on the Quality of Sebago watershed from all contamination sim- Lake Water," Journal of the New England Water Works Association, Volume ply is not true. Once these facts are 86, No. 2., June 1972. accepted, the problem of planning compatible land uses for watersheds must be faced. samples with zero coliform count are Properly managed recreation is one found; the rest are less than 5 coliform of the most appropriate uses for water- per 100 mi. The only treatment given shed land. It requires no extensive the water is light chlorination. The building, no major-paving of the Portland Water District has received ground, and the pollutants and/or authority from the State Legislature contaminants produced are limited 30 to require the sewering of all develop- and treatable. At the same time, it ments on the lake but has not used yields many public benefits, including this power and does not foresee the physical and mental benefits to parti- necessity to do so at this time. cipants and economic benefits to the Sebago should not be taken as char- community in the form of expendi- acteristic of conditions which could tures for sporting goods and higher prevail at all large reservoirs in New adjacent land values. But reservoir England. Its depth is greater than that recreation cannot be managed as if it of artificial impoundments, providing were only a question of economics or great dilution and A long residence systems management: time to counteract possible contamin- ". . in multi-purpose reservoir man- ation. Its watershed is not subject to agement, the major costs are for the same urban pressures common to water quality and public safety, and other areas. Nevertheless, large artificia I the major benefits are to the publie utility. This observation is not put impoundments can sustain much forth to deny the importance of greater levels of recreation than they monetary costs and benefits in res- do currently, even with free residual ervoir management, but rather to chlorination as the only water treat- affirm the greater importance of providing for public needs and ment. health protection.1,7 In other words, profit should not be sible, but in practice such restrictions dard. the sole guiding motive for increased are inadequate to protect public - Because the controversy about rec- recreation. While this seems to be an health: violations inevitably occur, and reation on water supply reservoirs is obvious point, its implications are sig- contamination may be introduced on- an old one in professional circles, nificant. It means that the level of to the watershed by other mechanisms, many questions about the practice recreation provided does not have to such as the settlement of air pollutants. have been raised - and answered. To coincide with the level which the Although every public water system summarize the case for increased use, "market" would desire; Recreational has some minimal level of treatment to the major questions are reviewed be- activities may be set below the mar- supplement watershed protection, that low. They fall into three general cate- ket demand, as they traditionally have treatment is often inadequate and un- gories. Those related to the health been, if it is decided that to meet the reliable. While few serious outbreaks issue are the most common and the demand would pose a threat to.public of disease have occurred in areas served most important. The second category health. Recreation facilities may also by major reservoir systems with water- questions, based on unfavorable emo- be provided in excess of the public shed restrictions and minimum treat- tional or aesthetic perceptions of reser- demand, in order to provide opportu- ment, the margin of safety is small, voir recreation, are related to these nities to people who have no other especially today. and sometimes confused with them. source of recreation, or in order to The essence of the restriction issue The third category includes concerns provide experiences which are special is this: safety of drinking water re- based on the cost of recreation and or unique. In this sense, recreation quires upgrading of treatment to in- necessary water treatment improve- may be seen as merit good, such as a clude a full filtration procedure as ments. public library, which should be provid- well as disinfection. With adequate The Health Issue ed even if it cannot pay its own way. treatment, one of the subsidiary bene- In discussing various limitations fits will be increased potential for rec- "With all the pressures of population, 31 4pommonly put on recreation, the reation. and with the dangers of new pol- health issue is the most important. In One prominent water resource ex- lutants in the environment, we Appendix I information is presented pert writes: 8 should be looking for more restric- tions on our reservoirs and water- to demonstrate that proper treatment sheds,@not less." of a surface water source - including 'Every water utility that uses a pond ,or reservoir for its water source and This argument labels recreation as a coagulation, filtration, disinfection of does not now filter, should be plan-. major source of pollution, which it is the water - provides ample protection ning to do so - the sooner the bet- not, and equates it with such hazards against any contamination attribut- ter." as industrial effluents, the runoff from able to recreation. Nevertheless, the The worst threats to public health new subdivisions, and the aerial appli- public health issue more than any come from unregulated' (or poorly cation of insecticides. As urbanization ot er has limited recreation on water supply reservoirs in the Northeastern regulated) development of the water- continues to intrude into watershed states. This region has long relied on shed; from pollutants of nearby high- areas, all of these hazards can have a watershed protection as the prime ways; and from the settlement of air major deleterious effect on water qual- safeguard of the pubhe health and has pollutants. Properly managed, recrea- ity. As with all environmental issues, tion is a compatible activity on water- perspective is important. While recrea- imposed stringent restrictions on pub- sheds, and vastly preferable to most tionmay have a measurable effect on lie access to reservoirs to further this other land uses. It is the natural ad- water quality, that effect will be in- end. In theory, complete watershed junct to high-quality treatment tech- significant if properly controlled. restriction is the best protection pos- niques which should be made stan- Within the guidelines presented in this handbook, competent treatment can sewage and in the river to produce One fact that most people don't easily handle the effects of recreation- possibly carcinogenic chemicals. recognize is that body contact sports al activities on a reservoir. Recreation Water drawn from reservoirs is, or are, in themselves, quite harmless to must be distinguished from major pol- should be, completely free of indus- the water. It is contamination of the lution sources, some of whose effects trial chemicals. In general, reservoir water by human fecal wastes that cannot be controlled by most common water is of higher quality than river must be controlled, and these are treatment methods. We should be water. As far as is presently known, usually associated with improperly looking for more intensive restrictions the minimal amount of chlorination supervised land activities. Many man- on major pollution sources in water- used to treat this clean water has not agers who feel they are being conserva- shed areas, but recreation is not one produced any carcinogenic chemicals. tive by only allowing fishing are in fact of them. Recreational activities may con- already permitting as much pollution The most efficient way to protect tribute increased turbidity and bacteri- from recreational activity as they watersheds from contamination is to al counts to reservoir water, but these would if they allowed swimming and assure compatible land uses. Recrea- effects can be treated well by filtra- boating. Adequate water treatment tion is far more compatible with a tion. Increased chlorination should will remove the bacterial contamina- reservoir watershed than residential, not be necessary in most instances, tion from recreation, which is slight commercial or industrial development. provided adequate filtration is avail- to start with, so that none of it reaches Therefore, it is a land use which ought able. the consumer. to be promoted. If chlorination is found to be a suf- As for viruses, while they are admit- "Recently we have heard that chlor- ficient hazard in general to warrant tedly not fully understood, it has been ination is dangerous because it replacement by other disinfection proven that conventional water treat- creates carcinogens in water. If rec- techniques, substitutes such as ozona- ment, especially chlorination, will de- 32 reation is increased, more chlorine tion are available already. activate all enteric viruses. Where rec- will be used, and that will increase In the case of reservoir water sys- reation has been allowed on public the danger. Therefore, we should tems, therefore, there presently ap- drinking. water reservoirs, the bacteri- not allow more recreation." pears to be no chance that the margin- ological and virological standards of It has recently been discovered that al increase in chlorination which might the water remain just as high as where some cities drawing their water from accompany increased recreation will it is prohibited. polluted rivers have trace amounts of produce dangerous chemicals. If dan- carcinogenic chemicals in their water, gerous chemicals are discovered in pro- "Polluting the water up to a safe and some of these have been tentative- tected reservoirs, there may be cause limit is completely the wrong ap- proach in managing reservoirs. No ly related to chlorination. But this to modify treatment or convert to liberties should be taken where the link to chlbrination results not from other sources of water, but recreation public health is concerned.." the disinfection of drinking water but plays no part in this controversy. Permitting recreation on reservoirs more probably because of disinfection does not imply "polluting up to a safe of treated sewage effluent before it is "Recreation activities, especially dumped in rivers. Chlorination of body contact sports, are a health limit." This argument is largely treated sewage naturally requires a threat. Perhaps bacterial diseases rhetorical and based on a misleading can be controlled by water treat- premise. The bacteriological standards much higher dose of chlorine than ment, but not enough is known for drinking water are extremely strin- does disinfection of drinking water. about viruses to be sure that they gent, and they are rarely exceeded in The large doses of chlorine may inter- can be kept out of the drinking act with organic chemicals in the water if recreation is allowed." well maintained reservoir systems. Where recreation is allowed, although the reservoir water may actually be itely be consulted about instituting reexamined. One of these attitudes is contaminated to a slight extent, the recreation at a reservoir site; no one the presumption that recreation on quality standards of the treatment should argue otherwise. However, reservoirs automatically implies swim- plant are still met. Hence, the safe opinions of water managers vary wide- ming, and that the choice before the level of pollution which is allowed in ly. Qualified experts have taken op- public is a dichotomy of unlimited the water distributed to consumers is posite, sides of the recreation issue in recreation on the one hand and com- not affected by the presence of recrea- the past. And *it is a fact that most plete closing of the watershed on the tion. United States reservoirs have multiple other. While communities are waiting "Under controlled circumstances, uses, including recreation, without in- to improve the quality of their treat- recreation is probably safe, but one stances of damage to public health. In ment plants, assuming that they do instance of vandalism can undo all the end, the public must make the not have complete facilities at the the safeguards and pose a serious basic policy decision about recreation moment, many sorts of recreation, threat to public health." because it is they who pay for the short of intensive forms, could be im-- To start with, recreation is not pro- water and usually own the reservoir. If plemented. ceeding under controlled circum- the decision is made in favor of recrea- Emotional and Aesthetic Perceptions stances if the water quality is vulner- tion, the public must cooperate with "I don't like people swimming in the able to acts of vandalism against rec- water managers and plan recreation in water I drink. I pay for the water reation facilities. If toilet facilities are such a way as to allow them to achieve and I have the right to. prevent rec- properly and permanently installed their professional standards. reation on the reservoir." (no portable units should be used), "A lot of emphasis is placed on high Outside the Northeast, people ac- there is little a vandal can do to harm quality water treatment when reser- cept such recreation without com- water quality. If anything, the bad voir recreation is discussed. Why. plaint. Recreation on reservoirs is habits of the general public are more should I pay to put in an expensive 33 treatment plant just to allow a few widely allowed, not only in many of a threat to water quality than.the people to swim." parts of the United States but in many nefarious schemes of vandals, which The argument raises an important other countries too. No adverse health are generally aimed more at producing point. It implies that recreation is the effects from swimming in reservoirs satisfying visual chaos than subtle bac- rationale for installing better water have been detected where the recrea- teriological effects. While it is ugly, de- treatment, which is not true. Rather, tion is controlled and where water pressing and expensive, vandalism and recreation is a valuable side benefit treatment is adequate and reliable. its effects will not endanger public accompanying the adoption of advanc- Furthermore, even where it is not al- health and can be kept well below any ed treatment techniques which should lowed, illegal swimming in reservoirs danger point by careful design, super- be made standard for reasons of public is common, so we probably have often vision, and maintenance of recreation health. Recent events, including the drunk water that somebody has been facilities. passage of the Federal Safe Drinking swimming in. Since people who swim "It is not up to the general public to Water Act, show that the issue of water illegally are not following any rules, is decide how to manage reservoirs. supply is receiving new attention. Though the situation any better than it would Professional water managers should be if more people were allowed to decide if recreation is safe because it may be some time before all com- swim with proper supervision and up- they know the most about water munities can afford to install rapid management." filtration plants,,many attitudes which graded water -treatment? Water .managers should most defin- have been built on a different percep- "Once recreation is allowed, a little tion of water quality issues should be will lead to a lot. The public won't be satisfied with controlled recrea- To take the argument point by must be reduced or curtailed. By de- tion and the situation will get out point, one can start by asking who are veloping more recreation at reservoirs, of hand." the undesirable people. If the concern crowding can be cut down at other This consideration can be answered reflects simple prejudice against cer- facilities, and new opportunities open- with a simple "no." Many reservoirs tain types of people, the problem is ed up. It is rare that recreation poten- have functioned for years with a con- not one of water supply. If the con- tial elsewhere in an area is so great as stanti controlled, and relatively low cern is about possible rowdy behavior to make it pointless to develop reser- level of recreation. Supervision is on the part of certain groups, it voirs. necessary to keep recreation under ought to be seriously considered in "I like some kinds of recreation, such control, but communities which have planning for increased use.: Recreation as swimming and hiking, but I hate established recreation at their reser- areas can quite easily be designed to powerboating and snowmobiles. I voirs are generally pleased with the re- encourage quiet and unobjectionable would rather have no recreation al- sults. types of recreation. As for land values, lowed at all than have to put up "If recreation is allowed, more water experience shows that land adjacent to with a lot of activities I don't like." treatment will have to be installed parks and similar recreation facilities Finding compatible activities for a and the water will wind up tasting tends to increase in value rather than particular site is one of the most im- or smelling bad. Unprocessed water the reverse. Regulating tacky commer:- portant parts of recreation planning. is the best and healthiest; I don't cial development is the job of land use The mix of activities mustbe decided want my water to be full of chlor- planning, which is a large subject in on by community agreement. With ine." itself. Local governments should have good planning, no one should be par- With added filtration, reservoir mechanisms to control such develop- ticularly dissatisfied with the result. It water may actually taste better, as the ment. is the highest intensity recreational 34 algae and organic matter would be re- "There are plenty of opportunities uses which tend to offend the most moved. High chlorine doses are not for recreation elsewhere; people people, usually those requiring the use usually necessary in reservoir water. should make more of the facilities of gasoline engines. These activities are The most highly chlorinated water is they have and leave reservoirs among the last to be considered for usually that from rivers or other high- alone." implementation at reservoir sites. ly polluted primary sources which Reservoirs offer a quality of recrea- "The reservoirs are beautiful as they must be very thoroughly treated. This tion which is disappearing rapidly else- are. I'd rather keep them untouched argument also erroneously assumes where. The costs of duplicating the than to see them ruined by recrea- that recreation is the reason for put- quality of the environment around tion." tihg in better water treatment. Its reservoirs just for purposes of recrea- Many reservoir areas are beautiful. worst assumption is that unprocessed tion would be prohibitively expensive, There are few places around cities water is the best and the safest. His- so it makes sense to make the best use where environments of their quality tory has emphatically proved that of resources which exist at reservoirs. still exist. However, pressures of pop- presumption to be false. Watershed management standards are ulation growth are forcing cities to "Recreation will attract a lot of un- high and serve to prevent the degrada- examine how they can make the most desirable people to the area. Land tion of the landscape by recreation. If of their present resources, and reser- values will go down and all sorts of adequate money or personnel cannot voir areas represent valuable land for tacky commercial development will be provided to maintain standards and open space development. Developing take place." have recreation too, then recreation recreation does not mean that the area will be ruined. if it is felt that.some ties should not be borne by those who expanded if demand and available natural characteristics of an area are pay for the water unless they agree to funding warrant. unique, those portions of the site it. It may happen that the primary "Even if the costs of recreation are should support only low levels of rec- beneficiaries of recreation facilities not borne by the water users direct- reation access which do almost noth- will be the local water users. In that ly, taxes will have to go up to sup- ing to alter the semiwildemess charac- case, the small costs of low intensity port the facility." ter of the land. In the national wilder- recreation facilities may appropriately There are many different ways to ness areas, lands are subjected to rec- be borne by them. Otherwise, the cost pay the costs of recreational facilities; reational use without damage. of recreation should be borne by the increasing taxes,is only one way. User The Cost of Recreation users of the recreation facilities or by charges and government grants are the local government. Reservoir recrea- other ways. However, assuming that "Recreation will just raise the cost of tion areas represent a bargain to the costs will be paid through taxes, is water to consumers because more community because the expense of treatment will have to be installed developing them can be far less than that a bad way of financing recreation? and the facilities will cost a lot to If a majority of citizens in a town vote install and maintain." creating another recreation site of to have recreation, then bearing the This question has two parts: who comparable quality. expense through town taxes is one ap- should pay for treatment and who "There isn't enough demand to justi- propriate way to pay for it. If tax in- should pay for recreation. As has been fy the cost of establishing recrea- creases are unpalatable to a majority repeated throughout this handbook, tion. Not enough people would use of voters, other methods of financing full water treatment should be made the facilities if they were built." can be used. Reservoir areas offer very standard at every reservoir because Demand is difficult to predict. Ab- high quality recreation at lower costs new environmental standards require sence of public pressure to build a than at other available sites. it, not so that recreation can increase. facility does not imply that demand "Setting up a user charge discrimin- 35 Hence, the first part of the answer is does not exist. In areas where the pub- ates against poor people, who can- that the treatment level of the water lic is accustomed to restricted reser- not afford to pay. 'Ihey won't be source should be examined on its own voirs, they may be unaware of the rec- able to use the site even if it is de- merits. The efficiency of treatment in reational possibilities of those sites. veloped." dealing with contamination ascribed Furthermore, demand for a facility Various special programs have been to recreation is often less significant generally increases over time as the set up in the past to get around in- than its efficiency in dealing with the public becomes aware of its existence. equities of this sort. One option is to raw water. If a filtration plant is In addition, opportunities for recrea- have no user charge on certain days, already in place, then the contamina- tion ought to be made available, as a so that those who cannot.afford to tion associated with recreation can matter of principle, to those who have pay can at least have some opportuni- easily be handled by the plant. No ad- few other recreational opportunities. ties to use the facility. Another way ditional treatment is needed, though Reservoir recreation areas can offer a might be to let all children in free the reliability -of the treatment ought quality of recreation to low income under the auspicies of local schools. to be carefully monitored. If full treat- groups and to the elderly that they User charges could take the form of ment is not available, it probably cannot obtain otherwise. In speaking parking charges, under the assumption should be installed in any case, an ex- about demand, it is important to ernm that people who have the money to pense properly borne by consumers. phasize that recreation facilities can own a car can pay a small user fee The expense of the recreation facili- be minimal to start with and can be and that people coming by other means of transportation can get in above are designed to cover those free. While ultimately the costs these types of accidents. However, water people impose on the site for mainten- managers are responsible for the quali- ance and the like will have to be car- ty of water supplies, and in many ried by others, this may not be an in- states are personally criminally liable equitable arrangement. Frequently if they knowingly permit contamina- similar financing arrangements are tion or inadequate treatment. As long used to pay for schools, libraries, as this liability exists, water supply public parks and other public facilities. managers must be given authority in "Allowing recreation exposes the managing reservoir recreation. Laws of water company to law suits if ac- each state and locality should be cidents occur." analyzed to determine the extent of This question also has two parts: this liability stemming from various who will be exposed to the costs of recreation activities. accidents, and what are the accidents involved. A recreation site can be op- erated by the public parks department, a public water company, a private water company or a concessionaire. Each has different means of insuring against the costs of accidents. Public 36 agencies are often insured through the state itself. A private water company could lease land to a public agency for recreation and then state-operated insurance could be available. Many states regulate leases by private water companies, and particular regulations should be examined before proposing this alternative. Private operations as well as public ones can obtain broad insurance coverage. The cost of this insurance should be included in the cost of recreation. Since local parks must have coverage against the liabili- ties of accidents, guidelines could be obtained from a local park agency. A second part of the question is more complicated. Recreation will in- crease the chance of bodily injuries, and the types of insurance described 2 Reservoir Recreation in Six Northeastern States This chapter provides background this chapter. In each case, the first part 37 information on conditions in six of each state's section quotes laws and statm Connecticut, Massachusetts, regulations in that state which relate New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, to reservoir recreation. The other sup- and Rhode Island. These six states plements are not uniform in content, were chosen for special attention be- since the issue has developed differ- cause of their large population of 47 ently in different places. Where pos- million, and because they generally sible, a listing of reservoirs is given have not permitted recreational use which shows the degree of recreation of their water supply reservoirs. allowed at each, and the level of treat- For each state there is a discussion ment available. of how the issue of reservoir recrea- The information here is only a tion presently stands. A map is pro- guide. Actual conditions at a reservoir vided showing the state's reservoirs, may have changed since the data on whether open or closed to recreation, which this book is based were com- and centers of population in Standard piled. Readers can determine actual Metropolitan Statistical Areas. conditions at local sites by contacting At the end of this handbook there the operator of the reservoir or actual- is an appendix containing supplemen- ly visiting the site. tary references to the discussions in Connecticut but its recommendations are impor- ment has sanctioned fishing and other Connecticut is one of the more con- tant. The plan is based on extensive recreation under proper conditions servative states on the issue of reser- evaluation of the state's water re- (P.A. 73-522). Since reservoirs typical- voir recreation. The State Department sources. On watersheds used for the ly are located near population centers, of'Health still opposes body contact production of drinking water, areas of the plan confers high priority on their recreation on drinking water reservoirs. strictly limited development were use for recreation. These considera- Without the support of this Depart- designated. The Department of Health tions may lead to comprehensive rec- ment, there is little chance that Sec- hopes that regulations similar to those reation planning for water supply tion 25-43 of the State Code, which in P.A. 74-303 can be extended even- watershed areas. Major Connecticut prohibits swimming in reservoirs, will tually to regulate development in all reservoirs are shown in Figure 2. be amended or revoked. these areas. Hartford, the State's Capitol, has a In recent years, two acts have been The Conservation and Development severe shortage of water-based recrea- passed which affect watershed activi- Plan includes several recommendations tion opportunities. It also has an ex- ties. P.A. 73-225, approved in June which affect future recreation policies: tensive system of reservoirs, among 1973, treats recreation directly. It al- Policy No. 2 them the Barkhamstead Reservoir, lows water managers to permit fishing "Provide a wide variety of high quali- the largest drinking water reservoir in and other recreation (after consulta- ty outdoor recreational opportuni- the State. Hartford's Metropolitan tion with the commissioner of the ties to all citizens with highest pri- District Commission, which operates ority given to the purchase and health department), but it reserves to development of facilities in and near the city's water system, is firmly op- the Department of Health the right to the state's urban areas." posed to any recreational use of its prohibit recreation if water treatment "2a. In the purchase and develop- watersheds, and has closed them off facilities are deemed inadequate. Signi- ment of recreation areas, give top completely. The MDC justified its pos- ficantly, the act allows the Depart- priority to sites within and close to ition in a paper by Alexander J. 38 major population centers. ment of Health to specify the degree 2e. Take advantage of every oppor- Minkus, entitled, "Recreational Use of of treatment required for any new tunity to increase the amount of Reservoirs," published in the March reservoir constructed after January 1, shoreline land available to the pub- 1966 edition of the Journal of the 1975 if recreation is to be allowed. lic for recreational use. American Water Works Association. The Act also calls for the use of per- 2i. Under certain conditions, swim- Briefly, this article recounts the mits for fishing. ming should be allowed in storage MDC's bad experience with recreation reservoirs, but not in terminal reser- The second act (P.A. 74-303) voirs." at its Compensating Reservoir, which amends the Department of Health reg- The Conservation and Development is not used for water supply. The ulations to give the Department auth- Plan may represent a new departure MDC's attitude toward recreation, 10 ority over the sale of watershed lands. for the state, but its recommendation which is considerably more conserva- While this does not directly involve that bathing be permitted in reservoirs tive than that of the Department of recreation, it shows the Department's runs counter to existing law. Unless Health, has limited recreation for a IF, concern over the influence of urbani- the Department of Health changes its substantial fraction of the state's pop- zation on reservoir water quality. traditional stance on the issue that rec- ulation. In January 1973, Connecticut pub- ommendation is unlikely to be imple- lished "A Plan of Conservation and mented. On the other hand, the plan Development for Connecticut: Poli- coincides with the Department's ob- cies for Land and Water Resources."i jectives to control urbanization on The plan is only an advisory proposal, watersheds.2 In addition, the Depart- 39 Connecticut Figure 2 V111, Standard Metropolitah Statistical Areas Connecticut Reserviors in Relation to Standard Reservoir Areas Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) All 61 40 Massachusetts Figure 3 V/// Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas Massachusetts Reservoirs in Relation to SMSAs Reservoir Areas Massachusetts ' - water (see Case Study, Quabbin Reser- legal liability for water supply con- Massachusetts was one of the first voir). tamination stemming from authorized states to develop reservoirs for public Very limited recreation is permitted recreation. The letter was circulated water supply and continues traditions on the MDC reservoirs. Fishing f rom by the Department of Public Health of reservoir management from the boats and shore fishing are permitted to all water managers in the State. It days when water treatment did not at Quabbin. Hiking, bird watching and concludes that criminal penalties may adequately control water-borne dis- picnicking are allowed in certain areas. accrue to water supply officials who, eases. The Department of Public At Wachusetts, recreation is restricted through misfeasance, permit recrea- Health is still highly skeptical of plans to shore fishing only. In the Rutland tional activities which contaminate to open reservoirs to increased recrea- area and near the shore of Wachusetts the water supply. This letter is a seri- tion, though it realizes that recreation Reservoir, MDC watershed lands are ous impediment.to those who are in- is being carried out successfully