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\@A QH 105 - W2 C6 1980 V.2 State of Washington Department of Ecology COASTAL ZONE ATLAS OF WASHINGTON LAND COVER / LAND USE NARRATIVES Volume II: Wetlands, Exposed and Other Lands, Appendices, Glossary, Index (Pages 449-887) Rick Albright, Ron Hirschi, Ron Vanbianchi, Claire Vita June 1980 The preparation of this document was aided by the Washington State Department of Ecology through a federal grant from the Office of Coastal Zone Management under the National Oceanic and Atomospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce, as authorized by the United States Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. Property of CSC Library U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413 Coastal zone Atlas of Washington Land Cover/Land Use Narratives Volume II Rick Albright, Ron Hirschi, Ron Vanbianchi Artists Karen Helmerson, Jaime Orogo 1980 Volume 11 Contents Page 6 WETLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 61 Forested Wetl ands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Freshwater Swamp . Brackish Swamp . 1 62 Non-Forested Vegetated Wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Inland Freshwater Marsh Coastal Freshwater Marsh . Salt Marsh . Bog Salt Meadow . Brackish Marsh Seagrass . Kelp . Other Algal Community 63 Beach Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Rock . Cobble . Mixed Coarse . Mixed Medium . Mixed Fine . Sand . Sand-Silt or Muddy Sand . Silt/Clay or Mud . 1 7 EXPOSED AND OTHER LANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 71 Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Rock Outcropping . Talus . Rock Islands Cliffs 72 Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 Sand Island . Sand Dune . Slide . Sand and/or Gravel Bar . 74 Spit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 Vegetated Spit . Non-Vegetated Spit . 76 Bluff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refer to Forested Bluff Narrative, Page 276 CONTENTS (Continued) Page APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 WETLANDS (No. 6) The wetlands classification designates those lands which Mar either covered by water or strongly influenced by Ia djacent waters. Wetlands are extremely productive areas tand are important to many wildlife species. j Includes: Forested Wetlands (No.61) Nonforested Vegetated Wetlands (No.62) .A4 j4W Beach Substrate (No.63) FORESTED WETLAND (No. 61) Includes: Freshwater Swamp (No. 611) Brackish Swamp (No.612) NONFORESTED, VEGETATED WETLAND (No.62) Nonforested, densely vegetated wetlands consist of some,@-,@, 'of the most highly productive habitats in the world. Inland Freshwater Marsh (No. 621) Coastal Freshwater Marsh (No. 622) Salt Marsh (No. 623) Bog (No. 624) Salt Meadow (No. 625) Brackish Marsh (No. 626) Seagrass (No. 627) Kelp Community (No. 628) Other Algal Communities (No. 629) 449 Aft @VP WK, Ikp NP dE R, ,1,53 2 N, R -Or R flu, mv M,4 Or a, . . ..... . I mz Z' Ga 4. i-,! r, @N@ H, n IF g Pi P"i - V @z _U NM I z "a- ,R@ 450 FRESHWATER SWAMP, BRACKISH SWAMP, BOG (Nos. 611, 612, 624) I. INTRODUCTION Included in this narrative are three habitat types that are structurally similar and provide similar animal habitat, but with dissimilar plant species composition. Similarities shared by all three include the pres- ence of standing water or saturated substrate, and domination by woody vegetation. Plant species, drainage, substrate, and several other fac- tors differ between the three types. Brackish swamp is the most uncommon of the three types, mapped at scattered locations in Pacific, Snohomish, Kitsap, Island, and Mason counties. All sites are occasionally inundated by tidal waters. Freshwater swamps are far more common, occurring in valley bottoms, along river drainages, and in other low-lying sites throughout the coastal zone. Two major types of freshwater swamps occur, tree-dominated and shrub dominated, and intermediate stages are not uncommon. Shrub- dominated sites are generally wetter than those with well-developed tree cover. Continuous woody cover is typical of most swamps, however, sites with uneven terrain frequently have open water. Marshes with scattered, regularly occurring trees or shrubs were mapped as "swamp" to indicate the presence of woody vegetation. Bogs are fascinating natural communities, displaying a combination of physical, chemical, and biological features unduplicated in any other habitat type. They are relatively common throughout the glaciated por- tion of the Puget Trough, but were mapped at only one site on the Long Beach Peninsula, and were lacking along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Swamps and bogs represent terminal stages of succession of wetlands, eventually improving drainage in the immediate areas, and producing conditions favorable for the establishment of climax forest. Swamps have been altered by filling and draining in the past, and these activities continue to reduce the number and total acreage of coastal swamps. Bogs have also been subjected to these disturbances and addi- tionally have been impacted by the extraction of sphagnum peat and con- version to huckleberry and blueberry farms. Presently, coastal bogs and swamps are being altered or destroyed primarily as a result of residen- tial construction. 451 II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES A. Plant Communities Brack ish swamps: The following three sites illustrate the variety of habitats included in this class. The Point Bolin, Kitsap County, site was formerly a coastal pond, now filled in and dominated by a dense shrub thicket of sweet gale. Around the margin, common cattail and hardstem bulrush occur, and occasionally scattered within the sweet gale thicket are red alder and Nootka rose. The frequency of tidal indunation is unknown, but it is probable that with all higher high tides, salt water seeps through the berm separating the swamp from the beach. After a 13.2-foot tide in December, 1977, the standing water in the swamp was decidedly brackish. The Hancock Lake (Island County3 site is a zone within'a large wetland association unique in the coastal zone (see Figure 611-1). Bordered by a bog to the south, and a salt marsh to the north, the swamp receives fresh water from the upland and tidal water from Hancock Lake (a misnomer, it is open to Admiralty Inlet by a marine slough and mapped as an open lagoon). Like the preceding site, the vegeta- tion here is a dense thicket of sweet gale. Although lacking on our maps due to mapping constraints, between the bog and brackish swamp is a narrow strip of freshwater swamp. A third site, at the Hamma Hamma River delta in Mason County, differs from the previous two by the dominance of large Sitka spruce over the entire area. . Scattered in the canopy layer are western red cedar and several snags, especially around the perimeter. The understory at this site is hummocky and supports a diverse assemblage of herbs and shrubs. Highest areas support typical coniferous forest understory species including sword fern, false lily-of-the-valley, evergreen huckleberry, and trailing blackberry. Lower areas that are flooded by tidally influenced waters support fat-hen, creeping bent- grass, Douglas' aster,. and western dock, all species occuring typically in coastal marshes. Freshwater swamp: Freshwater swamps are much more common than brackish swamps and support a broader range of plant communities. They were mapped in many of the coastal counties and are especially fre- 452 quent on the Long Beach Peninsula in Pacific County. Or 6ALINE TO, FRE@RWATER ARfAt@ A A it &14 A 'Piz JL AL J, 114- -Sk b23 612 vj. C&L-LA&DOIJ &0-4ACr KAX6W, &Z&-BZAM6h- KAZ61k, 167 FIGURE 611-1 453 Hancock Lake Wetlands (Whidbey Island) Three shrub-dominated freshwater swamps were visited in Kitsap and Mason counties during the course of this study. In each instance, the plant community was dominated by hardhack. Two of the sites were impenetrable hardhack monocultures with approxi- mately 25 cm. (10 inches) of standing water during the rainy season. The third site, in Pierce County, was much more open, with a large area of standing water containing typical pond vegetation and scat- tered hardhack thickets. Swamps with continuous tree cover are most common, and any one of several species may be dominant, or mixed stands may occur. Species include quaking aspen, red alder, black cottonwood, willows, western red cedar, and Sitka spruce. The freshwater swamp at the head of Oakland Bay, Mason County, is repre- sentative of the structure and species composition of coastal freshwater swamps. Sitka spruce and western red cedar dominate the open canopy at this site, With cascara and red alder occurring sporadi- cally throughout. The understory is a dense stand of common cattail, black twinberry, skunk cabbage, water parsley, kneeling angelica, and occasionally crabapple, and yew. Scattered throughout the under- story are raised spots with typical forest under- story species, further diversifying this habitat. In Pacific County, freshwater swamps dominated by Swamp sandwort, currently included on the state red alder or willows are extensive. The understory working list of rare or endangered plant species, is often a nearly solid stand of slough sedge. has been reported from coastal swamps in southwestern Additionally, broadleaf-dominated swamps throughout Washington and near Tacoma. the coastal zone may contain bitter chokecherry in the canopy, and several herbs and shrubs including Bogs: Bogs are characterized by poor drainage, red osier dogwood, Douglas' water-hemlock, salmon- highly acidic water and substrate, low nutrient berry, small-fruited bulrush, and marsh skull-cap levels, and a well-defined plant community. The in the understory. Quaking aspen swamps were in- terms "bog," "swamp," and "marsh" are often used frequent in the coastal zone, located only on Henry indiscriminately, but the habitats they describe Island (San'Juan County) and Stretch Island (Pierce are very different. The characteristics of these County). three types are compared in Table 611-1. 454 Table 611-1 A COMPARISON OF BOG, MARSH, & SWAMP CHARACTERISTICS (After Fitzgerald, 1977) BOG MARSH SWAMP Drainage blocked - allows accumula- does not allow accumulation of organic material tion of organic material; further congested by bog development Depth deep or shallow shallow Filling-in floating mat invades open open water invaded by submergent, emergent, or floating water-fills in from top vegetation--fills in from the bottom upwards and bottom Water Quality brown, low nutrients, green, high nutrients, acid or alkaline, high strongly acidic, low oxygen level oxygen level Bottom false bottom often formed No false bottom by the accumulation of colloids Micro-organisms few abundant Vegetation: mosses abundant, especially relatively scarce Sphagnum sp. herbs sundew, orchids, bog St. sedges, rushes, grasses sedges, rushes, skunk John's wort, sedges, cabbage cotton-grass, beakrush shrubs bog laurel, Labrador tea, absent red-osier dogwood, salmon- bog cranberry , berry, hardhack trees lodgepole pine, western absent quaking aspen, willows, hemlock, white pine red alder, Sitka spruce, I western red cedar Fauna black bear, deer, meadow waterfowl, mink, black- Wood Duck, woodpeckers, mice, ground and shrub birds, bittern, rails, swallows, River otter, foraging birds, habitat frogs, salamanders often includes many of Beller's Ground Beetle marsh spp. also (proposed R & E species), frogs, salamanders e5; 14 /;e- Ao Ato 410 00 0.6 MMML_ 1.0 mmmmm_ AMML__ ts 4 5' Bog development begins with the establishment of Sphagnum and other typical bog species around the edge of a lake, or in a marsh or swamp. As the mat of bog vegetation spreads out into open water or around existing vegetation, chemical and physical conditions become more favorable for the develop- ment of a bog, i.e. , drainage is retarded by the mat, and the water and substrate becomes more acid from the expanding growth of Sphagnu . Because bacterial decay is retarded by the poorly aerated, acid water, plant and animal matter sinking to the bottom decomposes very slowly. This partially decomposed organic matter, called "peat," contains identifiable plant and animal remains for long periods of time. Con equently, bogs are invaluable "storehouses" of the past biological history of the immediate area. Much of the botanical history of the Northwest has been elucidated by studying pollen profiles taken from various bogs (see Figure 611-2). Likewise, a bog near Sequim (Clallam County) was recently discovered to contain the well-preserved remains of a Mastadon and several other prehistoric animals, believed to have been buried for approximately 15,000 years. Bog Zonation Several vegetation zones ar( often obvious in bogs, including the pioneer zone, herb zone, and shrub- tree zone (see Figure 611-3). When bog vegetation is invading open water, the leading edge or pioneer zone usually contains woody shoots of Labrador tea and bog laural, as well as buckbean and purple cinquefoil. These woody stems help support the advancing Sphagnum mat, the leading edge of which initiates the herb zone. Typical species in this zone include cotton grass, beak rush, several sedges, sundew, bog St. John's wort, and bog cranberry growing in a solid Sphagnu mat. The shrub-tree zone generally has a fewer number of plant species than the pioneer and herb zones, but greater structural diversity. The Sphagnu mat is generally uneven, with low spots containing standing water. Shrubs include bog laural, labrador tea, and sweet gale, often forming dense stands. Trees most tolerant of the bog environment are western hemlock, lodgepole pine, and western white pine, although western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and cascara may be present. The effects of the bog environment on tree growth are illustrated by a study in western Washington reporting 30-70 year old western hemlocks standing only 5-6 feet tall. The herb zone and the shrub-tree zone usually occupy the largest area of a bog, and are the most conspicuous zones. Between the bog and the adjacent upland, there often occurs a marginal ditch, especially at very mature sites. Conditions in the marginal ditch are similar to those found in swamps, i.e., well oxygenated, nutrient-rich water. The vegetation reflects these conditions, and typical swamp flora often develops. Common species include hardhack, salmonberry, red-osier dogwood, black twinberry, and skunk cabbage. Sphagnu is limited to patches at the base of stems, or is often completely lacking. 457 This generalized view of a bog is subject to much variation, and the following should be kept in mind: 1) Most of the bogs mapped in the coastal zone were in a mature state of development, with little or no open water and dominated by the herb and shrub-tree zones. 2) Bogs on the outer coast contain different species of gale and bog laurel. 3) Several other plants, relatively uncommon in lowland bogs may be present. These include crowberry, bog birch, and Menzie's burnet, a species under consideration for rare or endangered status. 4) Paper birch has been reported as a successful invader of sphag- num bogs in Whatcom County. Productivity - Studies measuring the productivity of Washington's coastal swamps are lacking, but in general, swamps are noted as having complex spatial patterning, high plant and animal species diversity, and high productivity. 458 fz cev@t;z @Vjcll OEM Forest Hill subAwWtoo '@'_HARDING I-TY I WIT I%f 14F- I W C4 T C3 E=1 !UJ E::J@ t --14= = F i 0 200 400 boo in Fee4 AS ADOPTED BY THE ELN 0 ON -APRI AN C.ARDEN HILL IROAD 7w THE ELMA RESOLUTION w GRAYS HARBOR REGION Animal Communities Swamps in which trees, marshes and open water areas are interspersed provide habitat for terrestrial Freshwater and Brackish Swamp species, and are also noted for the diverse assembl- age of wetland birds, mammals, and amphibians. Many of the species associated with freshwater Characteristic species include some of our more marshes also occur in swamps. Several ducks, black- intriguing wildlife such as the Wood Duck. These birds, herons, and amphibians are among the animals ducks were once near extinction due to overhunting inhabiting both wetland habitats. Standing water and habitat destruction. The brightly colored male and low, herbaceous vegetation within the swamp with his splashes of green, blue, red, and purple provides suitable habitat for these species while is one of our most beautiful birds. Wood ducks the presence of shrubs and trees increases struc- nest in natural cavities in trees, 5-40 feet above tural diversity and the number of available niches. the water. The abandoned nest of a Pileated Wood- Woodland species often forage or nest in swamps, pecker is often used as a nest site and they will and typical marsh inhabitants which nest in trees also use suitable nest boxes. benefit from their interspersion within the marshy understory. Snags are often present and are espe- The Wood Duck is an example of those species which cially beneficial for cavity nesters. benefit from the presence of trees in a marshy or open water wetland. Other swamp inhabitants which In general, the diversity and abundance of animals nest in trees include Hooded Mergansers and Great within a swamp are greatest where trees are scatter- Blue Herons. Several cavity nesters which are not ed within a matrix of open water and marsh. Diver- restricted to wetlands also frequently occur. Some, sity may also be high in those areas in which trees like the Pileated Woodpecker, excavate holes which are dense, however, fauna will be more character- are later used by cavity nesters such as the Wood istic of the dominant forest canopy type than a Duck which is unable to create its own nest cavity. wetland. This is evident along the outer coast Other hole nesters include Violet-green Swallows, where extensive forested swamps occur. Sufficient Tree Swallows, Chickadees, Common Flickers, and high ground is scattered throughout these swamps to Downy Woodpeckers. allow terrestrial species to penetrate. The con- tinuous coniferous coverage results in a terrestrial Marsh inhabitants discussed in the Freshwater Marsh bird population in the canopy layer which is much Narrative (No. 621) are often abundant in swamps. like that of surrounding forests. Ground dwellers Their presence and the added diversity of tree also include many terrestrial species, and bear, dwellers supports predators which reside in the deer, and elk are common inhabitants. Densely swamp and in adjacent habitats. Hawks and owls, forested swamps may also support a significant per- coyotes, bobcats, and river otters are examples of centage of nesting populations of Great Blue Herons predatory birds and mammals which may be present. in the Coastal Zone. For example, one of the The occurence of larger carnivores is especially largest known rookeries in the state, on Samish dependent on the size of the swamp and presence of Island in Skagit County, is within a black cotton- suitable adjacent habitats. Some predators such as wood swamp. Bald Eagles and river otters occur in swamps prim- 459 PIONEER HERB ZONE SHRUB-TREE ZONE MARGINALDITCH UPLAND ZONE ZONE f1p LAKE PEAT DEPOSIT PARENT MATERIAL FIGURE 611-3: BOG ZONATION PIONEER ZONE HERB ZONE SHRUB-TREE ZONE MARGINAL UPLAND DITCH ZONE green algae rushes sphagnum bog laurel Labrador tea hardhack conifer blue-green algae sedges beakrush Labrador tea western red red osier forest Chara spp. cotton grass wild cranberry bog rosemary cedar dogwood broadleaf Sphagnum spp. sphagnum sundew western huckleberry salmonberry forest sedges bog St.John's hemlock bracken fern alder swamp buckbean wort lichen salal cascara Labrador tea sphagnum lodgepole willows skunk bog laurel pine KU purple cabage cinquefoil 460 arily because of their proximity to the coast. Figure 611-4 A Brackish swamps such as at the mouth of the Hamma Hamma River are especially valuable for these coastal predators since they move freely between the swamp and adjacent salt water habitats. Eagles roost in the swamp and feed in the adjacent salt marsh, sloughs, and in the estuarine zone of the river. Bald Eagles are also frequently observed in the Hancock Lake swamp. Shrub-dominated freshwater swamps such as those composed of hardhack thickets lack a great deal of floristic diversity. Faunal diversity and abundance is also quite low, characteristic species include Song Sparrow, Swainson's Thrush, Wilson's Warbler, and Red-winged Blackbirds. A. PMLMU Bogs Beller's ground beetle The fauna of bogs is not as highly restricted to (Agonum belleri) these unusual wetlands as are the many unique plant pioneer zone of the bog where they come ashore on species. No vertebrates are known to be found the floating mats of vegetation. Holes in these exclusively in our coastal bogs, however, the pro- mats are common and are known to be used by otters posed rare and endangered Beller's ground beetle, as convenient routes between shoreand open . water, illustrated in Figure 611-4, is restricted to sphag- much like a sea] uses holes in floating sheets of num bogs of the northwest. Beller's ground beetle ice. Waterfowl will frequent the edge adjacent to has been reported from bogs in King, Snohomish, and open water and some nesting is likely to occur in Island counties. this pioneer zone. One of the most characteristic bog vertebrates is The upland edge of bogs is used by a wide variety the Townsend's vole. These voles, also known as of wildlife, as with other wetlands. Several wood- meadow mice, are frequently encountered in coastal land birds have been observed nesting in this area bogs. Their presence is noted by a maze of open and many also occur on the bog proper when shrubs runways and tunnels lacing through the Sphagnum and trees are present. Snags are occasionally pres- mosses. They feed on a variety of herbaceous plants ent, however, trees grow slowly on the bog and large and may in turn become prey of coyotes, Red-tailed trees and snags are usually limited to the upland Hawks, or Marsh Hawks. Other herbivores which fre- edge. These larger trees and snags are required by quent bogs include varying hares and deer. wildlife as roost or nest sites and are an example When sufficient open water is present, beaver, river of the importance of maintaining an upland buffer otters, and waterfowl may frequent the bog. Beavers zone around the bog. Birds of prey including owls will feed on woody and herbaceous plants at the bog and hawks will use the large trees surrounding the edge and have been observed to fall conifers within bog and fly over the open Sphagnum mat where meadow the shrub-tree zone. River otters frequent the mice provide an abundance of prey. 461 04, 000 gf .16 0" 1b 0 Characteristic Vertebrates 0/1 The following species have been observed in coastal bogs during our studies: \e N We C,\\ C, e. 6Ve C-, 0 C\\e, smcp @P et, @@,\ C, eS@ ek- es % S Z:\ CS e6 IC N\ ac, CNN N CTQO@ -\ 6 $ oi@ C) C:)9 C', I gv@ Ce Cl) )NN? 01, 4.63 J", Y"I IIIA@71'OTT IA7, -W Mll MM45i % A;f -Z; 'fA Figure 611-5. Peat excavation at Tahuya Lake, Kitsap County, during the 1940's. 464 IMPACTS "A few small sphagum bogs in Seattle The plant and animal communities of both swamps passed directly from their natural and bogs are dependent on a relatively stable water condition to sites for small homes. level. The most widespread disturbance to these The construction of houses was begun habitats has been the alteration of the level, without adequate investigation of often by filling or draining. The impact of this the material on which they were to type of disturbance is to hasten succession, by rest, and difficulties were encoun- artificially creating drier conditions, and the tered. Some concrete foundations destruction of habitat for animals dependent on sank into the bog before the houses these wetlands. Swamps are particularly suscep- were finished. Some occupied houses tible to blocked drainage and a resultant rise in sank irregularly two feet or more. water level. Such disturbance may push succession Some concrete sidewalks sank a few back to the pond stage by raising the water to an feet, and some of them on the margin intolerable level, resulting in the death of swamp moved sideways as much as four feet. vegetation. If propagules of bog vegetation are One bulldozer plunged into the soft available, blocked drainage may also set the stage peat and was recovered only with for the development of a bog. difficulty." In past years, peat removal has been a major dis- turbance in Washington's sphagnum-bogs. From 1951 Literature: to 1954, Washington's peat production was greater than that of any other state. The 1955 crop was Fitzgerald, Betty Jo. 1977. Bogs - Our Living Museums. 37,640 tons, and valued at $113 '254. Sphagnum University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin (40)2: 2-7. peat has been used for packing vegetables and live Rigg, George B. 1919. Early Stages in Bog Succession. plants for shipment, building insulation, as a Publications - Puget Sound Biological Stattion (2)41: soi 1 amendment, for surgical dressings during 195-210 U.W. Press. World War I, and as chicken litter. The impact of Rigg, George B. 1922. A Bog Forest. Ecology (3)3 commercial peat removal is devastating to the bio- Rigg, George B. 1925. Some Sphagnum Bogs of the North logical community of a bog. (See Figure 611-5). Pacific Coast of America. Ecology (6)3: 259-278. Rigg, George B. 1958. Peat Resourses of Washington. The most frequent disturbance observed during this Division of Mines and Geology Bulletin no.44 272 pp. study was filling for residential construction, Rigg, George B. and Carl Richardson. 1938. and encroachment by residential and commercial Profiles of Some Sphagnum Bogs of North America. development. The inherent problem with building Ecology (19)3: 408-434. on unstable substrate is discussed in Peat Resources Rigg, George B. and Carl Richardson. 1934. of Washington, byGeorge Rigg: The Development of Sphagnum Bogs in the San Juan Islands. American Journal of Botany (21): 610-622. 