in open for snowmobiling. Pamphlets terested in expanding the recreational many other states. and brochures, available from the use of reservoirs. Not only is it,typical Since 1884, bathing in reservoirs Boston Headquarters of the MDC, il- of Massachusetts' strongly entrenched has been prohibited by law, and excep- lustrate the recreational facilities avail- conservative attitude toward reservoir tions are possible only by'a special act able at their reservoir sites. recreation, it serves to reinforce and of the State Legislature. In addition, The MDC is proud of the quality of perpetuate it. Section 160 of Chapter 111 of the its water even though it is not filtered: No separate listing of Massachusetts State Code gives the Department of "Top Quality Water Needs No Puri- reservoirs is supplied here, as the most Public Health authority to prohibit fication Facilities" complete available list is now twenty swimming in reservoirs and sets a high Purification facilities required by years out of date. If readers wish to. fine for violators. Unless both the law most water supplies are not needed refer to the complete list, it is avail- and the public health department reg- for the Metropolitan Water District, able as Senate No. 665, Special Report 41 ulations are repealed, planners should thanks to the system's high quality of the Department of Public Health concentrate on opening restricted water apd drastic restrictions on Relative to the Preservation of the recreational use and public access properties for activities other than to reservoirs. Treatment is confined Purity of Certain Water Supplies with- swimming. to small amounts of chlorine and in the Commonwealth, 1954, pp. 66- Major Massachusetts reservoirs are ammonia as water enters distribu- 75. shown in Figure 3. tion pipes." Boston's water and the water of This lack of filtration does indeed many communities in eastern Massa- limit the amount of recreation appro- chusetts is provided by the Metropoli- priate on most of the MDC's reser- tan District Commission, which was voirs, but on the two largest - Quab- created in 1895. The MDC originally bin and Wachusetts @ far more recrea- used the Wachusetts Reservoir and tion could be permitted than is pres- Aqueduct for its supply, but by the ently allowed. mid-twenties a shortage of water re- Of interest to recreation planners is quired the construction of the Quab- a letter of the Attorney General's of- bin Reservoir, which is still one of the fice reprinted as Appendix 2.2. The largest man-made reservoirs in the Department of Public Health request- world built expressly for drinking ed clarification of the water manager's New Jersey by the 1958 Water Supply Law and ed in the Longwood Valley Reservoir New Jersey presently has 55 drink- companion Water Bond Act. Under in the Rockaway section; the Washing- ing water reservoirs, most of which this authority, the Department of En- ton Valley Reservoir in the Whippany serve the densely populated northern vironmental Protection, through its section of the Passaic River Valley; the area. These are shown in Figure 4. The Division of Water Resources, is charg- Confluence Reservoir in the north and southern portion of the state is served ed with the development, construc- south branches; the Six Mile Run Res- mainly by groundwater from the large tion and operation (on a self-sustain- ervoir in the Millstone section of the and dependable aquifers of the coastal ing and self-liquidating basis) of these Raritan River Basin; the Tocks Island plains region. storage reservoir facilities. Spruce Run Reservoir in the Delaware section; The total area of New Jersey's reser- provides a maximum sustained drink- the Hackettstown Reservoir in the voirs is over 16,000 acres, and recrea- ing water yield of I I billion gallons Musconetcong Section of the Dela- tion is permitted on about 40% of that per year, and Round Valley provides ware River Basin; and"the Manasquan area. Of the area open for recreation, 55 billion gallons per year. Reservoir in the Manasquan section however, 56% is contained in two Recreation opportunities at both of the Atlantic Slope Streams. To- state-owned reservoirs, the Spruce Run reservoirs are very liberal compared to gether these ultimately will provide (1,275 acres) and the Round Valley practice'prevailing in the rest of New over 28,000 acres of water surface (2,350 acres, currently the State's Jersey. Camping, swimming, hunting, open for public recreation under Title largest). Recently the City of Newark fishing, ice fishing, and ice boating are 58, Chapter 21 of the New Jersey has opened the reservoirs of the permitted. Campers must hike in; State Code. The largest portion of Pequannock Watershed to recreation, swimmers must use designated areas; this area will belong to the Tocks and these comprise another 31% of boats are limited to 10 horsepower Island Dam Project, where a controver- the reservoir area open to recreation motors; and fishing, hunting, trapping, sial multi-purpose reservoir has been 42 (2,015 acres). The remaining 13% is and field trails are permitted in desig- proposed for water supply, flood con- divided as follows: 472 acres on public nated areas. Pets must be leashed, trol, hydro-electric power, and recrea- owned reservoirs, and 309 acres on except for hunting dogs at field trails. tion. privately owned reservoirs. Scuba diving and snowmobiling are State officials hope that local water New Jersey has changed its official prohibited at this time. Strangely companies will follow the State's lead outlook on reservoir recreation. The Round Valley does not yet permit and open more of their holdings to relevant state laws are presented in picnicking or ball playing. public recreation. There are over 9,000 Appendix 3.1 and a table showing the Fees are assessed for various activi- acres of reservoirs closed to the public, level of recreation permitted in major ties. Spruce Run charges a $1 parking and most of them lie in the heavily New Jersey reservoirs is contained in fee for cars and $5 for buses. Parking populated northern half of the State. Appendix 3.2. After the successful at Round Valley is free. The camping These smaller water bodies could pro- development of recreation at the two fee is $3 per night at Spruce Run, vide convenient, accessible recreation State reservoirs and Newark's Pequan- $3.50 at Round Valley. A $.25 en- to a large number of people. nock watershed, more reservoirs may trance fee is also assessed at Round well be opened to public use. Valley for people over 12 and under The two State reservoirs impound 65. the waters of the South Branch of the Seven more sites have been acquired Raritan River. They were created un- for.the development of State reser- der the long-range water conservation voirs, though construction dates have and development program authorized not been set. The sites will be develop- co cz (1) cl W 0 0 ;> Q) a) Cd ID UQ cr) (D m m CD 0 0 CD CD CD C+ 8 0 0 ?Ml! C+ 0 En 0 tit CD IIX w N "V X WAMWMOO New York Public Water Supply Policy A map of the major water supply Recreational Use reservoirs in New York is presented in of Public Water Figure 5. While the Department of Supply Reservoirs Health has left to the cities and towns the prerogative of establishing, within Situation broad limits, their own regulations for A Recreational use of water resources is expected to substantially increase in their water supplies, the Department view of population growth, standards of living and increasing leisure time. has published a statement of policy B Water supply has generally taken precedence over all other uses of reservoirs on recreational uses, reproduced here: throughout the State because of the fundamental need for an ample, potable water supply to satisfy public and industrial consumption requirements. Public water supply reservoirs, restricted to this single use, exist in many areas of New York State. C Many future reservoirs will reflect multiple uses, one of which will be public water supply. D Water supply reservoirs are attractive for recreational uses. E Recreational use of public water supply reservoirs may be economically desirable. F Sanitary methodology is available for safeguarding water quality in the reser- voirs and on the watershed. Department Policy 45 1 The New York State Department of Health, therefore, does not oppose rec- reational use of multi-purpose reservoirs serving also as public water supply sources, provided: A Watershed Control (Total Drainage Basin) (1) regulations are developed, adopted and enforced to insure effec- tive watershed control by a utility, agency or cooperating agencies of jurisdiction. (2) sanitary design practices and operational procedures are satisfied to assure acceptable treatment and disposal of human, animal, in- dustrial, commercial and agricultural wastes. This includes waste disposal from watercraft. (3) effective sanitary and safety patrol is maintained on the watershed. (4) use of all or any part of the watershed is restricted under condi- tions of low watershed yield, drought or other adverse situations inimical to public water supply needs, which are preeminent. (5) application of chemicals on the watershed to control insects, vege- tation, small animals, etc., are effectively regulated. This includes control of aquatic fauna and flora. B Public Water Supply (1) intakes, wells and other points of direct inflow into public water supplies are protected so as to preclude contamination from hu- man and other wastes, toxic substances and pesticides with regard to topography, water depth, prevailing winds and currents and rate of water withdrawal. (2) acceptable processing including chemical coagulation, sedimenta- tion, filtration and disinfection, or equivalent sanitary preparation, is installed and operative, when technologically indicated, to pro- duce potable water meeting established drinking water standards. 2 The New York State Department of Health recommends maintenance of single-purpose use for public water supply reservoirs when nearby suitable lakes, multi-purpose impoundments, rivers and streams exist for convenient recreation. New York State Department of Health Hollis S. Ingraham, M.D. Commissioner Division of Sanitary Engineering Bureau of Public Water Supply `73 46 Water managers in New York State New York City's reservoirs are given have traditionally been conservative in Appendix 4.2 in their attitude toward reservoir rec- A complete inventory of water sys- reation. In the light of the above poli- tems in the State of New York has cy statement, however, there is oppor- been compiled by the Bureau of Pub- tunity for a change in policy on a case lic Water Supply, under the New York by case basis. Restrictions which have State Department of Health. Unfor- been imposed on the local level can tunately, while it describes every be removed at the local level. Appen- town's source in great detail, it does dix 4.1 presents the relevant New not distinguish reservoirs from rivers, York State Laws. but refers only to "surface sources." New York City is an exception to Readers, if they know that a certain the general rule. It has the power to town gets its water from a reservoir, restrict recreation on reservoirs at a can easily find out all the pertinent great distance from its consumers. Its technical information about that res- system is very large and currently has ervoir by consulting this inventory. no filtration capability. A general Appendix 4.3 presents the restrictions change in policy is unlikely at this on recreation at many of the water time. The names and capacities of supply reservoirs in New York State. Pennsylvania tions and maintenance will be measur- ment of Community Affairs, $75 mil- Although Pennsylvania was the first ably improved, particularly at the lion is authorized for state grants-in- state with a major public water sup- smaller systems which are character- aid to municipalities to pay up to ply, it did not develop reservoir sys- istically the most susceptible to opera- 50% of the cost of tems until later than Massachusetts tional breakdowns and substandard 1 acquisition of municipal park, and New York. Some of these reser- levels of disinfection. recreation, and open space lands. voirs are shown in Figure 6. Philadel- At the state level, multiple use of 2 development of municipal park phia still uses the Schuylkill River for reservoir facilities is encouraged. The and recreation lands for outdoor much of its water a century and a legal basis for this policy is presented recreation. half after the creation of the Philadel- in Appendix 5.1. Aside from swim- 3 studies conducted to determine phia Water Works. Other major ming, Pennsylvania reservoirs do tend park and recreation needs. Pennsylvania cities also use river water to have slightly more recreation than If a municipality is eligible for fed- instead of reservoirs. Harrisburg, the other states in the Northeast region, eral aid, the state adjusts its aid such State Capitol, draws water from the but more than 60% remain closed. that the municipality pays a minimum Susquehanna. Appendix 5.2 shows the recreation of 20% of the cost of the project. Experience with treating lower permitted at major Pennsylvania reser- Leased land is eligible under the proj- quality river water evidently has made voirs. ect. The only restriction is that the the state health department more A recent studyl of the subject life of the lease be commensurate amenable than others in the Northeast showed that 36% of the water agencies with the life of the facility to be de- to allowing body contact recreation sampled permit some degree of recrea- veloped, and the lease must be ap- in res@rvoirs. Full water treatment is tional activities on their reservoirs. Of proved by the Department of Com- common in most systems. those permitting recreation, more than munity Affairs. Chlorination (or other disinfec- one-half allow fishing from the shore, Those interested in creating a new 47 tion) of all supplies is required by law, hunting and hiking. Low intensity uses facility and who wish grant aid should but reservoirs may not be used for of watershed lands for such activities send a letter of intent to the DCA re- recreation (fishing, boating, swim- as nature study and picnicking were gional recreation specialist at the ap- ming) unless filtration is also sup- widely permitted, and riding, camping, propriate DCA regional office. The plied. It is now the intention of the trapping, and skiing were also listed, letter should contain Department of Natural Resources to though less frequently. Waterskiing I A narrative project description encourage multiple use of reservoirs. and powerboating'were the activities 2 Description of neighborhood or While few reservoirs have been opened least approved by operating agencies, community served for swimming, many are open for followed closely by swimming and 3 Municipal map showing project boating, fishing, and other recreation sailing. location activities. In May 1967, the Pennsylvania gen- 4 Cost estimates. In order to upgrade the quality of eral assembly implemented a $500 municipal water supplies, the state has million Conservation and Reclamation A preliminary study of community launched a program to train water Bond Program, providing financing for recreational needs is encouraged by treatment plant operators. The Certi- broad actions by state and local gov- DCA, and it may require one in some fication Act, signed in January 1969, ernment in the areas of parks, recrea- circumstances. The proper form for requires that each public water supply tion, conservation and reclamation. an application for such a study is con- have a minimum of two certified op- The program extends ten years, to tained in 16 Pa. Code Chapter 5, para- erators. It is hoped that both opera- July 1, 1977. Through the Depart- graphs 28 and 29. kl- 00 (D ID FL CD 0 Rhode Island Philip Holton's recommendations, rec- Section 46-14-1 of the laws of reation is not permitted on Provi- Rhode Island prohibits body contact dence's reservoirs. Shore fishing is with drinking water supplies. While permitted by the Cities of Providence this is the only reference to reservoir and Woonsocket at their reservoirs, recreation in the State's laws (Ap- but no boats are allowed and the num- pendix 6.1, Rhode Island has been ber of fishermen is limited. especially conservative in its policies 'Me debate still continues. The toward reservoir recreation and pro- State Department of Health remains hibits almost all use of its reservoirs firmly opposed to recreation on water for public recreation. Figure 7 shows supplies. The Statewide Planning the major Rhode Island reservoirs. Board now represents those who want Scituate Reservoir, the largest in the reservoirs opened to some degree of state, is completely closed to recrea- recreation. Rhode Island's high popu- tion. There is no access comparable lation density will continue to be a to that granted the public at the large compelling reason to provide recrea- reservoirs in neighboring Massachu- tion opportunities on reservoirs. Grad- setts. ual change in this direction may be Rhode Island has a very long coast- expected. line for its size, but the shore most Like many major cities in the North- available to the population of Provi- east, Providence does not filter its dence is listed by the State Depart- drinking water. This remains a major ment of Health as polluted and unfit impediment to any extensive develop- 49 for bathing. This has led to greater ment of recreation on its reservoirs. pressure for some public access to the Limited recreation on the Scituate State's reservoirs and caused the Provi- Reservoir is advocated by the State- dence Joumal to reverse its editorial wide Planning Board. It also recom- stand against the recreational use of mends that recreation be planned from reservoirs which dated to 1960.1 the start for the proposed Big River In 1967, Philip Holton, the Chief Reservoir, which will lie to the south Engineer for the City of Providence, of Scituate. The major Rhode Island called for the opening of Scituate's reservoirs are listed in Appendix 6.2, tributary reservoirs. His statement was along with reservoir ownership and precipitated by the policy statement water treatment at each. of the American Water Works Associa- tion as published in 1959. Under.this policy, however, terminal reservoirs are not to be developed for recreation. Despite its size, the city classifies Scituate itself as a terminal reservoir. At the moment, recreation on water supplies is severely limited. Despite Ol CD M \'AMEN, CD P- (D i0b c-t- p CD p 3 Planning Increased Recreation This chapter of the handbook pro- steps in. preparing a successful plan are vides the information required to de- summarized. The planning information velop a sound recreation plan. First is integrated with the economic and the types of possible activities and the political factors to -assess the best level requisite site facilities are discussed. of recreational usage for a wide vari- Then the question of the number and ety of reservoir types. types of users who could be expected Reservoirs will always be special at the facility is examined. In the con- recreation sites, and in the interest of text of facilities and demand, the public welfare should always be care- economics of developing and operating fully managed. Planning for multiple the site are analyzed, and possible use of these reservoirs should involve financing schemes are presented. The recreation officials and water man- fourth section introduces some of the agers, as well as concerned members legal, social and institutional con- of the public. Cooperation between straints which may influence the best all interested parties is necessary to level of recreational use. Finally, the produce the best plan. Recreation Facility Planning due risk, but management problems Site Location and Size. It is important The various forms of recreation re- may be difficult. In a terminal reser- to locate the swimming area in such a quire different types of facilities and voir, a factor of safety has to be in- way as to ensure maximum dilution of planning. This section surveys poten- cluded to allow for the absence of the water before it reaches the intake. tial recreation activities and discusses substantial residence time. Allowing This consideration is less important in the suitability of each in a reservoir water to stand for 30 days is generally a collection reservoir, providing the ter- recreation development. Water-based, presumed to be adequate to eliminate minal reservoir to which the water is land-based and winter activities are bacteria and viruses through natural transferred has full treatment capabili- discussed separately. For each type of processes. In all but the largest termin- ty, but should be observed wherever activity, the most significant problems al reservoirs, that residence time can- possible. Not only should a radius be with its inclusion in a reservoir site are not be guaranteed. Therefore, treat- set around the intake within which described. A sound plan must con- ment must be sufficient to protect swimming should not be allowed, but sider the compatibility of activities against the worst case situation, in the beaches should be located away selected for inclusion. Care has been which a "slug" of pollution could from the line of flow between major taken to note potential conflicts be- travel in concentrated form directly to inlets and the water intake. Eddies tween activities, and ways to resolve the intake. Not only must the plant might be set up which could carry an or reduce them. The section concludes be capable of filtration and chlorina- undiluted slug of pollution directly to with a description of support facilities tion, but it must be fully reliable dur- a treatment plant, where it might which may be necessary for various ing the summer season. Although this temporarily overwhelm the disinfection types of recreation development. level of treatment is common when capability. the raw water is of relatively low qual- The design of the bathing facility is Water Based Activities ity, such as that from axiver, it is not dictated by the reservoir geography, 52 common on high-quality reservoirs. the expected demand, and the funds Swimming Swimming is a desirable At smaller reservoirs, where the available for construction, supervision, activity wherever it is practical. Some safety radius around the water intake and maintenance. Even fluctuation of 70% of all outdoor recreation is water- may be accessible to swimmers, there reservoir water levels must be taken oriented, and swimming is the favorite should be constant supervision of the into account. Beaches should be sur- water-based recreation. safety radius'. faced to the minimum water height On very large reservoirs, swimming Where swimming opportunities else- and sometimes swimming piers must is possible, without deterioration of where are very limited, it may well be be built to float on the water as they the finished water quality, if simple worth the cost to develop a terminal often are at ocean marinas to accom- chlorination is provided as a safe- reservoir for swimming. However, in modate the tides. guard. On other reservoirs, however, it systems involving a hierarchy of reser- Since reservoir swimming areas may is recommended that swimming not voirs, of which the last small terminal be of all sizes, the best way to esti- be permitted unless all the water pro- reservoir is a part, there may be better mate the capacity of a particular site duced by the reservoir ultimately re- opportunities for swimming in collec- is on the basis of area per person, ceives both filtration and chlorination. tion reservoirs where the minimum rather than numbers per linear foot of This is a conservative approach and residence time would be assured and waterline. Figure 8 presents guidelines may necessitate treatment plant con- no safety radius around an intake for calculating beach and water capa- struction if swimming is desired. would be necessary. city for swimming. Figures 9 and 10 Most terminal reservoirs can sus- illustrate typical beach layouts. tain body contact sports without un- Many people coming to swim may Figure 8 Beach Capacity Guidelines Type of Area Water teach Backup and Buffer Total I-ligh Density 30 45 400 M57Square Feet Needed Per Person Medium Density 40 60 800 900 Low Density 60 90 1200 1350 Source: George Fogg, Park Planning Guidelines (National Recreation and Parks Association: Arlington, Va., 1974). want to picnic as well. Picnic sites the use of emergency vehicles. Tele- cern. One would presume that fisher- should be accessible from the swim- phone service must be provided. men would be responsible caretakers ming site without obstruction by sup- No boating should be allowed with- of the outdoors, but this is frequently port facilities, such as parking lots. in the supervised swimming area. The a false presumption. (Picnicking is discussed under "Land water should be cordoned off by float- Management of fishing may be more Based Activities" below.) Reservoir ing lines and buoys where necessary difficult at a small local reservoir than swimming areas should never allow to identify the area under the life- at a larger distant one. Because of the food on the beach itself, and should guard's supervision. Swimming out- convenience, those with only a casual be prominently marked to this effect. side the area should be prohibited. interest in fishing may be attracted to Safety The beach area must, .of course, Sanitary Facilities The number and the site. They often are ignorant of be located in a safe place for swimming. type of sanitary facilities may be speci- amenities and uninterested in policing 53 The swimming area must be free of fied in relevant state health codes. each other. The larger and more distant underwater hazards, such as rock out- Otherwise, the tables contained in sites will tend to attract a more dedi- croppings, submerged trees, and all "Support Facilities" below serve as a cated enthusiast, who may exhibit litter and refuse. A lifeguard should guide. more responsible behavior. be provided for each visually unob- Fishing Fishing is a very popular Regulation Fishing can be accom@ structed stretch of beach, but there sport; each year about one out of plished either from the shore or from a should be a minimum of one every every three Americans participates in boat. Opinions differ about which is 4.00 feet. fishing. Reservoir managers have been safer from a health point of view. Pa- If the shore slope is steep, piers under quite heavy pressure from organi- trols along the shores of reservoirs in should be built. Safety floats should zed sportsmen to pen-nit fishing, and which fishing is allowed have found be provided in the water no further this pressure has resulted in some ill human feces close to the water's edge, than 150 feet from the shore. If pos- feeling toward fishermen on the part and it seems to matter little if only. sible, swimming floats should be posi- of water managers. As we have re- fishing from boats is allowed. It is easy tioned at the outer limits of the swim- counted, the activity of fishing in it- to land on shore surreptitiously and ming area. self is harmless t6reservoir water Patrols cannot prevent this. The lifeguard building should be qual .ity. It is the sanitary habits of Some reservoirs have fishing zones located with a clear view of the water, fishermen, and to a much lesser ex- along the shore and restricted water and must have access to the road for tent fish cleaning, which.are of con- areas near the intake where boats are not allowed. This makes sense in a insures some income to the area to Figure 10 terminal reservoir, but on a collection cover maintenance costs. Another way Reservoir Beach Layout (Plan) reservoir there need be no such limita- is to permit private boats, but have tions. limited access to boat ramps and have Land access can be controlled by a daily ceiling on the total number of posting parts of the shoreline against boats allowed. In a remote site, this fishing. Restricted water zones can be ceiling would be the size of the park- marked by floating buoys or barrels, ing lot. on a cable suspended at the water lev- Some regulation of shore fishing is el. possible as well. In remote areas where Regulation of the number of fisher- people cannot easily walk to the site, men coming to the reservoir can be numbers can be limited by access to accomplished in two ways. The easiest parking lots. Another way is to allow way is to require the use of rental fishing only by special permits which Figure 9 boats, and allow no shore fishing. This can be* obtained through a town of- Reservoir Beach Layout (Section) 54 - P16,V16 MCA 'VO A:;VV PLA'C AKErA 55 FK07Z@CT6V @Wlmm(Nry AMA *;,40477- eGATINr, AKEA: FLOAT' fice, or to allow only local residents to Boating is possible on any collec- come under the category of pleasure fish. tion reservoir. If water is ultimately boats. To allow high-powered pleasure For large or popular sites, a bro- filtered or if the reservoir is large, boats requires a commitment to patrol chure should be prepared to inform then motors may be permitted. the reservoir, for there will be consid- fishermen of the regulations. The bro- Boating can be divided into three erable pressure for body-contact chure should contain a brief statement classes: sports and waterskiing will be a favor- of all regulations applicable to the site. non-motorized boating (canoes, ed activity. Motorboat zones should A map of the site showing all shore rowboats, sailboats) for fishing or be established if fast craft are allowed and water fishing zones and access sightseeing, rental or private; so that fishing, swimming and other points should be included. Restricted motorized boating for fishing, with activities can be safely pursued. If the areas should be clearly marked on the power limitation; area is large enough; separation can be map as well as on the land and water. motorized pleasure boating, no satisfactorily achieved. If not, com- Figure 11 depicts the type of informa- power limitation. patibility might be achieved by aflow- tion which should be provided. The The use of rented boats with no ing powerboats only on certain days. brochure should emphasize that the motors would be appropriate on a There is logic in the argument that the reservoir is used for drinking water small *reservoir where the total number semi-wilderness quality of reservoirs and must be protected. of boats would have to be kept under makes them particularly suited for Sanitary Facilities Toilet facilities control. On small terminal reservoirs quiet, solitary enjoyment, and that should be provided at the boat laun sailboats might not be rented unless large motorboats have ample oppor- ching ramp and at all parking lots swimming were also permitted, since tunities elsewhere. Motor recreation providing access. Guidelines for the mishaps are common. does impose a burden on those who number and type are contained in On larger reservoirs, there is no object to it. 56 "Support Facilities," below. reason to limit sailboats for fear of surreptitious or accidental swimming. Boating Some form of boating is pos- Provided swimming is formally re- sible at almost any reservoir but, as stricted, violations would be very in- with swiniming,, the main problem frequent and inconsequential. Re- with boating is management and con- stricting boating to non-motorized trol. Sources of pollution from boats boats may be desirable even on larger include human wastes and petroleum reservoirs to maintain the quiet and compounds. To permit boating, regu- calm of the environment and to pre- lations and water treatment must be vent oil and gasoline from contaminat- able to control both. ing the water and creating taste and Boating should not be allowed on odor problems. Assuming that gaso- terminal reservoirs unless filtration is line and oil contamination are not a provided, and even then no motors problem, then the decision must be should be allowed. On small terminal based on the compatibility of other reservoirs, management difficulties recreational activities with motorboat- may be too great to permit boating ing. Figure 11 even if filtration is provided, particu- Small boats with low horsepower General Plan: larly if large numbers of people use engines (about 10 hp maximum) are Fishing Zones, Boating Zones, the site. of practical use for fishing, and do not Hiking and Cross.Country Trails J) JN C T7@1,5 @,Ipe CO 57 5d,/ MAK7(@7KI, - FV"IrTEP Flj Ss. MIAKE ZOW The number of boats of each type only during those periods when the from a ramp extending into the water. permitted to use the site depends on operating agency can maintain ade- The ramp should have a slope of about the surface area of the reservoir. quate patrol. 