465 'Ile It- @NX A Vol Awl Al 466 FRESHWATER MARSH increasingly recognized as valuable habitat for waterfowl, aquatic mammals, and amphibians. They Includes: Inland Freshwater Marsh (No. 621) diversify dry upland habitats and their presence Coastal Freshwater Marsh (No. 622) within the coastal zone should be guarded with the same care given all our diminishing wetlands. I. INTRODUCTION Marshes are a major feature of freshwater wetlands II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES in Washington, occurring throughout the state from Characteristic Plant Species just above sea level to high mountainous areas. Within the area covered by the Coastal Zone Atlas, Several species are characteristic of freshwater coastal freshwater marshes are distinguished from or brackish marshes in Washington, but perhaps those further inland, for the following reasons: none more so than common cattails. Many people equate marshes with cattails and rightfully so. A) Coastal freshwater marshes often receive They are a major feature of most freshwater marshes salt water from seepage or spray. and have been put to many uses by humans, and sup- port many familiar wildlife species. Examples of B) As a result of the saline influence, human uses include: coastal freshwater marshes often contain plant species tolerant of brackish conditions. - Native Americans used cattails as food. The roots and inner stalks were baked. Roots C) Coastal freshwater marshes, because of were also eaten raw. their close proximity to the marine environ- - Cattails were also woven to make mats which ment, are used by several animals which may were used as screens, covers, shelters, mat- be absent from marshes further inland. tresses, pads, raincoats, capes, packsacks, and baskets. All freshwater marshes form in blocked drainages - Cattails are also eaten today and often appear and have standing water for all or part of the in dried flower arrangements and other decora- year. Marshes are dominated by herbaceous plants, tions. distinguishing these wetlands from swamps in which Cattails support recreationally and commer- shrubs and trees are dominant. Presence of stand- cially valuable waterfowl and other marsh ing water for much of the year distinguishes fresh wildlife. from salt and brackish marshes. Brackish marshes Additional species include hardstem or softstem and coastal freshwater marshes have several fea- bulrush, often dominant or co-dominant with common tures in common including many plant species. For cattail. Reed canarygrass, an introduced species, example, cattails and bulrushes are common in both is very common throughout the Pacific Northwest, these coastal wetlands. and often forms dense, solid stands in freshwater Freshwater marshes are often small and widely marshes. Additional species which tend to develop scattered in the coastal zone. Like other wetlands, dense stands include creeping buttercup, yellow they have been filled, dredged, or otherwise manipu- flag, california false hellebore, water parsley, lated by human activities. They are also becoming and small-fruited bulrush. Species common in 467 freshwater marshes, but seldom or never forming dense stands, are skunk cabbage, marsh yellowcress, felonwort, small and common spike-rush, common forget-me-not, and speedwell. Numerous sedges, rushes, and closely related species are common in fresh- water marshes, especially those underlain with peat. A partial list follows: common rush (Juncus effusus) Baltic rush (T balticus) dagger-leaf rush Q@@ _Lnsifolius) tapered rush (J. acuminatus) spreading rush (J. supiniformis) beaked sedge (Carex rostrata) green sedge (C. oederi) slough sedge (C. obnupta) Sitka sedge (C-.sitchensis) sawbeak sedge (L. stipitata) dulichium (Dulichium arundinaceum) beakrush (Rhynchospora alba) Coastal freshwater marshes receiving salt water seepage or salt spray may support species tolerant of brackish conditions. These include Pacific silverweed, lilaeopsis, low clubrush, seaside and blister buttercup, and seacoast bulrush. Common cattail and hard and softstem bulrush are tolerant of brackish conditions, and frequently dominate these sites. Areas mapped as freshwater marsh may include small ponds which were impossible to delineate separately. At these sites, plants and animals discussed in the Lakes and Ponds Narrative (No. 52) may be present. Wildlife Freshwater marshes provide many of the same features which support wildlife discussed for sa*lt and brackish marshes, except on a more confined scale. Vegetative structure and 'wildlife use is very similar, and in coastal freshwater marshes there is signficiant exchange or "spillover" between the marine environment and the marsh. They are highly productive systems and although nutrients produced within the marsh are not flushed to distant areas by the tides, birds and mammals do "flow" freely from the marsh to adjacent 468 salt water habitats. The marshes contribute to other systems through this exchange of organisms, just as the salt marsh contributes through tidal flushing action. Many of the species which use coastal freshwater marshes do so because they are adjacent to saltwater. They may be more abundant here than in inland marshes or occur more regularly. Characteristic species are very similar to those found in higher intertidal areas of brackish marshes dominated by cattails and hard or softstem bulrushes.Representative species include the following: BIRDS MAMMALS REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS Great Blue Heron Pacific Water Shrew Rough-skinned newt Green Heron Yuma myotis Northwestern Salamander American Bittern Townsend's vole Western Toad Canada Goose Racoon Pacific Treefrog Mallard Mink Red-legged Frog Wood Duck Striped Skunk Bullfrog Green-winged Teal River Otter Common Garter Snake Merlin Virginia Rail Sora American Coot Common Snipe Belted Kingfisher Barn Swallow Long-billed Marsh Wren Red-winged Blackbird Song Sparrow Several of these species are illustrated in Figure 621-1 which depicts their preferred habitat in the marsh. Fish occur in marshes with permanent standing water but are very restricted; t'he three-spine stickl ' e- back is often the sole representative. Permanent water surfaces within the marsh also Add greatly to the marsh's overall wildlife value. Predators such as Kingfishers feed on sticklebacks and other aquatic organisms inhabiting these wet marshes. Increased water depths provide additional habitat for wildlife and their prey. Marshes are enhanced by a coastal location as exhibited by the frequent occurrence of wildlife such as river otters, which would otherwise be restricted to the larger inland marshes or those near lakes and streams. They are also enhanced by the presence of buffer vegetation and adjacent natural habi- tats. Wooded margins surrounding the marsh will act as a noise and visual buffer for wetland wildlife and provide nest or roost sites for several species. Birds which nest in tree cavities such as Wood 469 Figure (621-2 Kx- MARSH EVAPORATION GROUND WATER Ducks will occur if snags or nest boxes are available and platform nesters such as Great Blue Herons will nest near marshes with large trees to support their bulky nests. Hydrology Freshwater marshes perform an important function in the hydrologic cycle (see Figure 621-2). Runoff accumulating in the marsh slowly seeps into the groundwater layer, replenishing subterranean reser- voirs. The elimination of marshes in areas where groundwater supply is critical may aggravate the problem. All wetland habitat types are natural flood control zones, able to accommodate large amounts of water without suffering damage. Marshes are no exception, and it has been estimated that a ten-acre wetland capable of accommodating several inches of water, will store over one million gallons. Recreational/Commercial and Other Social Values Freshwater marshes are major nesting sites for waterfowl and other aquatic birds. Many of these species are highly regarded by hunters and all are enjoyed by birdwatchers and other nonconsumptive recreationists. Mallards, perhaps the best known of the waterfowl which nest in freshwater marshes in western Washington, are popular among duck hunters who particularly value the drake or "greenhead." Local populations of mallards depend on marshes and other wetlands for breeding habitat. Mallards and other water birds contribute significantly to the State's economy through sales of guns, shells, binoculars, recreational vehicles and other expenditures by hunters and outdoor enthusiasts. They also contribute significantly to the qualitJ of life, providing all of us with the enjoyment of APSH watching wetland wildife. Marshes often serve as natural laboratories because they are microcosms of larger aquatic. systems. They are stimulating systems which have led many children to understanding the life stages of frogs and 471 have led many other persons to develop explanations III. IMPACTS for several basic principles of ecology. Studies of blackbirds and Marsh Wrens alone have yielded Freshwater marshes are among the most susceptible major contributions to our understanding of verte- of all wetlands to adverse impacts. They are brate territorial systems, competition for food easily drained or filled because they are often resources, mating strategies, and aggressive behav- small and water levels are low. Wildlife use of ior. An overriding principle inherent to many of the marsh and water level or quality can also be these studies is the fact that marshes are limited altered if surrounding vegetation is disturbed. habitats. Although not abundant, freshwater marshes In general, freshwater marshes and associated wild- do support recreationist, children at play, aquatic life should not be encroached upon. Buffer strips wildlife, educational and research endeavors, com- of native vegetation should be maintained and will mercial activities, and provide esthetic benefits vary in width according to several factors such for all to enjoy. as: 472 o Shape of drainage basin: All lands sloping disturb the wetland and maintain upland buffer into the marsh act as watersheds, controlling strips. However, some species which nest nearby runoff and silt. When vegetation is removed, in more extensive uplands and feed in the marsh increased flows, siltation, contamination with will require special attention. These species various toxins, and loss of other buffer effects include Bald Eagles, Wood Ducks, and Great Blue may result. Herons. o Presence of sensitive species: Inventories o Presence of sensitive habitats: Marshes are should be conducted in freshwater marshes within often associated with other wetland habitats. areas slated for development or other uses which The marsh and/or marsh wildlife may be related might affect the wetland. Species sensitive to to these adjacent wetlands in such a way that predicted disturbances should be identified and activites in one will affect the other. Inter- corrective actions taken. Marsh wildlife will relationships with these other habitats must be be least affected by activities which do not viewed on a case-by-case basis. Common associa- tions include marshy margins of lakes and ponds. 2"g ff & ......... 473 . . ...... .... ....... ... Coastal freshwater marshes have also been created by the activities of humans. Dikes and tidegates are often constructed to impound freshwater and restrict tidewater on former saltmarshes. Examples include some of the most extensive freshwater marshes in the coastal zone such as Gray's Marsh in Clallam County and portions of the Nisqually and Willapa National Wildlife Refuges. These marshes were created to benefit sel- ected waterfowl such as Canadian Geese and Mallards, and hunters who pursue them. Freshwater marsh creation does benefit these species and other marsh wildlife. However, dikes and tidegates restrict the ex- change of marsh and nearshore nutrients and organisms. The result may be a net loss of benefits to waterfowl , oysters, juvenile salmonids, flounders, shorebirds, and other species dependent on estuarine marsh productivity. References: Good, Ralph E., Dennis F. Whigham, and Robert L. Simpson (Editors). 1978. Freshwater wetlands. Academic Press. 378 pp. 474 IA x@v AMI)a 113 WAN NY N, --A r-4 h 'o M '-VA ONION Mil ld@ Ik 2, ...... TIV DA 4 A", fe, A IM @-F 11 1, ", @,, 3 N, s "KT, i q 3", P, Xe- U AL S :j o0m, NSA A", "g z-, Arp il 14 1 V, SALT MARSH (No. 623) SALT MEADOW (No. 625) BRACKISH MARSH (No. 626) INTRODUCTION Salt marshes, salt meadows, and brackish marshes A partial list of Washington areas with published occur along protected shorelines, in bays, estu- descriptions of coastal marsh communities includes: aries, and lagoons throughout the coastal zone. (numbers refer toliterature listed at Vie end of Highly productive terrestrial systems subject to this narrative) 11 2 tidal inundation, they occupy a unique position in Grays Harbor County Kitsap County the coastal ecosystem, contributing large amounts of organic matter to estuarine and nearshore waters, Grays Harbor Chico Bay and form the base of a complex, widespread food 8 2 web. Jefferson County Mason County Several studies have been performed in northwest Becket Point Coulter Creek coastal marshes (in this narrative defined to Black Point 7 include salt marsh, salt meadow, and brackish Broad Spit Pacific County marsh) in recent years, most intending to deter- Bywater Bay mine plant community composition, zonation in Chevy Chase North Willapa Bay relation to tide level, the wetland/upland transi- Chevy Chase South 2 tion, and bird, mammal, and fish use. One of the Fisherman's Point Pierce County first detailed studies was performed in Oregon by Gardner Dr. Carol Jefferson in 1975. Based on substrate Hadlock Burley Lagoon and elevation, Dr. Jefferson proposed a classifi- Kala Point 2 cation system that has been used in several sub- Oak Bay San Juan County sequent studies, occasionally in modified form. Quatsap Point Other workers have devised original classification Quilcene Griffin Bay schemes. The classificaton system used in the Right Smart Cove Wescott Bay Coastal Zone Atlas is relatively simple, based on Scow Bay elevation and salinity, and has the advantage of South Indian Island Thurston County 5 12 being easily used and understood by persons only South Ludlow Bay marginally familiar with coastal marshes. Figure South Point Nisqually River Delta 623-1 present a graphic comparison between the Suquamish Harbor Atlas classification scheme and several others Thorndyke Bay Whatcom Countyl likely to be encountered in the literature on Wash- ington's coastal marshes. Bellingham Bay 477 Several other areas have been mentioned by various authors. W. C. Muenscher, in The Flora of Whatcom County states: "Salt Marshes - Several salt marshes ranging from a few to twenty acres occur along the shores of Puget Sound, forming the western boundary of Whatcom county. These are covered with a rather uniform vegetation frequently forming a dense meadow. Most of these meadows occur behind gravelly or sandy beaches or along the tidal or lower courses of small streams. The best examples of salt marshes occur at: Point Roberts Gooseberry Point Semiahmoo Spit Lummi River California Creek Marietta Dakota Creek South Bellingham Birch Bay Chuckanut Bay Terrell Creek Lummi Island Sandy Point Eliza Island In A Botanical Survey of the Olympic Peninsula, George Neville Jones briefly mentions the marshes at the mouths of the Dosewallips and Duckabush Rivers in Jefferson County. Salt Marsh. Areas mapped as salt marsh in the Coastal Zone Atlas occur in every county, begin- ning with the lowest vegetation on the tideflat (excluding eelgrass and algae, mapped separately) and extending to approximately mean higher high water. Salt marsh formation begins when a sparse plant cover, tolerant of long periods of daily tidal inundation, colonizes the tideflat. With time, sediments are deposited and become stabilized by the vegetation, and as elevation slowly increases, plant cover becomes dense. Tidal inundation over the entire marsh varies depending on elevation, from twice daily to only occasionally with spring tides, but is often enough that the plant community consists almost entirely of halophytes (species tolerant of saline environments). Typically, a highly branched pattern of drainage channels spreads through- 478 out the marsh, and salt pans, pools of highly saline water, are a characteristic feature. figure 623-1 classification atlas salt marsh Salt meadow Brackish marsh JEFFERSON LOW SAND MARSH MATURE HIGH MARSH BULLRUSH SR LOW SILT MARSH SEDGE MARSH SEDGE MARSHES IMMATURE HIGH MARSH DIKED SALT MARSH FRENKEL LOW MARSH ______ LOWER TRANSITION____ TRANSITION _____________ UPLAND Salt Meadow Between the upper margin of salt marsh and strictly upland vegetation, salt meadow occurs. Inundated only by extreme high tides and storm tides, strongly salt-tolerant species co-dominate with semi-tolera species, and at highest elevation, species more characteristic of upland habits are often present. Areas just beyond tidal influence were occasionally mapped as salt meadow, to indicate the presence of halophytes and origin of the formation. Drainage channels and salt pans are characteristically deeper than in salt marshes, and freshwater seepage is frequently appar- ent at the salt meadow/upland ecotone. Salt meadows were mapped in every county except King, and are particularly extensive around Willapa Bay (Pacific County). Brackish Marsh Brackish marshes were mapped in areas where saline waters are sufficiently diluted by freshwater to permit the development of a weakly salt-tolerant marsh community. Characteristically occuring in estuaries, brackish marsh is mapped in Skagit, Island, Snohomish, Kitsap, Thurston, Mason, Jefferson, and Clallam Counties. The largest tracts of brackish marsh occur in Skagit and Snohomish counties, on the Skagit and Stilliguamish River deltas. 479 Historically, Washington's coastal marshes were much more extensive than they are today. Encroachment and alteration to other land uses have reduced the total number of marshes, and acreage of those remaining, to a fraction of what was present when the early settlers arrived. Reported losses since the 1800's or 1700's include approximately 30 percent of the coastal marsh habitat in Grays Harbor (Grays Harbor County), and greater than 80 percent on the Skagit River Delta (Skagit County). Similar figures are probable throughout the coastal zone, and as extreme examples, virtually all of the coastal marsh habitat has been destroyed in the Duwamish and Puyallup River deltas (King and Pierce counties). See Figure 623-2. Primary causes of the loss of coastal marsh habitat are diking, filling, and dredging for agricultural, commercial, or residential use. These activities were perpetrated in ignorance of the value of tidal marshes, and in an effort to mitigate previous losses, there is currently much interest in reestab- lishing marsh vegetation on dredge spoils. In Oregon, studies are underway to determine the feasi- bility of reestablishing coastal marshes by removing dikes, thus allowing the return of tidal influence. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Salt Marsh Plant Community Two major zones of vegetation are usually apparent in salt marshes. The lowest vegetated zone, the low marsh, occurs on the tideflat, and is composed of very salt-tolerant species, able to withstand long periods of daily submergence. Plant cover in the low marsh is generally sparse, and limited to relatively few species. In highly saline areas, pickleweed and arrowgrass are characteristic mudflat colonizers. In areas where the salinity is lowered by freshwater runoff, three square bulrush, sea- coast bulrush, and Lyngby's sedge occur. The presence of vegetation stabilizes the tideflat and reduces the velocity of tidal flow, allowing suspended sediments to settle out and slowly increase the elevation of the tideflat. Other low marsh species include saltgrass, Canada sandspurry, brass buttons, sea lettuce, rockweed, a green alga (Enteromorpha intestinalis) and microscopic benthic algae (mostly diatoms). Smooth cordgrass, the dominant low marsh species in eastern seaboard salt marshes, has been introduced at a number of sites throughout the state. At all Washington locations, this species is apparently unsuccessful in reproducing by seed, and is restricted to isolated clumps, expanding slowly by vegetative reproduction. European eelgrass occasionally is found in the low marsh. The second zone, the high marsh, is here defined as the area of continuous vegetative cover occurring between the low marsh and salt meadow or upland vegetation. Several plant associations have been identified in the literature as belonging to this zone, and species richness is intermediate between 480 low marsh and salt meadow. Generally, a pickleweed-dominated community occurs nearest the low marsh, IME MKR: ti z@ . . . . . . . . . . ut, Photography Collection University of Washington Photographer Unknown often with an abrupt rise of several inches above the low marsh. When instead this el evati onal change i s gradual , and especi al ly i f there i s f reshwater i nf I uence, Lyngby's sedge may occur in the transition zone between low and high marsh. Salt grass is a frequent co-dominant with pickleweed in the high marsh, and many other species are characteristic, including arrowgrass, jaumea, seaside plantain, saltwort, fat hen, gumweed, seablite, and dodder, a common parasite on pickleweed and fat hen. Spreading starwort, an uncommon species with limited distribution, was observed at a few sites along the Strait of Juan de Fuca and at Willapa Bay. This species is under consideration for proposal as a rare, endangered or threatened species in Washington. In the uppermost reaches of the high marsh, several new species may appear. Baltic rush, mud rush, and tufted hairgrass often occur, and become more abundant as eleva- tion increases. Species characteristic of salt meadows, including Pacific silver- weed and creeping bentgrass may be scattered throughout the upper margin of the high marsh. Salt Meadow Plant Community Beyond the reach of regular tidal inundation, the limiting effects of high salinity are moderated by precipitation and freshwater runoff. Soils are well developed with a substantial humus layer, and these conditions are reflected by the rich plant community. Tufted hairgrass, creeping bentgrass, and Pacific silverweed are common dominants in salt meadows. Remnants of the preceeding salt marsh community may be present, but rapidly decline in importance. Towards the upland edge of salt meadows, Douglas' aster is often present, as are several species also found in upland habi- tats, including yarrow, foxtail and meadow barley, and western and seaside dock. Stranded drift logs may be scattered throughout salt meadows, and often accumulate at the upland edge. Upland species frequently become established on the drift logs. At the mouth of the Pysht River in Clallam County, several large (approximately four feet in diameter) drift logs are stranded on the marsh and support a surpris- ingly complete upland community composed of stunted western hemlock and Sitka spruce, 482 salal, sheep sorrel, and several mosses and lichens. Freshwater influence at the upland margin is often apparent with the occurrence of species characteristic of brackish or freshwater wetlands. These include hardstem bulrush, common cattail, water parsley, and slough sedge. Brackish Marsh Plant Community Common cattail and hardstem or softstem bulrush dominate this coastal marsh type. Lilaeopsis, seaside buttercup, and low clubrush are also good indicators of brackish con- ditions, but are easily overlooked due to their small size. Areas of slightly higher elevation or better drainage may support characteristic species of salt meadows, including Pacific silverweed, Lyngby's sedge, creeping bentgrass, Douglas' aster, baltic rush, water parsley, and slough sedge. Table 623-1 summarizes several characteristics of Washing- ton's coastal marshes. 483 TABLE 623-1 SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF COASTAL MARSHES OF WASHINGTON Characteristic Plants Substrate Tidal Inundation Salt marsh low arrowgrass satu rated mud, sand, twice daily pickleweed gravel, silt 0 high pickleweed saltgrass 0 some organic material twice daily - frequent saltwort F0 Salt Meadow hairgrass Pacific silverweed well-developed soil, infrequent - only with creeping bentgrass highly organic extreme high & storm tides Baltic rush N F0 Brackish marsh cattail saturated silt, mud hardstem bulrush sand w/organic matter daily - infrequently or peat 434 Function and Value of Coastal Marshes Coastal marshes are among the most productive ecosystems known to man. The productivity of the dense vegetation, supplied with nutrients transported by the incoming tides and nearby rivers and streams, has often been favorably compared to intensively cultivated agricultural crops (see Table 623-2). TABLE 623-2 COASTAL MARSH NET PRODUCTION Grams/square meter/year Wheat field (world average) 288 Rice field (world average) 511 Sugar cane (Hawaii) 2,711 Low Sandy Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 738 Immature High Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 1,041 Mature High Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 283 Sedge (Carex sp.) Marsh (Jefferson Co., Wa.) 2,000 Sedge (@arex Ivnobvei) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, Or.) 1,746 Bulrush TScirpus maritimus) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, Or.) 609 Rush/Bentgrass (Juncus/Ag@ostis) Marsh (Nehalem Bay, Or.) 1,479 The fate of this productivity has been the subject of much study, and the results have established coastal marshes as basic to the functioning of a healthy coastal ecosystem. The energy produced is consumed within either of two feeding pathways; the direct grazing pathway or the detrital pathway. Figure 623-3 is a schematic representation of both pathways. 485 -- ------ -- 11"l-.- ... . ..... '=4 R MDMMI-'@ -@Kgk'-* e "M- "@!E-'M ar"K vg' 486 Photography Collection Figure 623-2. Tacoma and the Puyallup University of Washington Library River Estuary in 1894. Photographer: A.H. Waite -.5,;, ism non's TA 1 'Al. . . I C "Oo IV 04, ril, (kh oeqlv- SAW 064 PLANTS @Ilk I cgivAK GRP" BUNT PeTN'Tus GftatA W"wo TEAL sm- "WRO 40e OWL. FOLYCAMTS a"Llsti SoLf- AW)AWOO ................ FACAPIC 149MINd SALWAN ZHFSS Gw CLACA SCA) fltw CANVASS OLOS Xi 488 I'AAM Grazing Pathway Much of the direct use of coastal marshes by wildlife is by herbivores, the primary consumers of coastal marsh vegeta- tion. Many of these species are in turn preyed upon by secondary consumers. These first and second level consumers represent simple examples of food chains which become much more complex as other feeding pathways are considered and third and fourth levels of consumption are added. A simple food chain is exemplified by one of the most abundant and widespread salt marsh vertebrates, the Townsend's vole. These voles, also known as meadow mice, feed on salt marsh plants such as Lyngby's sedge. Marsh hawks often hunt low to the ground over salt marshes and capture these plump rodents. Other food chains include steps involving species within several major taxomonic groups. Many invertebrates (espe- cially insects) are consumers of plant matter produced in salt marshes, and many birds, mammals, and fish feed directly or indirectly upon them. Examples include shorebirds and juvenile salmon. Birds of prey capturing shorebirds and humans eating salmon are examples of other predators in- volved in food chains based on the grazing pathway. Many species which feed on smaller grazing organisms are omnivorous, often consuming varying quantities of salt marsh plant seeds or other plant parts. Consumption by omnivores is also considered primary consumption and probably involves the greatest number of wildlife species feeding directly on salt marsh plants. Marsh plant seeds are especially important as wildlife food and are consumed by many species. For example, Pintails, Mallards, Green-winged Teal , Ruddy Ducks, Trumpeter Swans, dowitchers, Soras, Savannah Sparrows, and Song Sparrows are known to eat seeds of sedges. Larger mammals, such as deer and elk, are primary consumers of other plant parts. Elk are especially abundant on salt meadows along Willapa Bay in Pacific County, and also occur in Jefferson and Grays Harbor County marshes. 0 41% ;,@ SPECIES SPECIES % 9,;, BIRDS TABLE 623-3 American Wigeon x x x Common Loon x SALT MARSji WILDLIFE Northern Shoveler x Red-throated Loon x x Canvasback x x Red-necked Grebe x Greater Scaup x x Horned Grebe x Lesser Scaup x x Eared Grebe x Common Goldeneye x x Western Grebe x Barrow's Goideneye x Pied-billed Grebe x Bufflehead x x Double-crested Cormorant x x White-winged Scoter x Great Blue Heron x x x Surf Scoter x Green Heron x Black Scoter x Great Egret x x x Ruddy Duck x x Whistling Swan x x x Hooded Merganser x x Trumpeter Swan x x x Common Merganser x x Canada Goose x Red-breasted Merganser x Brant x x Turkey Vulture x x Snow Goose x x x Red-tailed Hawk x Mallard x x x Rough-legged Hawk x Gadwall x Bald Eagle x x x Pintail x x x Marsh Hawk x Green-winged Teal x x x Osprey x x Cinnamon Teal x Merlin x x European Wigeon x x x American Kestrel x Virginia Rail x SPECIES BIRD4 S Common Loon 490 TABLE 623-3 SALT MARSH WILDLIFE Sora x American Coot x x x Semi-palmated Plover x x Killdeer x x Black-bellied Plover x x Common Snipe x Whimbrel x x Spotted Sandpiper x Greater Yellowlegs x x Lesser Yellowlegs x x Willet x x Sanderling x x Western Sandpiper x x Least Sandpiper x x Pectoral Sandpiper x Dunlin x x Dowitcher sp. x x Glaucous-winged Gull x x x Western Gull x x x Herring Gull x x x 491 CY 0 e 0 SPECIES SPECIES California Gull x x x Water Pipit x x Ring-billed Gull x x x TABLE 623-3 Northern Shrike x Mew Gull x x x SALT MARSH WILDLIFE Loggerhead Shrike x Bonaparte's Gull x x x Starling x Heermann's Gull x x Western Meadowlark x Common Tern x x Red-winged Blackbird x Mourning Dove x Brewer's Blackbird x Barn Owl x American Goldfinch x Short-eared Owl x Savannah Sparrow x Belted Kingfisher x x Vesper Sparrow x White-crowned Sparrow x Common Flicker x Song Sparrow x x Violet-green Swallow x x x MAMMALS Tree Swallow x x x Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) x x x River Otter (Lutra canadensis) x x x Rough-winged Swallow x x x Coyote (Canis latrans) x x Barn Swallow x x x Blacktail Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) x x Cliff Swallow x x x Elk (Cervus elaphus) x Raccoon (Procyon lotor) x x Purple Martin x x x Townsend's vole (Microtus townsendii) x Common Raven x x Deer Mouse (Perom@scus aniculatus) x Shrews (Sorex spp.) x Common Crow x x Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) x Dipper x European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) x House Wren x REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS American Robin x Red-legged frog (Rana aurora) x Garter snake (Thamnophis spp.) x Western Bluebird Rough-skinned newt (Taricha =ulosa) /SPECIES 492 0 7- Primary consumers typically associated with brackish marshes include the thousands of Snow Geese which winter on the Skagit and Stillaguamish deltas. Snow Geese feed on a variety of plants, but the favored foods are the rhizomes and sprouts of three-square bulrush. The head and neck of these white birds is often blackened with mud after rooting about in the low intertidal for this favored plant. Algae occurring in the lower portions of salt marshes are also grazed directly, primarily by small snails. The most common of these snails are Phytia myosotis and Assiminea californica. More rarely found are Cecina manchurica and several littorine snails. Newcomb's littorine T-Littorina newco-mbiana), is known to occur in only four estuaries world- wide, two of whTc-hare in Washington (Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay). This snail has been proposed as a threatened species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. These snails provide food for shorebirds and some fish which forage in salt marshes at high tides. Hairy shore crabs, often abundant in bur- rows along the edges of tidal sloughs, also wander among the marsh vegetation at high tide looking for young snails, insects, or decaying animal matter. 