13-15%, and no less than 7%. The Figure 12 presents some density limits c. Maintain a responsible person on ramp may be quite wide to permit mul- for common types of boating. If duty at all times at launching ramps tiple launchings, but each launching zones are employed to ensure compat- when the ramps are in operation to lane must be at least 12 feet wide. ibility of uses, these density limits inspect all boats being launched to Figure 13 shows a typical plan for a should be applied separately to the ensure compliance with applicable boating facility. area of e Iach zone. regulations. For example, if only Docks Docks will have to be built for Regulations The following regulations fishing is permitted, other pleasure rental boats kept permanently at the should be observed in any case: boating can be controlled by requir site during the boating season. These ing a valid fishing license for entry. could be wooden or metal. They a. Prohibit vessels with any form of d. Provide fail-safe features at all portable toilet capable of being fuel loading facilities to prevent the should be designed to permit disassem- emptied into the reservoir. In most spillage of fuel into the reservoir bly or removal from the water during cases, the health.department may waters and prohibit the storage of winter to protect them against ice request that all boats with any form fuel in containers over the water. damage. In addition, courtesy docks, of toilet or sink be excluded from usually one for every two launching the reservoir. Boat Launching Ramps Although me- lanes, should be provided for those chanical boat launching devices exist, who launch their own boats. b. Open the reservoir to boating the most common form of launch is Parking One parking space should be available for every rental boat provided. 58 In addition, parking for privately-owned cars and boat trailers should be pro- Figure 12 vided at a rate of something more than Recommended Density Limits for Boating one f or every private boat. Boating parties arriving with their own boat Type of Maximum Number of Boats Per may be used as a guideline. Multiply Boating Acre of Reservoir Water the expected number of private boats High Speed/Motorboats by 1.5 and add the number of rental Unrestricted Engine Size .33 boats to arrive at parking lot size. The details of parking lot design are Low Speed Motorboats presented in "Support Facilities." @510HP. 1 Adjacent Land Activities Non-Motorized Boats Recreational activities planned on (No Sail) 2 the land adjacent to reservoirs fall into Fishing 1 two rough categories: low intensity (trolling) .5 and high intensity. Low intensity ac- tivities usually involve unstructured Sailboats 1 recreation, such as hiking or picnick- Source: Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. ing. These require minimal facilities and place little if any stress on the reservoir environment. High intensity activities require expensive facilities, special supervision, or both. They may tend to place significant stress on the reservoir environment. An example would be a golf course, with its use of fertilizers and pesticides. Low Intensity Activities The activities with the least effect on the reservoir are informal relaxation, sightseeing, nature-study, strolling, and so on. These can be permitted at any reservoir because, if necessary, they P can be set up away from the water. kb The water itself may be fenced off from public access if the treatment level is low. The facilities for unstructured in- formal recreation are the same as those found in most city parks. Lawns for lounging and quiet play ac- tivities should be provided, paths for hiking through nearby woods may be 59 built, and children's playground equip- ment can be provided. There is abundant literature on the layouts of lawns and playgrounds (the Bibliography includes several such sources), and since these areas will be used on a daily basis their construc- tion at reservoir recreation areas is fundamentally no different than it is . . . . . anywhere else. Figure 14 illustrates a typical layout. Care must be taken of course in the landscape design that runoff from recreational areas into the reservoir is avoided. V-0 I @r Figure 13 Plan of Boating Facilities [vt Figure 14 Plan for Informal Recreation C Ylew Op &eNC-OL, 4671 MY AIMA 60 FLIA116 TAMCI@, M(JL:n - FUWPtXa C@D 44jLDpZM'e, fLAY AICFA -115' 1501 /00, - - - - - - - - - - PATHt-? --- - - --------- Hiking The layout of hiking trails must with having no tables and permitting literature available on the proper lay- be more carefully tailored to the re- picnicking on the grass, but in wood- out of bikeways. quirements of the reservoir. For plan- ed areas, picking up litter is expensive, Team Sports Team sports come under ning purposes at reservoirs, the term and some of it may reach the water. the category of low intensity uses, hiking implies day hiking only. Over- Tables should be separated by a even though they require some special night. hikes come under the category of minimum of ten feet, and they should facilities. Baseball diamonds, football camping, and planning for that is taken not be closer than ten feet to a path - and soccer fields, and other playing up under High Intensity Uses. Day thirty feet to a major trail. About ten fields may be laid out on land near hiking trails can be no longer than to fifteen picnic sites per acre is aver- reservoirs, provided that runoff is about 14 miles at maximum, and all age. Each site should contain one controlled. The installation of large trails must loop back to the original table and bench combination (cost, bleachers or a stadium should not be starting point or to another park en- about $50), but fireplaces should not contemplated. Uniess a high degree of trance. The trails should be cut incon- be provided unless supervision is ade- planning and supervision is possible spicuously, and at no greater grade quate. One charcoal burner type fire- facilities should be used by casual than the material will stand without place for every two to four tables is players only, not for spectator games. erosion. They should be planned for a recommended. While providing facilities for game variety of experiences and vistas, and Indispensible to any picnic area is if the area is to remain open in the an adequate number of good refuse sports is compatible with reservoir winter, it would be wise to design bins. These should be durable, water- management, it may be considered an them such that cross country skiers proof, and rodentproof, with a sturdy inappropriate use of a reservoir envi- can also use them. Trails should be base to prevent animals (e.g., dogs) ronment. These sites lend themselves marked as to their length, so that from overturning them. For ease of better to less structured activities re- hikers will not become stranded on maintenance, none should be farther lated to the appreciation of the out- them after dark. A possible arrange- than 150 feet from the circulation doors. 61 ment of hiking trails is illustrated in road. Covers should be provided, and Hunting Hunting is a seasonal activity, Figure 11. they should be properly maintained. so that although certain types of hunt- Picnicking Picnicking appeals to all Figure 14 shows a plan of these con- ing are incompatible with all other ac- ages and groups, but is particularly siderations. tivities forsafety reasons, it may be popular among urbanites. Picnicking Bicycling Bicycling requires the in- considered an appropriate use of the is mainly ancillary to other activities. stallation of bikeways with asphalt or land during the few weeks each year People come to a park specifically to similar smooth surfaces. On very that it is permitted. For the purpose swim, fish or boat, but also bring a small reservoirs, such as terminal of planning, deer hunting should be picnic. reservoirs, a circuit path around the distinguished from bird and small game It is preferable from a maintenance waterline may be a sensible investment, hunting. Because short range shot is point of view to develop a few large since it can be used for strolling, run- used, safety zones for, the latter can be picnic areas rather than many small ning, and maintenance vehicle access, quite small (1/4-1/2 mile). For deer hunt- ones. At a major recreation area, the as well as bicycling. (See the Fresh ing, if allowed, all other recreational minimum number of tables should be Pond Case Study.) At large recreation access to the land should be temporari- 90 to 120, but on some small sites any areas, full scale separate bicycle pal-is ly curtailed within a mile of the area number smaller than this would be may be built which provide long and reserved for hunters. (If only shotguns reasonable if there were only one interesting routes and beautiful views are allowed, that separation may be picnic area. There is nothing wrong of the scenery. There is considerable reduced to one half mile.) In general, the land holdings around suitable locations, camping can be ac- ily recouped by user charges and club a reservoir must include a minimum of commodated, as it is at New Jersey's membership fees. about 400 acres.1 The most suitable state-run reservoirs. Equestrian Activities Riding may be sites for hunting, then, are around The number of campers permitted Popular enough in a local area to sup- large upland storage reservoirs. On into a site can be regulated, and their port the expense of building and main- smaller sites alternatives to hunting whereabouts known. By allowing in taining equestrian facilities. These will may accommodate hunting demand. only backpacking campers, use of the probably be more desirable near larger These include skeet, trap, rifle, and area for camping would not be so in- upstream collection reservoirs, where archery ranges, as well as hunting dog tense as at conventional campsites extensive bridle trails can be routed training and field trial events. where trailers and motorized camping through undeveloped land. Although With hunting opportunities else- vehicles are used. the same trails cannot be used for hik- where growing constantly more limit- Golf Courses Golf courses, while ex- ing and riding because of the manure ed, such uses of reservoir land ought pensive, are enjoyed by many people deposited on them, riding trails may to be seriously considered, despite the and can be a valuable addition at some function in the winter as snowmobiling negative image hunting has acquired in reservoir sites. (See the Fresh Pond trails or cross country ski routes. The many places. This issue must be de- Case Study) They vary in size from layout in Figure 15 provides a sample cided by the local community involv- small driving ranges which require trail plan. ed. only ten acres of land to full scale High Intensity Activities eighteen hole golf courses which should be about 170 acres in size to be Camping Camping traditionally has challenging. Detailed information 62 not been allowed in reservoir lands be- about design is available from profes- cause of the problems of pollution and sional landscape architects who design of fire. With people staying on the golf courses. land overnight, fecal contamination of If a course is built adjacent to a the water has been considered inevit- reservoir, it must be fitted with a com- able. And with the prospect of un- plete drainage system leading to the supervised campfires burning on the city storm sewer network. Runoff water shed, water managers have al- from the course will contain fertilizers most unanimously felt that permitting and pesticides which can seriously de- camping is a risk not worth taking. grade reservoir water quality. Such a There is merit to these arguments, drainage system naturally adds con- but there may be instances in which siderably to the expense of the camping is suitable on watershed course. lands. There are instances where lakes Support facilities for a golf course used for water supply, such as Sebago, must also include a clubhouse, While have supported unrestricted recrea- a clubhouse does not have to be large tion - including camping - for many or even heated, since the golfing sea- years without a problem. By providing son does not last year-round, it is an certain minimal facilities such as st-one additional expense. Fortunately, the fireplaces and vault or pit privies in costs of maintaining the course and Figure 15 defraying capital expenses can be read- Layout of Equestrian Facilities I MILE 1/1 ....... ........................ WATEK5HED ONNPAKIE-'@ ----------------------- SUAAMU1,1- KIPING TKAJI.5 WIN-I'tiz 13NOWM01@,lLb6 %% % % % %%% %% 63 %%% FZI NG %% %% c" A% elf FAKKING The following regulations for a h. Prohibit horses from entering the health hazards to the population over minimum program are suggested: reservoir water or any tributary 'the long term than do bacteriological a. The location and operating plans stream within 200 feet of reservoir contaminants, because treatment facili- for all corrals, stables, staging areas shoreline. ties are not usually equipped to deal and trails must be approved by the Vacation Housing Vacation housing is with them. Although there already is local health department before con- sometimes suggested as a possible use housing development within the water- struction; for reservoir land, as sale of lots would sheds of many reservoirs, it seems a b. Before an area is open to eques- needless risk and an inappropriate use trian use, a suitable ordinance or contribute to defraying the cost of the of the land to allow it to increase. regulation acceptable to the local water system. While distinctions may health department must be estab- validly be made between housing di- Winter Sports lished to control the horse-related rectly adjacent to the water and hous- Winter sports are becoming increas- activities on the watershed; ing set on watershed lands at some ingly popular. The scope of popular c. The operator of the recreation distance from the reservoir, (see the winter activities has expanded beyond area should prepare a program of Case Study of the Pequannock Water- the perennial favorites - downhill ski- fencing, posting, and patrol to re- shed) there are several reasons why ing and ice skating - to include cross strict the horses away from the res- housing is inappropriate on the water- country skiing, snowrnobiling, and ervoir water; shed of a public drinking water supply. other activities which were almost un- d. The planned program for main- For housing directly adjacent to or recognized by the general public ten tenance of stables and corrals very near the water itself, the public years ago. Because these newer forms should include the following: health issue is a determining one. Al- of winter recreation do not require l. daily collection of manure and though some lakes used for public extensive facilities such as skilift or 64 transportation off the water- water supply do have private housing well-maintained ice, they can be easily shed; and along their banks, such housing usual- and cheaply established at reservoir 2. provision of adequate drainage ly predates the lake's use as a public sites. to direct all storm water away water supply. The risk of contamina- Water managers fear that fecal con- from stables and corrals; tion of the water from improperly tamination from recreationists out on e. The operator of the equestrian functioning sewerage facilities is too the snow will wash down into the facilities should provide the public great to permit the introduction of reservoir with the spring floods and with copies of all applicable or- shoreline housing where it does not cause significant contamination of the dinances in a brochure which prom- currently exist. water. While there is no doubt that inently indicates that the reservoir While the risk of contamination of this kind of contamination can occur, is a source of domestic water sup- the water from development at some it can be well controlled by careful ply and must be protected; distance from the reservoir is certainly planning, simple precautions and the f. Locate all trails over 100 feet less than. the risk of housing on the provision of certain basic sanitary from the reservoir high water level shore, there is still a danger of con- facilities. Because of the difficulty of (horizontal distance); tamination through accidents to sewer patroling open land in the winter, it 9. Locate all stables and corrals at systems. Furthermore, other contam- has always been easy for recreation- least 1000 feet (horizontal distance) inants such as deicing salts, fertilizers, ists to trespass on reservoir lands dur- from the maximum high water level and chemicals are associated with the ing this season. The advent of the of the reservoir and preferably off construction and maintenance of hous- snowmobile has greatly compounded the watershed; and ing. These pose potentially greater this problem. The development of controlled winter recreation may activities. Children get particular en- but interest in it is increasing. Virtual- often be the most prudent option joyment from these winter 'pastimes. ly the only requirement for snowshoe- available to reservoir managers. Walking on the ice should be prohibit- ing is legal access to reservoir lands, as In the Northeastern states, re�er- ed unless it is known to be at least the sport requires few if any trails un- voirs are usually frozen over from mid- four inches thick. The intake area less the woods are very dense. The December to mid-March. The ice is should be cordoned off. radius of activity of snowshoers rough and covered with snow, so that Cross Country Skiing Cross country around a parking lot or other access winter recreation is basically land- skiing has recentl .y become popular. It point will be smaller than that of bound. Planning for winter recreation provides pleasant, exhilarating exer- cross country skiiers, making the acti- can be treated largely as a problem of cise, the equipment is cheap compar- vity easy to regulate. Protected reser- maximizing compatible land uses. voir lands are ideal for the sport, and ed with downhill ski equipment, and it is well worth promoting. Whether to allow access to the ice crowded, expensive ski resorts are un- at all must be decided on a case by necessary for participation. Reservoir Skating In the more northern states, case basis. Both water quality and pub- sites can provide beautiful and varied large lakes and reservoirs may not lic safety must be considered. If access terrain perfectly, suited to cross lend themselves to ice skating. During to the water is permitted in the sum- country skiing. freezing the ice surface often becomes mer, walking on the ice in winter will . The trails laid out for summer hik- bumpy from the action of winds, the pose no special health problem. Safety ing can double as cross country trails. snow removal from the ice is difficult. is another matter: the ice must be Markers, of course, should be affixed Two forms of skating should be thick enough to carry weight. Smaller to trees well above the snow level. The considered - on the ice itself if the reservoirs (i.e., most terminal reser- trails should be wide enough for two surface is acceptable and safe, and on voirs) seldom have safe ice because of abreast - about 6 feet. Level stopping semi-artificial rinks on the shore. To the constant flow of water into the points should be provided where there form rinks, a small stream may be 65 are attractive views. A plan for trails is impounded or a natural bowl in the distribution system and the flucuation -presented in Figure 11. earth may be flooded with water from of the water level. Even when some The trails can be laid out to begin the reservoir. The ice thus produced areas have safe ice, the region near the and end at the central parking lots. will be a higher quality for skating intake is usually treacherously thin. Lengths and difficulties of trails can than that on the reservoir and can be Rescue equipment, including a ladder, be marked much as downhill ski trails groomed by repeated flooding. Rinks rope, and float, should be provided at are marked, using an illustrated map are safer than deepwater ice too, since convenient stations along the shore if of the reservoir area as a background. they are shallow and often frozen any traffic on the ice is to be permit- Skiiers can thus plan the length of solid. No matter what ice is used for ted. time their outing will take. skating, it must be at least four inches Informal Land-Based Winter Recrea- A waist-high platform for waxing thick. tion In the winter landscape, informal skis is a useful addition near the park- Traditionally, warming fires are unstructured recreation can take on a ing lot. At the least, a small level area built around skating ice, and benches variety of forms. Tobogganing, sled- for waxing and donning equipment are provided nearby for resting and ding and sliding down hills on other should be opened next to the begin- changing of skates. There is no reason devices are always popular. In light ing of trails. why fires cannot be provided near snow cover people enjoy walking, bird Snowshoeing Snowshoeing i's not near- rinks on the shore provided they are watching and other simple outdoor ly as popular as cross country skiing, built in fireplaces and supervision is available while they are lit. The risk of forest fire is very low in the winter. run to permit ice fishing only on course, be marked at a level above the It is highly recommended, especial- major storage reservoirs. snow, and they must be separated as ly if use of a skating facility is high, Snowmobiling Snowinobiling is a new much as possible from trails used by that winterized toilet facilities be pro- sport which has achieved sizeable pop- skiiers, hikers, and snowshoers. vided. ularity in a very short time. Unfdrtun- In addition to trails, open fields are Ice Fishing In some parts of the ately, it is basically incompatible with necessary for warm-up and competi- country where this sport is popular, all other forms of winter recreation. tion. These will receive hard use, and elaborate ice fishing shelters are used Many nQn-participants find the noise may require grooming from time to which contain such comforts as heat- of snowmobiles very offensive. Snow- time. Managers must remember that ing, television and electric lights, mobiles can be a significant physical if the snow depth is less than four portable toilets, and sleeping quarters. hazard as well. Traveling at high inches, the vehicles can do substantial Clearly, these are inappropriate for use speeds, the vehicles can overtake harm to the environment. In clearing at reservoir sites. The danger to the skiiers and pedestrians before their any area for snowmobile use, it is also water of such intensive surface use'is drivers have time to take adequate necessary to remember to plan for too great, particularly if portable evasive action. heavy snow: clearing height should be toilets are present. This does not mean The compatibility problems of at least ten feet above normal snow the sport should never be permitted, snowmobiles are even more difficult height. however. than those of powerboating. Snow- Snowmobiles should not be allowed The older method of ice fishing, mobiles can travel cross-country vir- on the reservoir ice. Reservoir intakes involving simply a hole in the ice and tually without restriction; fences are can make the ice treacherously thin a chair, is compatible with reservoir easily and frequently breached. In in places, and the speed with which management. No structures should be many areas sportsmen and property the vehicles travel can make errors in 66 left on the ice overnight, and fishing owners have had bitter disputes with judgment easy. Falling through the ice should terminate at dark. Lightweight snowniobilers over access to the is not only extremely dangerous for shelters, carried onto the ice daily and woods. However, given the popularity the driver, but is an obvious source of removed at night, may be allowed. of the sport, planners must give care- water pollution as well. Portable toilets must be absolutely ful consideration to snowmobiles. The ideal location for snowmobile prohibited. Ice fishing must be con- Compatibility can be achieved if spe- activity is in a shallow geological de- pression surrounded by trees. This fined to areas served by on-shore win- cial areas are set aside for the-ir use. At terized toilets. No refuse may be the larger reservoir sites, snowniobiling minimizes the noise problem. Steep. i i allowed to accumulate on the ice, so may be instituted without conflict slopes or cliffs can reflect noise, and the vehicles should be kept away from on-shore facilities must also include with other sports if good planning is them. The reservoir surface is also ac- well-maintained trash receptacles. carried out. coustically reflective and snowmobiles As with warm-weather fishing, local The great majority of users enjoy terminal reservoirs may attract a dis- long cross I-country trails, ideally be- should not be operated adjacent to it. proportionate number of casual par- tween 15 and 25 miles long. These Figure 16 shows a layout to minimize ticipants who may not behave respon- should be arranged, as are other trails, snowmobilenoise problems. sibly. More distant sites will attract to circuit around to their original The following regulations are sug- more devoted enthusiasts whose con- starting point. At highly developed gested as the minimal ones required duct is likely to be better. For this recreation areas it may be possible for a controlled snowinobiling pro- reason it may be administratively to put bridle paths to winter use as gram at or near reservoirs. Others may simpler and more popular in the long snowmobile trails. All trails must, of be required for local conditions and TKAIL Figure 16 67 Planning for Reduction of Snowmobile Noise to meet particular state codes: ed at any time in any manner, Parking Lots At local recreation sites 1 Snowmobiling is permitted only intended or reasonably to be ex- where a number of transportation on the snowmobile trails or pected, to harass, drive, or pursue modes service demand, it is not neces- routes as designated. any wildlife. sary to size parking lots for the maxi- 2 All other motorized vehicles not 5 No person shall litter or dispose mum expected parking demand. A designed to be driven exclusively of trash or garbage along the on snow or ice or both such as snowmobile trails. certain degree of parking congestion all-terrain vehicles, mini-bikes, 6 Snowmobiles shall not be operat- is tolerable since it serves to ration motorcycles, trail bikes, and ed on reservoir ice. recreation space in favor of pedestrians Support Facilities other vehicles of a similar nature and public transit users. Local sites are not permitted within the can become highly congested on week- reservoir land boundaries. A number of support facilities can ends and during the summer, and it is 3 Snowmobiles shall be equipped contribute to the quality of reservoir better to have congested access than with working headlights, tail recreation. However, this section is lights, brakes, and proper muf- concerned with only the most basic congested facility, particularly at a flers as supplied by the motor support facilities, not with conces- reservoir site. Since average site visits manufacturer. are short and distances traveled are 4 Snowmobiles shall not be operat sions or other discretionary ones. small, recreationists; can simply return at another time of day when the It is not always possible, however, Sanitary Facilities Plumbing and sani- crowding is less severe. to build convenient parking lots big tary facilities are perhaps the most es- At sites not served by public transit enough to handle maximum peak sential requirement for opening reser- it is important to have enough parking loads. There are usually a few week- voirs to public recreation, The only space to accommodate demand. Limi- ends every year, such as around July 4 situation in which public lavatories tation of parking space should not be and Labor Day, when crowds are sig- are not required is at a site within the used as a mechanism to control access, nificantly bigger than at any other developed urbanized area, where no since frustrated people who have time. For such crowds temporary boating or water contact is permitted driven to the site will simply park parking lots can be set up at some dis- and the average visit to the site is short. along public roads and cause a more tance away from the central facility. The number and type of sanitation difficult problem. Entrance fees can, Although these are less convenient for facilities may be specified by state however, be used to limit demand if users, they do accommodate demand health codes. Otherwise, the guidelines that is desired. in an orderly and inexpensive manner. presented in Figure 17 can be used for Figure 17 Required Sanitation Facilities Male Bathhouse of Males of toilets of urinals #of lavatories #of showers #of change rooms 68 1-50 1 1 1 1 1 51-100 1 1 1 1 1 101-250 2 2 2 3 4 251-500 2 3 2 4 6 501-750 3 3 3 4 7 751-1000 3 4 3 5 8 1001-1500 4 5 4 6 10 1501-2000 5 6 5 7 12 Female Bathhouse of Females of toilets of lavatories of showers of change rooms 1-50 1 1 1 1 51-100 2 1 2 2 101-250 3 2 3 4 251-500 5 2 4 6 501-750 6 3 4 8 751-1000 7 3 5 9 1001-1500 9 5 6 11 1501-2000 11 5 7 13 Source: George Fogg, Park Planning Guidelines, op. cit. Figure 18 Minimum Radii of Protection Around Water Intakes No Filtration Filtration Reservoir No Water-Based Water-Based No Water-Based Water-Based Type Activities A .ctivities Activities Activities, Terminal Fence around N.A. Fence around 1000 ft. radius intake facilities intake facilities over water, fence around intake facilities Collection Fence around 1 mile radius Fencearound Fence around intake facilities over water, intake facilities intake facilities, fence around 500 ft. radius intake facilities over water or whatever radius is necessary to protect recrea- tionalists from local turbulence of water draw-off Source: Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. 