493 Detrital Pathway As marsh plants die, bacteria begin the process of decomposition. The decaying organic matter (called detritus) and associated bacteria forms the base of the second major food web originating in coastal marshes. Much detritus stays in the marsh, but most is carried away by the tides to adjacent marine waters. Recent research indicates that the amount of marsh plant material going through detrital path- ways exceeds the amount going through direct grazing pathways. The detritus produced in any particular marsh is spread over a large and unconfined area, making it difficult to quantify the value of a single marsh to animals in the detrital pathway. Some areas, especially deeper sub- tidal locations, are totally dependent on imported organic matter to function biologically, but may receive only a small part of their imported energy from marshes. However, on tideflats adja- cent to marshes, a large portion of the imported detritus may come from the marsh. A large number of invertebrates in both intertidal and subtidal areas, particularly small crus- taceans, clams, and worms, feed exclusively or largely on bacteria-rich detritus. These species in turn provide the primary food sources for other invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammals, many of which are commercially or recreationally important species. Dungeness and red rock crabs and shrimp are economically important invertebrate carnivores. Many of the fish which eat invertebrates were discussed in the Muddy Sand and Mud Narratives (Nos. 637 and 638) and include juvenile salmon, English sole, and starry flounder. Some of these fish move in with the tide to feed over and within the marsh proper. Salt marshes forming at the mouths of spawning rivers and streams are especially important to juvenile salmQnids. The marsh and estuary serve as a major feeding area and zone of transition for salmon migrating to sea from these freshwater sources. Prey of juvenile salmonids within the marsh includes insects emerging from the marsh and other invertebrates. Adult salmon and other fish occurring in off- shore marine waters feed on invertebrates and smaller fish which use salt marshes as nursery areas. !@94 Most of the birds and mammals noted in Table 623-3 feed within marshes, sloughs, and adjacent ff-ats, or otherwise benefit from the high productivity of marshes. These animals are dependent on marsh productivity and sensitive to activities on the marsh proper. All species listed were observed within marshes or in associated adjacent habitats during the coastal inventory. Many of the species noted as occurring in adjacent tideflats and near- shore areas are discussed in the Muddy Sand and Mud Narratives (Nos. 637 and 638). They are in- cluded here to emphasize their relationship to the marsh. Shorebirds feed on a variety of invertebrates on the marsh and adjacent mudflats. Two shorebirds which restrict most of their feeding acitity to the marsh proper are Common Snipes and Pectoral Sandpipers. Common Snipes were often observed in brackish marshes during our studies and were also seen in low pickleweed marshes. Dowitchers are examples of species which feed on mudflats and on Several ducks and other water birds feed within the marsh as was often observed in our studies. the marsh at high tide, or in sloughs or other wet One observation is worth noting to demonstrate the spots within the marsh throughout the day. They relationship between shorebirds and invertebrate feed on a variety of invertebrates or fish, and detritivores. Eighty-five to ninety of these plump, include Hooded Mergansers, Bufflehead, and King- long-billed shorebirds were observed feeding in a fishers. Hooded Mergansers are uncommon, small closely packed flock among pickleweed on Gibson diving ducks and the crested male is one of our Spit marsh in Clallam County. A few Dunlin and a most striking water birds. They occur in fresh- Black-bellied Plover were feeding with the water, where nests are placed in tree cavities, dowitchers as we approached to an unusually close and in coastal areas they frequent quiet waters distance. Beneath the dense mat of pickleweed was such as sloughs or lagoons within salt marshes. a loose layer of detritus alive with beach hoppers Their prey includes a high percentage of inverte- (Orchestia traskiana). These amphipods were brates. Water birds often associated with brackish feeding on decayed plant material which was being marshes include Red-winged Blackbirds, Soras, and quickly transferred to a form useable by the shore- Virginia Rails. These marsh birds are also charac- birds. Several hundred other shorebirds were also teristic of freshwater marshes, a reflection of in the vicinity, most of which are known to feed the similarities between brackish marsh and inland on beach hoppers and other amphipods. wetlands. 495 Oil Al 496 Birds of prey associated with aquatic areas, such most frequently encountered small mammals of Wash- as Bald Eagles and Osprey, occur on salt marshes,- ington marshes, the Townsend vole and one of our but more often feed over associated bodies of water. most common small birds, the Song Sparrow. Town- The Osprey hunts only over water, and is uncommon send voles, or meadow mice, are active both day along our coast. Bald Eagles are much more common and night and their above-ground runways are con- on marshes where they feed on fish and waterfowl cealed by dense marsh and salt meadow vegetation. over the marsh proper or in adjacent aquatic habi- They feed on a variety of marsh plants and may tats. Eagles are most common in winter when affect plant community composition and structure spawned-out salmon are washed onto the marsh by through grazing and tunneling activities. They flooded stream waters and high tides. The marsh certainly contribute significantly to marsh energy also is used as a day roost at this time. flow for wildlife species which consume them, in- Aquatic carnivorous mammals (secondary consumers cluding Short-eared Owls, Marsh Hawks, coyotes, Barn Owls, and Red-tailed Hawks. Remains of meadow of our coastal marshes are represented almost mice have consistently appeared in feces and pellets exclusively by river otters and harbor seals. of these predators collected on salt marshes during River otters forage in sloughs, nearshore, and in our studies. Other small mammals which occur in streams which flow through the marsh, while harbor salt marshes include deer mice, shrews, muskrats, seals feed mostly offshore. Both species use marshes as rest sites and harbor seals in parti . cu- and in the San Juan Islands, European rabbits.. lar are intolerant of human activity on the marsh. Song Sparrows are but one example of birds which Other secondary consumers include coyotes, raccoons, nest in coastal marshes. Song Sparrows are year- and the tiny vagrant shrew which occurs at the round residents of Washington and nest or feed upper marsh edge. These secondary consumers prey within salt marsh, salt meadow, and brackish on organisms which graze on marsh plants or feed marshes. The Song Sparrow requires marsh vegeta- on detritus produced within the marsh. tion for nest sites, hiding places, song perches, and for concealment while feeding. It is also Cover - Nest and Escape dependent on marsh plants directly and indirectly A few vertebrates complete their entire life cycle for food which includes seeds of gumweed and bul- within the salt marsh. These include one of the rushes. They also forage along meadow mouse trails and among pickleweed in the low marsh. In these low areas, food includes nereid worms, snails, insects, and other small invertebrates. Foraging is primarily on the ground in salt marshes, but Song Sparrows seldom are far from escape cover and are often seen singing from atop gumweed perches. Ground level nesting birds typically occur in high marsh or salt meadows, however, waterfowl occa- sionally nest in low marshes along quiet sloughs. Ground nesters frequently observed include Savannah Sparrows which conceal their spotted eggs in a 497 grass-lined nest. Vesper Sparrows and Killdeer are also known to nest within the low, but concealing cover of salt marsh vegetation, although Vesper Sparrows are uncommon. Other ground nesters which were probably more common prior to large- scale human disturbance of marshes include the Short-eared Owl. Thus, E. A. Kitchin wrote in 1919, "Our Tacoma tideflats cover several square miles of territory." He went on to tell of the two Short-eared Owl .nests he discovered along the edge of a slough within the marsh which has been largely eliminated since that time by the city of Tacoma (see Figure 623-2). Meadow mice are known to be the major prey of Short-eared Owls in salt marshes and there is evidence that these and other birds of prey often feed when high tides restrict the hiding places of salt marsh rodents. Meadow mice almost always have tall vegetation on their home range which they will swim to if high water floods their runways. They are then more visible to predators and more concentrated, particularly along slough margins where taller plants often grow. Another small marsh mammal is the vagrant shrew-which has been found to restrict its activities to higher areas on the marsh above tidal influ- ence. These nocturnal shrews are among the prey of Barn Owls at the Pysht River marsh in Clallam County. Barn Owls were observed roosting here in the Spruce wooded margin of the marsh and are examples of preda- tors which seek cover in adjacent habitats during the day and hunt the marsh at night. Other nocturnal predators include Great Horned Owls, coyotes, and raccoons. These hunters of the night benefit from the cover of darkness and the increased activity of small mammals after sunset. Brackish marsh vegetation and taller plants growing along slough or stream margins in coastal marshes often increase the diversity of nesting birds. Increased plant height provides singing perches for birds, adds to concealment, and offers a nest substrate for birds such as Red-winged Blackbirds and Long-billed Marsh Wrens. Both of these species also occur in freshwater marshes having similar vegetation. Cattails and hardstem or softstem bulrush are used as cover, nest attachment, nest material, singing perches, and as feeding sites. Other birds benefiting from the cover and food within tall brackish marsh vegetation include A9. Soras, Common Snipes, Song Sparrows, and waterfowl. Rest Sites Salt marshes are major rest sites for wildlife, particularly shorebirds which feed at low tide within marsh sloughs or along adjacent mudflats. Shorebirds often continue to feed in the marsh and are known to switch from invertebrates to seeds of marsh plants when high tides force them off lower intertidal feeding areas. However, invertebrates (including insects and their larvae) may still be consumed when shorebirds move up onto higher ground. Waterfowl also use marshes for rest sites and often intermingle periods of rest and feeding. They most often occur at the marsh edge, and where sloughs dissect the marsh, a greater shoreline area'is available for ducks to feed, rest, and potentially nest. Mammals also use the marsh as a rest site and frequently occur at the land-marsh or water-marsh interface. Upland edges provide escape cover for terrestrial mammals that may bed down on marshes. These species include coyotes, deer, and elk. The aquatic edge is also used as a rest site, primarily by river otters and harbor seals. Both these species require water for feeding and as an escape route, but harbor seals are more selective in their choice of marsh rest or haul out sites. Harbor seals are much more adapted to an aquatic life and select haul out sites adjacent to deep water at river mouths or along sloughs. Marsh haul out sites include those at the mouth of the Skokomish, Duckabush, and Dosewallips Rivers, all of which enter Hood Canal. 499 River otters move about easily on land, but select Undis turbed and continuous wooded edge habitats rest or landing sites which are near water. Thirty- provide corridors, cover, roost and nest sites for six percent of all otter landings located during several species which forage in marshes. Streams our coastal inventory were on salt marshes and and associated riparian vegetation are corridors were adjacent to a variety of aquatic areas in- allowing the movement of elk, bobcat, deer, coyotes cluding streams, lagoons, open water, and large and other wildlife between marsh and upland. Inland rivers. Otters and harbor seals both come ashore agricultural fields are also valuable uplands used to rest, but the marsh landings of otters serve by marsh waterfowl and other wildlife. Many of several other purposes. These small marsh-edge these farmlands were created by diking marshes. sites are often trampled and vegetation is some- This process has benefited certain species such as times removed as a result of their rolling, Canadian Geese and Mallards which feed in stubble scratching, and playing behavior. fields and diked marshes. However, diking has also removed many acres of productive salt marsh Other wildlife which frequently rest on salt marshes from the coastal ecosystem which supports a far include gulls, terns, and Great Blue Herons. Herons more diverse, wider ranging, and more economically are especially common and are sometimes seen in valuable group of organisms. large numbers. At Quilcene Bay marsh, 27 herons were seen resting on the marsh edge at high tide Feeding by terrestrial species occurs to the water's on a recent July day. edge and above ground by aerial foragers such as Barn and Cliff Swallows. Both swallows capture Edge Effect insects emerging from the marsh, sloughs, and high intertidal mudflats adjacent to the marsh, and Because salt marshes are one of the most productive often fly out over nearshore areas to feed or of coastal ecotones, they support large numbers of collect mud at the marsh edge. The moist mud is species which are primarily terrestrial or aquatic scooped with the swallow's bill and used to con- as well as those requiring both systems. struct their familiar open and gourd-shaped nests. Terrestrial .wildlife either move into the marsh Western Bluebirds-and Northern Shrikes Are other from adjacent uplands or occur primarily within the marsh. This varies considerably and is gen- erally related to the diversity of adjacent uplands, extent of undeveloped upland edge, and size of the' marsh. Larger marshes generally support a more diverse wildlife community, but small marshes have relatively more edge per unit of area. This marsh edge length may be a significant contribution to marsh energy transfer, and wildlife populations will benefit from this effect (see discussion of relationship of size to function and value of coastal marshes on page 504. 500 THF SALTWATER- UPLAND ECOTONFE UPLANDS NEST ON TREES PERCH IN TRW Nea-T Is vtGtTA-rK)N FLY SACK ae FORTM A00V0 GROL140 PZRC14 cyA tAVQ VVALK VACK k Fccm frLoA-r c)t4 SUFMACS B A L T A R S H SALT WATER BU60W WALK PERCH OR GROUND SWIM WALI( M CKAWL SWIM W I L D L I F v 501 examples of insectivorous birds which may occur on on the marsh and tideflats, and also serve as roost marshes. Shrikes feed on insects, but also prey and nest sites for birds of prey such as Red-tailed on other small birds or mammals. Loggerhead Shrikes Hawks. are much less common, but have been observed on coastal marshes. Both shrike species are members In general, as body size of the predator increases, of the large order of small landbirds, Passeriformes home range or territory size also increases. Thus, (the Passerines). The Water Pipit is another large carnivorous marsh birds and mammals generally passerine which occurs on marshes. While the require marsh and a variety of adjacent terrestrial shrikes behave much like small hawks, the pipit is areas to satisfy their habitat requirements. This often associated with and behaves much like a is especially true in the marshes of our inland shorebird. They are sparrow-sized and feed in low waters which are typically smaller than those occur- marsh or muddy areas on insects and other inverte- ring in Willapa Bay. brates. Larger terrestrial species frequenting salt marshes Nutrient Cycling include several predators which generally require Coastal marshes serve as nutrient traps in the adjacent upland cover. Some large marshes with coastal ecosystem. Nutrient-rich sediments from well-developed high marsh or salt meadow may pro- upland, riverine, and marine sources are deposited vide all the habitat requirements for some of on the marsh surface by incoming tides and are these species. For example, scattered spruces converted and stored as plant material during the often occur in salt meadows along Willapa Bay. growing season. These nutrients then re-enter the The trees and associated understory vegetation cycle through either the grazing or detritus food provide cover for raccoons and coyotes which forage webs discussed earlier. An understanding of this cycle enables one to draw the following conclusions: 1. Areas mapped as salt marsh contribute to the maintenance of coastal ecosystems on a daily basis. Salt meadows and brackish marshes are important on a seasonal basis, contributing large amounts of detritus at infrequent intervals; 2. Both the grazing and detritus-based food webs are ultimately dependant on nutrients from marshes, as well as a wide variety of other habitats; 3. The productivity of coastal wildlife is direct- ly related to the total amount of coastal marsh available (including that beyond the political boundaries of Washington State); 4. Disturbances affecting nutrient supply from both upland and marine sources will impact coastal marshes and dependent wildlife. 502 Water and Air Quality Coastal marshes have been shown to have significant beneficial effects on water and air quality in several ways. Marshes reduce turbidity of coastal waters by functioning as settling areas for sedi- ments carried in longshore currents or in runoff from the surrounding watershed. Turbid water has been shown to inhibit algal growth, and in the absence of suitable settling out areas, deposited sediment may bury and smother bottom-dwelling organisms. Because marsh plants remove nutrients from coastal waters for metabolic use, they increase the capa- city of the water to assimilate additional nutrient- loaded discharge. A study conducted in a 512-acre marsh on the East Coast found that phosphorous was being absorbed at the rate of 4.9 tons per day, ammonia (NH 3) at 4. 3 tons per day, and oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis, was being produced at a rate of 20 tons per day. Additionally, microbes present in the sediment are capable of breaking down sulphur pollutants. "The most important contribution marshes and estuaries can make in waste treatment is tertiary treat- Flood control is possible because the marsh is a ment to remove and recycle inorganic system that is not only able to tolerate, but is nutrients." dependent upon, regular inundation. Coastal The Value of the Tidal Marsh marshes are essentially reservoirs which can accom- J. G. Gosselink, et al. modate flood waters and storm tides, and suffer little or no adverse effects. Erosion and Flood Control Temperature Control Coastal marshes naturally dimini$h the erosive Marshes and associated tideflats absorb and hold effects of tidal action by reducing wave force and the sun's heat and have a moderating effect on stabilizing sediment deposits. Marshes are parti- local water temperature and microclimate. This cularly valuable in this respect when situated at moderating effect has been shown to have a stong the base of steep bluffs which would otherwise be positive influence on the growth and reproduction exposed to wave action. rate of estuarine organisms. 593 Recreational Use Coastal marshes are a valuable recreational resource for both consumptive and nonconsumptive uses. Waterfowl hunters for quite some time have understood the vital role played by coastal marshes as habitat for many game birds, and as a result, revenue from the purchase of duck stamps is appropriated for marsh conservation and management. Several marshes throughout the coast are managed or preserved primarily for the production of waterfowl, including Gibson Spit (Clallam County), Thorndyke Bay (Jefferson County), Nisqually Delta (Thurston County), and portions of the Skagit River Delta (Skagit County). Nonconsumptive recreational use of coastal marshes ias difficult to quantify, but a recent Washington Department of Game report shows that the dollar amount spent on nonconsumptive use of wildlife on the department's lands was greater than the amount spend for all hunting and fishing activities on the same land. Educational and esthetic values of coastal marshes can be considerable. Students at The Evergreen State College have performed numerous studies on the Nisqually River Delta, making significant contri- butions to our knowledge of Wahington's coastal marsh flora and fauna. Relationship of Size to Function and Value of Coastal Marshes Because many of Washington's coastal marshes are relatively small, consideration must be given to their total contribu- tion to the coastal ecosystem. Studies have shown that upland and water edges may have relatively greater value than other areas of the marsh, due to the edge effect which occurs at the ecotone between adjacent habitats. Although the capability is lacking to compute what percent of the total edge is represented in smaller Washington marshes, figures from other states suggest it may be substantial, e.g., in Maryland, 68 percent of the total upland edge, and 73 percent of the total seaward edge is accounted for by marshes of less than five acres. Due to mapping restrictions, marshes of less than approximately one acre are not indicated in the Atlas volumes, but this does not mean their value should be disregarded. Workers in other areas have drawn the following conclusions concerning small marsh strips or remnants: 504 1. "Any marsh which is at least two feet or more in aver- age wi dth . . . has significant value as an erosion deterrent and is capable of filtering sediment." Coastal Wetlands of Virginia, G. Silverhorn, et al. 2. "Any marshes greater than 0.1 acre in size may have, depending on type and viability, significant value in terms of productivity, detritus availability, and habitat." Ibid. 3. Tidal flushing, nutrient and detritus transfer, and buffer effects appear to be greater if the ratio of edge length to marsh area is larger. Thus the exc,hange of nutrients which occurs along borders of small marshes and their overall value makes them an important part of the coastal eco- system. Larger marshes may often support more recognizably valuable wildlife species, but small marshes and those surrounded by urban areas also' contribute significantly to the productivity of coastal waters. 505 IMPACTS As summarized in the introductory section to this narrative, a signficantly large amount of Washington's coastal marsh habitat has been destroyed since settlers first arrived. Presently, losses are continuing, and during the course of this study, the disturbances most commonly observed included: 1. Filling for residential and commerical construction, or use as dredge spoil disposal sites. These activities generally result in the complete destruction of the marsh in the affected area; 2. Alteration of the salinity regime, i.e., length and frequency of tidal inundation, by the construction of dikes and tide gates. Unbroken dikes are generally constructed in salt meadows to prevent the influx of tidal waters. This is equivalent to an increase in elevation and succession is accelerated as precipitation and runoff leach salts from the soil, allowing colonization and gradual replacement of salt meadow vegetation by upland species. Furthermore, by removing the diked area from tidal influence, the seasonal con- tribution of detritus from the area to adjacent marine waters is lost. Diked salt meadows are often used for pasturing farm animals, further accelerating the rate of change in the plant community by the removal of palatable species, and the introduction of "weedy" species; 3. Alteration of adjacent previously undisturbed upland habitat. This disturbance will reduce the diversity of wildlife inhabiting the marsh in two ways: by altering or des- troying the corridors or upland habitat required by terrestrial species that use coastal marshes, and, especially if residential development alters the adjacent uplands, the pres- ence of domestic animals which disturb or destroy marsh wildlife; 4. Although not a common disturbance, the introduction of nonnative plant species has proved to be a serious problem in Port Susan (Snohomish and Island Counties). Port Susan is part of the area that annually supports the west coast winter population of Snow Geese, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. The major food resource of the Snow Geese are the underground stems (rhizomes) of three-square bulrush, growing in the lowest part of the salt marshes in the area. In 1961, Townsend's cordgrass was introduced to Port Susan, and has since spread throughout the area, out-competing the native bulrush. The rhizomes of Townsend's cordgrass are unpalatable to the Snow Geese, and concern has been expressed for their winter habitat if the cordgrass continues to spread. Herbicide applications have been tried on experimental plots, with no success, and it presently appears there is no satisfactory way to control Townsend's cordgrass in Port Susan. 506 fe Oil Spills The effects of oil spills on coastal marsh vegetation, unobserved in Washington, have been reported from other areas. Be- cause coastal marshes occur in protected areas, oil is not dispersed by wave and wind action, but accumulates on marshes. Once deposited, oil readily adheres to marsh vegetation, creating a film that prevents gas exchange between plant and atmosphere by obstructing leaf pores (stomata), and decreases the rate of photo- synthesis by reducing available light. Oil accumulated within marshes has been known to persist for several years, and extensive areas of coastal marsh have been denuded as a result of spilled oil. 507 Salt Marsh References 1. Disraeli, D. J. and R. W. Fonda. 1979. Gradient Analysis in a Brackish Marsh in Bellingham Bay, Washington. Canadian Journal of Botany 57: 465-475. 2. Frenkel, Robert et a]. 1978. Transition Zone Vegetation Between Intertial Marsh and Upland In Oregon and Washington. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 3. Gossel ink, J. G. , E. P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1974. The Value of the Tidal Marsh. Center for wetland Resource, Publ. LSU-SG-74-03, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 4. Gucinski, Herman. 1978. A Note on the Relation of Size to the Ecological Value of Some Wetlands. Estuaries 1(3): 151-156. 