69 planning purposes. This table should ment, and absolute size of the reser- rination only) it has been the practice be used with the planned activities in voir. to establish a very large protected mind. For swimming, all types of facil- With respect to recreation, the radius, usually about two miles, ities may be required. For fishing, function of a protected radius is first around the water intake if boating is boating and other similar activities, physical, to protect water intake facil- allowed. Access to the shore is cut off showers and change rooms could be ities from tampering, and second for a comparable distance on either eliminated. water quality related, to increase the side of the intake. With higher levels Protection of the Water Intake effective residence time of possible of treatment, and especially on system contamination and to reduce turbidi- storage reservoirs, the protected radius The protected radius to be estap- may be cut down substantially. On the lished around the water intake of a ty. All reservoirs must physically pro- smaller terminal reservoirs the mini- new or expanded recreation facility must be established specifically for tect their intakes with screens to pre- mum restricted distance around a each site. Topography, water inflow vent clogging by small fish and debris. water intake is set to allow for maxi- rates, water withdrawal rates, and These screens must, in turn, be pro- mum dilution of water used for recrea- similar local conditions can be as im- tected against tampering by fencing tion. A 30-day residence time for all portant in determining a protection off the area directly around the water terminal reservoir water is desirable. radius as are intensity of recreational intake, on land and in the water. The above table (Figure 18) offers use, degree of available,water treat- With minimal treatment (i.e., chlo- a first approximation of minimum radii of protection. Planners must public is notoriously sloppy in its consult with their local water manager treatment of public facilities. This to determine a practical one for their kind of abuse is often more disgusting site. to water managers than outright van- dalism, for it violates all the tenets of Public Abuse of Facilities watershed management. They find it Vandalism There is legitimate fear hard to believe that the consumers of that vandalism can pose a substantial the water can show so little concern threat to the water supply, and that for their water supply. Although recreation should be limited or cur- most littering will have no bacterio- tailed because of it. There have been logical effect on the water some kinds seveyal incidents of vandalism at Yeser- can. Improper disposal off ood con- voir areas which have posed a threat tainers and disposable sanitary items, to the water supply, and they should like baby diapers, could lead to such not be minimized. In one such in- contamination. stance, vandals took a portable toilet Littering must be countered by at a fishing area and threw it into the provision of adequate waste contain- water. In all probability, this would ers. The public grounds must be tend- have no effect on the quality of the ed routinely to pick up garbage left finished water if the reservoir were by park users. The full expense of large and the treatment adequate and this maintenance must be incorporat- reliable. The danger of a serious dis- ed into the operating budget of the 70 ease outbreak is obvious, however, if facility. Littering fines should be im- the treatment is unreliable. posed and enforced. Except at the Vandalism of toilet facilities is the largest areas, food concessions should most significant danger and is quite not be permitted. easily prevented. Portable toilets should not be used at reservoir areas, and supervision of permanent facilities should be careful. Other common acts of vandalism - destruction and defac- ing of equipment, throwing of glass, wood, and metal into the water, etc. - are common to most recreation areas and are not directly dangerous to water quality. Park patrols can reduce the number of incidents, and careful design can reduce the cost of the damages. Littering Littering differs from van- dalism only in degree. The American Attendance at Site not indicate adequate demand, it may tivities can be estimated from the Estimating the level of use, or de- still be beneficial to open the reservoir population in the area. This procedure mand, for recreation at the reservoir to recreation. Demand for recreation requires three pieces of information. site is important for effective facility builds over time. After a site is open- First, the area in question needs to be planning. These demand forecasts can ed, it can take several years to reach defined. Second, the size of the popu- help answer important questions about its full potential because people are lation must be known. Third, the increased recreational use of water slow to learn about its existence, lo- ratio of population to user-days in supply reservoirs: Is there a need for cation and facilities. Population each activity is required. Total demand more recreation facilities in the area? growth, increased leisure time, and is then calculated by multiplying the What are the benefits of opening a growing income contribute to a long population by the activity ratio. new site? Is a specific plan feasible term increase in recreational usage The area a recreation facility can in terms of over- or under-capacity? over time. In addition, a new facility serve depends on the types of activi- Can the plan be financed out of user can create its own demand, particular- ties offered. A city reservoir clearly charges, or is subsidy necessary? ly if it is unique or offers unusually draws visitors from a smaller area than Recreation demand is usually de- high quality recreation. does the Grand Canyon. Many activi- scribed in terms of user-days per year. If demand does not appear ade- ties considered in this handbook such A user-day is counted when a person quate to construct a large facility, as swimming, boating and fishing, can spends any part of a day at the facili- recreation can be phased in. Low cost be enjoyed in day trips. The demand ty. Thus, day trips accrue a single activities, such as fishing, hunting, area is then the distance a family user-day for each visitor. The number and hiking can be permitted initially. could travel for a day outing. The of user-days that can be expected at a Then, as demand builds, boating, quality of local roads and public trans- new facility has been found to depend swimming, and other activities can be portation affect this distance. In gen- on a number of factors including: planned, and the necessary facilities eral, people residing in countie s and 71 Total population of the area constructed. towns within 50 miles of a site could Income, education, age, and In the past thirty years, consider- use it for day recreation. leisure time of the population able research has focused on estimat- The population of the cities, towns Accessibility of the site ing the demand for outdoor recreation, and counties in an area can be found Activities available at the site The results of these studies can be from several sources. The U.S. Bureau Quality of the site used in planning recreation activities of Census publishes this information Cost at water supply reservoirs. Simple every 10 years. That volume may be methods based on one or only a few available at local libraries or town gov- Other factors may influence de- of the factors listed above may be ernments. Regional planning agencies mand for recreation as well. The exist- adequate f o*r most planning. More may also have this data, and may have ence of other recreation opportunities complex techniques which consider in more recent population estimates. will reduce the demand for a new site. detail all these factors may be required Population use ratios for major ac- Conversely, places with few alterna- in unusual circumstances or when tivities are presented in Figure 19. tives will find recreation at water sup- large scale recreation development is Total area demand for each activity ply reservoirs particularly attractive. planned. Three approaches to demand can be calculated from these coeffici- Water supply reservoirs can offer ac- estimation are described below. ents by multiplying the area popula- tivities in a natural setting that may Population Ratios Method tion by the appropriate figure in the not be available elsewhere. The total demand for recreation ac- table. If the methods outlined below do Part of that demand may be cur- Figure 19 able, distance between parking facili- Population-Use Ratios'for Selected Activities: ties and the site, and so on. On the Northeast Region other, it refers to the distribution of the service population; the further User-day/person they are from a recreation site, the Activity over 14 years of age lower accessability. In general, all Total Outdoor Recreation 69.0 else equal, a less accessible site will Swimming 11.4 attract fewer people. A doubling in Boating 2.4 the time required to reach a site will Fishing 2.3 reduce demand at that site from one- Walking for pleasure/nature walks 14.9 half to one-fifth of the use that would Bicycling 7.9 otherwise be expected. Birdwatching/photography 3.6 The range of recreational activities Outdoor games or sports 14.2 available will obviously influence the Picnicking 3.5 number of people desiring to use a Horseback riding .7 facility. The previous section presents Camping 1.9 figures for forecasting demand for each activity. In the context of "simi- Source: 1970 Survey of Outdoor Recreation Activities, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau lar site" demand forecasting, those of Outdoor Recreation, February 1972. figures can be usefully employed to adjust demand according to the activi- ties available. Demand at the known 72 rently met by existing facilities. There- Care must be taken in comparing site is first broken down by activity fore, the demand for the new facility sites to utilize this method. Site char- using the ratios in Figure 19. Then may not equal the total demand. But acteristics which must be compared adjustment in demand at the new many people may find the new facility include: facility can be made. For example, if more attractive, so demand for that Accessibility twice as much space for swimming is facility is greater than the difference Activities available provided at the new site, that com- between total demand and current rec- Quality ponent of demand at the comparison reation capacity. To determine more Cost site should be doubled to make the accurately the demand for the new To the extent sites differ in these forecast. Similarly, if swimming is not site, more sophisticated techniques, respects, use can be expected to differ. permitted at the new site, that com- such as those discussed below, should Subjective judgments can be used to ponent of demand at the comparison be employed. adjust use figures at a known site to site is subtracted out of the forecast. project use at a new site. Guidelines Quality factors are both highly sub- Similar Site Method for these judgments are presented be- jective and difficult to quantify. For Similar recreation sites in the same low. example, some find beach crowding area can be expected to attract similar Accessibility can.be defined more annoying while others view it as an levels of use.2 If there is any unmet precisely as the amount of time and integral part of the recreation experi- demand in the area, then this fact can discomfort involved in reaching the ence. However, a well-maintained, be used to estimate the demand at a recreation site. On one hand, this litter-free park is likely to attract more new site. term refers to the type of roads avail- visitors than one that is poorly cared for. The magnitude of this effect is to the users of this handbook. How- close to urban areas where the need not clear, and the appropriate adjust- ever, if the necessary resources are for recreation is great. Because they ment factor must be based on local available, the two techniques described have been shielded from urban devel- considerations. - below may be useful adjuncts to the opment, they provide a kind of experi- Finally, the cost of the recreation methods discussed previously. ence which one must go to the distant experience will affect demand. Cost Potential users of the planned facili- countryside to duplicate. This means factors are partly considered in access- ty can be interviewed directly to de- that those who have little opportunity ibility and activities. User-charges in termine their recreational preference to leave the city can enjoy something the form of admission fees and parking and possible level of use. Current users which has been excluded from their fees will tend to discourage potential of existing facilities as well as the lives before. users. The difference in user charges area's population might be queried. At Two groups which will especially as compared to known site should be the same time that potential demand benefit from recreational opportuni- considered. Empirical estimates of the is determined, it would be easy to ties an nearby reservoirs are the poor effect of cost difference on demand determine preferences for facilities, and the elderly. The young and the vary considerably. Some research had activities and user charge systems. middle class will also use the facilities, indicated that a 1% higher cost results This line of demand forecasting is but they also have the option to travel in no change in demand, and others similar to consumer product market to other places for recreation. predict up to a 3% reduction in de- research, used by many businesses, and In addition to being an argument mand. All else equal, the higher figure the same problems of sample selection in favor of opening the reservoirs to is likely to be more accurate. By es- and questionnaire design exist. Several the public, this consideration also sug- tablishing higher fees at more popular of the references in the bibliography gests they should be left largely in sites, this effect of price on demand can help guide the interested reader. their present natural state. While there can be used to divert demand from The second sophisticated technique are multiple opportunities to engage in 73 overused areas to less well-known available for predicting use of a new team sports and other recreation ones. facility involves explicitly accounting which requires a high level of activity for the various factors which influence and patronage, reservoirs are best de- Statistical Methods demand. Data on (1) demand at vari- veloped for recreation which gains The two sections above outline ous existing sites, and (2) the site char- value by being quiet and private. One simple "rule of thumb" methods for acteristics listed in the sections above does not need to forecast an enormous estimating the use at a facility planned. is collected. Statistical techniques are attendance at a proposed facility in In the past decade several more soph- available to cull from this information order to justify it; in fact, overuse of isticated forecasting techniques have relationships between population site such a facility would diminish its value been developed and used in planning recreation. These techniques purport characteristics, and demand. These for those who visit it as well as its greater accuracy but also are consider- relationships can then be used to value for water supply. ably more expensive to implement. project demand at the new facility. To serve the poor and the elderly For the purpose of planning vast rec- References in the bibliography can by opening reservoirs, planners must reation facilities such as National help guide the interested reader. anticipate the problem of subsidizing Parks, Corps of Engineer reservoirs, the costs of the facilities. Ordinarily, etc., they may be warranted. Because Who Will Use the Facilities? it is most equitable to ask each user to of .the manpower and analytic skills One of the special values of opening pay a fair share of the costs of the required, they are, in large, unavailable reservoir land to increased recreation recreational facility. If water users is that reservoirs are generally located pay the cost of recreation (through higher water rates) the charges are Recreation Costs and Financing levied on those who do not necessarily use the facilities. Free passes could Plans for increasing recreation at a be provided to especially disadvantag- public water supply reservoir should ed groups, but the cost of this subsidy include estimates of all the costs in- would be borne by other recreation- volved, including capital expenditures, ists. If recreation is to be enjoyed by operations and maintenance costs, and those who cannot afford to pay a user alternative methods for financing. In charge, some other private or public this section, costs are broken down agency should subsidize their recrea@ into five areas: costs of water treat- tion. The water company itself would ment, costs of recreation facilities, not likely want to underwrite such an costs of staff and maintenance, finan- expense. The question of user charges cing techniques, and finally, the cal- is discussed in greater detail in "Costs culation of benefits associated with and Financing" below. these costs. To a certain extent, the type of Costs of Water Treatment facility developed will determine the Recreation planners must consider type of user. Reservoir sites, if devel- the costs of various water treatment oped for quiet, low density, secluded processes because the level of recrea- swimming activities, will tend to at- tion possible at a reservoir site is link- tract swimmers who are actually very ed to the water treatment available. compatible with the objectives of Virtually all public water systems use 74 reservoir water management. Profes- chlorination to disinfect the water sional people and others of compara- before distribution; the costs of tively high socio-econornic status can chlorination equipment presented in be expected to seek out the natural this section are given primarily as ref- environment of reservoir sites. Young- erence information. Every water sup- er people, such as teenagers and col- ply reservoir should already use , lege students, tend to prefer beaches chlorination or some other form of which are crowded and active, and so disinfection. The main emphasis of would be less apt to cong *regate at a this section is on filtration equipment reservoir facility in large numbers. and the incremental costs of addition- Beaches with distinct entrances and al treatment if recreation is expanded. boundaries, and which can be survey- Filtration equipment is much more ed from a cruising car, are especially expensive to install and operate than attractive to teenagers, as are sites chlorination equipment, and recrea- with food concessions. By eliminating tion might be called upon to bear such features from a reservoir recrea- some of the costs of improved water tion area, the site can be designed to treatment. attract users who are most compatible Currently the construction industry with the objective of the recreation is experiencing rapid cost inflation. planned. When budgets are estimated, the dol- lar costs presented here should be dustry is present. In an area without would be almost universally required at modified upward to account for this. substantial industry or commercial surface water sources. The Construction Cost Index and the development, 125 gpcd would be a Filtration is more expensive than Labor Cost Index published in the useful first guess. chlorination since storage volume periodical Engineering, News Record Chlorination Chlorination is the must be sufficient to hold water for can be used for this purpose. cheapest water treatment process com- two hours of treatment. Overall treat- Relationship Between Plant Output monly used. All that is needed is a ment costs for the two basic filtration and Community Size For planning regulating chlorinator and a holding processes are presented in Figure 20. purposes, the amount of water a per- basin to assure minimum contact time. The figures are adjusted to account for son uses in a day is usually estimated The cost of treatment Iis related pn- inflation. It is clear from Figure 20 at 125 gallons. The first estimate of marily to the volume of water dis- that the slow sand filtration process required plant output could then be tributed, not to the amount of c .hlo- is not competitive with the coagulant found by multiplying the population rine required. While recreation may assisted rapid sand process, even served by 125 gallons per capita per increase the required chlorine dose, though its capital costs are lower. day. the increase in costs associated with Cleaning of the filter beds requires Two other factors must be consider- this difference will be small. No aA- manually scraping off the top layer ed, however. First, a certain amount ditional equipment.would be required of sand and replacing it which is a of water is lost in transmission. Water in order to permit increased recreation. very costly maintenance process. Slow companies generally bill for 90-96% The present cost of chlorine is sand filtration may be useful in certain of the water which leaves the plant. about $.20 per pound. If recreation special localities, however. Second, industrial and commercial increased chlorine demand, the added Sample Cost Calculations Let us take uses of water must be added to the cost of chlorine per million gallons of the example of a moderate sized com- total figure. These are seldom ac- water per additional milligram per liter munity of 40,000 people. Its water 75 curately known. General practice is to of chlorine required would be about system includes chlorination equip- revise the per capita use figure up- $1.66. Increased chlorine costs requir- ment, but to meet the new Federal wards to include system leakages, and ed to permit recreation will probably Safe Drinking Water Standards a fil- industrial and commercial use. In areas be less than $4 per million gallons. tration plant must be built. Since the which are not heavily industrialized, Clearly, this is a small additional cost. community wants to get the most out water use will probably be between Figure 20 presents representative of its investment it decides to allow 100 gpcd (gallons per capita per day) present costs of chlorination. swimming and other recreational ac- and 200 gpcd. tivities at the reservoir site. It is de- In this section costs are calculated Filtration Under present standards, termined that this will require an ad- by plant output rather than by popu- chlorination is considered adequate ditional chlorine dose of 1 milligram lation, since to assign a service popu- treatment unless the turbidity level of per liter during the summer months lation to a plant size would require the water exceeds 5 JTU (Jackson Tur- when swimming is allowed (120 days fixing on a certain level of per capita bidity Units) or the bacterial loads are per year). consumption. The best way to esti- greater than 50 per 100 milliliters of .Per capita water use in the com- mate the true use of water in an area water. Beyond that, coagulant-assisted munity is estimated at 110 gpcd, (rapid) filtration is generally used. is to ask the local water manager. The EPA's proposed new standards would meaning plant output will be about true use may be as low as 60 gped or lower permissible turbidity level to 1 4.5 MGD. To allow for moderate as high as 200 gped if significant in- JTU,,which would mean that filtration growth the community decides on a 5 MGD plant. Costs then can be estimated as fol- lows: 5 -MGD.Rapid Filtration System Capital Costs Annual Costs Coagulation/ Sedimentation $ 930,000 $ 81,000 O/M 202,000 Rapid Sand Filter 5831000 51,000 O/M 225,000 Extra Chlorination for recreation: 996 $.66 milligram MGD Day/liter x 5 MGD x 1 milligram/1 liter x 120 days 1,513,000 559,996 This translates into an annual cost tion. Competent professional assist- of $14.00 per capita for the initial ance should be sought to help design population. The debt payments will and budget the facility. The local remain constant through the years, recreation and parks department could 76 but O/M costs may rise due to infla- provide this expertise. tion. The additional chlorine costs, Detailed cost estimates can be de- which are the only ones directly at- rived from the appropriate annual tributable to recreation at the site, are edition of Building Construction Cost a negligible $996 per year. In this case Data by Robert Snow Means Com- a user charge for recreation could easi- pany, Inc., Duxbury, Massachusetts. ly pay off these costs and could also This book is a standard reference contribute substantially to reducing widely used in the construction in- the burden of the filtration plant costs dustry for bid estimation, but must be on the water users. used with care. It is updated every Calculations of costs for other situa- year to consider increases. in material tions are equally straightforward. and labor costs, and since costs vary from-city to city, the Means Company Costs of Recreation Facilities provides an index multiplier for major This section is meant to help the U.S. cities. It must be remembered reader make a useful but preliminary when using books like Means that fig- estimate of the costs to be expected ures supplied are usually exclusive of in developing or expanding a recrea- contractor's overhead, profit and con- tion area. Of course, precise costs tingenc'ies. should be estimated prior to construc- Figure 20 Costs of Water Treatment Processes Coagulation Coagulation Sedimentation: Rapid Sand Chlorination: Sedimentation: Operations/ Filtration: Capi tal Costs Capital Costs Maintenance Capital Costs Process/Plant Size (MGD) (per annum) (per annum) (per annum) (per annum) .5 8000 161,000 20,000 122,000 (700) (14,000) (10,700) 1 270,000 40,000 193,000 (900) (23,500) (16,900) 2 14,600 461,000 81,000 313,000 (1300) (40,200) (25,300) 5 25,000 930,000 202,000 583,000 (2200) (81,000) (51,000) 10 42,800 1,580,000 404,000 934,000 (3700) (137,700) (81,300) 20 74,000 2,680,000 808,000 1,500,000 (6500) (233,700) (131,300) Rapid Sand Slow Sand 77 Filtration: Rapid Filter Slow Sand Filtration: Slow Sand Operations/ System: Filtration- Operations/ System: Maintenance Annual Total Capital Costs Maintenance Total Annual (per annum) Costs (per annum) (per annum) Cost U,000 58,700 233,000 63,000 83,000 (20,000) 63,000 103,400 375,000 126,000 158,700 (32,700) 144,000 209,500 622,000 253,000 307,000 (54,000) 275,000 407,000 1,190,000 632,000 736,000 (104,000) 515,000 734,000 1,943,000 1,264,000 1,434,000 (170,000) 972,000 1,337,000 3,187,000 2,529,000 2,807,00d (278,000) FIgure -20 presents the costs of various treatment processes. The source for the figures presented here is the report "Monograph on the Effective- ness and Costs of Water Treatment Processes for the Removal of Specific Contaminants," by the Environmental Planning and Engineering Divi- sion of David Volkert and Associates, Bethesda, Maryland, August 1974. The following comments about the figures' accuracy should be made. Costs have been adjusted upwards by the rate of inflation in the building industry over the period between October 1973 and'June 1975. Capi- tal costs were increased 15.4%, based on the Construction Cost Index; labor rates were increased by 17.2%, based on the Labor Cost Index averaged between skilled and unskilled labor. Annual costs were calculated according to the conventional formula: Ca = q i I - (1 + i)-n where: q principal i interest rate = 6% n term in years = 20 Typical Costs Item Cost (Dollars) Site Development: The clearing of roads, parking lots, and building sites is the first expense to be incurred. Costs vary according to density of growth to be removed. 78 No trees 700 (per acre) Light growth (6" trees) 1,300 Medium growth (10" trees) 1,800 Heavy growth (16" trees) 2,300+ Roads, Parking Lots, Trails: Road costs vary widely. Costs depend on who does the work - a local DPW may be cheaper than a com- mercial construction firm. Roads: 50' Right of Way 34,000 (per 1000') 26' Two land road Parking Lots: Per space, including share of maneuvering room. (based on 10 x 20 foot space) Unpaved 500 (per space) Paved 1,200 Trails: Includes cost of clearing and grading: 6,000 (per mile) Item Cost (Dollars) Bikeways: 8' paved bikeway, including cost of clearing 20,000 (per mile) Fence: Chain link fencing is ordinarily used to pro- tect the water from unauthorized access. Wchain link fence (galvanized) 8 (per linear foot) Building Construction: These figures are a rough guide to lightweight building construc- tion. Unheated sheds, porches, etc. 15-18 (per square foot) Unheated bathhouses, offices and similar construction 18-25 (per square foot) as above heated 25-45 Specific Facilities: Some average costs for fre- quently planned facilities are presented be- low. All-weather toilet facility 20,000-35,000 79 4-bay maintenance building J-00,000 Beachhouse (dressing rooms, bathrooms, concession, first aid, lifeguard) 160,000 8 x 10 foot tollbooth 2,000 Children's playground equipment (swings, see-saw, slides, etc.) 2,000 Dock 6-11 (per square foot) 1,600-2,600 (per boat slip) Boat launching ramp 7,000 Golf Course (includes clubhouse, parking, etc.) 1,200,000 average cost per hole 25,000 Picnic area (and share of fireplaces) 7 5 (per table) Trash can 15 Sample Estimations 1) Small Area Consider the development of a small terminal reservoir to which there is no present access. Low intensity activities on the adjacent land are all that is contemplated. A circuit path around the reservoir and several acres of clearing will be major expenses. The water will have to be fenced off from public access since no body contact with the water is desired. Parking will be provided for 100 cars. Item Cost Road: 1000' $ 35,000 Parking: 100 cars 120,000 Clearing: 5 acres 10,000 Bikeway: 2 miles 40,000 Fence: 2 miles 42,500 Playground equipment: 2,000 Picnic tables: 4 300 Miscellaneous: trash cans, signs, etc. 1,000 $250,800 This estimation assumes that no capital expenditures for maintenance equip- ment would be necessary. On a small terminal reservoir, it is likely that the muni- cipal department of public works could provide trucks and machinery on a coop- erative basis. 80 An annualized cost for this facility, assuming a 6% interest rate and a 20 year term, would be $250,800 x .0872/annum or $21,869 per annum. 2) Large Area The development of a major storage reservoir for several activities would be a substantial project. Included would be a full-scale bathhouse facility and swimming beach, boat docks and launching ramps, trails for snowmobiling and hiking, bikeways, picnic areas, and parking for 500 cars. Item Cost Road: 5000' $ 175,000 Parking: 500 cars 600,000 Clearing: 30 acres 60,000 Bikeways: 5 miles 100,000 Trails: 25 miles 150,000 Fencing: misc. 2000' 16,000 Bathhouse: 160,000 Beach: 4 acres @ same cost as clearing 8,000 Dock: 20 boats @ $2000/slip 40,000 1000 sq. ft. courtesy dock 10,000 Boats: 20 @ $400 (12' with 10 hp. motor) 8,000 Launching Ramps: 3 21,000 Picnic Tables: 100 7,500 Comfort Stations: 2 @ $25,000 50,000 Miscellaneous: 5,000 $1,410,000 Maintenance Shed: (if required) 100,000 Maintenance Equipment: (if required) 30,000 $1,540,000 The figures for maintenance equipment are estimated by assuming two large trucks at $10,000 and one pick up truck at $5,000 are necessary, as well as $5,000 81 worth of miscellaneous equipment such as lawn mowers, plowing attachments, cultivators, tillers, etc. The annualized cost of this facility, assuming the same 6% interest rate and 20 year term, would be $134,288. Discussion It is interesting that the greatest single expense in each instance is park- ing facilities. Parking lot costs may be reduced by more than half if the lot is left unpaved. Continued regrading costs may make this a false economy, however. Runoff from an unpaved parking lot may also contribute to reservoir siltation. At large areas where lots can be located at a distance from. the water and where wint- er use is not intense, unpaved parking lots may be a reasonable choice. In the larger areas, it.is reasonable to assume that a parking charge will be levied. This can more than cover the amortization of the capital expenditure for parking, and can contribute considerable revenue to the expenses of the rest of the facility. Likewise, the bathhouses and boating facilities at large areas will be self-supporting through user charges. Staff Costs tection of the water, and to help allay sive winter activities are planned, most Operation and maintenance of a fears of the managers that recreation maintenance costs will be incurred recreation facility includes a wide vari- will violate their professional stan- during summer months. During that ety of expenses. In addition to labor dards. Otherwise, park management season staff requirements can double the facility operator must pay for can be accomplished through the local the guidelines stated above. Hiring stu- vehicles, repair materials, fuel, insur- parks and recreation department, pos- dents on summer vacation can be an ance, and so on. The excellent publi- sibly by the manager of some other effective method for meeting this de- cations of the National Recreation and nearby park. In either case, for all but mand. Parks Association (1601 North Kent the smallest sites, additional funds Enforcement of park regulations, Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209) dis- should be provided to the managing and general maintenance of public cuss these expenses of park operations; agency to pay at least a part-time safety is important to control recrea- this section of the handbook analyzes salary. tion, Patrols should match usage. In the staff costs which are likely to be The number of maintenance per- any case, an urban park should be incurred. sonnel required will depend on the patrolled daily. In parks of moderate use, five patrols each day is a mini- 1ypically a park requires a unit size of the site, the activities pennit- mum adequate level'. On days of inten- manager, maintenance personnel, pa- ted, and extent of facilities needing sive usage, such as Labor Day, Memori- trolmen, and support staff for specific upkeep. Maintenance is best accom- activities planned. Guidelines for the plished through the local park main- al Day, July 4th policemen should be personnel needed are discussed below. tenance system. If the site is large, on duty full time. During winter Figure 21 presents a common pay additional personnel may be needed months when use hasdiminished, scale for these labor classes. In addition to a full time custodian, lower levels of patrol, perhaps once or A park director is only needed at one or two men are needed, on average twice a week, could be maintained. 82 the largest sites. In many cases, respon- for every 50 acres of developed land. Park enforcement should be plan- sibility for park management can rest This level of staffing should be ade- ned to complement the recreation ac- with the water supply manager's of- quate for lawn mowing, trash removal, tivities. Horseback and foot patrols are fice. This arrangement is desirable to litter pickup, facility maintenance, and suitable for large sites. During winter encourage adequate planning for pro- minor road repair work. Unless exten- months, snowmobiles or skiis could be used. Many parks use local police for these patrols' Uniformed rangers could accomplish much the same purpose. These personnel could, in addition to Figure 21 enforcing park regulations and aiding Typical Staff Salaries those in distress, lead nature walks, Job Weekly Salary Range guide hikes and bird watching tours, Park Manager $175-$350 and otherwise enhance enjoyment of Assistant Manager $145-$200 the natural setting provided by reser7 Skilled Laborer $200-$400 (union voir recreation. rate) Finally, personnel may be required Maintenance Laborer $100-$150 to support some of the specific activi- Life Guard $125-$150 ties planned. For swimming, state laws Facility Clerk $115-$140 may require certified lifeguards to be Source: Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. present. Some state regulations govern the number of lifeguards needed. each visitor. Sources of funds to meet User Charges can be imposed to pay Otherwise, there should be one life- these costs is the subject of this sec- off revenue bonds or simply to pay guard for every 400 feet of beach at a tion. operation and maintenance costs. minimum, but one lifeguard can only General Tax Revenue is one source While these are very efficient - costs supervise 100 beach users. If many of of money for facilities. It has the ad- are bome directly by the beneficiaries the people on the beach are very vantage that it is reviewed annually by - they may tend to discourage would- young or old, or are known to be un- be users who cannot afford the charge. skilled swimmers, more lifeguards the governing body, but the disadvan- should be provided, up to one for tage that it is not directly related to Ideally the user charge should re- every 50 beach users. the amount of use a facility gets. The flect the added cost of recreation. To Finally, some facilities will require problem of annual budget review is calculate the charge, the basic operat- an attendant. Boat rental concessions raised, and getting the appropriation ing and maintenance costs of the facil- should have at least one for every 75 in the first-place may be difficult. ity should be added to the increased operating costs of water treatment and boats. A riding stable or snack bar will Bond Issues are another method. A the marginal expenses which will be need staff. The exact requirements can general bond is paid for out of state or imposed by the expected demand. be estimated from the plan developed. local revenues, but is approved once This sum should be divided by the es- Cost IRecovery and Financing and for all by the legislature or timated number of paying visitors to A major issue.in planning increased through a referendum, obviating year- determine the daily use charge. use is financing the costs associated ly review. The disadvantage is the This charge can be imposed as an with facility development. The costs equity issue - a general bond forces entrance fee, a parking fee, or as a of recreation can be divided into capi- people who may not use the facility to charge for a specific activity, such as tal costs and operating costs. Capital pay the costs for those who do. A rev- swimming. The costs of administering costs are the costs of buying land, enue bond, on the other hand, is paid the charge should be considered in es- 83 building facilities, and in the case of for out of charges collected at the site. tablishing the fee system. For ex- reservoir recreation, sometimes build- While equitable, it may not encourage ample, entrance or parking fees may ing or expanding treatment plants. , the best facilities. High charges will re- be easier and less costly to administer Operating costs include the base cost duce demand, and there will be incen- than swimming fees, if there are few of operating facilities, plus the mar- tive to install minimal facilities with entrances to the park and a large num- ginal cost of operation and mainte- the greatest possible commercial re- ber of swimming places. Conversely, if nance imposed by each additional turn. The result might be inadequate there are many access points but only visitor. and inappropriate facilities. a few beaches, swimming fees may be A simple example would be the Grants-in-Aid may be obtained from appropriate. case of a small rowboat and motor a higher branch of government, federal Additional factors to consider in es- rented to fishermen. The cost of the or state. These grants usually cover tablishing Ia user charge are discussed boat and motor themselves would be only capital costs; operating and main- below. the capital cost; the cost of hiring a tenance costs must be paid for by the Effect of a User Charge on Demand rental agent and some inevitable main- administrating local government. Such Attendance can be expected to de- tenance like yearly painting would be grants are, of course, paid for by state crease from 0 to 3% for every 1% rise the operating cost; and the fuel, oil, or local taxes, raising the equity argu- in price. The difficulty is in predicting and engine maint ienance would be the ment again. the change in demand between having marginal operating cost imposed by no entrance fee and having an entrance fee. For purposes of planning, it can courage use by particular segments of Costs and Benefits probably be assumed that demand at a the population. Decisions concerning the invest- new facility will probably be insensitive In an area mainly used on the week- ment of public funds are commonly to a small user charge, and the similar- end, crowding can be a problem. It can analyzed by comparing the expected site method of predicting demand be advantageous to have a higher user costs of the project with the expected would be applicable even if the existing charge for weekends than weekdays, benefits. If the benefits exceed the site has no user charge and the new site thus encouraging a more even distribu- costs, then the project should be built.' has a low charge. tion of demand over the week. If The calculation of costs has been Reservoir sites are almost always attendance is extremely low over the presented in the sections above, and more attractive to recreation than week and very high on weekends, there involves facility costs, land acquisition other water bodies close to cities on could be no charge Monday through costs, management and operations, which indiscriminate recreation is al- Friday. This would drastically cut and (possibly) the increased operating lowed. For recreation areas accessible administrative expenses of collecting expenses of water treatment. The primarily by automobile, which char- the fee and enable low income users assessment of these costs is straight- acteristically includes reservoirs, it can to get free access to the facilities. forward. be assumed that ownership of a car Charging a fee also encouragies Recreation provides a number of implies ability to pay. more responsible use of a facility. benefits for those who participate. It is reasonable to assume that acti- Many people will be more careful of These include the joy of being out- vities such as fishing, boating, snow- littering if they are forced to pay for doors, the exhilaration of exercise, mobiling, cross country skiing, and recreation, and the payment will en- and the opportunity for peaceful con- the like, for which the user incurs high able the park to maintain higher stan- templation of nature. Those who do costs for equipment, will be less sensi- dards, which in themselves encourage not currently participate in recreation 84 tive to entrance charges. Similarly, responsible behavior. receive benefits from the potential use activities like hiking, swimming, pic- Within the park, additional user fees of the site and through its conserva- nicking, and bird watching, which re- can be collected for use of special tion. Total benefits equal the sum of quire some degree of preparation and facilities. Parking fees, swimming fees, the benefits of each individual. While committment, will also be less. sensi- boat rentals, and bathhouse fees are it is difficult to estimate benefits to tive to charges within a reasonable common examples. the same degree of specificity as costs, range. It is casual attendance for no Finally, user charges can be set up still it is possible to evaluate these in- specific purpose which will be most to encourage or discourage use by tangible qualities in dollar terms. sensitive to user charges. Reservoir rec- certain groups. Residents of the local A simple way to evaluate the costs reation areas will have a comparatively town, for example, can be favored by and benefits of recreation is to divide low percentage of such use, which is free admission or a reduced charge. the costs of development by the total more typical of urban parks. Occasionally it is desired to discourage number of expected user days. This Other Effects of User Charges User certain people from using the site, figure represents the total cost per user charges are good for a variety of other such as weekend visitors from other day. The question can then be asked purposes besides providing revenue. towns. Local preference systems can "Is it worth that many dollars for They can regulate crowding, reduce be administered through passes or car each user day to have this recreational abuse of the facility, promote invest- stickers. opportunity?" It may be useful also ment in private and specialized recrea- to divide the total cost by the popula- tion resources, and be set up to en- tion of the town or municipality which will pay for it and enjoy its benefits. The investment question can Sales of sporting goods, such as fishing then be asked as, "Is it worth that equipment, gasoline, ice, and so on many dollars per person to expand lo- are likely to be stimulated locally, and cal recreational opportunities?" residential property values may in- The Federal Government uses a crease. However, the locality must be similar technique in planning its water prepared to exercise control over de- resources development.3 The total velopment which might be induced number of user days are estimated and around the new recreation facility; then multiplied by a dollar value per land use problems may result if it fails user-day. to obtain the total recreation in this responsibility. benefits. The value per user day de- The expansion of recreational facil- pends on the available amount of ities near major population centers swimming, picnicking, boating, and can provide significant benefits to the fishing. User-days for these activities poor, elderly, and otherwise disadvan- are valued from $.75 to $2.25 (1974 taged. These groups traditionaily have dollars). For specialized activities inadequate access to existing recrea- where other opportunities are limited, tion opportunities, particularly those intensity of use is low, and large per- offering the quasi-natural settings of sonal expense is required, values from many domestic water supply reser, $2.50 to $7.00 per user day are used. voirs. Hunting and some types of fishing and boating are examples of these more valuable types of recreation. 85 . Increased recreation is likely to provide other benefits in addition to those stemming from the direct use of the new facilities. In presenting a case for increased recreation, these benefits should be assessed as well. The most immediate secondary benefit will be relief of congestion on other recreational facilities. This can mean the gradual upgrading of local recreational facilities, and can diminish public abuse of properties which are frustratingly congested. Peripheral commercial development around the recreation area may also occur, providing services which may not be available, or should not be available, inside the park. Restaurants and snack bars are good examples. Legal, Social and Institutional of recreation. have the power to license participants. Factors Activities on reservoir watersheds Planners must closely study the rele- are also the subject of legislation. vant state codes to make sure facility At any reservoir site there are likely Many states grant powers to their De- planning conforms to the regulations. to be a number of legal and political partments of Health to control sewer- In some cases, recreation activities constraints on recreation development age facilities on watersheds, and some which are covered in broad legislation which may cause the level of recrea@ states are considering more general may also be covered by detailed agen- tion to fall short of the optimum. controls on development to prevent cy regulations. For example, in Massa- Some such constraints are rigid, such the discharge of hazardous materials. chusetts, the prohibition against swim- as laws which expressly forbid certain Watershed controls tend to be aimed ming is carried both as a law (Chapter types of recreation. Others can be at physical structures and their sup- 111, Section 172) and as a Depart- modified over time, such as adverse port facilities, not at recreational acti- ment of Public Health regulation (un- public perception of recreation based vities. der Chapter 111, Section 160). To on misinformation. The institutional Some laws affect recreation more allow swimming in Massachusetts arrangements for providing water generally. For instance, many states would require changes both in law and supplies can be a barrier to increased regulate snowmobiles and require re- the Department of Public Health regu- recreation. In this,section, laws, regula- gistration of boats. Every state licenses lations. tions, public and professional opinion, hunters and fishermen. Such regula- Planners cannot predicate their de- and institutions are discussed as they tions must be considered in any rec- signs upon an expectation of a change relate to the planning process. reation plan. in either laws or regulations, but they Laws Codes and Regulations Some state ought to petition for changes where Many states have laws which limit agencies have adopted codes and existing restrictions are outdated or 86 or prohibit certain activities on reser- promulgated regulations which have a unreasonable. voirs and watersheds. In planning for strong impact on recreational activities. Public Opinion recreation, planners must familiarize Most important are the public health Public opinion can be a useful force themselves with pertinent state laws codes and the public safety codes, to enlist in the planning process, but it regulating water supplies, watersheds, Codes may be changed under the au- can also act capriciously. While increas- and recreation. A summary of pertin- thority of the original enabling legis- ing public recreation opportunities is ent laws and regulations for the six lation whenever the regulating agency a popular goal, planners may encount- states covered in this handbook is con- deems it wise; they are more flexible er unexpected opposition for two tained in Chapter 2. Several states than laws, which have to be amended basic reasons: the public may fear its have laws restricting swimming in res- or repealed by action of the state legis- effect on water quality or anticipate ervoirs, but they differ widely: some lature. Because they are flexible, the adverse social and economic effects. prohibit swimming entirely, others codes operate on a level of detail which specify conditions under which swim- broad legislation does not, and may Public Perceptions of Water Quality ming may be permitted, and still require that planners adhere to very Issues On the basis of interviews, it others delegate the authority to re- specific and rigid standards. The de- has been found that public perception strict swimming to local water mana- sign of certain support facilities such as of the health issue largely parallels the gers. While swimming is the most com- bathhouses may be covered in detail in attitudes of regional managers and monly regulated activity on drinking state health codes, and fishing and that both reflect the influence of the water reservoirs, some states laws af- hunting are closely regulated by Fish traditional regional attitudes toward fect boating, fishing, and other forms and Game Departments, which also reservoir recreation. Figure 22 shows positive public at- Figure 22 titudes toward reservoirs as recorded Consumer Preference for Recreation in four states. Where recreation is :on Domestic Water Supply Reservoirs generally permitted, the public per- ceives it as desirable; where it is not, 100 public acceptance is low. In states Percent Favorable where reservoir recreation is generally Responses permitted, people tended to perceive no relationship between the quality of drinking water and recreational activi- ties. In Massachusetts, however, 66% felt that recreation on water supply 80 reservoirs impairs drinking water quality. The important question is, can neg- ative attitudes change? The answer is clearly yes. Many organized groups in the Northeast vigorously advocate increased recreati6n opportunities on 60 reservoirs. Fishermen are the most active and successful. Enough success- ful examples of reservoir recreation exist in the Northeast to be the basis 87 of a widespread change in public at- titudes. Public opposition to recreation can 40 also be based on a perception of threats to other values. This is particu- larly true in situations where a site which long closed to the public is opened up. In rural areas, residents may be anxious about an influx of people arriving from outside. Resi- 20 dents of properties adjoining the reser- voir may fear that property values will be lowered by public recreation. They may also fear vandalism to their own property. Those with attractive views of the reservoir may worry that rec- reational activities will spoil it. Resi- 0 dents whose direct interests may be af - Texas Kansas Illinois Massachusetts fected by recreation should be invited Source: Baumann, op. cit. to participate in the entire planning organization, and the New England AWWA recognizes that full treatment process. Water Works Association. Traditional- permits any and all forms of recreation Institutional Factors ly, both advocated restrictive policies. on most reservoirs; its reservation is Traditionally water supply manag- The AWWA, however, has revised its that Class A reservoirs (virtually all policy regarding recreation to favor Northeastern reservoirs are Class A) ers have had no incentive to permit increased recreation. Recreation is not greater multiple use, reconciling the have no need for filtration, and, there- one of their agency's goals. Recreation points of view of the various parts of fore, should permit no recreation. could lead to added costs. New res- the country, most of which permit There is abundant evidence, however, ponsibilities could mean new prob- such recreation. The New England that controlled levels of body contact lems. In some cases, the presence of Water Works Association still firmly recreation do not degrade Class A recreation could expose the water opposes recreation water in large reservoirs. managers to criminal liabilities in the In May of 1958, the AWWA pub-. The New England Water Works As- event of a failure in the quality of lished a formal statement on reservoir sociation is considerably more con- water supplied. Often they see recrea- recreation in its Journal. The state- servative than the AWWA on the issue tion to be new problems and new ment drew distinctions between per- of reservoir recreation. In September costs, with no reward. missable recreation levels on various of 1958 they published in their Journ- This resistence should be considered types of reservoirs, but firmly rejected al a "Final Report of the Committee in building a case for increased recrea- recreation on all terminal reservoirs on Recreational Uses of Public Water tion. The water manager should be and on storage reservoirs with very Supplies." It said in part: involved in planning to achieve mu- high quality water. "Trying to pollute to a safe limit... tual understanding and assure that The statement was based on the has no place in a safe sanitary con- water supply problems are adequately degree of treatment which the water sideration." (P. 411) 88 taken into account. Care should be would receive. Class A reservoirs, In the March 1971 Journal, the taken that the water supply budget is those with very high water quality Committee on Recreational Use of not used for recreationdevelopment; typical in New England, were presum- Public Water Supplies issued a lengthy if the recreation is to be managed by ed to receive only minimal disinfec- statement of the case against reservoir the water supply agency, then more tion. Some recreation was considered recreation, derived from the existing money and new staff should be provid- permissable on Class B reservoirs, literature on the subject. It recounted ed. While it may not be possible to which required "treatment in varying the various famous instances of disease create an incentive for water supply degrees in addition to disinfection," outbreaks, and quoted the California managers to encourage recreation on and more recreation could be allowed Fact Finding Committee on Public on Class C reservoirs, which required Health: water supply reservoirs, at least the 4C traditional disincentives can be remov- complete treatment." In its conclu- [W] e commonly have every year ed by careful planning. sion the statement opposed all legisla- many epidemics of respiratory and tion which would take jurisdiction gastrointestinal infections... These Professional Opinion over permission for recreation away gastrointestinal and respiratory in- There are'several professional organ- from the water manager. fections are just the kind of condi- tions that can be caused by viruses izations whose opinions of recreational As a result of new studies contest- escaping all safeguards in a water activities on water supply reservoirs ing the validity of recreational restric- supply system subject to human carry weight. In the Northeast, the tions, and in order to incorporate the contamination at the source and re- two most prominent are the American disparate views of water managers in taining virulence right into the home, restaurant, or hospital water Water Works Association, a.national various parts of the country, the tap.@l Perhaps the most telling sections of the report de-al with the objectionable practices of recreationists and vandal- ism at public water supplies. Episodes of defecation on the watershed, gar- bage and toilet contents being thrown overboard from boats, and destruc- tion of sanitary facilities by vandals were documented. The report concluded with the fol- lowing quotation from J.P. Hennings, of the Portland Water District in Maine. "Although water-based recreation represents a growing social need and reservoirs in many cases provide suitable media for such activity, the many problems associated with pub- lic access for recreational purposes warrant careful deliberation before modifying present policy. Attention should be given to the possibilities of meeting recreational demands through the development of other water areas. ,' 89, This report effectively sums up the arguments against increased recreation on water supply reservoirs. It can be faulted, however, as it demonstrates only that water treatment should be of a higher grade for all surface water supplies. Many of the instances of abuse occurred as a result of illegal entry into watersheds. What should not be minimized by any group plan- ning for increased recreation is the Committee's finding that the Ameri - can public often behaves in a slovenly and shameful manner in public places. This underlines the necessity adequate maintenance and supervision of recrea- tion, but it does not justify the exclu- sion of the public from reservoir areas. RECREATION TYPES rn U) M x < 0 z eD Z r- <M PERMISSABLE TYPES M-DX <m mQD r- m 0 n rp > m0 M, 0--K xK 0 mc 0 >z 0 --j ::iz 0-< (n m > z 0 APPROPRIATE TYPES 0 -0M --40XX N M 0m K-n um >m --4M EDz 0 rm < C-) v v U) nU 0 0M z ---I K 0 M > E5 DESIGN LEVELS (nZM Determining the sports" includes tennis, baseball, and water in terminal reservoirs can be Best Level of Use other activities which require structur- deceptively rapid. For this reason, ter- ed playing, but not golf, which minal reservoirs are classified in Figure To create an actual'design for a fa- requires careful planning of a large 25 as those with greater than thirty cility, all the factors discussed in this course. days residence time and those with planning section must be brought to- Size and Type of Reservoir A reser- less. The average residence time at any gether. The following factors are in- voir's size and type are related to its reservoir can be obtained by consult- volved: assimilative capacity for natural or ing the local water manager. Size of Reservoir man-made wastes. The total ability of Level of Treatment For the purpose Type of Reservoir the water system to handle contamina- of recreation planning, four levels of Treatment Capability of Water System tion includes both natural and artifici- treatment can be identified; technical Community Preferences al purification systems. descriptions of these processes are Characteristics of Site Types and Compatability Collection reservoirs generally have supplied in Chapters One and Four. of Desfted Recreation a larger natural assimilation capacity "Plain" chlorination, in which the dis- Laws than terminal reservoirs since the av- infecting residual is not closely moni- Demand erage residence time of the water is tored, is most common in small rural Institutional Constraints greater. Most enteric viruses and bact- systems and is a less sophisticated Cost and Financing eria do not survive in open water long- technique than free residual chlorina- er than thirty days, and the residence tion, in which the amount of chlorine The flow diagram in Figure 23 de- time of collection reservoirs is virtually in the free state is monitored and scribes the decision-making process. always much longer. However a dis- maintained to a standard. Free residu- Three basic screening steps are involv- tinction is drawn between collection al chlorination permits greater 91 ed. In the first, the types of permis- reservoirs over five square miles in amounts of recreation. Filtration with sable recreation at a specific site are area and those smaller than that. free residual chlorination, which many identified. Next, appropriate types of While factors such as shoreline length experts feel should be the standard recreation are decided upon, and a and depth are also important consid- level of treatment for all surface maximum level of activity set for each. erations, the five square mile figure water sources, permits most types of Finally, the appropriate types are represents the approximate upper lim- recreation on most reservoirs so long quantified and designed into a work- it of moderate size reservoirs. In the as treatment is reliably maintained and able system. Northeastern states, reservoirs larger recreation activities adequately super- Step 1: than this tend to be substantially larg- vised. Permissable Recreation er, and can accommodate more inten- Sophisticated filtration processes The first step in the process is to sive recreation with only moderate may further extend recreation possi- treatment due to their greater and bilities where tastes and odors may be eliminate recreational activities which are incompatible with the reservoir's more predictable assimilative capacity. a problem. Other treatment processes primary function to supply safe water. Estimating an area figure for ap- which are not aimed at enhancing the Figures 24 and 25 offer a preliminary proximating residence time is not a biological quality of the water, such as guide in selecting permissable recrea- reliable procedure for terminal reser- iron and manganese removal, do not tion activities according to the size and voirs due to their complex water han- affect the permiss.able leve.l.of recrea- type of the reservoir and the available dling operations. Especially in metro- tion. level of treatment. The term "game politan water systems, the exchange of Figures 24 and 25 provide a guide Filtration and Free Activated Carbon or Reservoir Plain Chlorination Free Residual Chlorination Residual Chlorination Other Advanced Process Size Small: <5 sq. miles fishing fishing fishing boating (no motor) boating (small motor) boating (small motor) sailboating saflboating sailboating informal land based informal land based informal land based informal land based recreation recreation recreation, recreation hiking game sports hiking game sports hiking game sports hiking game sports picnicking hunting picnicking hunting picnicking hunting picknicking hunting bicycling golf bicycling riding bicycling riding bicycling riding golf camping golf camping golf informal winter land based informal winter land based informal winter land based informal winter land based recreation recreation recreation recreation cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing snowshoeing snowshoeing snowshoeing snowshoeing ice skating (semi-artificiaI ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (semi-artificial rink) rink) rink) rink) snowmobiling snowinobiling snowmobiling snowniobiling 92 (no access to shore) (controlled access to shore) Large: fishing fishing fishing > 5 sq. miles boating (small motor) boating (any size motor) boating (any size motor) sailboating sailboating sailboating swimming swimming swimming informal land based informal land based informal land based informal land based recreation recreation recreation recreation hiking game sports hiking game sports hiking game sports hiking game sports picnicking hunting picnicking hunting picnicking hunting picnicking hunting bicycling riding bicycling riding bicycling riding bicycling riding golf camping golf camping golf camping golf informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter recreation recreation recreation recreation cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing snowshoeing snowmobiting showshoeing snowniobiling showshoeing snowmobiling snowshoeing snowinobiling ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (semi-artificial rink) rink) rink) rink) (no access to shore) (controlled access to shore) Figure 24 described earlier in connection with in- scale, may make the site more success- Permissable Recreation at Collection dividual activities. If any activity is ful than if only common activities, Reservoirs planned which is known to create like picnicking and general recreation, noise or safety hazards, the layout are permitted. Source: must be planned with care. The costs of the facilities will be the Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. The site itself will suggest some ac- last major planning question. Recrea- tivities and eliminate others. Slope, tion activities which require a high drainage, water table, and types of level of supervision or maintenance Yegetation are among factors to be may for that reason have to be reject- considered. Aesthetic aspects of the ed. Similarly, the planned level of rec- for selecting permissable recreation ac- site are very important. In undisturb- reation may have to be considerably tivities. Local. circumstances may af;- ed areas the wilderness value of a site less than the maximum amount the fect the selection to some degree. is especially valuable, justifying iestric- site could support. Bicycle paths or tion on the types of activities and the hiking trails may have to be shortened, Step 2: level of public access. picnic areas reduced in size, and facili- Appropriate Recreation Planners should be aware of the ties moderated to an acceptable cost The next step is to select appropri- facilities of nearby recreation areas, level. ate recreation activities from the and should seek to complement them User charges must be calculated, group of permissable ones, and to set rather than compete with them. Reser- and the financing scheme for capital an initial level of activity for each. voirs are likely to offer opportunities costs and operations designed. The Levels of activity may be defined in- for special recreation activities, and availability of grants or loans must be tuitively, by such terms as intense, these should be exploited whenever researched, and the cooperation of moderate or minimal, or can be quan- possible. various groups and institutions negoti- 93 tified in terms of number of picnic Lastly, a few activities, such as ated. Professional expertise may be tables, acres of lawn, or the like. Se- swimming, are likely to be controlled helpful in this step, and a local parks lection should reflect community pref- or prohibited at reservoir sites. All and recreation department may be erences, compatibility of activities, relevant laws should be investigated able to assist in final plan develop- site characteristics, opportunities avail- in the initial stage. ment. able at nearby sites, and laws. Community preferences are not dif- Step 3: ficult to analyze, provided planners Preliminary Plan are aware of the size of the area from Development of the preliminary which visitors will come. A facility plan requires consideration of demand serving a local community may differ and costs. Use of the similar site meth- from one which draws visitors from a od will be appropriate to estimate the metropolitan area. Expensive facilities demand at all but the largest sites. Ac- such as golf courses or riding facilities tivities with limited demand may be should only be proposed when adequ- eliminated at this time, with the ex- ate demonstrated demand for them pectation that they could be provided exists within the community group to later when use of the site increases. be served. On the other hand, a variety of recrea- Compatibility problems have been tion possibilities, even on a modest Reservoir Filtration and Free Activated Carbon or Size: Plain Chlorination Free Residual Chlorination Residual Chlorination Other Advaned Process Small: Residence fishing fishing Time < boating (no motor) boating (no motor 30 Days saiIboating swimming informal land based informal land based informal land based informal land based recreation recreation recreation recreation hiking hunting hiking hunting hiking hunting picnicking bicycling picnicking bicycling picnicking bicycling game sports game sports golf game sports golf informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter recreation recreation recreation recreation cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing snowshoeing snowshoeing snowshoeing ice skating (on reservoir) ice skating ice skating snowmobiling snowmobiling snowmobiling ice fishing ice fishing (no access to shore) (controlled access to shore) 94 Large: fishing (from shore) fishing fishing Residence boating (no motor) boating (small motor) Time> sailboating sailboating 30 Days swimming swimming informal land based informal land based informal land based informal land based recreation recreation recreation recreation hiking hunting hiking hunting hiking hunting hiking hunting picnicking picnicking bicycling picnicking bicycling picnicking bicycling team sports game sports game sports camping game sports camping riding golf riding golf informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter informal land based winter recreation recreation recreation recreation cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing cross country skiing snowshoeing snowshoeing snowshoeing snowshoeing ice skating (semi-artificial ice skating (on reservoir) ice skating (on reservoir) ice skating (on reservoir) rink) snowmobiling snowmobiling ice fishing snowmobiling ice fishing snowmobiling ice fishing (no access to shore) (controlled access to shore) Figure 25 Permissable Recreation at Terminal Reservoirs Source: Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. 