5. Herman, S.G. and A.M. Weidermann (eds.) 1975. Contributions to the Natural History of the South- ern Puget Sound Region, Washington. The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington. 6. Jefferson, Carol A. 1975. Plant Communities and Succession in Oregon Coastal Salt Marshes. PhD. Thesis, OSU, Corvallis. 192 p. 7. Northwest Environmental Consultants. 1974. Evaluation of the Willapa River and Harbor Navigation Project. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 8. Northwest Environmental Consultants. 1975. The Tidal Marshes of Jefferson County. Jefferson County Planning O-Ppartment. 9. Shanholtzer, G. Frederick. 1974. Relationship of vertebrates to salt marsh plants. In: Ecology of Halophytes, (Reimold, J. R. and William H. Queens, Ed. ). Academic Press, N.Y. pp. 473-474. 10. Smith, Jack L. and David R. Mudd. 1976. Impact of dredging on the avian fauna in Grays Harbor. In: Maintenance dredging and the environment of Grays Harbor, Washington (App. H) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle, p. Hi-Hz17. 11. Smith, Jack L. et al. 1976. Maintenance Dredging and the Environment of Grays Harbor Washington. Appendix F: Impact on the Vegetation in Grays Harbor. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 12. The Nisqually Delta Group Contract. 1974. The Nisqually Delta. The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington. 508 609 ilk I -@A@ Jr -1115 111 NV, It --E@, k, gJ v 'q, IN MR, IN -M-- V LIMP, SEAGRASS (No. 627) INTRODUCTION Seagrasses are vascul ar pl ants (i. e. , rel ated to terrestri al plants rather than algae) which grow in the marine environ- ment. There are two groups of seagrasses in Washington; eelgrass (Zostera) and surfgrass (Phyllospadix). They occur in intertidal and shallow subtidal areas throughout much of the state. Seagrasses are highly productive plants', and are important in the trophic functioning and nutrient cycling of the entire coastal zone. They provide unique habitats which support distinct communities of algae and animals, many of which are of great val ue to humans. The ecology of seagrasses is just now in the process of being widely studied. Previous research on Washington State seagrasses dealt almost exclusively with eelgrass (Zostera marina). Several studies from the East Coast and Europe have also dealt with this same plant, and are the base for much of the knowledge on seagrasses. While quantitative values from these studies cannot be applied to the Washington Coastal Zone, the general principals established by these studies can be relevant to our shoreline ecosystems. 511 SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Productivity while food chains in the detritus pathway are often longer and more complex, involving a much greater Seagrasses generally have high rates of productivity. diversity of animals. Studies on eelgrass in Puget Sound indicate that production (500 to 600 grams of dry weight per square Waterfowl are the most important direct grazers of ,meter per year or .10 to .12 pounds per square foot seagrasses in Washington. Eelgrass is predominant per year) compares vary favorably to figures for in their diet and constitutes 80 percent or more of seagrasses in other areas of the world, even though the food of Brant during winter. The significance root production was not included. of eelgrass consumption was noted in a bay in Alaska in which 17 percent of the eelgrass crop was con- The production of eelgras 's is greater per unit area sumed by Brant and Canada Geese during fall and than the world averages for cultivated corn or rice, summer. Other waterfowl feeding heavily on eelgrass the U.S. averages for hayfields or tall-grass in Washington include Pintails, American Wigeons, prairies, or phytoplankton production off Peru in and Greater Scaup. These birds feed either on nutrient-rich upwelling areas. A study in an east plants attached to the substrate or on free-floating coast estuary indicated that eelgrass, despite leaves which have broken off from the remainder of covering only 17 percent of the total estuarine the plant. Algae and invertebrates attached to eel- area, was responsible for 64 percent of the primary grass contribute to the food value of the plants production (including salt marsh production). The consumed by these waterfowl. productivity of surfgrass has not been measured in Washington, but should also be relatively high. The eelgrass beds in Washington help make our shore- Production of seagrasses is further enhanced by line an important stop-over and wintering ground along the Pacific Flyway, one of four major migra- algae living within the seagrass bed. These algae, tory bird routes in North America. Willapa and which include benthic micro- and macro-algae, epi- Padilla Bays are examples of major sites in Washing- phytic algae (algae attached to the seagrasses them- ton along the flyway and are especially significant selves), and phytoplankton, may contribute as much for their productive eelgrass beds. Both bays sup- to overall production as the seagrasses. Surfgrass, port substantial concentrations of birds and other which grows on rocky beaches, occurs adjacent to wildlife, and within Willapa Bay are 10,000 acres seaweed beds whose productivity is probably signifi- of National Wildlife Refuge managed primarily for cantly higher than that of surfgrass. Brant and Canada Geese as an integral part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Flyway migra- Trophic Relationships tory bird program. Many.other species are present in addition to geese and include wigeon, scaup, Seagrass beds provide food for animals through either Pintail, teal, loons, grebes, and shorebirds. Sev- of two pathways; the direct grazing pathway or the eral hundreds of thousands of birds feed within detritus pathway. Food chains in the direct grazing Willapa Bay each year with peak populations of pathway are usually short and relatively simple, 100,000 birds. 512 The detritus pathway is the dominant trophic pathway involving seagrasses. Detritus is organic matter (seagrasses in this case) which is in the process of being decom- posed by bacteria. Plants begin to break off as a result of wave action or death from exposure to sun during low tides and enter various food chains. A generalized food chain in the detritus pathway is as follows: -5eagw.575 de'r#r15 allhad8ria, am*,pod ---------------- - - -------------------------------------------- ................ ................ .. .. . ..... . . . ........................... ..................... .. . ..... . .......... ....... ............... ce -------- - - - - 5-13 The majority of animals found in eelgrass beds (or 'meadows' , as they are often called) are dependent upon detritus as a food source (this may not be true for surf- grass beds). 'Invertebrates which feed directly on detritus suspended in the water column or which has settled onto the substrate include isopods, amphipods, polychaete worms,, brittle stars, and some clams. These invertebrates make eelgrass beds rich feeding areas for fishes and marine birds, which in turn provide food for other birds, fishes, and marine mammals. Observations in Hood Canal showed that diving bird use of eelgrass beds was three times greater than use of non-vegetated near- shore areas. Studies on the East Coast have indicated that two-thirds to three-quarters of the eelgrass produced in beds is used as detritus rather than being grazed directely. Another study estimated that up to 45 percent of the detritus is consumed in areas outside of the eelgrass bed. An even greater percentage of surfgrass would probably be exported to other areas, as the high energy of splashing waves where it occurs would more readily sweep plant material away. Thus, seagrass beds contribute food to animals throughout nearshore areas, as well as in offshore areas. Decaying sea- grass leaves have been collected in trenches as deep as 29,000 feet. Nutrient Cycle While little is known of the nutrient cycling properties of surfgrass, eelgrass is known to be important in the cycling of several key nutrients. Detritus from eel- grass, and probably surfgrass to a certain extent, which settles into mud or muddy sand substrates initiates sulfate reduction and helps maintain an active sulfur cycle. Eelgrass also absorbs both nitrogen and phosphorus through its roots. Some of this nitrogen and phosphorus is released into the water column, making it avail- able for use by other plants. Eelgrass plants can absorb nitrogen as they contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their rhizomes (or roots). Eelgrass, and perhaps surf- grass, excretes dissolved organic carbon into the water column, and thus is also an important part of the carbon cycle. Algae which grow on seagrasses may also derive some of their nutrients directly from seagrasses; if this does occur, these algae 514 are actually a type of parasite. 171v 31M 131 ffiwll@ 'I, k, t'-47" aza "@A r-44t EELGRASS DET Protection and Stability Seagrass leaves reduce current flow and wave action both within and on the shoreward side of seagrass beds, creating a protected environment. This protection increases the sediment of detritus and mud particles in the case of eelgrass beds, and detritus and sand in the case of surfgrass beds, and thus can alter the substrate composition by allowing finer particles to become a part of the substrate. This change in substrate type allows organisms to be present which would not normally occur. During low tides, seagrasses help provide protection to small plants and animals from extreme tempera- tures and the danger of dessication. Seagrasses give this protection largely by forming an insulating mat, under which temperatures are greatly moderated. On nearly level tideflats where dense eelgrass beds often occur, eelgrass leaves restrict receding water flow during outgoing tides. As a result, a shallow water layer is maintained over the tide flats which affords additional protection for small organisms, as well as the eelgrass itself. .Eelgrass roots bind sediments, and along with the protection afforded by the leaves, reduces surface sediment erosion. This protects the highly productive bacteria in the sediments and at the sediment- water interface. These bacteria are an important source of nutrition for many small invertebrates. The resulting increased stability of sediments caused by the presence of eelgrass, and surfgrass to a lesser extent, is correlated with an- increase in both invertebrate density and diversity. Finally, seagrasses supply a refuge from predators for a variety of invertebrates and fishes. Many animals use seagrass beds, especially eelgrass beds, only for nursery areas, while others spend their entire existente swimming or walking on or among the leaves, or burrowing in the sediment among the roots. 516 Characteristic Plants and Animals Plants Two species of eelgrass and three species of surfgrass occur in Washington. eelgrass Broad-bladed eelgrass (Zostera marina) is usually referred to as eelgrass, and is the most widespread seagrass in the state. Roughly 125,000 acres (50,600 hectares) of eelgrass are present in Puget Sound alone. Extensive beds also occur in both Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay. Eelgrass grows in protected areas in sediments ranging from fairly coarse sand to mud, and occasionally on mixed fine and mixed coarse beaches. The optimal substrate type is a combination of mud and sand in which there is a black, anaerobic environ- ment just below the lighter-colored, oxygenated surface sediments. Eelgrass normally grows between -25 feet (-6.6 meters) and +3 feet (+1 meter) rela- tive to mean lower low water. Eelgrass may occasionally be found at higher eleva- tions in pools or depressions which remain moist during low tides. The lower limit is determined by light penetration, and in turbid waters may be only -3 to -6 feet (-1 to -2 meters) deep. Eelgrass distribution is limited in southern Puget Sound. Becoming less common south of the Tacoma Narrows, eelgrass is extremely rare west of a line between Nis- qually Head and the tip of the Longbranch Peninsula. Narrow-bladed or European eelgrass was reported introduced into Washington around 1920. The scientific name is Zostera noltii, but this same plant was formerly called Z. nana and Z. americana, and these names are sometimes still seen in vari- ous repTrts-concerning eelgrass. The distribution of European eelgrass is more limited in Washington than the distri- bution of broad-bladed eelgrass. It occurs in sand and silty sand in Willapa Bay, Grays Harbor, the San Juan Islands, upper Hood Canal , and Whatcom and Skagit counties (most notably in Padilla Bay), and probably in Island and Snohomish counties as well. It is scarce or absent in the lower half of Hood Canal and in Puget Sound south of Snohomish County. However, since European eelgrass is apparently an intro- duced species, it is possible that its distribution is still increasing in Washington. 517 European eelgrass occurs at slightly higher inter- of epiphytes than surfgrasses as the pounding of tidal elevations than broad-bladed eelgrass, waves along exposed beaches tends to clean off surf- although their ranges do overlap. Its upper limit grass leaves. The biomass of epiphytes in some appears to be +6 to +7 feet above MLLW. eelgrass beds, however, may equal the biomass of the eelgrass itself. Thus these epiphytes can sig- surfgrass nificantly increase the productivity of a seagrass Three species of surfgrass occur in Washington bed; however, if epiphytes become too dense, they (Phyllospadix scouleri, P. torreyi, and P. serrulatus) can lower seagrass production by preventing ample on exposed rock or mixTd coarse beactFe-s. Their light from reaching the seagrass. It may be that distribution is thus limited to the outer coast excessive growth of epiphytes is the single most the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the west side of Whidb@y important factor in restricting surfgrass growth to Island, and the southern parts of the San Juan exposed beaches. Islands. The exposed nature of surfgrass occur 'rence Animals leaves little room for overlap in distribution with eelgrass. Freshwater Bay, in Clallam County, is an invertebrates exception where surfgrass and eelgrass occur in A wide variety of invertebrates are characteris- close proximity; this results only from a unique tically associated with seagrass beds (Table 627-1). combination of beach orientation and wave direction That most of these animals are dependent upon sea- which supplies both exposed rock and protected sand grasses for food, shelter, or nesting is demonstrated beaches. by how their seasonal population fluctuations reflect algae changes in seagrass abundance during the year. Some animals, such as those which live on seagrass Seagrass leaves support a large number of epiphytic blades, become more abundant during spring and summer algae (algae which live on another plant). Over when seagrasses are most abundant. Other animals, 100 species of these algae, some of which occur such as those,which feed on seagrass detritus, become almost exclusively on seagrasses, are known in Wash- more numerous during fall and winter when large ington. A few of these algae are listed in Table quantities of seagrasses are torn loose by waves. 627-1. Eelgrasses generally have greater amounts The invertebrates associated with seagrasses can be divided into several categories depending upon where they occur. One group includes those animals living on the seagrass blades. This group contains an extremely diverse and interesting set of mostly small animals, some of which are present almost exclusively on seagrass or large seaweeds. Included are anemones, skeleton shrimp, isopods, snails, crabs, hydroids, and beautifully colored sea slugs. Another group of animals includes those which occur either on the sediment or swimming in the water 518 TABLE 127-1. CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS Common Name Trophicl Zone(s) of 2 Economic3 (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Comments PLANTS Seagrasses (Vascular Plants) Eelgrass (Zostera marina) PP L,SB See "Significant Biological Features" section. European or narrow-bladed PP H,M,L See "Significant Biological Features" eelgrass (Z. noltii) section. Surfgrass (Phyllospadix scouleri) PP L See "Significant Biological Features" section. Surfgrass (P. torreyi) PP L Surfgrass (F serrulatis) PP L Green algae Sea lettuce (Monostroma zostericola) PP L,SB Epiphytic; food for waterfowl. (Ulva lactuca) PP L,SW Edible; epiphytic or on substrate between plants; food for waterfowl. (Enteromorpha linza) PP L,S6 Edible, epiphytic or on substrate between plants. Brown algae (Ectocarpus) PP L. SB Epiphytic. Red algae Nori, or laver (Porphyra haiadium) PP L,SW Epiphytic. Microscopic algae Filamentous diatoms PP M,L,SB Epibenthic. 519 TABLE 627-1. (continued) Common Name Trophic 1 Zone(s) of 2 Economic3 (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Comments INVERTEBRATES Molluscs Rocking chair limpet (Aemaea paleacea) HERB L 061y on seagrass leaves. Chink shells (Lacuna spp.) HERB L,SB Bubble shell (Haminoea vesicula) ? L On sediments in eelgrass beds; Heart cockle (Cinocardium nuttallii) FF H,M,L,SB lay eggs on eelgrass blades. R,PC Most abundant in eelgrass beds. Transparent sea slug (Melibe leonina) CARN L,SB Sea slug (Hermissenda crassicornis) CARN L,SB (Aeolidia papillosa) CARN (Phyllaplysia taylori) CARN? L,SB Only on eelgrass. Arthropods Gammarid amphipods (many species) HERB, H,M,L,SB CARN, DETR Skeleton shrimp (Caprellid amphipods) CARN L,S8 Pillbugs or isopods (Idotae spp.) HERB L,SB Shrimp (Pandalus) CARN L,SB C,R (Crangon) L,TB- PC (Heptacarpus) L,SB (Hippolyte) L,SB r 020 TABLE 627-1. (continued) Common Name Trophic 1 Zone(s) of 2 Economic3 (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Comments Kelp crab (Pugettia gracilis) HERB L,SB Northern kelp crab (P. producta) HERB L,SB Helmet crab (Telmessus cheiragonus) CARN L,SB Red rock crab (Cancer productus) CARN L,SB R,PC Popular recreationally. Dungeness crab (C. magister) CARN L,SB C,R Economically very important. Segmented worms (Annelids) Nereidae (Nereis sp.) HERB L,SB LEGEND: Ribbon worms (Nemerteans) CARN L,SB Trophic Type 3Economic Value Coelenterates HERB = Herbivore C = Commercial FF = Filter Feeder R = Recreational Brooding anemone (Epiactic prolifera) CARN L,SB CARN = Carnivore PC = Potential Commercial DETR = Detritivore Hydroid (Obelia longissima) CARN L,SB Jellyfish (Gonionemus vertens) CARN L,SB Zones of Occurrence Sessile jellyfish (Haliclystis auricula) CARN L,SB H = High Intertidal M = Mid-Intertidal Echinoderms L = Low Intertidal SB = Shallow Subtidal Six-rayed starfish CARN LISB (Leptasterias hexactis) 521 column amongst the seagrass plants. Animals in this group use seagrass beds for feeding, nesting, or' to seek refuge from predators. Examples of invertebrates in this group are numerous shrimp and two types of crabs, the Dungeness and red rock crabs. Yet another group of animals live in the sediments. Polychaete worms are perhaps the major invertebrates in this group. The organisms in this group are primarily detritus feeders, using the organic matter produced or trapped by seagrass plants for food. The presence of seagrass rhizomes (or 'roots') apparently make it more difficult for predators to capture animals living in the sediments. fish Seagrasses, particularly extensive beds of eelgrass, provide key habitat for fish. Eelgrass plants offer a refuge from predators for small fish such as juvenile floun- ders and a fich feeding ground for larger fish. The plants are also a site for attachment of egg masses for fish such as herring which spawn in large numbers each spring in eelgrass beds. Egg masses of herring can be used as a food source for humans and are consumed by many birds, fish, and crabs. Large and diverse flocks of diving ducks congregate when herring are spawning and as they feed over submerged eelgrass beds, plants are detached and float to the surface where non-diving birds such as gulls feed an the egg covered plants. Feeding flocks are signals to fishermen that bait and herring predators (such as salmon) are present. These flocks are also an intriguing spectacle for those who enjoy watching wildlife. One such feeding assemblage observed at Port Gamble in northern Hood Canal (March 1978) included: 300 Common Goldeneyes, 8 Barrow's Goldeneyes, 40 Bufflehead, 350 Oldsquaws, 1000 Greater Scaup, 350 White-winged Scoters, 1 Canvasback, 2 Brant, 2 Double-crested Cormorant, 2 Red-necked Grebes, 1 Red-throated Loon, 7 Black Scoters, 175 Mew Gul I s, 100 GI aucous-wi nged Gul I s, and 20 Uni denti f i ed Gul I s. Adult herring support a commercial fishery and provide the major source of bait for sport salmon fishing. They are a natural prey of salmon as well as several other fish, seabirds, seals and other marine mammals, include the Minke whale. It is important to remember that eelgrass beds serve a vital role in the maintenance of 522 herring populations and the organisms supported by these fish. The use of algae and seagrasses as a spawning substrate by her- ring is but one of many exam- 4.92-mm ples of the value of marine plants to the early life stages of fish and other marine orga- nisms. Delicate and suscep- tible to predation, juvenile fish seek refuge and food 7.48 mm LIFE CYCLF- OF T1JF_ amongst the plants. The early RSFkRtNCr- life stages of herring are illustrated IOSMM 0 20.Zmm 83 J1 4.9L 523 52A mm Eelgrass is important in the life history of herring, much as 80 percent or more of the total food of and it also serves as a nursery area for many other these small geese. The importance of eelgrass to fish. Juvenile English sole, sand sole, sturgeon Brant was demonstrated on the east coast of the poachers, chum salmon, and tomcod were among the U.S. in the 1930's when Brant were reported to large numbers of fish recorded in eelgrass beds have suffered population declines as a result of during recent northern Puget Sound baseline studies. an eelgrass die-off. Other fish noted in eelgrass beds during these Along the Washington coast, Brant occur in large studies included staghorn sculpins, surf smelt, flocks in areas such as Padilla and Willapa Bays, starry flounder, snake pricklebacks, and shiner where extensive eelgrass beds provide their favored perch. food. Popular as game birds, Brant are also a Note: Many of the fish referred to in the beach familiar and valued sight as they fly low to the substrate narratives (Mud, Muddy Sand, Sand, and water throughout Puget Sound. Mixed Fine) also occur in, or are dependent upon, eelgrass beds along those beaches. American Wigeon o birds and mammals Wigeon also feed extensively on eelgrass, including both broad- and narrow-bladed species. During A diverse assemblage of birds and mammals feed in recent studies in Grays Harbor, they were the most eelgrass beds or on other species (especially fish abundant duck observed and were especially depen- and invertebrates) produced within the beds. The dent on areas where eelgrass was present. Wigeon wide range of feeding techniques employed by these were also frequently observed over eelgrass beds birds and mammals is a reflection of the variety during the course of our studies, and are probably of prey available in the rich feeding grounds the most numerous and common surface feeding duck offered by seagrasses. Some birds feed on eelgrass in the coastal zone. The value of Wigeons and plants at low tide, while others dive amongst the other ducks which feed in eelgrass beds is substan- plants at high tide. Still others dive from high tial. Duck hunters, bird watchers, and numerous in the air to capture prey just below the water's other coastal residents enjoy the presence of surface. Additional foraging occurs farther off- these nearshore wildlife. Wigeon and Brant are shore where waterfowl feed on detached plants especially watchable because they feed on the floating on the surface and many seabirds feed on surface, or even come ashore to feed. fish reared nearshore in the eelgrass beds. The following are among the many species which occur Several other birds also feed on or in eelgrass [note that species listed and discussed for several beds,I but much of their feeding is done below the beach substrates (e.g. , muddy sand, mixed fine)_ water s surface and out of sight of human eyes. are often dependent upon or occur at higher densi These species are probably not as familiar because ties along those beaches when seagrasses are of their diving habits, which put them out of our present]: vision for long periods of time. However, they Brant o often feed nearshore because of the presence of rich eelgrass beds in which they feed either di- The eelgrass bird. Brant feed extensively on eel- rectly or indirectly on eelgrass plants. The grass, which is consumed directly and comprises as following species are among those present: 524 A, V - Greater Scaup o Greater scaup are one of several diving ducks common and often abundant in eelgrass beds. Scaups feed directly on eelgrass plants and also on invertebrates and herring eggs attached to the blades. Surface feeding ducks often associate with diving scaups (and other divers such as coots and Ruddy Ducks) which detach plants as they forage. The eelgrass then floats to the surface where it is consumed by Wigeon, Brant and, when covered with herring eggs, several species of gulls. These detached plants may be consumed at considerable distance offshore by flocks of birds which would normally have to forage closer to shore. In portions of Hood Canal, this may be the primary foraging strategy of Wigeon and Brant, especially where development affects feeding near the shoreline. Common Loon o A large, resident water bird often seen feeding in eelgrass beds. This bird feeds singly or in pairs, taking sculpins, crabs, and small flounders. Horned Grebe o One of the smallest diving birds seen in eelgrass beds and perhaps the most dependent of the grebes on eelgrass, they feed on small fish and invertebrates, including Crangonid shrimp. They also occur over beds of surfgrass. Bufflehead o These small active ducks have been observed to restrict their feeding activity to eelgrass beds in Hood Canal. They dive for small invertebrates and also consume small amounts of eelgrass directly. Bufflehead are also known to consume surfgrass. Surf Scoter o Surf Scoters have also been observed to restrict much of their feeding to eelgrass beds. These divers also feed along exposed shorelines where surfgrass shelters potential prey for the scoter and other marine birds. Marbled Murrelet o Murrelets feed over eelgrass beds where small fish, including herrinq, are taken. Often seen in pairs, large but loose flocks have also been observed nearshore along eelgrass beds in Cowlitz Bay (Waldron Island, San Juan County) and in Hood Canal. Rhinoceros Auklet o Although feeding is usually offshore, prey includes.schooling -?'