95 Appendix I The Effectiveness of Modern Water Treatment in Removing Pathogenic Organisms 96 Water treatment was established to endemic illnesses are more frequently protect the public from several severe transmitted by contaminated food or enteric illnesses, most of which are through deficient sanitary conditions uncommon today. These include ty- in the home or in public places. phoid, paratyphoid (salmonellosis), The most common objection against dysentery (shigellosis) and cholera. reservoir recreation, particularly where However, the reduction in morbidity body contact with the water is involv- rates from these diseases is not solely ed, has been the public health issue. the achievement of treatment of pub- We have maintained that common lic water supplies. Vaccinations, pas- fears of reservoir recreation exaggerate teurization of milk', and similar public the true risks, and this section of the health measures are also responsible. handbook is devoted to documenting All water-borne diseases are also that claim. As a result, the technical food-borne or contact transmitted, so content of this section is detailed. It even perfect protection against patho- has been reviewed by prominent sani- gens in public water supplies cannot tary engineers, however, and should eliminate the diseases they cause. Al- counter any technical objections local though there are well documented water managers may have to proposed cases of diseases transmitted through recreation plans. public water supply systems', low grade 'the U.S. Public Health Standard for Bacteria coliform organisms in drinking water The standard indicator forpatho- is as follows: genic bacteria in water is the coliform Drinking Water bacteria group, itself benign. Since it Standards, 1962 is found in all human fecal samples, 3.2 Limits - The presence of organisms of the coliform group as indicated by the presence of coliform bacteria in samples examined shall not exceed the following limits: water is taken as presumptive evidence 3.21 When 10 ml standard portions are examined, not more than 10 percent in of contamination by human wastes, any month shall show the presence of the coliform. group. The presence of the and it is presumed that pathogenic coliform group in three or more 10 ml portions of a standard sample shall not be allowable if this occurs: bateria which can exist in the digestive (a) In two consecutive samples; tract will also be present. (b) In more than one sample per month when less than 20 are examined per While the statistical risk of disease month; or associated with detection of coliform (c) In more than 5 percent of the samples when 20 or more are examined per organisms is greater according to the month. When organisms of the coliform group occur in 3 or more of the 10 ml size of the population responsible for portions of a single standard sample, daily samples from the same sample point the contamination, the probability of shall be collected promptly and examined until the results obtained from at pathogenic organisms with just one in- least two consecutive samples show the water to be of satisfactory quality. dividual discharge is already too great 3.22 When 100 ml standard portions are examined, not more than 60 percent to be ignored. in any month shall show the presence of the coliform group. The presence of The number of coliform bacteria the coliform group in all five of the 100 ml portions -of a standard sample shall excreted every day by one person is not be allowable if this occurs: very large, on the order of hundreds (a) In two consecutive samples; of millions. Dilution of these bacteria 97 (b) In more than one sample per month when less than five are examined per in large water bodies is so substantial, month; or (c) In more than 20 percent of the samples when five or more are examined however, that counts in a protected per month. reservoir are virtually zero. For exam- When organisms of the coliform group occur in all five of the 100 ml por- ple, even in a heavily used lake, like tions of a single standard sample, daily samples from the same sampling point Sebago in Maine, average counts from shall be collected promptly and examined until the results obtained from at the most contaminated sections - the least two consecutive samples show the water to be of satisfactory quality. local tributary streams - are about 3.23 When the membrane filter technique is used, the arithmetic mean coliform 315 per 100 ml.1 Figure 26 shows.the density of all standard samples examined per month shall not exceed one per effectiveness of the treatment pro- 100 ml. Coliform colonies per standard sample shall not exceed 3/50 ml, 4/100 cesses described in Chapter 1 in remov- ml, 7/200 ml, or 13/500 ml in: ing E. coli bacteria,2 one member of (a) Two consecutive samples; (b) More than one standard sample when less than 20 are examined per the, coliform group. month; or None of the techniques listed in (c) More than five percent of the standard samples when 20 or more are ex- Figure 26 can meet these standards amined per month. without additional disinfection, except When coliform colonies in a single standard sample exceed the above valu- in rare circumstances with vary high ues, daily samples from the same sampling point shall be collected promptly I and examined until the results obtained from at least two consecutive samples quality raw water. While there are show the water to be of satisfactory quality. some examples of communities which filter their reservoir water but have no Figure 26 Effectiveness of Treatment in Removing E. Coli Type of Treatment % Effective Circumstances Pre-treatment Settlement 99.9 5 days at 281C (sample from Ohio River) 11 days at 40C (sample from Ohio River) Coagulation 99.9 Ist stage: A12(SO4) 3 as coagulant, final pH 6.7-7.4 2nd stage: FeC13 as coagulant, final pH 7.3-7.7 Filtration (min) 90 Flocculation & Rapid Filtration of floc suspensions through floc impregnated filter in 30" white sand (0.425 mm.) (max) 98 Flocculation & Rapid Filtration of supernate, 30" of white sand (0.425 mm.) Source: Figures extracted from: Gerald Berg, "Virus Transmission by Water Vehicle. III. Removal of Viruses by Water Treatment Procedures," Laboratory Health Science, Vol. 3, No. 3, (July 1966). disinfection apparatus, this practice is Furthermore, when ammonia or of safety in the distribution system. considered unsound in theory and is nitrogenous organic compounds are Whether chlorine by itself is sufficient found to be so in practice. 3 present, as they are in many natural treatment in a certain circumstance - In the United States, chlorination waters, a further reaction takes place depends on many factors besides ini- is the most popular disinfection tech- producing various chloramines, which tial coliform count. Different temper- 98 nique.4 Ozone, a more powerful dis- are less effective disinfectants than atures, contact times, desired residu- infectant than chlorine, is not widely hypochlorite ion against coliform or- als, and water impurities will produce used because it is more costly to in- ganisms. widely different required doses of stall and presents a potential hazard With these variables in mind, the chlorine.. of explosion. Ozone also does not per- following graph (Figure 27) is present- In practice, virtually all surface sist in the water, as chlorine does, so ed showing the effectiveness of the water sources are disinfected by chlor- it cannot be used to safeguard the various chlorine forms at different ine, or, rarely, ozonation. Though water as it flows through the distribu- contact times, at 2-60C. Because dis- some protected reservoir sources may tion system. infection efficiency decreases with record zero coliform counts at the in- Chlorine disinfection, like all dis- temperature decline, low temperature take most of the time, a minimal dose infection processes, is highly sensitive results are the most significant. of chlorine is added as a protective to the water temperature; a I OOC rise Chlorination alone is permitted measure. However because pathogens in temperature will increase the rate when initial coliform count is less may sometimes be sheltered from dis- of destruction by 200-300 percent.5 than 50 per 100 ml. Processes by infection by being buried within a The most effective form of chlorine which the content of active chlorine host organism passing into the distri- against most pathogens, hypochlorous in water is reduced are called the bution system, and because of the acid (HOCI), is sensitive to the pH of "chlorine dernand;" the difference presence of viruses and other non- the water, and will ionize to form the between the applied dose and the bacterial contaminants, the best prac- much less effective hypochlorite ion chlorine demand is the residual chlor- tice is to utilize a coagulation/rapid (OCI-) at pH levels above 7. ine, and this provides an extra measure filtration process in addition to ade- quate disinfection. 0 P 0 0 u Q 0 0- 0 cq CD C) Lo 0 C) C=) 4-4 0 CD z C) 0 C) C) cq M T$ 4@ C@l C) If (D @20 10, ce) N 0 4f 0 C11 00 r. -,, 0 Cd 0 LO je (1) el) 0 4F @: - 41 ce) 4-@ C4 Ei :64 0 404 C) Cl K= 0 co (jajjjl@ui) auuolqol olqualt Viruses actually happening since the disease Figure 28 Conventional water treatment tech- also has an endemic cycle with a peri- The Human Enteric Viruses That Can niques have proved their effectiveness odicity of seven to eleven years. Year- Be Waterborne and Known Diseases in combatting water-borne bacterial ly variations in the number of cases Associated With These Viruses diseases, but there is some worry that must be viewed against long-term they are not sufficiently effective in trends to see if environmental safe- removing viruses from the water. guards are actually deteriorating. Some medical experts believe that con- Viruses are still inadequately under- tinued low level exposure to viruses in stood. Of the enteric viruses - those the environment is actually in the pub- entering the body by the oral route - lic interest, as it helps to maintain a those described in Figure 28 are doc- high level of immunity in the popula- umented as being actually or potential- tion, but this is not an acceptable ly water-borne. policy in water quality management. Viruses are highly variable in their Viruses are very small particles; be- sensitivity to treatment processes. ing between 6 -and 550 nanometers Many are more resistant to chemical (millimicrons) in diameter, they may disinfectant than bacteria are, but only be seen through an electron mi- some are more sensitive, at least to croscope. Detection of viruses on a HOCL All seem to be about as sensi- routine basis in water treatment plant tive to temperature as the enteric bac- operations is currently impossible. teria. Despite admittedly unreliable correla- As with bacteria, treatment is of 100 tions between the presence of coliform two basic types - removal and deac- organisms and viruses in a water sam- tivation. Pre-treatment sedimentation ple, the only estimate of viral contam- is useful in reducing the number of ination presently available are the stan-@ active viruses in raw water. Both aging dard coliform tests. effects (environmental die-away) and The common cold is the most fami- actual sedimentation are involved with liar virus disease, but it is not water- this process, Figure 29 shows the sen- bome. The so-called enteric viruses sitivity of the process to temperature transmit infections through the diges- and substantiates that "sedimentation" tive tract, and they can be water- is effective primarily through deactiva- bome. T oday, the most notorious dis- tion or death of the virus. *Ascending type of muscular paralysis Long holding times are very expen- **Mongolism ease which has been known to be sive to achieve in practice. More rapid f Febre episode with sores in mouth transmitted through public water sup- +Pleuritis type of pain with fever plies is infectious hepatitis,6 which in- processes are necessary for high vol- #Rash and blisters on hand-foot-mouth fects the liver. Because of its severity, ume public water supplies. Figure 30 with fever heptatitis has received considerable shows results of flocculation techni- attention in the field of public water ques at various temperatures, compar- supply. It has been seen to be on the ing Coxsackie virus removal to coli- Source: Floyd Taylor, "Viruses - What is rise in this country over the past sever- form bacteria removal. their Significance in Water Supplies?" al years, but it is hard to tell what is The addition of coagulants to water Joumal of the A WWA (May 1974). No. of Types Disease Entities Associated Group Subgroup or Subtypes With These Viruses Pathologic Changes in Patients Enterovirus Poliovirus 3 Muscular paralysis Destruction of motor neurons Aseptic meningitis Inflammation of meninges from virus Febtile episode Viremia and viral multiplication Echo virus 34 Aseptic meningitis Same as above Muscular paralysis Same as above Guillain-Barre's Syndrome* Destruction of motor neurons Exanthern Dilation and rupture of blood vessels Respiratory diseases Viral invasion of parenchyrniatous of respiratory tracts and secondary inflammatory responses Diarrhea Not well known Epidemic myalgia Viral invasion of cells with Pericarditis and myocarditis secondary responses Hepatitis Same as above Coxsackie virus >24 Herpaniginat Viral invasion of mucosa with secondary inflammatory responses A Acute lymphatic pharyngitis Same as above Aseptic meningitis Same as above Muscular paralysis Same as above Hand-foot-mouth diseasett Viral invasion of cells of skin of hands and feet and mucosa of mouth Respiratory disease Same as above Infantile diarrhea Viral invasion of cells of mucosa 101 Hepatitis Viral invasion of liver cells Pericarditis and myocarditis Same as above B 6 Pieurodynia+ Viral invasion of muscle cells Aseptic meningitis Same as above Muscular paralysis Same as above Meningoencephalitis Viral invasional invasion of cells Pericarditis, endocarditis, myocarditis Same as above Respiratory diseases Same as above Hepatitis or rash Same as above Spontaneous abortion Viral invasion of vascular cells(?) Insuin-dependent iabetes Viral invasion of insulin producing cells Congenital heart anornalities Viral invasion of muscle cells Reo virus 6 Not well known Not well known Adenovirus 31 Respiratory disease Same as above Acute conjunctivitis Viral invasion of cells and secondary inflammatory responses Acute appendicitis Viral invasion of mucosa cells Intussusception Viral invasion of lymph nodes(?) Sub acute thyroiditis Viral invasion of parenchyma cells Sarcoma in hamsters Transformation of cells Hepatitis >2 Infectious hepatitis invasion of parenchyma cells Serum hepatitis Invasion of parenchyma cells Down's Syndrome" Invasion of cells Figure 29 Effect of Pretreatment Sedimentation: Laboratory Study Demonstrating Days Required for 99.9% Reduction of Viruses and Bacteria in Raw Waters Number of days required 4 20 28 Temperature OC Organism Little Miami R. Ohio R. Little Miami R. Ohio R. Little Miami R. Ohio R. Poliovirus 1 270C 190C 200C 130C 17oC 110C Echovirus 7 260C 150C 160C 70C 120C 50C Echovirus 12 330C 190C 120C 50C 50C 30C Coxsackievirus A9 100C 200C 80C 80C 80C 50C Aerobac ter aerogenes 150C 440C 80C 180C 60C 150C Escherichia coli 100C 110C 70C 50C 60C 50C Streptococcus faecalis 170C 570C 80C 180C 60C 90C Source: Berg, op.cit. 102 to reduce suspended debris and micro- processes, a large portion. of the sus- Historically, flocculation and rapid organisms can be highly successful. pended particles in the water. filtration are viewed as one process, Clearly, a two-stage process achieves Despite its effectiveness, slow filtra- and this is justified by these results. markedly better results, and the pro- tion is too expensive for high volume One can argue, as Berg notes,8 that cess is quite insensitive to water tem- use today. The United States pioneer- with adequate settlement time, floccu- perature. Other studies were not as ed the rapid filtration process, and its lation alone can achieve better results encouraging as this one, however, and efficiency in removing bacterial path- than flocculation/filtration with un- show percentage removals to be on ogens when used in conjunction with settled coagulated water. But he also the order of 40% rather than 99+%.7 flocculation techniques is very good. wams that the flocculation/filtration Furthermore, the procedures necessary Under optimum conditions, the pro- procedure will be unsafe if the floc is to create good floc formation are ex- cess is also very effective in removing not adequately formed, for it eventu- acting and, in actual practice, are un- viruses. Figure 31 shows various per- ally may break through the filter if not likely to be realized on a routine basis. formance levels of rapid filtration. In sufficiently strong and carry virus with Filtration by various techniques is the (A) and (C) cases, adequate settl- it. another method for removing viruses ing time is allowed so that most of the In general, these studies show re- from water. In slow filtration, fine floc does not pass through the filter. sults based on laboratory standards of sand particles are used (diameter about In cases (B) and (D), the floc suspen- control which are not ordinarily achi- .28mm). A natural jelly-like substance sion itself is filtered, yielding lower ef- eved by most water treatment facili- forms on the sand and removes, by ficiency in removing bacteria but ties. For this reason, it is probably not complicated chemical and mechanical equal efficiency in removing viruses. possible to accept the logic that floc- culation alone is equally efficient in Figure 32 shows the rate of destruc- removing viruses, for unless the coagu- tion of viruses at various water tem- lated water is filtered microorganisms peratures, pH, and chlorine dose levels. imbedded in floe may pass through the Figure 33 shows necessary levels of disinfection process without contact chlorine for destruction of viruses ac- with the disinfectant. cording to time, temperature, pH, and Again, disinfection by various water type. means is presently the only true safe- guard against viruses and bacteria. In an analysis of the virus problem at the Windhoek Waste Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa, Nupen and Stander write-: 9 Although virus is removed by floc- culation, settling, sand filtration and carbon filtration to a high de- gree, final assurance for complete inactivation of virus must always be on disinfection; it is therefore essen- tial to ensure break-point chlorina- tion at all times. 103 Figure 30 Effect of Flocculation: Laboratory Study on the Removal of Virus, Bacteria, and Turbidity from Raw Ohio River Water .Temp. 0C Stage of Floccul. Coagulant Coxsackievirus A2* Coliforms Initial Final Final pH % removal Turbidity (ppm),** 1 A12(SO4)3 96 99 40-135 1-.5 6.7-7.4 5 2 FeC13 94 62 1-5 0.1-1 7.3-7.7 1 and 2 99.6 99.95 ... 0.1-1 ... 1 A12(SO4)3 95 94 140-255 1-5 6.7-7.4 15 2 FeC13 92 82 1-5 0.1 7.3-7.7 1 and 2 99.6 99.9 ... 0.1 1 A12(SO4)3 99 99.8 16-240 1-5 6.7-7.3 25 2 FeC13 94 94 1-5 0.1 7.3-7.8 1 and 2 99.9 99.99 0.1 ... *Virus seeded into raw Water before flocculation. Good floe formed in all experiments. Source: Berg, op.cit. Figure 31 Figure 32 Effect of Rapid Filtration on Virus and Bacteria Removal Virucidal Efficiency of Free Chlorine in Water* Recovered in Filtrate Source: Baumann, op.cit. p. 44 M 100- (A)Flocculation + rapid Filtration of supernate 90- (B) Flocculation + rapid Filtration of Floe suspension through floe 80- impregnated Filter A (C) Flocculation + rapid filtration 70 - of supernate (D) Flocculation + rapid filtration 60- of Floe suspension through floe impregnated Filter 50- 40- 30- 104 20- 10- 0- (A) (B) (C) (D) Coxsackievirus A5 Coliforms Recovery of ccKsackievirus A5 and coliforms from spring water after coagulation and filtration through 30 inches of white sand (particle size 0.425 mm). Source: Berg, op.cit. Virus Destruction Virus Temperature (CO) Final pH Free Chlorine (mg./I) (%/minutes)- Partially purified Theiler's 25-27 6.5-7.0 4.0-6.0 98.6/10 virus in tapwater 25-27 6.5-7.0 4.0-6.0 99/5 Feces-borne infectious hepatitis virus in distilled water Room 6.7-6.8 3.25 (1) Purified poliovirus 2 in distilled and lake water 19-25 7.4-7.9 1.0-1.5 (2) Purified Coxsackie A2 in 3-6 6.9-7.1 .58-.62 99.6/10 demand-free water 3-6 6.8-7.1 1.9-2.2 99.6/4 3-6 6.9-7.1 3.8-4.2 99.6/21/2 3-6 8.8-9.0 1.9-2.0 99.6/24 8.8-9.0 3.7-4.3 99.6/9 3-6 8.8-9.0 7.4-8.3 99.6/5 27-29 6.9-7.1 .16-.18 99.6/4 27-29 6.9-7.1 .44-.58 99.613 27-29 8.8-9.0 .10,18 99.6/10 27-29 8.8-9.0 .27,32 99.6/7 27-29 8.8-9.0 .92-1.0 99.6/3 Purified poliovirus 1 -(Mahoney) 0 6.0 .39 99.6/31/2 in demand-free water 0 6.0 .80 99.6/11/2 0 7.0 .23 99.6/8 0 7.0 .53 99.6/41/2 0 8.5 .53 99.6/16 105 0 8.5 1.95 99.6/71/2 0 8.5 5.00 99.6/3 Purified poliovirus 1 (Mahoney) 25-28 7.0 .21-.30 99.9/3 in demand-free water 25-28 9.0 .21-.30 99.9/8 Purified poliovirus 3 (Saukett) 25-28 7.0 .11-.20 99.9/2 in demand-free water 25-28 9.0 .11-.20 99.9/16 Purified Coxsackie B5 in 25-28 7* 0 .21-.30 99.9/1 demand-free water @25-28 9.0 .21-.30 99.9/8 1-5 7.0 .21-.30 99.9/16 1-5 8.0 .21-.30 99.9/30 Purified adenovirus 3 in 25 8.8-9.0 .20 99.8/40-50 sec. demand-free water 25 6.9-7.1 .20 99.818-16 sec. 4 8.8-9.0 .20 99.8/80-100 see. 4 6.9-7.1 .20 99.8/8-10 see. (1) 30 minutes contact time protected all of 12 volunteem (2) 10 minutes contact time protected all of 164 inoculated mice, *Paul Kabler, "Viricidal Efficiency of Disinfectants in Water," Public Health Reports, XXXVI (July, 1961), p. 566. Figure 33 Chlorine/HOCI Concentration for Virus Inactivation Author ref. Type virus Type water Chlorine Level mg/1 Time min. Temp OC pH HOCI mg/1 1 Type 1 Clean water .0.1 10 0 6.0 0.10 poliovirus 2 6 types Clean water 0.3 30 25 7.0 0.23 enteric viruses 3 Type 9 Trickling F. 1.4 30 20 7.8 0.45 echovirus effluent 4 Type 1 Sand fil. 0.8 30 25 7.4 0.46 poliovirus H.T.E. 4 Type 1 Treated dam 0.4 25 7.9 0.11 poliovirus water 5 T2 bacterio- Extended 0.3 30 20 7.4 0.17 phage and aeration Type 1 secondary poliovirus effluent I Clarke, N., Berg, G., Kabler, P., & Chang, S., "Human Enteric Viruses in Water: Source Survival and Removability," Adv, in Water Poll. Res., Vol. 2, 523-541. Pergamon Press, London, 1964. 2 Chang, S., "Waterborne Viral Infections and their Prevention." Bull. WIdHIth. Org., 38, 401-414, (1968). 106 3 Shuval, H., Cymhalista, S., Wachs, A., Zohar, Y., & Coldblum, N. "The Inactivation of Enteroviruses in Sewage by Chlorination," Third Interna- tional Conference on Water. 4 Marais, A., Nupen, E., Stander, G., & Hoffman, J., "A Comparison of the Inactivation of Escherichia coli I and Poliovirus in Polluted and Unpol- luted Waters by Chlorination." Proc. Conf, Water for Peace, Washington, D.C., 670-687 (1967). 5 Lothrop, T., and Sproul, 0. "High Level Inactivation of Viruses in Wastewater by Chlorination," J,W.P.C.F., 41, 7, 567-575 (1969). Source: Nupen and Stander, op.cit., p. 6 It is important to note the influ- mum efficiency of HOCI as a viral dis- ence of temperature on disinfection; infectant, as it is for the temperature higher temperatures yield much. higher range 0-60C. disinfection efficiencies, a point of in- terest to recreation planners. Body contact sports, which theoretically can lead to viral contamination of the water, occur only during the summer months, when the disinfecting effici- ency of the treatment plant is highest. Figure 34, then, represents the mini- Figure 34 Virucidal Efficiency of Chlorine 1.0 .10 .010- Coxsackie Virus A2 107 B ..... Poliovirus I E. coli \NJ Adenovirus 3 oo,L I I I I I I I .1 .2 .3 .4.5.6 .8 10 2 3 4 5 6 810 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 Minutes Relationship between concentration and time for 99 percent destruction of E. coli and 3 viruses by hypochlorous acid (HOCI) at 0-60C. Source: Berg, op.cit. Figure 35 Minimal Infective Doses of Attenuated Poliovirus for Human Hosts by Oral Route Hosts Virus Dose (PFU's) Carrier rate % infected Adults Poliovirus 200 4/4* 100 type 1 (SM strain) 20 4/4 100 2 2/3 67 0.2 0/2 0 Premature Poliovirus 10 2/3 67 infants type 3 (Fox strain) 2.5 3/9 33 1 3/10 30 Source: Plotkin and Katz, op. cit. *Number of persons developed into carrier for the virus/Number of persons who had taken the virus orally. Again, these are laboratory studies, cates that it is much smaller. An im- and they have been criticized for hav- portant @study by Plotkin and Katz,11 ing little reference to practical condi- found that one virus particle (PFU) 108 tions. But while one can agree that can be an infective dose on oral route most treatment plants do not operate experiments. A summary of their find- at the highest possible level of efficien- ings is presented in Figure 35. cy, current research has not yielded While an infected person does not enough evidence to say that present necessarily show overt clinical symp- techniques are ineffective in maintain- toms - out of every 100 to 1000 ing a safe water supply. Studies which people only one wil,12 - he consti- show relatively low efficiencies for tues a threat to the community as a standard plants in removing viruses carrier. deal with only half the problem. The Standards for viruses may be insti- number of viruses which actually sur- tuted in coming years. The proposed vive the distribution process (in which EPA National Drinking Water Stan- residual chlorine continues their attri- dards, which will replace the U.S. Pub- tion) and how many actually are lic Health Standards, will not contain required to produce infections must any viral standard because, among also be known. other things, a reliable viral-detection Originally, it was felt that the num- device is not available for use in local ber of viruses needed to produce an systems. However, tentative viral limits infection would range in the millions of 1 per liter or 5 per liter have been of particles,10 but recent work indi- mentioned.13 Maintaining Dependable Treatment outbreaks for which insufficient data tion, only those illnesses reported are Another issue is that of the depen- was assembled. Fifty-five outbreaks included. Some evidence suggests as dability of the water treatment. An involving 3050 cases were identified. few as one case in ten is actually re- EPA survey14 showed some distress- No outbreak was attributed to con- ported. ing examples of substandard opera- tarnination through recreation on a It is interesting to see how water- tions. Fifty-six percent of the systems surface supply. borne outbreaks are distributed evidenced physical deficiencies such One can see from the above that among different sizes of systems. This as inadequate disinfection capacity disease outbreaks involving water sup- analysis is presented in Figure 36. This and inadequate clarification capacity. ply are caused by many factors, and clearly shows that the safest water Seventy-seven percent of the plant op- that the total number of cases of ill- supplies are those which serve large erators were inadequately trained in ness reported is not that large. The metropolitan areas. The incidence of fundamental water microbiology; and total number of reported illnesses disease drops sharply from 53.11/mil- 79% of the systems were not inspected from all causes during the period 1949 lion served to 0.45/million served. by state or county authorities in the to 1970 was 59,738. Of course, that This is logical, since the professionab last full year prior to the study. In does not count isolated instances of ism of the large city water system is 50% of the cases, "plant officials did disease: an outbreak is defined as two of the highest quality. not remember when, if ever, a state or or more cases of the disease. In addi- local health department had last sur- veyed the plant." 'Me effect of inadequate treatment is documented in a statistical analysis of waterborne disease outbreaks, cov- ering the years 1946 to 1970.15 Rec- 109 ords were assembled which identified disease outbreaks, their sources and their causes. Figure 36 Under outbreaks caused by surface Distribution of Waterborne Disease in Public Systems source contamination were the follow- By Size of Community Served: 1949-1970 ing: contamination of the watershed, overflow of sewage or outfall near Size Outbreaks Cases Illness/million served source, flooding, dead animals in the < 500 13 998 22.97 reservoir, and the use of contaminated 500-1000 10 2409 30.40 surface water for supplementary 1000-5000 33 8732 23.73 source. The total number of outbreaks 5000-10000 8 8419 34.02 traceable to all these causes was 34, 10000-25000 10 2725 7.00 the number of cases involved were 25000-50000 6 18812 58.02 2895. Under "Miscellaneous Reasons" 50000-100000 .4 16725 53.11 for outbreaks are listed: use of water >100000 16 779 0.45 not intended for drinking, use of con- Unknown 4 139 17.05 taminated buckets, contaminated drinking fountains, deliberate con- Source: G.F. Craun and L.J. McCabe, op. cit. tainmation, contaminated ice, and 29 Conclusions In this Appendix we have seen that presently available water treatment processes, if properly designed, opera- ted and maintained, can produce water free of all pathogenic organisms. The processes described are the same as those used to treat water from rivers, which is generally of much lower qual- ity than water from reservoirs. No amount of properly planned recrea- tion can generate enough contamina- tion of reservoir water to pose any technical difficulties in treatment. In some systems, recreation may require a higher standard of treatment than is currently provided, but this cannot be considered a drawback to expanded use. Many significant contaminants of water which have recently received nationwide attention were not con- 110 sidered in the discussion above. These include man-made organic compounds and their derivatives contributed by industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, urban runoff, etc. With limited excep- tions (such as golf course use or fertil- izers) none of these is associated with recreation activities. However, the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act is expected to lead to new standards for drinking water which will indirectly require the addition of rapid filtration to all systems which do not currently use it. This can only lead to enhanced prospects for recreation at reservoir sites. Connecticut lie water supply and the release thereof to a distribution reservoir, Appendix Il Laws and Regulations defined for the purposes of this sec- tion as a reservoir from which water is directly released into pipes or Title 25: pipelines leading to treatment or Water Resources purification facilities or connected A law directed against vandalism of directly with distribution mains of public water supplies. a public water system. (b) No per- son, after notice has been posted Sec. 25-39. Pollution of drinking that any reservoir, lake or pond, or water. Any person who puts any- any stream tributary thereto, is used thing into a well, spring, fountain, for supplying the inhabitants of a cistern or other place from which town, city or borough with water, water is procured for drinking or shall wash any animal or clothing other purposes, with the intent to or other article therein. No person injur the quality of such water, shall shall throw any noxious or harmful be fined not more than five hun- substance into such reservoir, lake, dred dollars or imprisoned not more pond or stream, nor shall any per- than six months. (1949 Rev, S. son, after receipt of written notice 4022.) from the-director of health having jurisdiction that the same is detri- Bathing prohibited in Connedicut's mental to such water supply, per- reservoirs: mit any such substance to be placed Sec. 25-43. Bathing in and pollution upon land owned, occupied or con- of reservoirs. (a) Any person who trolled by him, so that the same bathes or swims in any reservoir may be carried by rains or freshets from which the inhabitants of any into the water of such reservoir, town, city or borough are supplied lake, pond or stream, or allowed to with water, or in any lake, pond or be drained any sewage from such Reference Material for Six States stream tributary to any distribution land into such water. Any person This appendix contains supplemen- reservoir, or in any part of any lake, who violates any provision of this tary reference material for the discus- pond or stream tributary to any subsection shall be fined not more sion of reservoir recreation in six states storage reservoir, which part is dis- than one hundred dollars or impris- tant less than two miles measured oned not more than thirty days or which was presented in Chapter 2. along the flow of water from any both. (1959, P.A. 632, S.1.) There are six sections to this appen- part of such storage reservoir, and Cited, 100 C. 464; 111 C. 36 2. Is a dix, one for each state. The first part any person who causes any filthy or valid exercise of police power even of each section presents state laws and impure substance into any such though it would deprive one proper- regulations related to recreation at reservoir, whether distribution or ty right as riparian owner. 123 C. storage, or any of its tributaries, or 492. water supply reservoirs. The other sec- commits any nuisance in or about it tions are not uniform in content, since or them, shall be fined not more The local government of a town has the recreation issue has developed dif- than one hundred dollars or im- the power to nrohibit recreational ac- ferently in different places. Where pos- prisoned not more than six months tivities, though not to permit it. sible, a listing of reservoirs is given or both. For the purposes of this which shows the degree of recreation section, a storage reservoir is defin- Sec. 25-45. Local ordinances con- ed as an artificial impoundment of cerning reservoirs. The legislative allowed at each, and the level of treat- substantial amounts of water, used body of any city or borough may ment available. or designed for the storage of a pub- make, alter and repeal ordinances to regulate or prevent fishing, tres- tection. The commissioner of health Title 19: passing or any nuisance in or on any may prohibit fishing and recreation- Public Health Code: property of such city or borough or al activities in those cases where 19-13-B36: Public Bathing Establish- of any subdivision thereof. Such or- treatment facilities are deemed in- dinances may provide for the im- adequate by the commissioner to ments: position of a fine not exceeding $50 properly safeguard the health of While Connecticut has no permit dollars or imprisonment for not persons drinking the water. system for public bathing places, it more than six months, or both, for Section 2. All public water supply does require that they meet general a violation thereof. The common reservoirs constructed on or after health standards. Paragraph (d) states: council of any city or the warden or January 1, 1975, except for such "All persons known or suspected of burgesses of any borough may ap- reservoirs as may be under con- point special constables to protect struction before January 1, 1975, being afflicted with communicable reservoir property and to execute shall have such water treatment or diseases shall be excluded." any such ordinance and any provi- purification facilities as the state P.A. 74-303: Section 19-13-B99: sion of the statutes relating to pro- commissioner of health determines Department of Health Approval for tection of water supply, and for are necessary to assure the purity Sale of Water Company Land that purpose constables shall have of the water supplies from sources This interesting new set of regula- all the powers of constables of in such reservoirs in which sport tions regulates the sale of watershed towns. (1949 Rev. S 403). fishing is permitted or in watersheds land and seeks to expand control over of such reservoirs in which such rec- The following Act, passed in 1973, reational activities are permitted as watershed land use. gives more power to the Department provided in section 1 of this act, Section 1. The regulations of Conn- of Health to control recreation on res- provided nothing in this act shall ecticut state agencies are amended ervoirs. It directly relates recreation be deemed to permit any recreation- by adding Section 19-13-1399. and the quality of water treatment, al use of an existing reservoir or of Section 2. No water company as but specifically states that recreational the watershed land of such reservoir defined in Section 25-32a of the 112 activities cannot be permitted which which use would require the install- General Statutes shall sell, lease or ation of new water treatment or would require additional treatment to purification facilities. otherwise dispose of or change the be installed at existing sites. use of any lands draining into a Section 3. Water companies are public water supply without prior P.A. 73-522 empowered, after consultation with approval from the commissioner of the department of environmental health. Approval shall be based Section 1. Sport fishing from desig- protection, to issue permits and to upon conformance to the following nated locations on shoreline or from charge fees for the issuance of such standards: boats propelled by oars on public permits in order to reimburse such water supply storage reservoirs, as companies for the cost to them of (a) No watershed land shall be sold defined in subsection (a) of section such fishing and other recreational which lies within 250 feet of the 25:43 of the 1969 supplement to activities in ublic water supply shore of a storage or distribution p the general statutes, and additional storage reservoirs and on the water reservoir when filled to capacity recreational activities within desig- sheds of such public water supply unless in the judgment of the com- nated areas of the watersheds of storage reservoirs. missioner of health there will be no such reservoirs may be permitted by adverse effect upon water quality. a water company, as defined in sec- Section 4. No water company shall No such land shall be leased or its tion 25-32a of the 1969 supplement be liable in damages except with use changed without approval by to the general statutes, in accord- respect to willful or wanton con- the commissioner of health of both ance with rules made by such water duct for injury or property damage the terms of the lease and of the company after consultation with to any person who enters upon its lessee, or of the proposed change in the commissioner of health and the lands or waters under the provisions use. department of environmental pro- of this act. (b) No watershed land shall be sold maximize absorption of pol- (f) The signature of a duly auth- which lies within 100 feet of a wa- lutants by the soil. Drain pipes orized official of the utility. tercourse tributary to a storage or shall terminate at least 100 distribution reservoir, unless in the feet from the edge of an estab- judgment of the commissioner of lished water course and the health there will be no adverse ef- discharge arrangement shall be fect upon water quality after taking so constructed as to dissipate into account the extent and nature the flow energy in'a way that of water treatment facilities provid- will minimize the possibility ed. "Watercourse" means any river, of soil erosion. Special provi- stream, brook, waterway, reservoir, sions may be required in order lake, pond, marsh, swamp, bog or to protect stream quality dur- other surface body of water. No ing the construction phase. such land shall be leased or its use (5) No use shall be pen-nitted 91 changed without approval by the which would violate the provi- commissioner of health. sions of the State Public (c) Restrictions shall be placed in Health Code relating to water- the deed or lease for watershed shed sanitation. lands located over 250 feet from a (6) No disposal of septic tank reservoir or over 100 feet from a cleanings and no sanitary land- watercourse as designated in sec- fills or other refuse disposal tions (a) and (b) which will effect- areas shall be permitted. ively limit usage of the land as fol- (7) Use of nitrogen fertilizer shall lows: not be such as to result in a (I @ No toxic or hazardous sub- nitrate nitrogen content in excess of 10 mg. per liter in stances, including but not lim- the ground water passing from ited to gasoline, oil, sodium the fertilized area to adjacent 113 chloride, pesticides or heavy properties. metals shall be discharged either on or into the ground or Section 3. Applications filed under into any watercourse. Sec. 2 shall include the following (2@ All sewage and domestic waste information: shall be discharged to properly (a)Name and address of the own- located and constructed sub- er of the property. surface disposal systems in ac- (b) Location and acreage of the cordance with the State Public property, including a location Health Code. No such- system map showing the location of shall be constructed to handle all water courses on or within in excess of 200 gallons per 250 feet of the property, all day per acre of land occupied. streets on or adjoining the (3) No sodium chloride or other property, all streets on or ad- chemical or substance not ap- joining the property and all proved by the commissioner buildings on the property. of health shall be used for (c) Present and proposed uses of maintenance of roads, drive- the property. ways or parking areas. (d) The proposed deed restrictions, (4) The design of storm water (e) List any proposed exceptions drainage facilities shall'be such to the State Public Health as to minimize soil erosion and Code. Massachusetts to as it may deem necessary for the Section 172 of Chapter III pro- Laws and Regulations protection of the public health and hibits bathing: to restrain the use of such waters to 172. Bathing in Sources of Water 2.1 the extent as in its opinion such use Supply Penalized. Massachusetts was among the first will not tend to adversely affect the public health. Whoever violates Whoever bathes in a pond, stream states to restrict contact with drinking any such orders, rules or regulations or reservoir the water of which is water supply; its first laws restricting shall be punished by a fine of not used for domestic water supply for access were passed in, 1879. more than five hundred dollars, to a town shall be punished by a fine Under Section 160 of Chapter III the use of the commonwealth, or of not more than ten dollars (1884, of the General Laws, the Department by imprisonment for not more than 172; RL 75, S 129.) of Public Health is given the authority one year, or both. (1951). Under Section 160 of Chapter 111 to make examination of water supply Section 171 of Chapter 111 penal- (quoted above), the Department of to determine its fitness for domestic izes willful corruption of the water Health has issued rules and regulations use. supply: which affect recreation on public 160. Examination of Water Supply; water reservoirs: Rules; Penalty for Violation. 171. Willful Corrupting of Sources Rules and Regulations for the Pur- of Water Supply Penalized. pose of Preventing the Pollution The department may cause examin- and Securing the Sanitary Protec- ations of waters to be made to as- Whoever wilfully deposits excrement tion of Certain Waters Used as certain their purity and fitness. for or foul or decaying matter in water Sources of Public Water Supply. domestic use, or the possibility of used for domestic water supply, or their impairing the interests of the upon the shore thereof within five The Department of Public Health, public or of persons lawfully using rods of the water, shall be punished acting under the authority of Sec- them or of imperilling the public by a fine of not more than fifty dol- tion 160 of Chapter 111 of the Gen- 114 health. It may make rules and regu- lars or by imprisonment for not eral Laws, and every other act there- lations and issue such orders as in its more than one month. A police of- to enabli.ng,.and in accordance with opinion may be necessary to pre- ficer or constable of a town where the provisions of Chapter 30A of vent the pollution and to secure the such water is wholly or partly situ- the General Laws, hereby makes the sanitary protection of all such ated, acting within the limits of his following rules and regulations for waters used as sources of water sup- town, and any executive officer or the purpose of preventing the pol- ply. It may delegate the granting agent of a water board, board of lution and securing the sanitary and withholding of any permit re- water commissioners, public institu- protection of certain waters used as quired by such rules or regulations tion or water company furnishing sources of public water supply. to state departments, boards and water or ice for domestic purposes, These rules and regulations shall re- commissions and to selectment in acting upon the premises of such main in force until further order, towns, and to boards of health, board, institution or company and except that from time to time they water boards and water commission- not more than five rods from the may be amended or added to by the ers in cities and towns, to be exer- water, may without a warrant ar- Department of Public Health. cised by such selectmen, rest any person found in the act of 6. No person shall wade or bathe in, departments, boards and commis- violating this section, and detain and no person shall, unless permit- sions, subject to such recommenda- him until a complaint can be made ted by a written permit of the tion and direction as shall be given against him therefor. But this sec- Board of Water Commissioners or from time to time by the depart- tion shall not interfere with the like body having jurisdiction over ment; and upon complaint of any sewage of a town or public institu- such source of supply, fish in, enter person interested, the department tion, or prevent the enrichment of or go in any boat, seaplane or other shall investigate the granting or land for agricultural purposes by contrivance, enter upon the ice for withholding of any such permit, the owner or occupant thereof. any purpose including the cutting and make such orders relative there- (1879). or taking ice or cause any animal to would the municipality be liable Although St. 1966, c. 685, � 3 trans- go in or upon such source of water to civil damages or criminal ferred authority to administer water supply or tributary thereto. penalities? pollution abatement laws to the divi- 7. All reports which may be made 2. If such contamination were de- sion of water pollution abatement con- to any board of health., or to any termined to have occurred by trol, the department of public health health officer of any town, of reason of recreational activities in retains its responsibility over public cases of contagious or infectious such waters or on the watershed health, sanitation and the prevention disease occurring within the water- of such waters, and these activi- of contagious disease. (See Opinion of shed of such source of water sup- ties had been permitted by the the Attorney General to Commissioner ply or tributary thereto, shall be municipality contrary to the ad- of Metropolitan District Commission open to the inspection at all reason- vice, recommendations, rules, reg- dated February 16, 1967.) G. L. c. able times by the Board of Water ulations, or orders of the Depart- 111, � 160 authorizes the department Commissioners or like body having ment of Public Health, would the of public health to "make rules and jurisdiction over such source of sup- muncipal water supply officials regulations and [to] issue such orders ply, its officers or agents. be personally liable, civilly or as in its opinion may be necessary to criminally? secure the sanitary protecti ,on of 2.2 3. If such recreational activities had 41 such waters used as sources of been authorized by special act of water supply." The department may Letter from Frederic E. Greenman, the Legislature, would the muni- apply to the Supreme Judicial Court Assistant Attorney General, to John C. cipality or the municipal officials or the Superior Court for enforcement Collins, Department of Public Health be liable civilly or criminally? of such rules and regulations or orders Because of the hypothetical nature of � 164). Criminal penalties (up to a Mr. John C. Collins, Director these questions we cannot render a WOO fine and one year in prison) may Division of Sanitary Engineering formal opinion as to them.* However, be imposed for the violation of any Department of Public Health because of the obvious importance of such orders, rules and regulations State House your questions, I am setting forth be- 160). Boston, Massachusetts low a brief review of pertinent statu- On October 11, 1960, the Public 115 tory provisions and judicial decisions. Health Council approved "Rules and Dear Mr. Collins: I hope that these will assist and guide Regulations for the purpose of... We have had under consideration a you and the community officials con- securing the sanitary protection of request by your department for an cerned. certain waters used as sources of pub- opinion on the responsibilities of the lic water supply." Regulation #6 Department of Public Health, of mu- *See statement of former Attorney General thereof states that: nicipalities and of municipal officials Paul A. Dever in 1935, appearing in the Re- "No person shall wade or bathe in, in connection with the contamination port of the Attorney General for the Year and- no person shall, unless permit- of public water supply sources by the Ending November 30, 1935, at page 31: ted by a written permit of the use thereof (with tacit or explicit per- "The long-continued practice of this de- Board of Water Commissioners or mission of municipal officws) for rec- like body having jurisdiction over reational activities such as bathing, partment and the precedents set by my such source of water supply, fish in, boating and fishing. predecessors in office indicate, what is enter or go in any boat, seaplane, In substance, you ask, undoubtedly the correct rule of law, that 0 I. If it is.shown that persons have it is not within the province of the At- to act; nor is it the duty of the Attorney suffered illness because of con- torney General to determine hypothe- General to attempt to make general in- sumption of contaminated water tical questions which may arise, as dis- terpretations of statutes or of the duties distributed by a municipal water tinguished from questions relative to of officials thereunder, except as such supply agency, and that such con- tamination resulted from negli- actual states of fact set before the At- interpretations may be necessary to guide gence of the public water supply torney General, upon which states of them in the performance of some im- officials or their employees, fact public officials are presently required mediate duty." or other contrivance, enter upon permits by local officials under Regu- ed the duty. towards its customers the ice for any purpose including lation #6, in that it can make a rec- of conducting the business 'with the cutting or taking ice or cause ommendation that a permit not be reasonable judgment, skill and care, any animal to go in or upon such issued, and can order that the pen-nit according to the approved usages source of water supply or open :be revoked or modified if it is granted of. . .[the] trade', [Kelley v. Lara- water tributary thereto." on the local level. Violation of such way, 223 Mass. 182, 184] and of an order invokes the criminal penalties using'the ordinary care of the man It seems clear from the above lan- set out in � 160 ($500 fine or impris- of common prudence. . . .' Specific- guage that bathing or wading in a onment for one year, or both). In ad- ally, with regard to the purity of source of public water supply has been dition, the department may apply for water supplied for drinking, the prohibited by a regulation adopted by enforcement of its order under � 164. defendant owed the duty of furnish- the Department of Public Health. It is It thus seems clear that the depart- ing at all times a supply of whole- provided in said section 160 that vio- ment could issue an order to a local some water, so far as that could be lation of such a regulation shall result public water supply official, for the done by the exercise of care, dili- in a fine of not more than $500 or purpose of see u*ring the sanitary pro- gence and skill which is ordinary imprisonment of not more than one tection of water used as a source of and reasonable in view of the nature year, or both. These penalties would water supply, and could apply for of the business." apply to the person or persons who judicial enforcement of the order pur- By the same token, there is judicial violate the regulation by bathing or suant to G. L. c. I 11, � 16 4. Section authority for holding a public officer wading in a public water supply. 160, which provides for criminal personally liable for civil damages Should local officials permit such sanctions against "Whoever" violates when it can be shown that he has per- bathing, etc. in a reservoir, the depart- such an order, is sufficiently broad to formed acts of misfeasance in carrying me t could nonetheless proceed under � 1n encompass punishment of a local out his official duties. In Moynihan v. 64 to enforce its regulation against water supply official; provided, of Todd, 188 Mass. 301, the Supreme the offender by application to the course, that he violates an order di- Judicial Court said at page 305: Supreme Judicial Court or Superior rected at him. "For a personal act of misfeasance, Court. Similarly, any such official whose we are of [the) opinion that a party 116 Fishing, boating, and certain other own conduct constitutes a violation should be held liable to one injured activities in or upon a municipal water of the aforementioned rules and regu- by it, as well in the performance of supply are permitted under Regulation lations of the department may be held a public duty as when otherwise en- #6, provided a written permit is ob- responsible under sections 160 and gaged." tained from local water officials. Sec- 164, in the same manner as anybody In the event that such recreational tion 160 allows such a delegation of else who violates them. activities permitted by local officials authority by the department to local It has been firmly established in have been authorized by a special act officials. However, this section goes on this Commonwealth for many years of the Legislature, the imposition of to limit the power of these local offi- that a municipality may be held civilly the civil and criminal penalties dis- cials by making the exercise of the liable in contract or tort for injuries cussed above would depend wholly delegated authority to issue permits "subject to such recommendation and sustained through the consumption of upon the language of the act. impure water. In the well-known case To summarize, it seems clear that if direction as shall be given from time of Horton v. Town of North Attleborough, a city, town or water district were to to time b .y the department." Should 302 Mass. 137 (1939), the Supreme allow the use of its water supply for a permit be granted on the local level, Judicial Court ruled that the plaintiff, purposes which could cause contamin- the department may "make such or- who had become ill from drinking im- ation, a person injured as a result of ders relative thereto as it may deem pure water supplied by the defendant, the contamination might recover dam- necessary for the protection of the could recover damages from the town ages from the municipality for negli- public health and to restrain the use to compensate him for his injuries. At gence, and from officials thereof indi- of such waters to the extent as in its page 143 the Court states: vidually if an act of misfeasance is opinion such use will not tend to ad- "The defendant [town of North At- shown. As indicated above, the crim- versely affect the public health." Thus, tleborough] in entering upon the inal penalties set out in G. L. c. 111, the Department Of Public Health can business of supplying water, assum- � 160 might also be applied to local exercise control over the granting of water supply officials, to the same ex- New Jersey tent as to other persons, if they per- sonally violate an order, rule or regu- Laws and Regualtions lation of the Department of Public 3.1 Health issued under said section 160. I trust that the above information Title 58: will be helpful to you and your de- Waters and Water Supply partment. Upon submission of a par- New Jersey's attitude toward recrea- ticular set of facts involving the per- tion on state-run reservoirs is liberal: formance of some immediate duty, we 58:22-16 Use of Reservoirs for rec- shall be pleased to render an opinion reation: relative to those precise facts. The reservoirs constructed pursu- Very truly yours ant to this act shall available for public use for recreation, swimming, Frederic E. Greenman fishing and boating in such manner Assistant Attorney General and to such extent as shall not im- pair the availability of water there- Chief, Division of Health, in for potable or industrial use or Education and Welfare endanger the water supply facility or any of the works or facilities of any purchaser of such water. Two state reservoirs are established by state law, Round Valley and Spruce Run. The following sections use the same language in describing recreation opportunities on each: 58: 20-4 (Round Valley Reserva- 117 tion) 58: 21-5 (Spruce Run Reservation) ... shall be made available, as a State reseroivr, for recreation and other state uses consistent with its primary uses. 58: 21B-5 extends this policy to ap- ply to all land acquired by the state in the future for use in a water supply system. Title 7: Environmental Protection Chapter 10 - Bureau of Potable Water Under 7: 10-5, rules for the licens- ing of operators and superintendants of water treatment facilities are en- numerated. Various degrees of educa- tion and field experience are required for the management of different sizes of systems and methods of treatment. Large systems with advanced treat- ment facilities have very strict stan- dards for their personnel. 3.2 List of New Jersey Reservoirs Size Reservoir Location Acres Ownership Recreation Oradell Res. Haworth 620 public no Riverdale River Lake 1255 public no Woodcliff Lake Woodcliff Lake 170 public no Oswego Lake Washington 90 public yes unnamed Washington 75 no unnamed Bass River 52 no 7 unnamed reservoirs Bass River 113 no Total 4 unnamed reservoirs Washington 105 no 118 Total Union Lake Millville 920 private no Canoe Brook #1 Millburn 239 public no Canoe Brook #2 Millburn 138 public no Cedar Grove Cedar Grove 85 public yes Orange Res. West Orange 102 public no Res. #2 Jersey City 10 public no Res. #3 Jersey City 10 public no Round Valley Clinton 2350 public yes* Spruce Valley Union 1275 public yes* Dunhernal Lake Madison 92 private yes Farrington Lake East Brunswick 290 public yes Weston Mill Pond East Brunswick 92 public yes Glendola Res. 124 private no Swimming River Res. Middleton 102 private yes Boonton Parsippany-Troy Hills 780 public no Clyde Potts Mendharn 50 private no Kikeout Kinnelon 100 public no Canistear 350 public yes* Size Reservoir Location Acres Ownership Recreation Charlotteburg 375 public yes* Echo Lake 300 public yes* Macopin Res. Kinnelon 30 public no Splitrock Res. Rockaway 640 public no Clinton Res. West Milford 423 public yes* Great Notch Res. West Paterson 28 private no Oak Ridge Res. West Milford 197 public no Point View Res. Wayne 512 private no Wanaque Res. Wanaque 2310 public no Bound Brook Res. Bridgewater 67 private no 119 Culvers Lake Frankford 692 private no Lake Rutherford Wanton 100 public no Middlesex Res. Clark 105 private yes Anxilliary Res. Blairstown 45 private no Cedar Lake Blairstown 29 private no Paulina Lake Blairstown 10 private yes Upper Reservoir Blairstown 164 private no *swimming permitted Private 2,940 (18.2%) Public 13,181 (81.8%) Total 16,121 (100%) Recreation Allowed 6,421 (39.8%) This list was assembled from the March 1970 "Lakes and Ponds Inventory," published by the Department of Conserva- tion and Economic Development, Division of Parks, Forestry and Recreation, Comprehensive Recreation Planning Section, New York (Upper Hudson River drainage 4.1 Laws and Regulations basin) and GA. Public Health Law 170.3. Definitions. As used in this Part, the following words and 1100: The department of health. phrases shall have the following (Under this section, the department meanings: of health may make rules and regu- (a) Potable water means water suit- lations protecting all state sources able for drinking, culinary or food from contamination except for processing purposes. those used by the City of New (b) Protected from contamination York, which are controlled by the includes, in addition to responsibili- New York Administrator of Envi- ty for the prevention of contamin- ronmental Protection.) ation, responsibility for the reserva- 1103: tion, surveillance, storage, diversion (Under this section, a fine of up to collection, treatment, processing, $200 or one year in jail may be distribution and use of water for assessed for violation of rules and domestic and municipal purposes. regulations set up under 1100.) (c) Source of water supply means Under the statutory authority of the an ground water, aquifer, surface above, the Department of Health sets . y up standards as follows. water body or water course from State Sanitary Codes: which by any means water is regu- Title 10, Chapter 1: Section 11. larly taken either periodically or (This section sets up classifications continuously for drinking, culinary and standards for operators of or food processing purposes or water treatment plants.) which has been classified for pres- Subchapter C: Water supply sources, ent or future public beneficial use 120 Section 170.1. Statement. The rules as a source for domestic or munici- contained in this Part, together pal purposes. with the watershed rifles and regu- (d) Contamination means any sub- lations hereinbefore set forth in stance or characteristic which will make the water unsuitable or un- Parts 100 through 158, have been safe including a constituent or char- promulgated to protect sources of acteristic in an amount exceeding water supply dedicated for present the allowable limits therefor herein- or future public beneficial use for after set forth. domestic and municipal purposes. 170.2. Applicability and scope. 170.4. Standards of raw water qual- This Part shall apply throughout ity. Every source of water supply to the entire State of New York, ex- which this Part is applicable shall cept the City of New York, and meet the standards of quality here- shall apply to all sources of water inafter set forth and shall be protect- supply in the State and classified, ed from and free of contamination. under the authority of article 12 of the Public Health Law in Parts 701 through 703 of Title 6 of the Of- ficial Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York, as Classes AA, A, A- special (International boundary waters), AA-special (Lake Cham- plain drainage basin), AA-special Item Specifications Constituent or Characteristic Allowable Limits 1 Floating solids; settleable solids; None attributable to Physical turbidity 5 units oil; sludge deposits; taste or sewage, industrial wastes odor producing substances or other wastes. 2 Sewage or waste effluents More which are not effec- Microbiological 50'per 100 ml. tively disinfected. Coliform organism (concentration in mg/1) Inorganic and organic chemical standards are also set. While each city must meet the Capacity Recreation in New York standards above (except New York (billion gals) 4.3 City, which has similar standards of its Scholarie 19.6 own), each writes its own regulations Ashokan 127.9 State Water for its particular water supply. They Cannonville 97.0 Supply Reservoirs are different as regards recreation. The Pepacton 143.7 The following cities,towns, water following is part of the regulations of Neversink 35.5 districts (W.D.S.) and water com- the City of New York. anies (W.C.S.) using reservoirs as part 121 Chapter 111. Public Water Supplies Rondout 50.0 p Section 128. City of New York West Branch 10.1 of their supply systems restrict water- (h) Washing, bathing, wading, swim- Kenisco 30.6 based activities as shown below. ming. No clothes or unclean objects Hill View .9 of any kind shall be washed in any New Croton 23.8 spring, marsh, water course or reser- Muscoot 4.9 voii. Bathing, wading and swim- Boyds Corners 1.7 ming axe prohibited in any water Bog Brook 4.4 course or reservoir owned by the East Branch 5.2 City of New York. Middle Branch 4.0 Not all cities make a specific reference Croton Falls Main 14.2 to swimming or to other recreational Croton Falls Diverting .9 uses of public water supplies, but T'iticus 7.2 when such reference is made to recrea- Anawalk 6.7 tion it is to prohibit those other uses. Cross River 10.3 New York City allows no body con- 4.2 New York City Water System tact recreation on its reservoirs, New York City Water System though most are accessible for low in- The New York City system draws tensity recreation activities on the ad- an enormous amount of water from a jacent land. While the water is chlorin- variety of sources, mostly from the ated and fluoridated, it is not filtered. following reservoirs. w Cl t@ 9) C) @i z n z w z n n 0 0 0 z 0 CD I.D o C4- C-t- -4 0 r. 0 '(D ca CD aq UQ x >1 x x to 0 cm UQ > 0 0 C) z (on eb R rA p 4 0 0 0 ,, t= Z:; CD m ID < t-t-M CL ::F- pn CD rA 2n 0 :5, CD et 0 m (71 0' t-0 0 qQ < 2 02 -0 M, t< g 111 0 e-p- CD n et. X >4 x x >4 >4 OR ITI @ >4 x @4 x x x On o OQ cli to bz.c@ C@ .&a O'c x z z td) 0 4Q 4-j 4.@ 4.1 -4.a cd > 0 bp tkc tv u um 0 C(S msz00 0 04Z 72 twl =r. a 4@ 0 CO mo0 cz En Q) a) z N -4Z cz 40, >@ @.4 cz 0 >, 1-4 m MW 0 cz o cl 'd0 z 00 Q;@ bo 4j w Z@@ 0 w 04 z _;@ bg 0 0 Z Zx tdo f 0 4.4 >1 >1 164 0 0 o uo 0 (Z 0@ rjj Cd Cl)0 0 0cfj0u 0) 0 U- '&p0=Cd 0 m .0 4z 7z (z 0 04 >4 $-4 r. ;-4 'A .