-ish such as herring which 526 are dependent on eelgrass beds for part of their life cycle. Raccoon o Raccoons forage at night among plants when low tides expose crabs and other invertebrates. Great Blue Heron o One of the most common year-round occupants of eelgrass beds, Great Blue Herons also forage in surfgrass tide pools. They stalk prey hiding among the plants and may occur in large concentrations of 60 to 100 birds on extensive eelgrass flats. Great Blue Herons are colonial nesters and may have well defined feeding territories near heronries. These feeding sites very often include eelgrass beds and are essential to maintain local heron populations. AMOVAP.M. War- 527 GI aucous-wi nged gul I s o River otters have been observed several times to These large, resident gulls are well-known scavengers restrict their feeding dives to narrow strips of along Washington's beaches and are often observed eelgrass as they swam nearshore. Prey include feeding in eelgrass beds. starry flounder, sculpins and rockfish. Black-bellied plover o Bald Eagle o Shorebirds do not often feed directly within eel- Eagles feed in a variety of ways and consume a wide grass beds. However, many of the invertebrate prey range of food organisms. They feed on carrion on species feed on seagrass detritus washed over tidal exposed flats; dive, then snatch waterbirds from flats shoreward of seagrass beds. Black-bellied the water over submerged beds; or dive and snatch Plovers and several other shorebirds commonly feed fish swimming near the surface. Prey captured in on these tidal flats, often in flocks of several other habitats may also include organisms which hundreds or thousands. depend on seagrass for a part of their life cycle. Bonaparte's Gull o Peregrine Falcon o These small gulls often feed by picking small prey Peregrines feed primarily or oirds. They are known items from the surface in shallow submerged eelgrass to take both waterfowl and shorebirds which depend beds as well as far offshore. on eelarass habitat. Killer Whale o Common Tern o Killer whales may occur in submerged eelgrass beds, Like several seabirds, terns more often feed on but more often farther offshore where prey includes schooling fish which are sometimes brought to the several organisms dependent on seagrass for part of surface by diving birds or large fish. Terns then their life cycle. Killer whales are at the top of quickly dive into the water to capture their prey. the marine food chain, therefore, interrelations Occasionally, Parasitic Jaegers then chase the tern with all nearshore communities are complex. They attempting to force a dropped fish which the Jaeger are known to consume herring which provide a direct then picks up. Large,flocks of Common Terns have link to eelgrass beds. In Hood Canal, they have been observed feeding over submerged eelgrass beds been observed hunting harbor seals which also feed in Birch Bay, the San Juan Islands, and in Hood on several organisms dependent on eelgrass. Canal. River Otter o River otters spend varying amounts of time in marine waters. In all areas where eelgrass occurs, river otters probably forage more often (or at least as often) in salt water than freshwater. Where sea- .grass occurs, some river otter populations may be restricted to the marine environment and often for- age among the plants for fish and invertebrates. 528 Belted Kingfisher o The Kingfisher is a wide-spread chattering aerial predator which hovers then dives for small fish in shallow submerged eelgrass and surfgrass beds. Humans o Eelgrass beds are a significant source of commercial and recreational seafood. Dungeness crab, geoducks, and many fish are harvested in or adjacent to eelgrass. Use by Man Seagrasses are not used directly by man in the Pacific Northwest except by a few people collecting dead leaves washed upon the shore as a fertilizer. However, seagrasses have been or are currently used for several other purposes in North America. Dried eelgrass is extremely resistent to decay and has been used as packing and upholstering material, as well as insulation for homes. Other uses include fuel, fodder, or (despite the low fiber content) for making a high quality paper. Seagrasses have also been used for basket- weaving by Native Americans. One of the more interesting uses of eelgrass i s by a group of Indians in Mexico as a staple food. Eelgrass seeds are collected and ground up into a bland-tasting, flour-like powder. The seeds are apparently as nutritious as most terrestrially harvested grains. The major importance of seagrasses to man is through their use as a food source for econom- ically important animals. Waterfowl which feed on seagrasses (especially eelgrass) are important economically in Washington for the hunting and bird watching they provide. Since most of these birds are migratory, they are economically valuable in other states and countries as well. Much of the seagrass matter going through the detrital pathway is also eventually con- sumed by animals of value to man. Some species of fish, for example English sole and starry flounder, use eelgrass beds extensively as nursery areas. In 1976, total sales by commercial fishermen in Washing- ton grossed $522,762.00 and $64,126.00 respectively for these bottom fishes. The sale of herring eggs (called "roe") and adult herring support commercial fisheries also, and as previously mentioned, herring are important food fish for many birds, fishes (including salmon), man and occasionally crabs. 529 Striped seaperch and fingerling silver salmon commonly feed and seek refuge from predators in eelgrass beds, along with several species of shrimp (Pandalus and Crangon), Dungeness crabs, and red rock crabs. Pandalid shrimp and Dungeness crabs support both commercial and recreational harvesting in nearshore areas, while red rock crabs are only collected recreationally. The association of crabs with seagrasses, especially eelgrass, is so frequent that many people refer to eelgrass as "crabgrass". Crangonid shrimp, which once supported a commercial fishery in Puget Sound, are no longer harvested. IMPACTS Little is known regarding seagrass ecosystem functioning, and as a result subtle changes caused by human pollution usually cannot be detected; only gross changes have been documented with confidence. Even with gross changes, causal relationships cannot always be established. Several natural phenomena, such as storms, unusually high numbers of grazing species, extended hot weather, and disease, can have drastic impacts upon seagrasses. Impacts caused by natural phenomena, however, are usually reversible, while some forms of human impacts are chronic. Once again, most of the seagrass research on impacts relates to eelgrass or other seagrasses not present in Washington. There is little informa- tion relevant specifically to surfgrass. The discussion in the Significant Biological Features section indicates that the total destruction of seagrass beds, even for relatively short periods of time, will have a profound impact on a wide variety of marine organisms. Such an impact would also strongly affect human use of many commercially and recreationally important species. This conclusion was substantiated when eelgrass along the Atlantic Coast of Europe and North America underwent a massive die-off in the 1930's, presumably caused by disease. Those animals dependent upon eelgrass for food or shelter dis- appeared or were reduced drastically in numbers. For example, Brant all but disappeared (numbers of birds along the coast were reduced by 90 per- cent). Fish and invertebrate resources (e.g., flounders, scallops, clams, E-30 and crabs) were also greatly reduced. In areas intensively studied following the die-off, these animals increased in numbers as eelgrass became re-established. However, the eelgrass took approximately 20 years to re-establish itself to its prior extent. Activities which remove or destroy eelgrass beds include dredging and disposal. Surfgrass is not likely to be impacted by these activities because of its occurrence on moderately to highly exposed rocky and mixed coarse beaches. However, studies related to dredging and disposal activi- ties in eelgrass beds have documented losses of waterfowl, fishes and invertebrates. Dredging may or may not permanently remove eelgrass, depending on how deep an area.is dredged in relation to the depth light can penetrate through the water, whether dredging must be done on a regular basis, or whether propwash will constantly disturb bottom sedi- ments. Disposal of sediments in eelgrass beds will permanently remove eelgrass if substrate elevation is raised above the level at which the plants can survive. Small amounts of disposal can destroy or reduce abundance of eelgrass temporarily. European, or narrow-bladed, eelgrass can only tolerate changes of �2 3/4" during the course of an entire year or just over one inch during a week before succumbing. Recovery by eel- grass in either dredging or disposal areas, if it can occur, is greatly slowed compared to areas where eelgrass is hand-cleared. Dredging and disposal activities cause additional impacts which can extend their effects beyond the immediate area of activity. These impacts include increased turbidities, which can lower productivity; increased sedimentation, which can smother plants; reduced circulation, which can also decrease productivity; and the potential release of toxins present in the disturbed sediments. Toxic materials, such as pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and petroleum deriv- atives apparently affect the animals associated with seagrasses much more than the seagrasses themselves. Impacts on these animals could in turn affect seagrass productivity. For example, losses of animals which graze epiphytic algae growing on seagrasses could lead to exceptionally heavy epiphyte growth, which could reduce the amount of light reaching the seagrasses and result in decreased plant growth. There is some evidence that long-term exposure to oil products may cause a decline in eelgrass populations. This raises the possibility that subtle sub-lethal effects of toxins may reduce seagrass vigor or reproductive ca'acity. This could lead to a gradual decline in seagrass abun- P dance or production, thus impacting those animals dependent upon seagrasses. Perhaps a more serious threat, however, is evidence that seagrasses may take up toxins from their environment 531 and pass them on to animals dependent on seagrass production for food (indirectly including humans). Eelgrass is known to remove copper from seawater, and a seagrass in Texas is known to accumulate certain radioactive isotopes. Thermal wastes, as with toxins, appear to affect the animals associated with seagrasses more than the seagrasses themselves. However, some sub-lethal effects on seagrasses apparently occur as a resul t of i ncreased temperatures. For exampl e, an i ncrease of 15*F. (80C. ) i n water temper- ature can reduce the growth rate of surfgrass by 25 percent. In addition, Dr. Ron Phillips of Seattle Pacific University, an acknowledged seagrass expert, feels that increased water tempera- tures could distrupt the reproductive cycle of eelgrass, which is in part a temperature dependent activity. The transplantation of warm-water strains of eelgrass and surfgrass may help alleviate impacts resulting from thermal pollution. sediments would destro them. Long-term Sludge deposits should be expected to destroy seagrasses in the same manner that disposal of y exposure to sewage effluents appears to damage eelgrass beds, although eelgrass does show some tolerance. Short-term effects of sewage effluents on eelgrass are apparently minimized as eelgrass can respirate anaerobically for short periods of time. Sustained increases in water turbidity can reduce the lower limit of eelgrass depth to as shallow as -3 to -6 feet (-1 to -2 meters) by decreaseing light penetration in the water. Excessive increases in turbidities can greatly increase sedimentation rate, resulting in the possible smothering of plants. Organic waste disposal is an example of an activity causing chronically increased water turbidity. However, elevated turbidity levels in nearshore areas are often the result of disturbances along streams flowing into marine waters. Logging practices, agricultural activities, and stream bank alterations are types of disturbances which can increase the sediment load of rivers and streams, eventually causing turbidity problems in nearshore marine areas. How- ever, these activities can also increase the amount of nutrients flowing into coastal areas. The mechanical harvest of shellfish in eelgrass beds can reduce the abundance of eelgrass plants by tearing leaves and roots. Soft-shell clams and oysters are the primary shellfish likely to be dredged where eelgrass occurs. Soft-shell* clams are not currently being dredged in Washington, but in the past been harvested from Skagit and Port susan Bays. Oysters,however, are harvested by mecha- nical means throughout much of the state. Many oyster growers, on the other hand, consider eelgrass to be a pest to culture and harvest operations. Large amounts of eelgrass can mechanically interfere with dredging for oysters, or may promote sedimentation harmful of even fatal to oysters. 532 A-W-, AE" 411, 1W Recreational activities can impact seagrasses to varying extents. The use of power boats will impact seagrass through t he physical tearing of plants and oil pollution. Cuts made by boat propellers through shallow water seagrass meadows have remained notice- able for as long as 15 years. Boating, and other A, noise producing human activities adjacent to seagrass Sk, beds, will also scare away much of the bird life present in seagrass beds. Activities such as fish* ing, bird watching, waterfowl hunting, crabbing, and photography will have relatively minor impacts on f seagrasses. @5K Suggested References Phillips, R. C. 1972. Ecological life history of '4 Zostera marina L. (Eelgrass) in Puget Sound, Washington. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Wash- ington, Seattle. 154 pp. 1974. Phillips, R. C. Temperate grass flats. pp- 244-299 In: Odum, H. T. , B. J. Cope I and, and E. A. McMahan (eds. Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States, Vol. II. Conservation Found., Washington, D.C. 521 pp. 4 1975. Seagrass food in the ins Phillips, R. C. hore coast. Pacific Search, 9(9):1-4. Phillips, R. C. 1978. Seagrasses and the coastal Y, marine environment. Oceanus, 21(3):30-40. Thayer, G. W. and R. C. Phi I I ips. 1977. Importance of eelgrass beds in Puget Sound. Marine Fish- eries Review Paper 1271. Thayer, G. W. , D. A. Wolfe, and R. B. Williams. 1975. The impact of man on eelgrass systems. American Scientist, 36:288-296. % 533 lot 411 or A Z@ke number @C living creatures all Ordeff , intimatel ,p depends on the (C-j@croc P ra)... jS n7onde@IU o7nnumcr,Tble crw&ccanffreTuenI- everv patf@lthe plant. Charles Darwin, from The Voyage of the Beagle 534 KELP (No. 628) INTRODUCTION The biomass of seaweeds in the Pacific Northwest is rivaled by few areas of the world, largely because of the abundance of kelps. Kelps are highly productive, and supply food resources and habitat for large numbers of marine organisms. The term 'kelp' originally referred to the burnt ash of seaweeds. In America, however, this term has come to mean any of the large brown sea- weeds in the order Laminariales, which includes all the species commonly called kelps. They grow in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, and their zone of abundance is often identified as the laminarian zone. Most kelps possess a holdfast (a root-like structure) which attaches firmly to the substrate, a stipe, and a blade; several also have a float (a gas-filled bulb aiding flotation). Their distributions are determined by water movement (i.e. , tidal currents and wave exposure), depth of water, character of the substrate, and sometimes by invertebrates which eat them. The preferred substrates of kelps are rock (including boulders) and mixed coarse substrates, but they will also occasionally grow on sediments containing nothing larger than gravel. Gravel, and even cobble, can be a risky site for attachement, however, as tides and waves can carry the plants to areas unsuitable for survival. Most of the discussion of kelps will revolve around bull kelp and giant kelp, as they are the only northwest kelps which have received much study. Many algae other than kelps are also present in the 'kelp' community, living either attached to the kelp plants or on the substrate between them. 535 SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Productivity In the past, the productivity of kelp has been greatly underestimated. Estimates were based, on total biomass, not taking into consideration that biomass may turn over several times per year. Annual kelps such as bull kelp not only produce a large standing stock each year, they also produce plant matter which is lost to grazing, disease, waves, and exces- sive heat. Studies on perennial kelps have shown that they may also grow quickly, even though there is little visible change in their stand- ing stock. These perennial kelps have been likened to conveyor belts, continually producing new plant tissue while the excess growth is grazed by animals or worn away by wave action to produce detritus. Recent studies of kelps have shown some of them to be among the more productive plants known to man. Habitat Kelps provide 'living space' for plants and animals in many ways. Some organisms are totally dependent upon the presence of kelp for their survival, but most obtain increased surface area or refuge from predators which allow them to occur in greater abun- dance in the presence of kelp. Perennial kelps may have a complex community associated with them, while annual kelps support a simpler community. This is because long-living species cannot be totally dependent on an annual plant as a habitat. Examples of how plants and animals depend upon kelp follow: 1) Kelps provide a surface upon which other plants and animals grow. These plants and animals, called liepiphytes" and "epifauna" respectively, are generally much more abundant in calmer waters than in exposed areas. They provide food for a host of animals, and increase the diversity of the kelp bed community. Some animals use the surfaces of kelp plants for attachment of their eggs (e.g. , herring and chink 536 shells), while certain amphipods build nests on kelps. 2) Kelps provide an 11overstory" or "canopy", much like trees in a forest. Certain algae only grow in the understoryi where "they are protected by kelps against wave ac on, currents, or temperature extremes at low tide. Many invertebrates are also largely -Fad" dependent upon this protection from harsh physical conditions. 3) Kelp beds supply a refuge from predators for such animals as blennies, cottids, shrimps, and crabs. The holdfast of kelps are very important to many juve- nile invertebrates in this respect, and have tremendous numbers of individuals per square meter of holdfast. Animals found in holdfasts include snails, crabs, shrimps, isopods, polychaete (or bristle) worms, chitons, amphipods, brittle stars, bivalves, anemones, starfish, urchins, sea cucumbers, and sea squirts. 4) Windrows of kelps supply an ephemeral habitat for a variety of detritivores, which in turn support many vertebrate predators. 5) Kelp beds provide a resting area for some birds and mammal s. Included are gulls, herons, waterfowl, shorebirds, cormorants, and otters. Floating mats of detached kelp also serve as resting sites for birds in open water. 6) Kelps provide a food source for many animals, as well as a rich feeding area through the large number of food organisms associated with kelp beds. 7) Wave action and currents shoreward of kelp beds are reduced, creating a less exposed environment for intertidal plants and animals, and reducing inshore erosion on sand and gravel beaches. This protection is especially noticeable along the Strait of Juan de Fuca where extensive kelp beds form bay-like areas along their shoreward side. Along these exposed shorel i nes, the bay- I i ke waters serve as f eedi ng areas for several diving birds such as scoters, loons, grebes, goldeneyes, and Buffleheads. 537 8) The reduced current and wave conditions created by kelp beds cause increased settling of sediments and organic debris. This creates habitat for organ- isms which would not normally be present in the vicin- ity of kelp beds. Trophic Relationships As with all plants, kelps may be grazed directly or consumed as detritus. In constrast to sea- grasses, there are large numbers of animals which graze kelps, most of which are crustaceans, gastropods, and echinoderms. Red, green, and purple sea urchins are major kelp grazers in Washington, and can have a profound impact on the community structure of a kelp bed. Areas with large populations of urchins may be devoid of any visible algae at all, while in some areas the dominant kelp can be drastically altered by grazing. As an example, the sea colander is maintained as the dominant kelp in some areas by urchin grazing. Urchins preferentially feed on kelps other than the sea colander, such as bull kelp, allowing the sea colander to become more abundant. Without the grazing, first bull kelp, then eventually kelps such as Laminaria, would establish themselves as dominants in place of the sea colander. Grazers can cause considerable damage to kelp plants. Urchins commonly feed at the base of kelps, which, while only supplying the urchin with a small amount of food, can kill the entire plant. Animals which prey on sea urchins such as sea otters, sun stars, and Black Scoters, help maintain kelp abundance. Examples of kelp grazers include northern abalone, snails, chitons, amphipods, urchins, limpets, and keyhole limpets. These herbivores provide food for a variety of birds, fishes, and invertebrates. Adult kelp greenling, for example, feed in kelp beds, taking worms, crustaceans, and small fish. (Young kelp greenling move offshore where they are commonly found in stomachs of steelhead and salmon.) Rock cod also feed on invertebrates and other fish in kelp beds. Black Scoters and Harlequins are known to occasionally feed on urchins, and Harlequins feed heavily on snails, limpets, and chitons. Carnivorous crabs, shrimps, and worms also feed upon kelp herbivores. Many invertebrates associated with kelps feed solely upon algae which grow on the surfaces of the kelp plants. Examples include chink shells, rocking chair limpets, and littorine snails (or periwinkles, as they are sometimes called). Fish and birds, such as kelp greenling, Harle- quins, Oldsquaws, and Black Scoters are known to feed heavily on these small invertebrates. 538 Kelp plants also produce large numbers of gametes (or zoospores). For example, one bull kelp plant produces about four trillion zoospores. These zoospores form a significant part of the plankton community during reproductive periods, and are an important food source for zooplankton and bottom-dwelling filter feeders such as clams and oysters. Refer to the Characteristic Plants and Animals Section for additional examples of trophic rela- tionships. The percentage of kelp biomass which ends up in the detrital pathway is probably much greater than the precentage which is grazed directly by animals. Annual kelps such as bull kelp die off in the fall and winter, forming great windrows of decaying kelp on beaches. Perennial kelps provide a more even supply of detritus throughout the year than annuals. However, perennial kelps which lose all or some of their fronds during winter storms also add to these windrows. As the kelp 'decomposes, the detritus not consumed on the beach is washed back into the sea by storm waves and high tides where it is consumed by detritivores such as sea cucumbers, polychaete worms, amphipods, anemones, clams, brittle stars, and many other animals. These detritivores comprise the food source for a variety of animals of commercial and recreational importance in the nearshore zone. Examples include sole, flounder, crabs, salmon, shrimp, rock cod, and many marine birds and mammals. Species which do not feed directly on detritivores often consume the predators of detritivores. Much of this detritus is carried to areas far from the kelp bed where it was produced, including subtidal areas where little or no primary production occurs. Some of the detritus consumed o6 beaches also contributes to terrestrial systems. Raccoons, fairly common visitors to beaches at night, often make a complete meal out of the detritus- eating beach hoppers they collect. Many of the fishes, birds, and marine mammals wich feed in kelp beds spend only a portion of their life cycles in the beds. Examples include loons, grebes, herons, scoters, Buffleheads, Alcids (a group of birds spending most of their lives on open water), otters, and harbor seals. In addition, killer whales have been observed hunting along the outer kelp bed margins. 539 Characteristic Plants and Animals Plants The characteristic plants associated with kelp beds are listed in Table 628-1. bull kelp Bull kelp is the most consipicuous and familiar kelp in Washington's waters. Habitat requirements for this kelp are: 1) a suitable substrate for attach- ment, 2) strong tidal currents, 3) proper depth of water, and, to a lesser extent, 4) proper salinity. A suitable substrate for attachment is rock or boulder; however in more protected areas small cobble or even gravel may be adequate. Bull kelp is an annual, and thus beds disappear during late fall and early winter. Dense beds occur in shallow subtidal waters to a depth of 35 feet (10 meters). Individual plants are up to 80 feet (24 meters) long, although specimens 130 feet (40 meters) have been reported, and can grow four inches (10 cm) per day during the growing season. Reportedly, the largest bed in Washington waters occurs on the west side of Smith Island (Island County). Bull kelp is also abundant along the Strait of Juan de Fuca and in the San Juan Islands. The density of individual beds can vary greatly from year to year. Beds may even disappear for a period of years, then gradually reestab- lish.themselves. giant kelp Giant kelp occurs on rock or boulder substrates in areas of heavy wave surge along the outer coast and the western portion of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, although a few plants have been reported as far east as the west side of Whidbey Island. Salinity and temperature are apparently the major facotrs limiting distribution. Giant kelp is a perenial plant which grows to 20 feet (6 meters) in length. pompon kelp This kelp can be found on exposed rock and mixed coarse shores along the Strait of Juan de Fuca west of Dungeness Spit, the outer coast, and the west side of Whidbey Island. It can also be found in shallow subtidal areas which have strong currents, such as Agate, Balch, and Rich Passes. The fronds of pompon kelp are annual, and thus drop off each winter, leaving only a perennial stipe and holdfast which may live up to 25 years. The stipe has a woody consistency, something highly unusual for a marine plant. Pompon kelp is'found down to a depth of 33 feet (10 meters), and may grow to a length of 6.6 feet (2 meters). 540 honey ware or wing kelp Honey ware kelp is often abundant in the lower intertidal zone of moderate to exposed rocky beaches. Individual plants may grow to a length of 7 to 10 feet (2 to 3 meters). sugar wrack Sugar wrack grows in low intertidal and shallow subtidal areas. It may grow attached to rocks, cobbles, gravel, old shells, or wood. This perennial kelp prefers protected waters, where it is usually the most common kelp present. Sugar wrack may be up to six feet (two meters) in length. other kelps Other common kelps include feather boa, searsucker, sea colander (which may form extensive underwater meadows in parts of Puget Sound and Hood Canal), sea cabbage, triple rib, and split whip wrack. Invertebrates Characteristic invertebrates associate with kelp beds are listed in Table 628-1. Many of these animals have already been mentioned. Fish Rocky nearshore areas heavily vegetated with kelp beds are important habitat for fish, especially juveniles of many valuable commercial and sport species. Kelp plants serve as refuges for fish, and nearshore vegetation has been shown to produce or otherwise support the majority of food items of kelp bed fish. Many fish are year-round residents, often moving in and out of nearshore areas with the tide.. Others occur periodically, including migratory salmon, herring, and sand lance. Studies in northern Puget Sound have identified many of the species associated with kelp beds and their relative abundance. Some of the more common solitary fish are the kelp greenling, copper rockfish, largefin sculpin, quillback rock- fish, and lingcod. Schooling fish which were abundant include yellowtail rock- fish and black rockfish. Kelp beds are used as feeding, spawning, and nursery areas by the dominant species and it has been found that spawning times are staggered so that spawning takes place the year-round. The number of species present is greatest in summer, however, the staggering of spawning times is an important factor in considering effects of impacts. 