- 0 cd m w w IZ 0 "a 'm Q a)U > Cd 0 > 4s to@R C, 0 0 SZ M 0 as (L) > 0 ct cd 5 cd 05 q)m z 4 Z @nz :5 P4 m CM0 "n P@ Z -9 o 0 P CD 0 o (D 0 P 0 CD 0 0 p 0 :@ @3 t4 @:: aq aq UQ (D FD 0 R (D W -0 c z 0 pi (D 0 0 uxi CD 0 o OQ CD 0 0 ID o 0 0 0 n - r * Z * C+ Z 0 m m :3 cn n " @:,0 0 0 (D c O'Q 0 ::@ @5. n CD C@ 0 CD R, 0 0 UQ x x x x >4 x >1 OZ x >1 >4 x >1 x X x >1 >4 x >1 x x x >1 x 0 0 Ind w 0 W rJ3 0 ::r0 0 (D0 C'+- UQ z@g p CD (D CD (D o m W CD 0 0 @lt -@. @:$m-e :@ 0 S= eD Z' 0 cr 00 o 0 qo 3. o aq aQ 0 5 o cr 0 0 0 0 UQ CD P. 0 >1 x cp >1 >1 0 0 OQ aq -z 0 CD Pennsylvania 109.53. Supplies- with disinfection Laws and Regulations and filtration. Where disinfection and filtration are 5.1 provided for surface water supplies, the'permittee shall so control the Title 25: sanitary conditions in and around a Rules and Regulations reservoir owned by the permittee as .P.art I. Department of Environmental to protect the public health and Resources Subpart C. Protection of meet the requirements of this Natural Resources Article 11. Water Chapter. Resources Recreational Uses of Source Chapter 109. Waterworks 109.61. Disinfected supplies., Disinfection and Filtration The recreational use of a water sup- 109.51. General requirement. ply with a surface water source util- (a) Only disinfected water shall be izing only disinfection treatment served to the public. shall be prohibited and shall be (b) All water supplies shall be equip- effectively prevented by the permit- ped with facilities necessary to con- tee. tinuously apply to all water served 109.62. Disinfected and filtered a disinfectant approved by the De- supplies. @partment. Such facilities shall pro- The recreational use of a surface vide a readily measurable residual water supply where both disinfec- as the water enters the distribution tion and filtration treatments are system. utilized may be permitted. (c) All new sources using surface water, and existing sources used for Chapter 193: Swimming and Bathing 125 recreational purpose, shall be pro- Places vided with filtration and disinfec- tion facilities. 193.28. Bathing beach contamina- 109.52. Supplies with disinfection. tion. (a) Where a water supply has a sur- (a) The water in bathing beaches face water source and the only shall be considered contaminated treatment provided is disinfection, for bathing purposes when one of inspections shall be made of the the following conditions exist: watershed by the permittee at in- (1) The fecal coliform density in tervals as often as necessary in order five samples of said water collect- to assure the protection of the sup- ed on five different days exceeds ply from contamination. - a geometric mean of 200 per 100 (b) Records and reports of all in- MI. spections shall be kept by the per- (2) The Department determines mittee. Upon request he shall sub- that any substance is being dis- mit copies of these records to the charged or may be discharged into the water and is or may be Department. hazardous to the health of per- (c) Whenever any such inspection sons using the bathing beach. reveals unsatisfactory conditions on (b) When the fecal coliform density the watershed, the permittee shall of any sample collected at a bathing submit copies of such inspection beach- exceeds 1,000 per 100 ml., to the Department within one week daily samples from the beach area from the date of this inspection. shall be collected by the permittee and analyzed for fecal coliforms for' at least five consecutive days im- mediately following the finding. The results of the analysis shall be reported to the Department by the permittee within five days of the taking of the last of these five samples. (c) Use of a bathing beach found to be contaminated shall be discon- tinued until written approval is ob- tained from the Department. Such approval shall be given by the De- partment when the Department finds that the waters of such bath- ing beach are no longer contaminat- ed. 5.2 Major Pennsylvania Reservoirs City Served Reservoir Name Recreation Altoona Containing Point hunting 126 Impounding Dam Lake Altoona Milrun Reservoir Homer's Gap Erie Sigsbee Reservoir none Cherry Street Reservoir Johnson's Reservoir Harrisburg unnamed on Dehart Dam none 2 unnamed in Reservoir Park Lancaster Oyster Point Reservoir none Philadelphia Oak Land Reservoir none East Park Reservoir limited Pittsburgh Highland Reservoir #1 limited Highland Reservoir #2 Herron Hill Reservoir Bedford Reservoir NcNaugher Reservoir none Brashear Reservoir York Lake William shore fishing Lake Redman Rhodelsland 6.1 Laws and Regulations Title 46: Bathing in public water supply prohib- ited: "46-14-1. Pollution or misuse of drinking water sources prohibited. - No person shall throw or discharge, or,suffer to be thrown or discharg- ed, into any well, spring, brook, lake, pond, reservoir, stream or any watershed or drainage area used as @ source of water supply for drink- ing purposes by any city, town, dis- trict, institution or company, or into any known tributary or feeder of any such well, spring, brook, lake, pond, reservoir, stream or any watershed or drainage area, any sewage, drainage, refuse or other noxious matter or thing,tending to pollute or corrupt, or impairing or tending to corrupt the purity of the waters of any such well, spring, brook, lake, pond, reservoir or 127 stream or watershed or drainage area or any known tributary or feeder thereof, or render the same injurious to health. Nor shall any person bathe, swim, or wash any animal, clothing or any other article in any of the above-mention- ed waters; provided, however, that the prohibition against bathing shall not apply to any camp or bathing resort located on a known tribu-. tary of any of the above-mentioned waters if such camp or bathing re- sort was licensed by the department of health prior to June 20, 1968. Any person violating any of the provisions of this section shall be punished for each offense by a fine of not exceeding four hundred dol- lars ($400.00) or by imprisonment for a term not to exceed one (1) year, or both." 6.2 Major Rhode Island Reservoirs Reservoir Owner Treatment Anawan Brisiol City Water Co. rapid filters Shad Factory chlorination Swansea Sneech Pond Cumberland Water Dept. chlorination Carr's Pond Kent County chlorination Spring Lake Washington Mishmock North Pond City of Newport, South Pond Department of Water Nelson's Pond Gardiner's Pond Sisson's Pond St. Mary's Pond Lawton Valley Res. Nongmit Pond H.E. Watson Res. Diamond Hill Res. City of Pawtucket filtration Arnold Mills Water System chlorination Scituate Reservoir Complex Providence chlorination 128 Scituate Reservoir Regulating Reservoir Westconnaug Barden Muswansicut Ponaganseft Stafford Pond Stone Bridge Fire District Water Department, Tiverton Reservoir #1 City of Woonsocket, Reservoir #3 Water Department Harris Pond, Mill River Wallum Lake Dr. V.E. Zambarano, Memorial Hospital, Burrillville I Reservoir Recreation in Perspective mental Protection, the Department of Notes 1 Jasper Own Draffin, The Story of Transportation, and the Regional Man's Quest for Water, Garrard'Press, Planning Agencies. Copies are avail- Illinois, p. 5. able from the Connecticut Office of 2. Philip Hone, diary entry, December State Planning, Department of Finance 17, 1835, in Blake', Water For Cities, and Control, 340 Capitol Avenue, Syracuse University Press, 1956, p. 143. Hartford, Connecticut 06115. 3@ Spokenin legislative hearings in Bos- ton in 1845 in course of debate over 2 The concern of the Department of whether citizens were endangered by Health with the urbanization of water- existing sources of water, Blake, op. sheds is illustrated by several of their cit., p. 252. publications. Among others, the fol- 4 Blake, op. cit., p. 258. lowing Department of Health pamph- 5 In the Pacific Northwest, a similar lets are recommended: negative attitude toward reservoir rec- "Drinking Water Policy and Practice reation is common. The area has in Connecticut." water resources just as abundant as the by Richard Woodhull, M.S., P.E. Northeast, with less population. Simi- Chief, Water Supplies Section lar high standards of raw water are "Sodium in our Drinking Water" possible there, and in places like by Richard Woodhull, M.S., P.E. Seattle, for instance, the voters have Chief, Water Supplies Section endorsed the luxury of owning com- pletely isolated and regulated water- "The Role of the State Health Depart- 129 sheds. ment in Water Supply Planning" 6 E. Jerry Allen, "The Function of the by Donald C. Smith, B.S. Purveyor," Journal of the American Senior Sanitary Engineer Water Works Association, May 1973. Water Supplies Section 7 Ralph Stone & Helen Friedland, "Socioeconomics of Multiple Uses," Pennsylvania Journal of the American Water Works 1 Edward Robert Parmer, "Recreational Association, June 1972. Use of Community Water Supply 8 Richard Woodhull, "Drinking Water Reservoirs in Pennsylvania," College Policy and Practice in Connecticut," of Health, Physical Education and p. 6. Recreation, Pennsylvania State Uni- 2 Reservoir Recreation in versity, August 1973. Six Northeastern States Rhode Island Connecticut 1 "On the Multiple Use of Reservoir 1 Published by the State of Connecticut, Areas," Providence Journal (editorial), Department of Finance and Control, Providence, Rhode Island, April 14, Office of State Planning, in coordina- 1960. tion'with the State'Department of Health, the Department of Environ- Notes (Continued) 3 In 1959, Keene, New Hampshire, ex- mic syringes. Serum hepatitis is the 3 Planning Increased Recreation perienced such an incident. Shortly less common disease; 9402 cases were 1 In order to maintain the saffe minimum after one of the town's four sand filt- reported in 1972 as opposed to 54,074 distance between hunters and non- ers had been cleaned, torrential rains cases of infectious hepatitis. hunters, the holdings must be consid- evidently carried typhoid bacteria An outbreak of hepatitis caused by an erably greater if they take the form of down from the watershed where it had infected water supply occurred in a ring around the reservoir. The situa- been deposited by an infected lumber- Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1969. tion must be analyzed for safety at man. Since the filtration plant was op- Members of the Holy Cross College every site. erating at lower efficiency because of football team drank water from a com- 2 This method is elaborated in George the cleaning of one filter, the bacteria munity supply which had inadvertent- Fogg, Park Planning Guidelines, op. cit. passed through the plant and caused ly been cross-connected with a con- 3 United States Water Resources Coun- an outbreak of typhoid. A standard tarninated ditch for a short time. The cil, Procedures for Evaluation of Wa- disinfection procedure would have contamination occurred in the distribu- ter and Related Land Resources, Serial prevented this. The town installed a tion system, and was not caused by a No. 92-30 (USGPO: Washington, chlorinator immediately. failure of water treatment at a central September 1971). 4 A recent study by the Environmental plant. Ninety-four cases developed. 4 Duane D. Baumann, The Recreational Protection Agency has shown the 7 F.W. Gilereas and S.M. Kelly, "Rela- Use of Domestic Water Supply Reser- presence of carcinogenic chemicals in tion to Coliform-Organism Test to voirs: Perception and Choice, Report the water supply of the City of New Enteric-Virus Pollution," Journal of 121, University of Chicago, Depart- Orleans. They are apparently created the American Water Works Associa- ment of Geography, 1969. by the interaction of chlorine with tion, Vol. 47, (1955): 683-694. impurities in the Mississippi River 8 Berg, op. cit., p. 173. 130 Appendix I water, which the City uses as a source. 9 Ethel M. Nupen and H.J. Stander, The Effectiveness of Modem Water Chlorine enters the water in large "The Virus Problem in the Windhoek Treatment in Removing Pathogenic doses in disinfected sewage effluent Waste Water Reclamation Project," Organisms dumped into the river. It is contribut- National Institute for Water Research, 1 Robert Grady, "The Effect of Recrea- ed in much smaller amounts by drink- Pretoria, Republic of South Africa, tional Use on the Quality of Sebago ing water treatment plants. This study June 1972, p. 2. Lake Water," Journal of the New has caused the worry that the practice 10 Taylor, op. cit ., p. 308. England Water Works Association, Vol. of chlorination in general is dangerous. 11 S.A. Plotkin and M. Katz, "Minimal 86, No. 2, 1972. As far as is presently known, chlorina- Infective Doses of Attenuated Polio- 2 E. ,coli. (Escherichia coli) is one of the tion of reservoir water which is free of virus for Man," Journal, American coliform. organisms. Most routine test- industrial chemicals, fertilizers, and Public Health Association, Vol. 57 ing seeks only the general coliform pesticides has no dangerous effects. If (1967): 1837-1840. group, but more careful research further studies reveal a significant 12 From testimony of James McDermott, counts one species - E. coli. While danger, it is possible to switch to other Chief of EPA Water Supply Division, there is a movement toward specifying methods of disinfection, such as ozon- to the U.S. Senate Hearings on water the identification of E...coli for examin- ation. supply legislation, 1972, in Taylor, ing recreational water quality, the gen- 5 Berg, op. cit., p. 176. op. cit., p. 308. eral coliform group is still used as the 6 Infectious hepatitis must be disting- 13 Taylor, op. cit., p. 310. standard indicator for drinking water uished from serum hepatitis, which is 14 J.H. McDermott, Community Water purity. usually caused by unsanitary hypoder- Notes (Continued) Supply Study: Significance of Nation- al Findings, Water Hygiene Divisiori (now Water Supply Division), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 15 Gunther F. Craun and Leland J. Mc- Cabe, "Review of the Causes of Water- home Disease Outbreaks," Journal of the American Water Works Association, January 1973. 131 Glossary of Terms Activated Carbon: A form of carbon in which granules are produced with an enormous surface area in relation to particle size. Organic im- purities in the water adhere to the carbon surface and thus are removed from the water. Very effective in removing odors and tastes from water, as well. Algae, Plankton: Microscopic plant and animal growths which can occur in 411 lakes and reservoirs. Plankton is a generic term for algae (mi- croscopic plants) fungi, protozoa, and rotifera which can im- part oily, fishy, aromatic, grassy, or other odors or tastes to the water. Artesian Flow: A somewhat unusual condition in which groundwater is held below rocks under pressure, and can be released to flow with- out pumping. BOD: Abbreviation for Biochemical Oxygen Demand. The amount of dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms in the biochem- ical oxidation of organic compounds in the water. Carrier: Term for a person who has been infected with a contagious 132 disease, but who, although he has no symptoms, continues to secrete the microbial or viral agents of the disease. A carrier may thus unwittingly transmit the illness to others. Chlorination: The practice of treating water with chlorine to destroy poten- tially harmful bacteria and viruses. Sometimes used to control taste and odor problems caused by algae. Coliform Count: The number of coliform colonies found in a standard sample of 100 ml of water. The count is a standard indicator of bac- terial contamination, and should be virtually zero at all times in drinking water. ContactTime: The time during which residual chlorine is present in water before it is consumed, or is otherwise neutralized. Water may be held at the treatment plant in holding basins to assure ade- quate time to kill all pathogens; the contact time can include the time water travels in pipes to the first user. Copper Sulfate: An algicidal chemical used to kill algae and plankton when they appear in objectionable numbers on reservoir water. A porous bag of the chemical is towed across the reservoir by a boat. Cross Connection: Term describing an accident in which sewerage lines or other sources of contaminated water,become connected with the water distributed lines. Distribution System: The system of pipes, tanks, pumps, and distribution reser- voirs which brings water from a treatment plant to the con- sumers. Dose: In chlorination, the amount of chlorine administered to the water. It should be enough to take up the chlorine demand of the water and provide an acceptable residual above that to accomplish complete disinfection. Enteric Illness: A generalized illness of the intestinal tract, defined by symp- toms which may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, etc. Usually used as a generic term for low grade illnesses for which specific cause can be shown. Can be water-bome by viruses or bacteria. Filtration: The practice of filtering water through beds of sand or coal to remove color and turbidity, control tastes and odors, and remove substantial amounts of bacteria. Rapid Sand Filtra- tion: Preceeded by coagulation, flocculation and sedimenta- tion, rapid sand filtration is effective in removing color, tur- bidity, and bacteria from the water. Slow Sand Filtration: Water is applied to sand without previous treatment. The pro- cess is highly effective in removing turbidity and bacteria, but not effective in removing color. 133 Finished Water: Water which has been treated and is ready for distribution and consumption. Flocculation: Used in conjunction with rapid sand filtration. Addition of a coagulant such as alum, lime, caustic soda, or soda ash, pro- duces a "floc" in the water which carries down with it color and turbidity, and also increases the efficiency of bacterial removal. I Ground Water: Water which is flowing underground, and which can be ex- tracted by wells. Depth at which giound water is found in- fluences its quality, with sources close to the surface more susceptible to contamination. Hardness: Hardness is the sum of dissolved calcium and magnesium min- erals in water. It is ty@ically encountered in waters that have been in contact with limestone formations or in waters from and regions. Excessive hardness makes water difficult to Wash with. Heavy Metals: A reference to metals such as barium, cadmium, lead, mer- cury, and silver which can be introduced into the environ7- ment by corrosion or through industrial processes and which are toxic to living organisms. Impoundment: A body of water created by damming a stream or river and producing an artificial lake; a reservoir. Infectious Dose: The minimum number of infectious particles which can cause a person to contract a disease. It was once thought that many thousands of viruses would be required to infect a per- pn with a disease, but that has been revised down to where it is now thought that a single virus particle can cause infection. Infectious Hepatitis: A viral disease which infects the liver, and can be transmitted by water. It is to be distinguished from serum hepatitis which is contracted by use of unsterile hypodermic syringes and similar devices. Intake: The place at which water is withdrawn from a terminal reservoir to a treatment plant. MGD:. Abbreviation for "Million Gallons per Day," the typical measurement of treatment plant capacity. Morbidity Rate: The number of cases of disease of a certain type in a given population, usually one hundred thousand or one million. Mortality Rate: The number of deaths cause by a certain disease in a popula- tion of a given number, usually one hundred thousand or one million, Ozonation: A disinfection technique frequently used in Europe and Cana- 134 da instead of chlorination. While more powerful than chlorin- ation, it leaves no "residual" which is useful as an indicator of continued disinfection in the distribution system. Pathogen: An organism or virus which causes disease. Pesticides: Poisons used for the control of insect pests in agriculture, and forestry, which can be deposited on watersheds and trans- ported into the reservoirs. They may have various toxic effects on humans. pH: The acidity or alkalinity of water measured on a scale from 1 to 14. A pH below 8 can lead to corrosion in pipes and intro- duction of lead or other metals into the water. TH is usually controlled to between 7.0 and 9; at this level it is slightly alkaline. V Raw Water: The water drawn into a treatment plant from the terminal reservoir. Reservoir: Storage or Collection Reservoir: The larger reservoirs in the system which receive waters from tributary streams and hold the reserve water which the city requires. Terminal Reservoirs: Smaller reservoirs directly adjacent to treatment plants receiving their water from Collection Reser- voirs, and holding from a few days' to six months' supply. Distribution Reservoir: Reservoirs (or tanks) within the distri- bution system used to maintain constant pressure and comp-, ensating for variations in demand by the community. Runoff: The portion of water falling on a watershed which does not penetrate the earth but runs off across the surface; runoff is the mechanism by which the reservoirs collect water. Ex- cessive runoff may occur- when the ground is not covered with adequate vegetation or when the ground is very dry or very wet; the runoff water then carries silt and other contaminants which degrade reservoir water quality. Sedimentation: The process of holding water in basins in order for solid par- ticles and noc to settle out. Softness: A term denoting the absence of dissolved calcium and mag- nesium in domestic water, making it easy to wash with, and good for cooking., Surface Supply: A supply of domestic water taken from natural lakes, artifici- al reservoirs, streams or rivers. Typhoid: A bacterial disease, transmitted by water, which was often fatal, and was greatly feared up until the mid-twenties, when modem water treatment, pasteurization of milk, and other public health measures succeeded in eliminating it almost en- tirely. 135 Virus: The smallest pathenogenic particle known. A virus is on the borderline between living and dead material. Some types are quite resistant to disinfection compared to enteric bacteria, and thus can survive chlorinafion more -readily than can bac- teria. Viruses are extremely small, being visible only under electron microscopes, and no standard and reliable method to discover their presence in water supplies has been discovered. They can cause many diseases, from the most trivial to the most fatal. Water-borne Disease: A disease which may be transmitted by water. Watershed: The area of land which drains into a reservoir; more generally, the area of land which drains into a specific stream or river network. Annotated Bibliography History of Water Supplies: Grady, Robert P. "The Effect of Rec- ronmental' Protection 'Agency. In- Blake, Nelson Manfred. Water for the reational Use on the Quality of cludes results of EPA survey of Cities, A History of the Urban Sebago Lake Water." Journal of the water treatment plants, and compre- Water Supply Problem in the United New England Water Works Associa- hensive virus disease statistics. Per- States. Syracuse University Press, tion, Vol. 86, No. 2. June 1972. p. haps the most useful general paper. 1956. 104. "Public Health Guidelines for Recrea- An excellent historical narrative of A study of a natural marine lake tional and Other Development at water supplies, with only tangential used successfully for both recrea- Reservoirs Used as Sources of reference to the recreation issue. tion and water supply. Includes Domestic Water Supply." California technical data on water quality. State Department of Public Health, Reservoir Recreation and the Public Environmental Health Services Health Issue: Harris, Robert H. and Brecher, Ed- Program, Water Sanitation Section. Berg, Gerald. "Virus Transmission by ward M. "Is the Water Safe to July 1974. (tentative draft current- the Water Vehicle, Ill. Removal of Drink?" Three part article appear- ly available) Viruses by Water Treatment Proce-, ing in Consumer Reports. June, A useful compendium of guidelines dures." Health Laboratory Science, July, and August 1974. for many types of recreational de- 136 Vol. 3, No. 3. July 1966. p. 170. An informative review of the many velopment on water supply reser- A technical article finding that water pollution sources in our water sup- voirs. treatment should be improved to ply system, dealing with bacteria, Ruane, Richard J. and Fruh, E.G. "Ef- meet laboratory disinfection stan- viruses, pesticides, heavy metals, fects of Watershed Development on dards. Virtually all systems must and carcinogens in the water sup- Water Quality." Journal of the Am- have a disinfecting residual of mi- ply. Raises the important point that erican Water Works Association. crobicide. many new and so-far inconclusive- May 1973. p. 358. Crann, Gunther F. and McCabe, Le- ly analyzed pollution sources exist, land J. "Review of the Causes of and that water treatment in this Article brings out the relatively Waterborne Disease Outbreaks." country is far below its reputed lev- severe pollution- of water supplies Journal of the American Water el of excellence. Very useful for brought about by urbanization on Works Association. January 1973. - understanding the whole spectrum the watershed. Useful in reaching an of the problem, and recreation's appraisal of the relative impacts of p. 74. very minor role as a threat to public recreation and other more signifi- Documents actual disease outbreaks health. cant sources of pollution. since 1955, and finds they are on decline. McDermott, James H. "Virus Prob- Symons, James M. "Multiple Usage of lems and their Relation to Water Reservoirs: Protection of the Water Fair, Gordon M., and Geyer, John. Supply." Journal of the American Quality as a Potable Water Source." Water Supply and Waste-Water Dis- Water Works.Association. Decem- Standards Attainment Branch, posal. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., ber 1974. Water Supply Research Laboratory, New York, 1956. A readable survey of the virus National Environmental Research A standard text on water engineer- problem by the director of the Center, U.S. Environmental Pro- ing. Water Supply Division of the Envi- tection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Presented at Tenth Congress of In- "Recreation Use of Domestic Water siderations in providing public rec- ternational Water Supply Associa- Supply Reservoirs, American Water reation facilities. tion, Brighton, U.K. August 19, Works Association Statement of Gallup Poll. "Water Quality and Pub- 1974. Policy." Journal of the American lic -Opinion." Journal of the Ameri- This is a compendium of studies of Water Works Association. May 1958. can Water Works Association. Aug- recreational use of reservoirs both p. 579 ust 1973. p. 513. in this country and abroad, draw- . "American Water Works ing the conclusion that properly Association Policy Statement: On A documentation of public opinion treated water will suffer no degrada- the Recreational Use of Domestic towards water supplies. tion through recreational use. Water Supply Reservoirs." Journal Journal of the Neu) England Water Taylor, Floyd. "Watershed Sanitation." of the American Water Works Asso- Works Association, Vol. 79, No. 1. Journal of the New England Water ciation. August 1971. p. 540. March 1973. Works Association, Vol. 78, No i 1. These two statements show a shift This entire edition of the Journal March 1964. p. 1. in policy toward recreation from al- deals with the recreational use of Deals with the basic issues of water- most complete opposition to very water supply reservoirs. Two articles shed protection, calling them the qualified approval. The new impact of particular interest are listed be- first line of offense against disease-. of the later. statement really changes low. Perhaps oversimplifies and misrep- nothing, but allows water managers Minkus, Alexander J "'Recreational resents the objectives of recreation- to follow their own best judgments. Use of Reservoirs." Journal of the alists, characterizing them a ,s desir- New England Water Works Asso- ing unrestricted access to watershed Baumann, Duane D. "Perception and ciation, Vol. 79, No. 1. March land. Public Policy in the Recreational 1965. p. 32. "Viruses - What is their Use of Domestic Water Supply Res- A very interesting article for rec- ervoirs. " Water Resrouces Research, Significance in Water Supplies?" Vol. 5, No. 3. June 1969. pp. 543- reational planners. It concerns Journal of the American Water 554. two adjoining reservoirs in Conn- Works Association. May 1974. p. ecticut, the Barkhampstead Res- 137 307. . "The Recreational Use of ervoir and the Compensating A complete treatment of the virus Domestic Water Supply Reservoirs: Reservoir (not a water supply problem, suggesting a very low num- Perception and Choice." Report reservoir), and discusses the ber of particles may be an infectious 121. University of Chicago, Depart- many drawbacks, from the au- dose, and emphasizing the import- ment of Geography. 1969. thor's point of view, of allowing ance of chlorination to deactivate The best general overview of the recreation on water supply reser- viruses. Outlines sources of hazards recreation issue: the first reference voirs. Most of the author's ob- and factors which affect the degree is a condensation of the second. jections seem easily correctable. of danger. Baumann places the issue in the Viraraghavan, T. "Water Quality and context of policy toward recreation Toole, Harold J. "Recreational Use Human Health." Journal of the ' across the country. of Boston Metropolitan Water American Water Works Association. Clawson, Marion, and Knetsch, Jack L. Supply Reservoirs and Water- October 1973. p. 647. Economics of Outdoor Recreation. sheds.?'Journal of the New Published for Resources for the England Water Works Associa- Concludes that present technology Future, Inc., by Johns Hopkins tion, Vol. 79, No. 1. March can effectively protect the public Press, Baltimore and London, 1966. 1965. p. 1 against virus diseases such as in- Deals with the recreational use fectious hepatitis if rigorously ap- Although technical and difficult to of Quabbin Reservoir in detail; plied. read, this is perhaps the best treat- including an appendix of coli- ment of the economics of recrea- form counts at the reservoir dur- Reservoir Recreation and Public tion available. Includes methodolo- ing 1963. Health gies of forecasting *of 'demand, and American Water Works Association. examines cost and investment con- New England Water Works Associa- tion. "Final Report of Committee "Watershed Management and Reser- The NRPA publishes a number of on Recreational Uses of Public voir Use: Joint Discussion." Annual pamphlets and books on all aspects Water Supplies." Journal of the Conference of the American Water of park planning and management. New England Water Works Associa- Works Association at Kansas City, Each year they issue a catalog of tion, Vol. 72, No. 3. September Mo. (May 1963). Journal of the . their own publications and relevant 1958. p. 409. American Water Works Association. books from the trade press. Any- February 1964. p. 150. one interested in park planning - "Report of Committee on - should obtain the catalog. Recreational Uses of Sources of Especially interesting is the pres6n- Public Water Supply." Journal of tation by H.J. Ongerth of steps U.S. Department of Health, Educa- the New England Water Works As- toward adequate planning of recrea- tion, and-Welfare. Environmental sociation, Vol. 85, No. 1. March tion for protection of public health. Health Practice in Recreational 1971. p. 80 The typical spectrum of opinion on Areas, A Guide to the Planning, Two policy statements -by this con- recreational use of public water sup- Design, Operation, and Maintenance servative professional organization. plies is brought out in this discus- of Recreational Areas. Bureau of The 1971 article is a collection of sion. Community Environmental Manage- facts and quotations supporting the ment, Rockville, Maryland. Febru- case against recreation, all of which Planning Materials: ary 1972. DHEW Publication No. must be effectively rebutted by rec- Building Construction Cost Data 1974. (HSM) 72-10009. reation advocates. Robert Snow Means Company, Inc. Duxbury, Mass. 1974 (see also an- A complete guide to recreational Romm, Jeff. The Value of Reservoir nual updated edition). Recreation. Cornell University facility planning. Much of the in- Water Resources and Marine Sci- Dodge Guide for Estimating Public formation will not be appropriate ence Center, New York. Technical Works Construction Costs. to the limited facilities typical of Report No. 19. Springfield, Virginia: Dodge Manual for Building Con- reservoir areas, however. NTIS, August 1969. struction Pricing and Scheduling. 138 A comprehensive study, using vari- (see also annual updated editions). ous techniques, of estimating the Dodge Building Costs Services, value of recreational activities in McGraw-Hill Information Systems dollar terms. Company, New York. 1974. Stone, Ralph, and Friedland, Helen. Detailed guides for estimating con- "Socioeconomics of Multiple Uses." struction costs. Updated yearly, al- Journal of the American Water ways use current editions. Works Association. June 1972. Fogg, George F.IPark Planning Guide- p. 357. lines. National Recreation and Park An important economic study Association, 1601 North Kent which found, in intensive research Street, Arlington, Virginia. Decem- ber 1974. on four California reservoirs, that all forms of recreation are indeed A useful guide for preliminary plan- possible on terminal reservoirs; ning, this book includes some de- benefit/cost ratios were calculated tailed information 'on facilities for the four sites by two methods, specificiation and layouts, as well and all results were greater than as costing guidelines and statistics 1.0, the higher being 23.9. Interest- on activity mixes at recreation ingly enough, the AWWA has sent areas. copies of this article to people re- National Recreation and Parks Associa- questing documentation of the case tion, 1601 North Kent Street, Arl- against reservoir recreation. ington, Virginia 27209. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1975-0-587-399 CEO 3 6668 00001 0704