541 Many of the species associated with kelp beds are also discussed in the Rocky Beaches Narrative (No. 631). Table 628-1 provides examples of some of the fish inhabiting kelp, indicating their occurrence as juveniles and adults in the kelp "forest". Since larger kelps extend from the bottom to the surface in water as deep as 35 feet and more, the plants provide feeding and hiding places analagous to terrestrial forests. Thus, some fish hide among holdfasts (roots), along the stipe (trunk), or the canopy (tree top/canopy). Birds Harlequin Duck Perhaps the most characteristic bird of kelp beds and rocky shores is the Harlequin Duck. During this study, of 53 observations in kelp beds Harlequins were seen 22 times (42 percent) they were the most frequently observed duck/duck-like bird. Only Glaucous-winged and Bonaparte's Gulls were seen more regularly with 23 sightings apiece. Harlequins breed along fast flowing mountain streams and spend the rest of the year along the coast where they are often seen resting on kelp beds or feeding among the plants. As with most ducks, the male is more brightly colored except during a short period in late summer. At this time large numbers of drab-colored males gather at relative undisturbed sites such as Smith Island in Island County and undergo a series of molts. They are flightless for much of this period of "refeathering" and, therefore, highly vulnerable to human disturbances such as oil pollution. The winter and breeding plummage of male Harlequins is a stricking pattern of slate blue with streaks and patches of chestnut and white outline in black. The female is blackish brown with three white patches on the head. Crustaceans are the major food items, including shorecrabs, hermit crabs, and Porcelain crabs. (Fragments from as many as 97 individual porcelain crabs were found in the stomach of a Harle- qui n Duck col 1 ected i n Cal i f orni a. )Other prey include barnacles, chitons, chink shells, limpets, mussels, starfish, and sea urchins. Most of these organisms are dependent upon kelp and other algae. Some, such as the sea urchin, are direct consumers of kelp plants, demonstrat- ing the close association and dependence of birds such as Harlequins on kelp beds. Several other ducks and diving birds, such as loons, cormorants, and grebes, are commonly seen feeding in kelp beds. One unexpected member of the duck family occasionally observed is the American Wigeon. These common ducks are more typical in protected bays where flocks of several hundred are often seed feeding on eelgrass and green algae. In kelp beds, wigeon have been observed feeding on epiphytic green algae (probably Ulva and Enteromorpha) growing on bull kelp plants. They pick algae from the larger kelp plants much as they would from beach substrates elsewhere, reaching underwater, often submerging their upper body so that only their "bottoms are up". 542 - [email protected]! Horned Grebes Horned Grebes are also often seen in protected bays, but are commonly seen in kelp beds. These small divers are duck-like, but are members of a distinct group (Podicepiformes) more adapted to swimming and diving than flying. Their lobed toes, short wings, and legs set far back on the body aid in underwater pursuit of invertebrates and small fish. Food items include sculpins, stickleback, shrimp, amphipods, and littorine snails. Pigeon Guillemot Another duck-like inhabitant of kelp beds is the Pigeon Guillemot. They are members of the family Alcidae, a group of seabirds, which are the northern hemisphere's equivalent to Antarc- tica's penguins. A study in Washington has shown that these seabirds most often nest adjacent to kelp beds which provide a rich source of food for the adults and young. During this time the adults are entirely black except for a white wing patch and bright red-orange feet. In winter, their plummage changes to a mottled white which confuses many who are only familiar with summer birds. Since they are year-round residents, the two color phases can been seen along our coast. However, as year-round residents Guillemots are vulnerable to habitat alterations or other impacts in kelp beds at all times. They are particularly vulnerable to impacts during the breeding season. Prey of Pigeon Guillemots include sculpins, small flounders, and blennies. All these prey species commonly seek refuge in kelp beds and at least one, the rock prickleback or blenny feeds on algae within kelp beds. Great Blue Herons Great Blue Herons often perch on kelp, using plants as hunting platforms. Kelp beds serve well in the Great Blue's feeding strategy of staring motionless into quiet waters between the plants until a fish is spotted and quickly snatched in a thrust of the heron's long neck and bill. Other birds which hunt their prey from above the surface of kelp beds include Belted Kingfishers, Common Terns, and several gulls. 543 Gulls and Shorebirds The ubiquitous Glacous-winged Gull is a common forager in kelp beds. Two less familiar gulls frequently seen resting or feeding here are Bonaparte's Gulls and Heermann's Gulls. The tern- like Bonaparte's Gull will be seen resting on kelp in flocks of 100 or more, picking at inverte- brates on the plants, taking schooling fish above diving birds, or bathing and preening on and among the plants. Heermann's Gulls are more often seen resting on kelp or nearby rocks. These unusual birds are our only "reverse" migrants, flying north to our coast after nesting on islands off California and Mexico. Their distinctive, bright, red-orange bills and black wing tips identify these striking birds among other less recognizable "seagulls". Gulls will be seen in both submerged and exposed kelp beds which is a reflection of their broad adaptability to both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Most of the shorebirds, however, will only be seen foraging among kelp plants which have been exposed by falling tides. Black Turnstones are one of the more common shorebirds observed in kelp beds and are often seen in mixed flocks which might include Surfbirds and Rock Sandpipers. Turnstones were named for their habit of turning stones in search of prey with their bills. They are also often seen turning over algae and feeding on invertebrates seeking a moist refuge during low tide. Mamma I s Many marine mammals feed on organisms which inhabit also affected by these interactions. We have no his- kelp beds during a part of their life cycle or receive torical record of changes in kelp distribution follow- nutrients indirectly from kelp plants. Harbor seals ing the sea otter extermination along our coast. feed on fish such as greenling within kelp beds, gray However, it is possible there were major changes which whales feed on invertebrates, and killer whales may had impacts on organisms other than otters. Any future take fish along the margins of kelp beds as well as impacts which reduce this valuable habitat will also an occasional seal. have significant effects on wildlife pop,ulations. Now that sea otters have been reintroduced to our The mammal most often historically associated with coastline, it would be interesting to observe changes Pacific Coast kelp beds, however, is the sea otter. in kelp distribution as the population increases. Once abundant (see Figure 628-1), the sea otter was driven to extinction off the coast of Washington because of the demand for its highly prized fur. These large and gregarious members of the weasel family have been reintroduced to the outer coast (they appar- ently never occurred east of Cape Flattery), and, although numbering fewer than 40 individuals, have been observed with pups. Successful reproduction and possibly more transplants from healthy populations in Alaska are keys to their future survival in Washington. The interrelationships between sea otters and kelp M' E" beds have been well studied. Sea otters use floating plants as sanctuaries while resting, feeding, and avoiding the presence of killer whales. They also have significant impacts on the plants due to their preference for feeding on sea urchins, which are vor- JI acious grazers of kelps. Studies in Alaksa have shown MA that where sea otters occur, urchins are reduced, and kelp is abundant. Where sea otters don't occur, urchins are larger and more abundant, and kelp is absent. Other organisms associated with kelp beds were noted as scarce or absent where sea otters did not occur in Alaskan study areas. These species in- cluded greenling, harbor seals, and Bald Eagles. ..... .. .. .. Thus, there are key associations between sea otter, urchins, and kelp beds. Several other organisms are 545 cw- @J FORMER DISTRIBUTION Sea otters were driven to extinction by fur trade. Last native Washington sea otter reportedly was killed in 1911 in Willapa Bay. Distribution based on: Scheffer, V.B. 1940. The Sea Otter on the Washington Coast. Pacific NW Quarterly Vol 3:370-388. LEGEND: RECENT SIGHTINGS FORMER SIGHTINGS 62 -.1 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION Small numbers of otters have been reintroduced from Alaska. 546 Distribution based on recent sightings. A close relative of the sea otter, the river otter, also frequents kelp beds, but is much more widely distributed throughout the state. River otters are often mistaken for the larger, but shorter tailed, sea otter. They are found throughout western Washington in freshwater and marine areas and are the only otter found in kelp beds east of Cape Flattery. River otters are not as adapted to a marine existence as sea otters and will come ashore rather than rest in kelp beds. They do forage among kelp plants, however, taking sculpins, small crabs, blennies, and rockfish. Both types of otters, therefore, will be affected by any alterations affecting prey species inhabiting kelp beds. Because of their wide distribution, river otters will be affected wherever kelp beds are impacted. The sea otter, due to its small population size, could easily be exterminated once again as a result of disturbance in outer coast kelp beds. They are especially vulnerable to oil spills since they rely on their dense fur to preserve body heat. Therefore, even a small spill on the outer coast could eliminate or seriously reduce sea otter populations of Washington. 100001k 5 .7 4 Use by Man Historically, the Northwest Coast Indians employed many uses for bull kelp. The stipe was often specially treated and used as a fishing line. The float and the hollow portion of the stipe were used as a container for storing fish oil. The bulb was also used for steaming wood to make bentwood fish hooks. Drying kelp in the sun produced salts which could be scarped off and used in preparing foods. Kelp was even used to cure ear aches. This was accomplished by heating water in the bulb, producing steam which, when the small end of the stipe was placed next to the ear, could help relieve pain. In a slightly different vein, Indian fishermen devised a clever method of altering kelp beds to facilitate the harvest of salmon. Cutting a path through kelp beds during salmon migrations created routes through which the fish would travel, thus concentrating and funnelling the salmon to the fishermen. The earliest commercial uses of kelps were apparently as cattle feed and fertilizers (kelps contain both potassium and nitrogen). Current uses include as a fertilizer and for chemical extraction. Substances which can be obtained from kelps are algin, iodine, sodium chloride, potassium, potash (a compound high in potassium used chiefly in fertilizers), and acetone. While all these substances have been extracted from kelps at one time or another, only algin is currently extrcted on a large scale. The west, coast algin industry is centered in California, however, and does not exist in Wash- ington. Algin is a complex polysacchride which absorbs large amounts of water and is valuable for keeping substances in suspension. There are over 100 uses for algin in food and commerical products. Most of Washington's kelps are edible, although few people actually engage in eating them. Bull kelp is quite tasty when pickled. Sugar wrack is eaten in the Oriental community, where it is called "kombu". The presence of the sugar mannitol make 'sugar' wrack extremely sweet tasting. The poten- tial exists to use several other kelps as food, such as honey ware kelp which is eaten in Ireland and Scotland. Certainly many of the common names of kelps sound appealing (e.g. , sugar wrack, sea cabbage, honey ware kelp). The health food industry.also engages in the use of kelps, selling both dried kelp tablets and seasonings containing kelp. Dried kelp has been hailed as. a mineral supplement by some. There is presently no commercial harvest of kelps in Washington, however, except for perhaps one or two extremely small-scaled operations collecting kelps washed up on beaches for fertilizer. Bull kelp has in the past been regarded as the most likely candidate for harvest in Washington. However, harvest is considered economically. unfeasible at present, largely because stock are remote and the plant, being an annual could only be harves 'ted once per year. Harvest might also drastically reduce successful reproduction, thus damaging the-crop in subsequent years. However, the plausibility of harvesting bull kelp and the more promising giant kelp are being studied-by the government of British Columbia. 548 If kelps are to be commercially havested on a large scale in Washington, it will most likely be from culturing the plants on rafts. Most of the kelps in Washington would probably respond adequately to this type of culture, as kelps grow well on artificial substrates such as rock jetties. Species which merit further study for possible commercial use include honey ware kelp, feather boa, sugar wrack, sea cabbage, and a kelp introduced from Japan without a common name, Sargassum muticum. The major commercial value of kelp in Washington is derived indirectly from animals which feed upon kelps or the detritus produced from them, or which use kelp beds as spawning, refuge, feeding, or resting areas. Included are abalone, sea urchins (harvested in Washington for use of their gonads as food), herring, crabs, shrimp, kelp greenling, salmon, and several rockfish species. In California (where a different species of giant kelp is present than occurs in Washington), the commercial, recrea- tional, and ecological value of kelp beds has been estimated at one million dollars per square mile. Part of this figure, however, results from the large commercial harvest industry. IMPACTS Kelps usually undergo natural fluctuations in abundance as a result of storms, unusually hot weather, and changes in the populations of grazers. While these disturbances may kill kelp plants, recolonization usually occurs with a return to normal conditions. Many human impacts, however, alter the environment on a permanent or long-term basis. In this case, little or no recolonization occurs once the kelp plants have been des- troyed. Human activities which cause slight reductions in water clarity, even as small as 1 percent, can kill plants at the lower limits of their distri- bution. The productivity of plants that survive would also be lowered. Young plants would be affected more than mature plants, as mature plants have fronds closer to the water surface. Reductions in water quality can be caused by domestic sewage and industrial effluents, or by increased sedimentation of coastal waters resulting from logging, river channeliza- tion, or agricultural practices. The harvest of natural populations of kelps would remove the food energy and nutrients supplied to those animals dependent either directly or indirectly upon the kelp. Tom Mumford of the Washington State Department of Natural Resources already feels that the use of bull kelp as a food seems to be affecting some beds where collection is common. The impact of harvesting kelp is currently being studied in detail in British Columbia. An important part of this research is to determine the quan- tity of harvest which can take place before over-harvest occurs. Over- harvesting of giant kelp in California, in combination with other factors, led to a serious depletion of kelp beds. A kelp restoration project has since helped reestablish many of the beds previously lost. Studies on the impact of oil on kelps have proven somewhat inconclusive thus far. It does appear long-term exposure may reduce kelp abundance. However, the animals -associated with kelp beds appear to be much more sensitive to oil than the kelp plants themselves. The dumping of domestic sewage can have more serious repercussions for kelp plants than just reducing water clarity. Sea urchins, the most voracious grazers of kelp, can also survive by feeding on the detritus contained in sewage. Thus, after urchins may decimate a kelp bed by over-grazing, they can survive on the sewage, thus preventing the reestab- lishment of kelps by grazing young plants before they can mature. Without the sewage effluents, urchins would normally have the choice of leaving the area or starving, thereby allowing recolonization by kelp plants to begin. This relationship has been studied for giant kelp beds in Cali- fornia. The cost of controlling urchin grazing mechanically or chemically is very expensive. Most sewage effluents also contain elements shown to be toxic to certain kelps. Toxins include tolulene, copper, chromium, chlorine, and chlori- nated phenols, and primarily affect spore settlement or development. Sewage effluents also affect oxygen content of sea water by increasing the biological oxygen demand. 550 Allf ma Sa -or Mol TABLE 628-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS (See also Narratives Nos. 631, 632, and 633 for additional species which may be present; Refer to Table 63-2 for birds and mammals (those associated with Rock and Mixed Coarse substrates will also be associated with kelp) Zone(s) of Economic Common Name (Scientific Name) Occurrence Value PLANTS KELPS Bull kelp (Nereocystis leutkeana) Giant kelp (Macrocystis integrifolia) Pompon kelp (Pterygophora californica) Honey ware kelp (Alaria marginat Feather boa (Egregia T-enzesii) Sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina) Split whip wrack (L. setchellii) EPIPHYPES ON KELPS Sea lettuce (Ulva sp.) Green algae (En-teromorpha linza) Red algae (Antithamnion spp-) (Porphyra nereocystis) (Callithamnion biseriatum) Diatoms (Navicula grevillei) Brown algae (Ectocarpus sp.) Polysiphonia urceolata Nitophyllum latissimum Callophyllis flabellulata Desmarestia ligulata INVERTEBRATES Coelenterates Sessile jellyfish (Haliclystis auricula) HydroiT-(@Dbelia longissima) Bryozoans 552 Encrusting bryozoan (Membranipora) Zone(s) of Economic Common Name (Scientific Name) Occurrence Value Nemertean worms Ribbon worm (Amphiporus bimaculatus) C CARN Ectoproct (Hippothea hyalina) Molluscs Sitka periwinkle or littorine (Littorina sitkana) Chink shell (Lacuna @ariegata) Margarite snail (Margarites pupillus) Rocking chair limp-et (Collisella instabilis) Shield limpet (Colli ella pelta) (Notoacmea Lnse-ssa) Northern abalone (Haliotis R,C kamschatkana) Rock scallop (Hinnites qiqanteus) R,PC Sea slug (MeliFe -leonin;)- (Doridella steinbergae) (T-orambe PaZifica) Crustaceans Caprellid amphipods Gammarid amphipods (e.g., Ampithoe humeralis and Ayale frequens) Porcellain crab (Petrolisthes eriomerus) Hermit crab (Pagurus spp.) Red rock crab (Cance productus) R (Cancer oregonensis) Shrimp (several species) Kelp crab (Pugettia producta) (Pugettia gracilis) Polychaete Worms Clam worm (Nereis virens) (Nereis -agassiz-i) Scale worm (Harmothoe imbricata) (Spirorbis spirillu 553 Zone(s) of Economic Common Name (Scien tific Name) Occurrence Value Enhinoderms Red sea urchin (StrongXlocentrotus C franciscanus) Green sea urcFln (S. droebachiensis) Purple sea urchin TIS purpuratus) Brittle star (Ophiopholis aculeata) FISH A = Adult Common Name (Scientific Name) Bottom Remarks J = Juveniles Pacific herring (Clupea harengus) Occasionally in large schools. King salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) Some of most popular salmon fishing areas in Washington are off kelp beds, e.g., Pillar Pt., Sekiu. Steelhead (Salmo qairdneri) Occasionally in canopy. Northern clingfish Attaches to blades. (Gobiesox maendricus) Copper rockfish (Sebastes caurinus) A & J Common rockfish - also called "rockcod" valuable sports fish. Yellowtail rockfish (S. flavidus) i Schooling rockfish - abundant. Black rockfish (S. melanops) A & J Common - scattered and sometimes in schools. China rockfish (S. nebulosus) A Occasional - on bottom in deep nearshore areas. Boccacio (S. paucispinnis) i Inshore 1-1h years, adults migrate to deeper waters. Canary rockfish (S. pinniger) i Adults migrate to deeper water. Kelp greenling (Hexagrammos A & J Common, solitary residents. decagrammus) Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) A Valuable commercial and sport fish. Common, solitary residents - male guards nest in nearshore. Painted greenling (Oxylebius pictus) A & J Common in shallows, solitary. Sailfin sculpin (Nautichthys A oculofasciatus) 554 A = Adult Common Name (Scientific Name) Bottom Remarks J = Juveniles Saddleback sculpin (Oligocottus Scattered in canopy. rimensis) Cabezon (Scorpaenichthys marmoratus) A & J Common resident - adults usually on bottom, juveniles from tidepools into canopy and on bottom. Manacled sculpin (Synchirus ajjE) Scattered throughout canopy and along stipes to near bottom. Ribbon prickleback (Phytichthys A & J In and around holdfasts. chirus) Black prickleback (Xiphister A & J In and around holdfasts and in shallower rocky atropupureus) areas. Penpoint gunnel (Apodichthys flavidus) 'A Scattered - most in kelp. Rockweed gunnel (Xererpes fucorum) A Scattered from canopy into intertidal. Blackeye goby (Corphopterus nicholsii) A & J Usually in sandy areas on bottom between rocks. Speckled sanddab (Citharichthys A & J On bottom in sand between rocks. stignaeus) Shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata) A & J Scattered schools. Pile perch (Racochilus vacca) A & J Occasionally numerous in dense schools. Striped seaperch (Embiotoca lateralis) A & J Common, beautifully marked fish taken by sport and commercial fisheries. Wolfeel (Anarrchichthys ocellatus) A Occasional - wandering through bottom area. 555 from Victor Scheffer's THE YEAR OF THE WHALE "Only twenty-seven years after the discovery of Alaska the last sea cow was clubbed to death by a hunter in the shallows of the Bering Sea. It weighed perhaps four to five tons and it was the only mammal outside of the tropics that lived on seaweed. We shall never know the secrets of its life: how it survived the freez- ing winters, how it dealt with the hazards of salty food, what defenses it raised against its enemies, and all the other factors of its body structure and habits. Men will never get insight into the processes of their own lives through study of those of the sea cow. All species, and in particular the specialized ones-the queer ones-are treasure houses from which man will increasingly draw understanding. In the very complexity of the animals lies its great value. No team of engineers, no matter how great the research budget, will ever duplicate 556 a single whisker of a sea cow. OTHER ALGAL COMMUNITIES (No. 629) INTRODUCTION The Pacific Northwest has a high diversity of algae (singlar= alga), due largely to a wide variety of environmental condi- tions existing here. Conditions range from the exposed shores of the outer coast to the protected inland waters of Puget Sound. In addition, a mild climate ensures that no ice flows will mar the beaches and algae will be spared from excessive temperatures during summer. The algae dealt with here are macroscopic (visible to the naked eye). Macroalgae (as they are often called) include the familiar 'seaweeds', but not plankton. These seaweeds are benthic (attached to the substrate), and not free-floating. The largest seaweeds, the kelps, are discussed separately in the Kelp Narrative (No. 628). There are three groups of seaweeds, each distinguished by their color: green (in the phylum Chlorophyta), brown (phylum Phaeophyta), and red algae (phylum Rhodophyta). Color differences are due to the type of pigment involved in photosynthesis. The lower limit of seaweed occurrence in Washington varies according to the clarity of the water. The range of the lower limit is approximately 40 to almost 200 feet (12 to 60 meters) below the mean lower I ow water mark. While it- would be convenient to use common names for all referred to in this narrative, it is not possible for all species. When discussing those seaweeds with accepted common names, the common name will be used. When discussing species without accepted common names, scientific names will be used. (Scientific names are easily identified as they are always underlined or italicized.) 557 Although seaweeds occur on the majority of Washington's beaches, seaweed zones were in many cases too narrow or too sparsely vegetated to be included in the land cover/land use maps in the Coastal Zone Atlas. Therefore, it must not be assumed that algae are absent and unimportant where not mapped. Even where seaweeds do not occur intertidally, they may be abundant in shallow subtidal areas. Seaweeds occur at many beaches only seasonally, thus winter visits may not reveal the intense algal growth which occurs in spring or summer. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Zonation A particularly noticeable feature of seaweeds along the shoreline, especially on rock beaches, is the presence of distinct bands, or zones, of vegetation. Zonation of seaweeds is discussed in the various beach substrate narratives. However, it must be remembered that seaweeds present at a specific locale may vary radically from those which are "typical". For example, the higher zones may become very sparsely vegetated or nonexistent in the protected environments of southern Puget Sound and Hood Canal, where low salinity, lack of waves, and excessive heat make seaweed survival difficult. On highly exposed shorelines, wave splash may extend seaweed zones so they cover relatively large vertical distances, with a prominent splash zone occurring many feet above the high water mark. Other important factors affecting zonation are shading from direct sunlight and predation. Productivity Only recently have researchers begun to study the productivity of seaweeds other than kelps. Some seaweeds studied have been shown to have extremely high production, such as Iridaea, Gigartina, laver, sea lettuce, Monostroma, and Enteromorpha. These highly productive seaweeds Talong with the kelps) contribute a major sh 'are of the fTod resources supporting animals in nearshore areas. Slow-growing algae, such as the beautiful red coralline species, contribute 558 only a small amount to coastal primary production. Seaweeds are known to release carbohydrates and nitrogen compounds into the water as soluable materials. There is some evidence that animals, bacteria, and perhaps even other plants can absorb these materials and use them as a source of food and/or nutrients. The amount of organic matter released into the water and the importance of this matter to animals or bacteria is not known at present. Another aspect of production is reproduction. Most seaweeds use a large amount of energy during reproduction, as they tend to produce phenomenal numbers of zoospores. Ultimately, only a small percentage of these zoospores survive to become mature plants. Trophic Importance In contrast to tropical areas where fish are the major grazers of seaweeds, invertebrates and perhaps birds are the most important grazers of seaweeds in the Northwest. Invertebrate grazers are varied, and in- clude periwinkles and other snails, limpets, chitons, polychaete (or bristle) worms, urchins, amphipods, isopods, and crabs (e.g. , kelp crabs). Vertebrates (especially waterfowl) graze other sea- weeds far more frequently than they Oo kelps. For example, sea lettuce is an important food source for Greater Scaup, Harlequin Ducks, Black Scoters, and American Wigeons. A study on wigeons in Rhode Island indicated that besides feeding on sea lettuce (which they appeared to prefer), they also ate species of Enteromorpha and Monostroma. Wigeon in Hood Canal have been observed feeding on sea lettuce growing at the water's edge or free-floating in nearshore waters. Mallards in British Columbia salt marshes have also been found to include seaweeds in their diet. The few fish in Washington which feed on seaweeds include the high cockscomb (for which algae is an important food) and buffalo and great sculpins. Other fish, such as the C-0 sole, consume small amounts of algae which is perhaps unintentionally seized while capturing animals. 559 The large numbers of zoospores produced by seaweeds Habitat which do not survive are mostly consumed by animals. The zoospores, which are part of the plankton commun- Seaweeds provide habitat for many animals, as well as ity, are fed on by planktonic grazers, which ulti- other species of seaweed. The surface area of plants mately help support fish such as smelt, anchovies, supports many of the same algae and invertebrates and herring, along with their predators (e.g. , salmon, that kelps do. Seaweed beds also provide a refuge sea birds, marine mammals, and man). They also pro- for smaller animals such as amphipods, small crabs9 vide a food source for filter feeding benthic inverte- juvenile fish, or snails, protecting them from preda- brates, such as oysters, clams, mussels, brittle stars, tion, waves, or extreme temperatures at low tide. As polychate worms, and sea cucumbers. with kelps, other algae also provide a substrate for attachment for fish and invertebrate eggs. Table The detritus pathway is essentially identical to that 629-1 lists the types of marine vegetation upon which described in the Kelp Narrative (No. 628). As with herring deposit their eggs. the kelps, the detritus pathway may perhaps be the pathway of greatest significance. One species of kelp crab has evolved a slightly dif- Both the herbivores and detritivores provide food for ferent method of using seaweeds to provide protection. The crab transplants live seaweeds into small tubercles a large number of carnivores. Included among these on the back of its shell. These seaweeds thus serve carnivores are many species of commercial or recrea- to comouflage the crabs, which blend in well with tional importance their densely vegetated surroundings. In similar fashion, the white-cap limpet, which grazes red coral- line algae, usually supports a heavy growth of red coralline algae on the outside of it's shell. Thus when feeding, the limpet blends in well with its sur- roundings. If visitors to the seashore look closely at the blades of seaweeds, they are bound to find small animals (particularly crustaceans) whose coloration closely resembles that of the seaweed. Most of these animals derive their coloration from pigments produced by the seaweeds they feed on. The pigments make these small animals extremely difficult for their predators to pick out, and thus help ensure their survival. 560 TABLE 629-1. Type of marine vegetation used as a herring spawning substrate, 1976-77. South Central South North Strait of San Juan Strait of Marine Puget Puget Hood Hood Juan de Islands Georgia Vegetation Sound Sound Canal Canal Fuca CHLOROPHYTA Enteromorpha x x x Ulva x x x x RHODOPHYTA Agardhiella x x x x x Botryoglossum x Cryptopleura x Gracilaria x x x x Microcladia x Odonthalia x Polyneura x Polysiphonia x Prionitis x x Rhodomela x Rhodymenia x PHAEOPHYTA Costaria x Desmarestia x x Fucus x x Laminaria x x x x x Nereocystis x x x Sargassum x x x Scytosiphon x ZOSTERACEAE Zostera x x x x x x x From: Meyer, John H. and Robert A. Adair. 1978. Puget Sound Herring Surveys. United States 561 Characteristic Plants and Animals Greater Scaup o Pl-ants, Invertebrates, and Fish Scaups are diving ducks which feed on both plant and animal matter and are known to feed on sea lettuce. The characteristic algae, invertebrates, and fish As in eelgrass beds, scaups frequently dislodge plants associated with other algal communities are discussed while feeding on algae. The plants then float to the in detail in the appropriate beach substrate narra- surface where they become available to surface feeding tive.s. See also the Characteristic Plants and Animals ducks such as wigeon. Section of the Kelp Narrative (No. 628). The previously mentioned species all consume algae Birds and Mammals directly. The greatest contribution of algae to wild- life, however, is through food pathways which involve Wildlife associated with algal communities are dis- other primary consumers (mainly invertebrates and cussed in beach substrate and kelp narratives. The fish) of the plants. following are examples of species which depend on the Examples of the many species which benefit from these diverse algal communities of our coastal zone: algal based food paths include: American Wigeon o Pintails o Algae, especially sea'lettuce and Enteromorpha, com- Pintails, like American Wigeon, are abundant in west- prise a large percentage of the foTd for these abun- ern Washington and are important to waterfowl hunters dant ducks. Algae is consumed in sheltered bays and wildlife watchers. Pintails feed.more heavily on throughout the coastal zone, where wigeon pick plants marine invertebrates than wigeons, although they often attached to beach substrates as well as detached feed in. salt marshes where seeds of marsh plants are a pieces of algae floating freely at the water's surface. preferred food item. Since much of their feeding Wigeon have also been observed feeding along rather activity is confined to tidal flats and the marsh edge, exposed beaches where they occasionally feed on epi- invertebrates consumed probably feed on detritus phytic algae (possibly sea lettuce) attached to kelp washed both from the marsh and algal beds adjacent to plants. the marsh. Invertebrate prey include shorecrabs and Brant o littorine snails (more'than 50 littorines were reported in a single Pintail collected on Nanaimo Flats). Although these geese are primarily dependent on eel- grass, they are known to feed on sea lettuce and Canvasback o Enteromorpha. Consumption of algae may be especially Canvasbacks, occur in protected bays where small amounts important along shorelines with a restricted eelgrass of algae are consumed directly. In freshwater they zone. Also, during fall and winter, eelgrass beds feed more extensively on plants, a fact which was are submerged for long periods while higher intertidal noted in their scientific name Aythya valisineria zones (where sea lettuce is abundant) are more acces- (valisineria = wild celery). However, invertebrates sible to Brant and other waterfowl. appear to be the major food of the canvasback in coastal locations. 562 Common Go I deneye o Goldeneyes occur throughout the coastal zone in both protected and exposed areas. They most often feed very near the water's edge and have been observed many times inside the margin of kelp and eelgrass zones where other algae conceal and support prey items such as shorecrabs and littorine snails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Belted Ki ngf i sher o The kingfisher is a familiar sight throughout the coastal zone and is often observed diving into sub merged al gal beds where prey is taken near the water's surface. n$1 'WI Bald Eagl e o Eagles prey on fish and marine birds within algal beds. Predation also occurs in deeper water and in cludes prey which feed in or inhabit algal beds at some stage in their life cycle or at varying periods of the day or season. For example, many marine birds feed nearshore in the morning hours or during high 'UM.M. M: tide. When they move offshore to rest, large mixed .......... n important HUHM: flocks often form which provide eagles a food source. .... . . . . . . .............. Raccoons o Raccoons feed extensively along beaches, hunting among plants for prey which have used algae as a refuge P1,V M CANVASSACK during low tide. Raccoons also feed extensively on beach hoppers in drift piles of algae at the high water line. 563 16, Nk sea- 564 64@00 Use by Man Limited use of seaweeds as a human food occurs in Washington, and most of this use occurs among the 0 *riental community. The most frequently eaten seaweeds (along with the two kelps sugar wrack and bull kelp) are nori (species of Porphyra; also called laver in Europe where it is also eaten) and ogo (species of Neoagardhiella). In addition, there are many other seaweeds occurring in Washington which have been used as food in other parts of the world, including: Monostroma Laurencia Dulse (Palmaria) Rockweed (Fucus) Sea lettuce (Ulva) Iridaea Enteromorpha Gigartina Analipus Codium Gelidium Sargassum Gracilaria Griffithsia Gracilariopsis Some blue-green algae Few, if any, of these seaweeds are abundant enough in Washington to sup- port commercial harvesting. However, many are potential candidates for mariculture operations. In Japan, the culture, distribution, and sale of nori provides a $600 million a year industry which employs 30,000 people. Although many seaweeds have a fairly high percentage of carbohydrates, most of them are unsuable to humans as they are indigestible. However, many have distinctive flavors, are rich in vitamins, and provide rough- age. Nori is quite nutritious, being high in vitamin C, iodine, and protein. Some seaweeds have vitamin C concentrations comparable to lemons, while some have vitamin B1 (thiamine) levels comparabel to fruits and vegetables. Other vitami.ns occurring in seaweeds are riboflavin, niacine, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, cholin, biotin, and vitamins B12 and A. Seaweeds are also rich in several minerals. Domestic animals are much more efficient than humans in digesting algal carbohydrates. As a result, seaweeds have been used to supplement the diet of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs. Although livestock can persist on seaweed diets for reasonably long periods, they do best when seaweeds comprise 3 to 10 percent of their diet. 565 Seaweeds, as mentioned in the Kelp Narrative, have also been used as fertilizers. While low in phosphate compounds, seaweeds provide minerals and hormone-like substances. They also act as a soil conditioner, and contain chelating agents which make many metals more useable to plants. Seaweeds also contain chemicals which are widely used in industrial processes, especially in the food industry. Brown algae contain algin, which was discussed in the Kelp Narrative (No. 628). Red algae contain agar, carrageenan, or other related products. There are literally hun- dreds of uses for these chemical products (refer to the Mariculture Narrative, No. 23). Throughout history, seaweeds have been put to a wide variety of other uses. Examples include use as a source of iodine, medicines (e.g. , vermifuges, antibiotics), and insulation. In Japan, one seaweed has even been used to make gl ue. IMPACTS Pollution Indicators Benthic seaweeds and animals can be valuable indicators of pollution. Seaweeds, and many of the animals, are station- ary and therefore cannot flee if the area they inhabit be- comes pol 1 uted. Even sublethal levels of pollution may manifest themselves among benthic organisms by harming juve- niles or discouraging their settlement in a particular area. Changes in species presence, dominant plants or animals, growth rate, or reproductive rate are factors which may change in response to pollution. Other factors, such as decreased resistance to disease and increased susceptibility may also result, but are usually very difficult to monitor. Certain types of plants and animals, even though they may exist in unpolluted areas, seem to thrive in areas of pollu- tion. Such organisms are termed "pollution indicator species" The seaweed Enteromorpha, which is very tolerant to fresh- water, is often located near sewage outfalls, storm drain runoff, and industrial effluents. Thus it is throught by some researchers that Enteromorpha is an indicator species for these types of pollution. Sea lettuce, Monostroma, and nori have also been cited as being abundant in the presence 566 of certain types of pollution. Oil Impacts Spilled oil can be a hazard to seaweed survival if a thick enough coating results to suffocate the plants. Smaller quantities do not appear to severely impact most seaweeds; however, some species, such as nori, Enteromorpha, and red coralline algae seem to be sensitive and can be killed. Seaweeds which secrete mucus are least sensitive to oil pollution. The detergents used to clean up oil spills in the past have proven more toxic to seaweeds than the oil itself. Oil impacts are more severe on animals than on seaweeds. This is true not only for invertebrates, but for birds and mammals as well. Spills occurring during fall or spring bird migrations could poten- tially result in severe losses. Impacts to animals could lead to an indirect impact on seaweeds by changing seaweed abundance or community structure. As an example, a reduction in the number of animals grazing on seaweeds may result in an increase in seaweed abundance. However, if the predators of animals grazing on seaweeds are reduced in number while the grazers are not, uncontrolled grazing could lead to a reduction in the quantity of seaweeds present or a drastic change in the dominant species. While phytoplankton naturally produce large quantities of hydrocarbons as a metabolic by-product, man has significantly increased the hydrocarbon level through oil spills, use of recreational and commer- cial boats, street runoff, and industrial discharges. Eventually the level may become so high that natural mechanisms for reducing oil levels (e.g., anaerobic breakdown by bacteria) may not be able to keep up. At the point when marine systems can no longer cope, plants (and animals) may exhibit lethal or sublethal effects. Thus many small oil spills could in the long run be just as harmful as fewer large spills. This problem may be compounded in the protected waters of Puget Sound, where water circulation is restricted. Other Impacts Sewage effluents can also affect plant growth by contributing excessive quantities of phosphorous and nitrogen to the water. The increased nutrient levels result in accelerated growth by seaweeds. An overabundance of vegetation occurs which will reduce the oxygen content of the water during decomposition, especially in areas where water circulation is restricted. Low oxygen levels are highly stressful for animals and seaweeds, and eventually result in an impoverished flora and fauna. The total impact of sewage effluents depends upon the level of treatment. Primary treatment, and secondary treatment to a lesser degree, fail to remove various toxins, such as heavy metals, from the effluents. Certain heavy metals, such as zinc, cad- mium, and arsenic, are known to concentrate, in various seaweeds. 567 Little information is available on the impact of heavy metals on seaweeds themselves. Of greatest concern is the impact upon animals grazing seaweeds and their predators (which include man). Besides those metals listed above, seaweeds are known to con- centrate other heavy metals. For example, rockweed can concentrate radioactive strontium as much as 40 times over the concentration occurring in sea water. Pollu- tion of heavy metals which are concentrated by marine plants and animals may greatly interfere with the future use of marine organisms for food resources. The operation of pulp mills produce a variety of toxins, whose effects on seaweeds are poorly understood. Lignins and fibers are both known to be detrimental to plant growth; lignins block out light in the water and fibers reduce gas exchange during photosynthesis and respiration. Organic debris lowers oxygen content of the water and creates oxygen-deficient conditions on the sediment surface. This oxygen- deficiency promotes the production of hydrogen sulfide and methane gases. Hydrogen sulfide is highly toxic to marine plants and animals. Although no large-scale harvest of seaweeds is likely in Washington, limited harvest- ing for commercial purposes may soon become a reality. Harvest will remove food sources for both grazers of seaweeds and detritus feeding animals. Habitat for animals (and some plants) will be destroyed and vital nutrients will be removed from the marine environment. The culture of seaweeds by man, which is far more feasible in Washington than the harvest of existing seaweed beds, will alleviate some of these concerns. However, the use of nutrients by the cultured seaweeds and subsequent harvest will still remove large quantities of nutrients from the marine ecosystem. This may adversely affect adjacent areas, as limited nutrients will reduce produc- tivity. 568 17 Ar@ NL vi ol'* @'2 Suggested References 4 Carefoot, Thomas. 1977. Pacific 70 Seashores. A Guide to Intertidal AW Ecology. University of Washing- Seattle. 208 p. ton Press. Waaland, J. Robert. 1977. Common Seaweeds. Pacific Search Press. Seattle. 120 p. -W AA 569 ..................... 570 BEACH SUBSTRATE (No. 63) INTRO DUCTION Beach substrates form the ecotone between terres- trial and marine environments and as such are highly diverse and productive areas. Beaches and nearshore areas provide. man with a multitude of resources, including food, transportation, recreation and, unfortunately, a convenient source of depositing wastes. These resources have attracted the major- ity of people in the world, and certainly the majority of people in Washington, to reside in the Beach Substrates are only mapped on the Land Cover/ coastal zone. Land Use maps as 63. Information on the specific The disproportionate production of beaches in rela- type of beach substrate present in a particular tion to their size results from the presence of area must be obtained from the Drift Sector Maps. large seaweeds, seagrasses, and marsh plants. Beach types mapped in the Drift Sector Maps corres- This vegetation, phytoplankton and organic matter pond with the substrate narratives as follows: such as leaf litter from terrestrial sources, forms the base of food webs supporting animals along Drift Land Use/Land Cover beaches and in nearshore regions. Most of the Beach Type Symbol Beach Substrate nearshore marine resources harvested in Washington Sector Narrative No. are dependent to varying degrees on beach sub- strates for at least part of their life; others Rock R 631 may feed, nest, or find refuge from predators on Cobble Cob 632 beaches, or use them as nursery areas; still others directly or indirectly rely heavily on plant or Mixed Coarse MC 633 animal matter produced on beaches to be exported Mixed Medium MM 634 to offshore areas. The importance of algae (in- cluding kelp), seagrasses, and marshes led to these Mixed Fine MF 635 plant groups being mapped separately where discern- Sand S 636 able on aerial photographs. While their value is referred to repeatedly in discussions.of the appro- Sandy Mud S-Mud 637 priate beach substrates in which they occur, more Mud Mud 638 detailed information on their value can be found in their respective narratives@ The subclasses grouped under Beach Substrates are Seagrasses (see Narrative No. 627) differentiated on the basis of the sediment size Kelp (No. 628) composition. Four of the categories, mixed coarse, Other Algal Communities (No. 629) mixed medium, mixed fine, and muddy sand, are com- Salt Marshes (No. 623) prised of various combinations of particle sizes 571 which are frequently encountered in Washington. Table 63-1 indicates the size of particles used in defining the various beach types. These size categories are fairlywell standardized in scientific literature. TABLE 63-1 SIZE COMPOSITION OF SEDIMENT PARTICLES USED TO DEFINE SUBSTRATE TYPES Classification Particle Size Millimeters Inches .. .. ...... . .......... ...... ... . 1. ............ .1H_,-,. 0. Rock/Boulder 10 256 mm 64-256 Cobble -10 2.5 Coarse Gravel 0.3-2.5 8-64 Fine Gravel 0.08-0.3 2-8 Sand 0.15-2 Silty Sand (or muddy sand) 0.15 Mud 0.062 The substrate type present on any particular beach is largely related to the expo- sure of the beach to wind, waves, and currents. Mud particles settling on highly or moderatly exposed beaches are quickly swept away by waves and currents. Only by settling in the most protected situations will mud particles remain permanently. Thus regardless of the original composition of the substrate in highly protected areas, mud begins to cover any boulders, cobble, gravel, or sand which may be pres- ent. Exposed beaches, on the other hand, consist predominantly of larger substrate particles, such as rock, boulder, cobble or gravel, which are usually too large to be moved by wind, waves, or currents. Beaches at the base of eroding bluffs are affected strongly by the type of sediment composing the bluff. Many of the mixed coarse beaches along Washington's coast are at the base of such bluffs. Boulders, cobble, and gravel falling onto the beach from the bluff may not be subject to movement by physical forces, and thus determine the substrate type. Mud and usually most of the sand, however, may be continually swept away by waves, wind, and currents. In some highly exposed areas, even gravel or cobble sized particles may be subject to constant movement. Within a particular beach type, the substrate size will often change between the upper part of the beach and the lower part. Such changes will affect the type of 572 plants and animals present in different parts of the beach. Often, these changes IR are predictable, and are discussed in several of the beach substrate cl asses. In Hood Canal, for example, mixed coarse beaches often grade into sand or muddy sand beaches in the lower intertidal region. Unfor- tunately, beach zones are often so narrow that not all beach types pres- ent could be delineated on the Drift Sector Substrate Maps. Some beach types undergo substantial seasonal changes as a re'sult of altered weather conditions. On some cobble be 'aches, for example, sand is pushed up into the high intertidal by wave action during the summer. This sand tends to level off the slope of the upper beach, and change the substrate type by covering the cobble. In winter, however, the increased force of the waves works to disperse the sand seaward to shallow subtidal areas, where a bar is formed. The effect in the high intertidal area is to -leave behind a cobble substrate with a steeper beach slope. These dynamic processes are difficult to portray in the atlas, and persons making decisions regarding management of the coastal zone must be aware of them. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Zonation Zonation refers to the occurrence of distinct bands (or zones) of plahts and animals alon -g the shoreline. These zones occur parallel to the shoreline, and are related to changes in elevation. Characteristic plants or animals which dominate these zones, such as mussels, sometimes give them a quite distinctive appearance. Zonation results from the distribution of dominant organisms being limited to a narrow vertical band. Generally, the upper limits of distribution are set by the tolerance of the plant or animal to physical factors such as dessication (drying out) or temperature extremes. Lower limits, however, are set by biological interactions such as predation or competition for space. As an example, the lower limit of mussels primarily results from predation by ochre stars. Experimental removal of ochre stars has shown mussels perfectly capable of surviving at lower elevations. The ochre stars, on the other hand, can only prey on the mussels af the lower part of the mussels' range, as moving higher will cause a fatal exposure to heat and sun at low tide. Each intertidal zone represents a community of plants and animals, not discrete sets of organisms which only exist in zones. Organisms have continuously overlapping ranges, throughout intertidal elevations. However, most organisms have their greatest abundance in only one zone. The more con- spicuous of the organisms can often be used as indicators of a particular zone. 573 A variety of systems have been used to define the intertidal zones present on beaches. Unfortunately, most of these systems use different names to describe the major zones. (For example, the highest zone is referred to by the following names by various authors: splash zone; uppermost horizon; supra- littoral fringe; zone 1; or the Littorina-glandula fasciation of the Balanus-M. Californianas associa- tion of the Balanus-Littorina biome.) Despite the maze of names, the number of zones defined and their approximate ranges correspond surprisingly well. The zones used here are listed in Figure 63-1, along with the relative positions of these zones with respect to intertidal elevation, and their approximate ranges. These names were chosen because of their intrinsically descriptive nature. The names in parentheses were derived by T.A. and Anne Stephenson after 30 years of research, and repre- sent names commonly used in scientific literature. In general, species abundance and diversity in- crease with decreasing intertidal elevation. Figure 63-1 terms used to define zonation SPRAY ZONE (SUPRALITTORAL ZONE) EXTREME HIGH WATER SPLASH ZONE (SUPRALITTORAL FRINGE) MEAN HIGH WATER HIGH INTERTIDAL ZONE (UPPER MIDLITTORAL Z0NE) MEAN SEA LEVEL MID-INTERTIDAL ZONE (LOWER MIDLITTORAL ZONE) MEAN LOWER LOW WATER = 0 FEET LOWER INTERTIDAL ZONE (INFRALITTORAL FRINGE) -- EXTREME LOW WATER SUBTIDAL Z0NE (INFRALITTORAL ZONE) 574 POAD SHRUBS Af ROCKY BANK MIXED COURSE AND ROCK ROCK RIDGE MIXED COURSE 310 AND ROCK (SOULDEPS) PHYLLOSPADIX eo- EC-RE131A PTERYC70PHORA $c HEPOPHYLLUM cc I- 4- --------- 10 V r 575 177 Spray zone (Supralittoral zone) = The zone above discussed in terms of feet above or below MLLW. the extreme high water mark and above the effects These mean tidal levels are preferable in reference of wave splash. This zone is influenced by salt to discussions of zonation to using actual foot spray and might include rock outcroppings, a beach levels (relative to MLLW), as mean tidal elevations grass zone, sand dunes, or a steep feeder bluff. differ from site to site in terms of feet above or Splash 'zone (Supralittoral fringe) = This zone is below MLLW throughout the coastal zone. For affected more by wave splash than by direct inun- example, tidal extremes are much greater in south- dation by the tides. The upper part of this zone. ern Puget Sound than in Northern Puget Sound, thus is never inundated, except during extreme weather the extreme high water level is above plus 16 feet conditions, and the remainder of the zone is only at Olympia and only about 'plus 11 feet at Anacortes. rarely covered by seawater. However, the level of extreme high water (EHW) High intertidal zone (upper midlittoral zone) bears an important relationship to the zonation of The high intertidal zone is exposed at low tides animals in both areas, while the plus 16-foot level more than it is covered by them, especially in the is only relevant to zonation in southern Puget Sound. upper portions of the zone. While zonation is defined by, and used in reference Mid-intertidal zone Obwer midlittoral zone) to, the occurrence of algae and invertebrates in This zone is covered by water more than it is intertidal areas, many vertebrates also exhibit exposed to-air. The lower limit of this zone is zonation in intertidal or nearshore areas. Their mean lower lowwater (MLLW). presence may correspond to the zonation of plants Lower intertidal zone (infralittoral fringe) = The or invertebrates. For example, Black Oystercatchers area between MLLW and extreme low water. This often feed primarily in the mussel zone, while zone is rarely exposed by low tides. Wandering Tattlers, turnstones, and Surfbirds have Subtidal zone (infralittoral zone) = This zone is been observed feeding mainly in the,. rockweed Fucus) never exposed by tides. The zone is divided into zone of rocky beaches. However, zonation of verte- the shallow subtidal zone (which is the area where brates is often discussed in a slightly different enough light penetrates to allow algal growth on context such as the depth of water regardless of the sea floor) and the deep subtidal (where insuf- tide height. For example, among shorebirds, Greater ficient light to allow photosenthesis reaches the Yellowlegs may feed in shallow water, Dunlins near sea floor). the water's edge and Least Sandpipers higher on the beach. Nearshore diving ducks may include The tidal levels referred to in Figure 63-1 are goldeneye in one to six feet (.3-2m) of water, illustrated in Figure 63-2. Extreme high water Buffleheads in slightly deeper waters and Surf and extreme low water represent the highest and Scoters in low intertidal and shallow subtidal lowest elevations the tide will reach during a areas. However, little information is available typical year, excluding abnormal weather conditions- regarding fine divisions of birds or other verte- Mean lower low water is the yearly average of all brates within specific intertidal zones as their lower low tides throughout the year. The mean great mobility allows a much wider range of area. lower low water (MLLW) mark is designated as the covered than most invertebrates. 0.0 level in tide tables and most elevations are 576 Almost every zonation scheme currently in use has been primarily developed from studies on rocky beaches. The visibility of organisms makes rocky shoreline communities highly conducive to study. As smaller sediment particles, especially sand and mud, become more prevalent, it is increasingly difficult to visually observe patterns of zonation. Because of this, discussions on the charac- teristic plants and animals of some substrates will not address zonation of organisms in detail. However, it must be remembered that even though not visually apparent, zonation still occurs even in the most homogeneous appearing of tideflats. Characteristic Plants and Animals Organisms using the various beach types are extremely diversified. Some plants and animals are so specialized as to only occur on a particular algae, which in turn may only occur in the lowest part of highly exposed rock beaches. Others are more adaptable and might be present on several beach types. Most plants and invertebrates are restricted to a particular beach substrate, while fishes, birds, and mammals, and a few plants (such as sea lettuce) and invertebrates (such as crabs and shrimp) are of the more adaptable group and occur on several beach substrates. The characteristic plants, inver- tebrates, and fishes are listed in the respective beach substrate narratives. However, the great mobility of birds and marine mammals would fiiake such lists extremely repetitive for these groups, which are presented in Table 63-2. W VII/ i.Lw 24HRs. Renrx To -rgx.-r Fort J@?kpL.ANATIDM OF TIDAL- C-YC-L-E- 577 C71 _Ij 00 TABLE 63-2 BIRDS AND MAMMALS ROCKY TO MUDDY SHORE INHABITANTS U C1 rz 4V U _0 'D Q0 ad a) a (U - 0 W > W 01@ 'a U cc M 'T -'s U 'D 0 E 0) 0 CL _1d M a) W a) u M CL U SPECIES COMMENT (3) BIRDS Common Loon C X CARN x x x x x x x x Loons are large, principally migratory diving birds. Yellow-billed Loon R X CARN x x x x x x Arctic Loon C x CARN x x x x x x Red-throated Loon C x CARN x x x x x x x x Red-necked Grebe C x CARN x x x x x x x x Grebes are also divers and among the many marine birds Horned Grebe C x CARN x x x x x x x x which make Washington waters popular for watching wild- Eared Grebe C x CARN x x x x life. They are often spectacular as when Westerns Western Grebe C x CARN x x x x x x x x run across water in courtship displays. Pied-billed Grebe U x CARN x x x x Double-crested Cormorant C x CARN x x x x x x x x Brandt's Cormorant C x CARN x x x x x x Pelagic Co@morant C x CARN x x x x x x Refer to Cliff Narrative Great Blue Heron C X CARN x x x x x x x x Nests and roosts in trees Green Heron U X CARN x x Great Egret U X CARN x x x x Whistling Swan U X X HERB x x x x Trumpeter Swan U X X HERB x x x x Potentially Threatened (a) Canada Goose U X X HERB x x x x Aleutian Canada Goose is an Endangered Subspecies (b) Brant C X X HERB x x x x Valuable game bird, depends on eelgrass. White-fronted Goose U X X HERB x x x Snow Goose C X X HERB x x Primarily Skagit and Stilla- guamish deltas. Mallard C X X OMNI x x x x x Ubiquitous and highly regarded as game and nongame bird. Gadwall U X X OMNI x x Pintail C X X OMNI x x x x x Pintail and teal among coastal ducks hunted by many each Green-winged Teal C X X OMNI x x x x x fall and winter. Blue-winged Teal R X X OMNI x x Cinammon Teal R X X OMNI x x European Wigeon R X X HERB x x x x so W 4W = M M M M M M M M m4mmmusim owl ism American Wigeon C X X HERB X X X X Abundant, valuable game bird Northern Shoveler C X X OMNI X X Redhead R X OMNI X X X X Canvasback C X OMNI X X X X Species of Concern (c) Greater Scaup C X OMNI X X X X X X X X Dives for eelgrass and other ducks feed on plants it dis- Lesser Scaup c X OMNI X X X X lodges. Common Goldeneye C X CARN X X X X X X X X Barrow's Goldeneye C X CARN X X X X X X X X Bufflehead C X OMNI X X X X X X X X Refer to Rock Narrative Oldsquaw C X CARN X X X X X X Harlequin Duck U X X CARN X X X Refer to Kelp Narrative White-winged Scoter C X OMNI X X X X X X X X Surf Scoter C X OMNI X X X X X X X X Refer to Rock Narrative Black Scoter U X OMNI X X X X X X Ruddy Duck U X OMNI X X X X Hooded Merganser R X CARN X X X X Nests locally in cavities. Common Merganser U X CARN X X X X Red-breasted Merganser C X CARN X X X X X X X X Turkey Vulture U X SCAV/ X X X X X CARN Bald Eagle C X X SCAV/ CARN X X X X X X X X Threatened Species (b) Osprey U X CARN X X X X X X X X Probably Threatened along -coast (a) Peregrine Falcon R X X CARN X X X X X X X X Endangered (b) Merlin U X CARN X X X X X X X X Species of Concern (c) American Kestrel U X CARN X X X Most often on marsh or uplands American Coot X X OMNI X X X X Black Oystercatcher U X CARN X X X X Potentially threatened with extinction in Washington (a) Semipalmated Plover C X CARN X X X Snowy Plover U X CARN X Potentially threatened with extinction (a) Killdeer C X CARN X X X X X X American Golden Plover X CARN X X X Mainly outer coast Black-bellied Plover C X X X X Surfbird C X X X X Ruddy Turnstone U X X X X X X X X Black Turnstone C X X X X X X X Lrl 00 C:) TABLE 63-2 (Cont'iTu-ed) (Ua 4, 4J o3c Q. m oj w m u o (3. oo u :3 x o o 4 lo (3) SPECIES c)@ COMMENT Common Snipe C x x x Most on marsh Whimbrel C x x x x Spotted Sandpiper C x x x x x Breed along streams Wandering Tattler C x x x x x x Willet R x x x x Greater Yellowlegs C x x x x Lesser Yellowlegs U x x x x Red Knot C x x x x Rock Sandpiper U x x x x Pectoral Sandpiper C x x x Baird's Sandpiper U x x x x Least Sandpiper C x x x x Ounlin C x x x x Refer to Mud Narrative Short-billed Dowitcher C x x x x Long-billed Dowitcher C x x x x Semipalmated Sandpiper R x x x x Western Sandpiper C x x x x Marbled Godwit R x x x x Sanderling C x x x x x 9 x Refer to Sand Narrative Red Phalarope R X X x Phalaropes are shorebirds which alight and feed on Wilson's Phalarope U x x x x x water's surface. Northern Phalarope tj x x x x x Glaucous Gull R X X CARN/ x x x x x x x x SCAV Glaucous-winged Gull C x x CARN/ x x x X x x x x Refer to Island Narrative SCAV Western Gull C x x CARN/ x x x x X X X X Breed on outer coast SCAV Herring Gull C x x CARN/ x x x x x x x x SCAV Thayer's Gull C x x CARN/ x x x x x x x x SCAV California Gull C x x CARN/ x x x x X X X X SCAV Ring-billed Gull C X X CARN/ SCAV X X X X X X X X Small numbers nest in western Washington (Grays Harbor and Willapa Bays). Mew Gull C X X CARN/ SCAV X X X X X X X X Bonaparte's Gull C X X CARN X X X X X X X X Black headed and Tern-like. Heermann's Gull C X X CARN/ X X X X X X X X SCAV Common Tern C X X CARN X X X X X X X X Arctic Tern R X X CARN X X X X X X X X Caspian Tern U X X CARN X X X X Potentially threatened with extinction in Washington (a) Common Murre C X CARN X X X X X X Pigeon Guillemot C X CARN X X X X X X X Refer to Kelp Narrative Marbled Murrelet C X CARN X X X X X X X May nest in trees along coast. Ancient Murrelet U X CARN X X X X X X Cassin's Auklet C X CARN X X X X X X Rhinoceros Auklet C X CARN X X X X X X Refer to Island Narrative for Puffin and Rhinoceros Auklet Tufted Puffin C X CARN X X X X X X Band-tailed Pigeon C X X X Picks gravel on beach for digestive tract. Belted Kingfisher C X CARN X X X X X X X X Violet-green Swallow C X X X X X X X X X X Swallows often feed on insects emerging from mudflats or over Tree Swallow C X X X X X X X X X X open water along other beaches. Rough-winged Swallow C X X X X X X X X X X Barn Swallow C X X X X X X X X X X Cliff Swallow C X X X X X X X X X X Purple Martin U X X X X X X X X X X May nest in old pilings. Common Raven C X CARN/ SCAV X X X X X X CARN/ Common Crow C X SCAV X. X X X X X X X Winter Wren C X Several terrestrial birds feed among detritus in upper intertidal. Water Robin C X Pipits often feed on exposed mudflats like shorebirds. Water Pipit C X Song Sparrow C X Fox Sparrow C X Savannah Sparrow C X Lapland Longspur C X Snow Bunting U X U1 00 Ln 00 N3 TABLE 63-2 (Conti@u_ed) U M M a) d) IU Cu C W 'Q U 0 U _U ai C >1 I = C1. U M a, a) M, -a 0-0 X: X , a = 'a WU @@D X W 0 0 M =3 :;: 0 (3) SPECIES CX COMMENT MAMMALS Vagrant shrew C X CARN X X X Shrews and other small mammals (Sorex vagrans) may frequent high intertidal @r splash zone. Yuma myotis X X CARN *Little known about status of (Myotis yumanensis) bats in western Washington. Some, such as Yuma myotis are known to feed over water. Townsend's vole C X HERB X X X X X Occasionally in intertidal, (Microtus townsendii) especially adjacent to salt marsh. Muskrat C X OMNI X X In estuarine zones. (Ondatra zibethica) Killer whale C X CARN X X X 9 X X See Open Water Narrative. (Orcinus orca) Gray whale C X CARN X X X X Endangered (b), see Sand (Eschrichtius robustus) Narrative. Coyote C X OMNI X X X X X Occasionally forage on beaches. (E@@ latrans) Raccoon C X OMNI X X X X X X X X Highly valued as furbearer (Procyon lotor) and as a very watchable wild- life species. Long-tailed weasel C X CARN X X X X X Known to forage along beaches. (Mustela frenata) Prey includes shorecrabs. Mink (M. vison) U X CARN X X X X X X X X May forage nearshore. Striped skunk C X OMNI X X X X X Forage at night. (Mephitis mephitis) River otter C X X CARN X X X X X X X X See Rock Narrative. (Lutra canadensis) Sea otter R X X CARN X X X See Kelp Narrative. (Enhydra lutris) Northern sea lion U X X CARN X X 'X Sea lions haul out on rock (Eumetopias jubata) islands - San Juan and outer coast. California sea lion U X X CARN X X X (Zalophus californianus) Harbor seal C X X CARN X X X X X X X X See Mixed Find and Rock (Phoca vitulina) Island Narratives. Black-tailed deer C X HERB X X X X X Frequently observed on beaches- (Odocaileus hemionus) occasionally in low intertidal within eelgrass beds. LEGEND: 1. Relative occurrence 2. Trophic Relationship (in western Washington) CARN = Carnivore C = Common HERB = Herbivore U = Uncommon OMNI = Omnivore R = Rare SCAV = Scavenger 3. Comment a. Status as determined by Washington Departments of Game and Ecology. 1975. Marine Shoreline Fauna of Washington Status Survey (Edited by Randall Eaton) b. Endangered and Threatened StatUS, USFWS. C. Species of concern as determined by National Audubon Society and included on their 1978 Blue List. Several shorebirds also consume seeds of marsh plants ap Ul co W Interrelationships The Vari ous beach substrates, I i ke al I other I and f. over or I and use types wi thi n the coastal zone, are highly interrelated not only among themselves but also with other adjacent areas. Several inter- relationships are given here to serve as examples of the broad range of interactions which exist. Shoreline drift involves the movement of sediment particles along the shoreline as a result of winds, waves, or currents. Sediments tend to have a net movement in one direction, and are often critical in supplying substrate materials for adjacent areas such as sand beaches, sand dunes, beach grasslands, or spits. The original sources of sediments are rivers or eroding bluffs. Rivers and streams also carry large amounts of organic matter (largely in the form of leaf litter) produced by terrestrial plants to marine beaches. Riparian vegetation produces the bulk of this organic matter that nourishes invertebrates in both intertidal and subtidal areas. Nutrients are also carried by rivers and streams, and are important in maintaining high productivity in estuaries and other nearshore areas. Salt marshes, eelgrass and algae beds (including kelp beds), are important contributors to the primary production of coastal areas. Production from these plant communities not only provides food for animals which graze them directly, but supplies food in the form of decaying plaint material to less productive beaches (such as cobble beaches) and subtidal areas which have little or no primary produc- tion. 584 EXPOb9.0 BEACH or BEAW - - --- ------------ ------ .... ..... .......... . . . ...... ""WER I n general there are two bas i c groups of wi 1 dl i f e'which forage along beaches: 1) Those of exposed areas above, and 2) Those of submerged areas beyond and be- neath the water's edge. A great deal of overlap occurs within these groups. For example, gulls may feed on the beach or offshore, and many diving birds actually forage on the beach substrate, but when the beach is submerged. Fish often move in and out with tides and are often stranded in, or adapted to tide- pools. Seals feed in the water and rest ashore. Terrestrial wildlife occasion- ally feed over the water's surface (e.g. , swallows), but most often feed along beaches (e.g., racoon). The tremendous variety of foraging types is a reflec- tion of the high diversity of species dependent on the beach, that zone where land and sea intermingle. 585 IMPACTS Intertidal existence is extremely stressful to the plants and animals inhabiting beaches. Organisms must expend a large amount of energy to cope with these stresses. Stresses of exposure during low tides include temperature extremes, salinity@ (especially during rainy weather, although this isn't normally a problem in the Pacific Northwest Coastal Areas), dessication, and the inability to feed or excrete wastes. These stresses tend to make plants and animals more susceptible to impacts. This sensitivity, coupled with the inability of beach vegetation and most invertebrates to move from an area which is impacted, make benthic organ,- isms (those organisms living on or in the substrate) excellent indicators of environmental impacts. The sensitivity of benthic organisms cause's them to be the first organisms impacted by pollution problems in nearshore areas. As a result, fish, Algae, as well as many invertebrates also release bird, and mammal predators which feed on benthic large numbers of zoospores Iinto the water column organisms are impacted more than those which feed duringI reproduction. These zoospores consitutue on organisms in the water column. an important part to the plankton community, and are carried about by tidal action. Suspension (or Each substrate type reacts differently-to a give'n filter feeding) organisms such as clams, oysters, kind of impact. For example, consider a hypothe- and mussels filter large numbers of zoospores as tical case where a toxic substance is spilled on they collect planktonic food upon which to feed. both a moderately exposed rock and a protected mud beach. The toxin would be dispersed quickly from M,any of the animals which feed in coastal areas the rock beach as a result of wave and current are migratory. These animals provide a link to action. If plants and animals were killed by the areas which are often far removed from Washington's toxin, recolonization of the rock would begin quickly. The community could take many years to coastal zone. Other animals are not migratory but move about among several beach types, or between reach its pre-impact state, however, as some of upland and marine areas. The feeding, defecating, the plants and animals of rock beaches apparently nesting, or consumption of all these animals as live for as long as 80 or more years. Mudflat they move between areas facilitates the exchange organisms have shorter life spans than most rock of,-.n'utrients and organic matter between di*fferent- species, and coul 'd potentially reach their pre - areas. impact population in a shorter period. Unfortun- 586 14 ately, toxins would be incorporated into the sedi- ments. Burrowing activity by organisms such as worms and mud shrimp could cause a gradual long- term release of the toxin, which would greatly prolong itg impact. Long-term, low level toxins tend to impact beach communities in a slightly different manner than short-term large scale impacts such as oil spills. Toxins may becorne more selective at low levels by killing only certain species, or sublethal impacts may occur. Sublethal impacts may mean reduced reproductive capacity, lower resistance to preda- ti on or di sease , or a reduced abi I i ty to obtai n food or photosynthesize. Such changes in an animal or plant are extremely difficult and expensive to detect. A A Location and season of occurrence of an impact also have considerable bearing of effects on near shore communities. For example, oil spills along a given stretch of rocky shoreline may disperse much more rapidly than in a more protected location. However, an oil spill along the rocky shores-of a "A seabird nesting island poses a significant threat regardless of how quickly the oil disperses. Spills during the breeding season will be of special con- cern in this situation and affect each species All differently since each generally feeds at varying distances from shore. In protected locations and other areas where large feeding assemblages occur, spills during winter or migratory periods poten- tially threaten thousands of marine 'wildlife. For example, it has been estimated that a hypothetical oil spill in Padilla Bay would eliminate 1,500 Brant. 587 Red Tides Red tides in Washington coastal waters are a result of blooms of micro- scopic plants called dinoflagellates, and outbreaks may possibly be affected by human pollution. These dinoflagellates become so abundant that they actually give the water a reddish tinge. One of the dinoflagel- lates, Gonyaulax catenella, contains a powerful neurotoxin which is responsible for paralytic shellfish poison. Although humans do not con- sume Gonyaulax directly, clams, oysters, mussels and other filter feeding animals which humans do eat, feed directly upon Gonyaulax. Small amounts of the toxin are enough to make a person quite sick, and large amounts can be fatal. Approximately 600 people have been killed by paralytic shellfish poisoning on the west coast of North America. Blooms occur regularly along the western portion of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Pacific Coast, usually during late spring, summer, or early fall. Inside Puget Sound and Hood Canal, however, toxic red tides are an infre- quent occurrence. It is not known what triggers a bloom in protected waters, but many researchers feel it is a combination of factors, among them temperature, salinity, and nutrients. There is some evidence which suggests that the occurrence of red tides is increasing. Some researchers feel that human pollution may be the reason. Agricultural practices, logging, stream channelization, sewage disposal, or other activities which alter nutrient levels in nearshore areas may create conditions which trigger the blooms. Current research is attempting to answer the question of what triggers toxic red tides. People involved in the sale and consumption of seafoods might be truly relieved by an answer, as outbreaks of red tide (even minor ones) cause a severe decline in the consumption of sea foods by the public. Severe outbreaks of red tides may also result in mass mortalities of fish and many shellfish. 588 Interference with Shoreline Drift Structures which interfere with shoreline drift include bulkheads, revet- ments, and jetties. Interference can jeopardize the existence of spits, sand dunes, sand beaches, or beach grasslands dependent upon shoreline drift to supply sediments. Removal of sediments from beaches may have the same effect on dependent areas as blocking shoreline drift. Dam construction on rivers supplying sediments to the shoreline, along with revetments at the base of eroding bluffs, can reduce the supply of drift sediments at their source. Ediz Hook, in Clallam County, was formed and maintained by drift sediments originating both from eroding feeder bluffs immediately to the west and from the Elwah River. Construction of a dam on the Elwha River in the 1950's and placement of revetments at the base of much of the feeder bluff cut off the supply of sediments to the spit. The spit, which is heavily developed, began to erode away, creating the need for the costly placement of riprap along the entire west side of the spit to protect this development. 589 References: Carefoot, T. 1977. Pacific Seashores: A guide to Intertidal Ecology. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington. 208 p. DOE No. Puget Sd. Oil Baseline Study - Summary Report Nyblade & Webber Reports. Everitt, Robert D., Clifford H. Fiscus, and Robert L. Delong. 1979. Marine mammals of Northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. NOAA Marine Ecosystem Analysis Program. Boulder, Colorado. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific Fishes of Canada. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 740 p. Kozloff, E. 1973. Seashore Life of Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the San Juan Archi- pelago. University of Washington Press, Seattle. 282 p. Miller, Bruce S. , Charles A. Simenstad, Lawrence L. Moulton, Kurt L. Fresh, Frederick C. Funk, William A. Karp, and Steven F. Borton. 1977. Puget Sound Baseline Program Nearshore Fish Survey. U.S. Fisheries Res. Inst. Report to Dept. of Ecology. Ricketts, E.F., J. Calvin, and J.W. Hedgpeth. 1968. Between Pacific Tides. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. 614 p. Simenstand, Charles A. , Bruce S. Miller, Jeffery N. Cross, Kurt L. Fresh, S. Nancy Steinfort, Julianne C. Fegley. 1977. Nearshore fish and microinvertebrate assemblages along the Strait of Juan de Fuca including food habits of nearshore fish. NOAA Marine Ecosystem Analysis 590 Program. Boulder, Colorado. LO QL Nee lax IM ffika--@@ ic'lf= 592 ROCK (No. 631) I. INTRODUCTION Rock beaches consist of solid bedrock.and boulders which are too large to be moved about by cur- rent or wave action. While not comprising a major portion of Washington's coastal zone, rock beaches certainly provide one of the most unique and fascinating types of environment in the state. This is especially true of moderately to highly exposed beaches which are characterized by lush growths of algae and large numbers of animals. The organisms living on exposed beaches must be adapted to withstand the countinuous powerful pounding of the surf. Kelp beds and surfgrass, when present, are most often associated with moderately or highly exposed rocky shores. A wealth of bird life is present, and exposed rock beaches are the best areas in the state for observing marine mammals. A variety of fishes come in with the tide to feed or spawn on rock beaches. Others are a part of tidepool communities. The high biomass of algae on exposed rock beaches, and the high production of algae, imply that these beaches are perhaps the most productive (per unit area) in the state. Large surpluses of primary production are exported to other areas. The value of these exposed beaches is so great that they should be viewed as critical biological areas, especially considering their limited distribution in the state and contribution to commercial and recreational fish and other wild- life. While rock beaches are more characteristic of moderate to high wave and/or current exposure, they do occasionally occur in the protected waters of Puget Sound and Hood Canal. These beaches are not nearly as spectacular or luxuriant as more exposed beaches, but they still contain a rela- tively diverse biota. Protected rock beaches must necessarily be fairly steep-sloped, or sedimen- tation would shortly result in the beach being covered by sand and mud. The occurrence of small rock islands along rocky shorelines is an important feature biologically. While providing the same biological features as rock beaches on the mainland or large islands, special uses such as seabird and marine mammal breeding and resting areas are associated with small islands. These special features of rock islands are discussed in a separate narrative (see No. 713). 593 Beaches with high or moderate exposure occur predominately along the Pacific Coast of the Olympic Peninsula from Cape Flattery to just south of the Copalis River, along the Strait of Juan de Fuca, portions of the west side of Whidbey Island and the southwest portion of Fidalgo Head, the south- west shore of San Juan Island and the southern end of Lopez Island. Many small islands occurring offshore from these areas also have exposed beaches. Protected rock beaches are most common in northern Puget Sound (such as in the San Juan Islands, Chuckanut Bay, Lummi and Cypress Islands, Deception Pass, and Fidalgo Head). Some of these beaches are, however, exposed to swift currents. Rock beaches are rare in southern and central Puget Sound and Hood Canal, occurring in only a few scattered locations, e.g. , Steamboat Island, Sisters Rocks, Pulali Point, Blakely Rocks, and north of MacDonald Creek on Hood Canal. A II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Diversity and Biomass Rock substrates have extremely high species diversity, meaning the number of species present is very high in relation to their substrate types. Thorough sampling of rock will usually reveal in excess of 200 species of invertebrates and macro-algae. This figure may be lower on protected rock shorelines, especially in southern Puget Sound and Hood Canal, where salinities are lower. Biomass is similarly high and when kelp is present, is the highest of any substrate type. One study reported biomass was as high as 17.5 kg per meter squared at an exposed rock site along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This value does not account for the numerous birds, fish, marine mammals and mobile invertebrates which use the area, but which are capable of moving elsewtiere during sampling. Both diversity and biomass tend to increase in the lower intertidal. Biomass often peaks in the lowest intertidal or adjacent shallow subtidal areas, especially when kelps are present. Diver- sity and biomass are also greatly enhanced by the presence of micro-habitats such as tidepools, crevices, caves, variation in beach slope (from gentle slopes and terraces to vertical cliffs or overhanging ledges), gullies, reefs, and the presence of seagrass or large algae such as kelps. Other factors which increase diversity and biomass are high wave exposure, strong currents, and 594 deep waters offshore which supply nutrient-rich water. Productivity The major contributors to the high biomass of exposed rock beaches are the algae, especially in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal areas. Algae are extremely important primary producers, some species being among the most productive plants known to man (see Kelp and Other Algal Communities Narratives, Nos. 628 and 629, respectively). Thus, the productivity of exposed rock beaches is probably higher than for any other beach type in Washington's coastal zone. A great surplus of production means large quanti- ties of organic matter is carried to other areas by the strong wave and current action, where it is used as detritus. Only a small amount of detritus which either settles among mussel beds, surfgrass, or dense algae or is filtered out of the water by sus- pension feeders, is consumed in the rocky beach itself. Since protected rock beaches do not exhibit the quantity of algae that exposed beaches do, it is likely that their production is lower. However, their production must be fairly high, as they support substantial populations of grazing animals. Where kelp is present, the productivity is surely much higher than areas from which it is absent. 595 Habitat Exposure Exposure to waves and currents is an important factor affecting the struc- ture of rock communities. The higher diversity and biomass of exposed beaches has already been mentioned. While it is thought that exposure controls the distribution of some plants and animals such as giant kelp, surfgrass, and California mussels, it is not the only factor affecting distributions. Protected waters often have lower salinities, greater temperature extremes, different nutrient concentrations, or more pollu- tion, all factors which can limit plant or animal distributions. However, as changes in exposure reflect changes in the rock community, differences in communities are often discussed by scientists in terms of exposure. Bird observations during this study compared some exposed and protected rock beaches. Species diversity and total number of birds seen was* greater at more exposed sites (Fidalgo Head, Cattle Point on San Juan Island and Tongue Pt. near Port Angeles) than at a protected rock area in Hood Canal (north of MacDonald Creek in Jefferson County) for each month sampled. The highest bird diversity and abundance was at Tongue Point. The pres- ence of extensive kelp beds, gentle sloping rocks which provide more horizontal rock @urface, a large number of microhabitats (tide pools, crevices, boulders, etc.) and the presence of a small rock islet all contributed to the consistently high diversity and abundance. (Rock islets are of such special significance to bird and mammal populations that a separate narrative, No. 713, has been written.) Oystercatchers were seen from October through February, indicating the importance of Tongue Pt. as a wintering area for a small flock of six to 12 of these birds. Other shore birds seen at Tongue Pt. were Surfbirds, Black Turnstones, Ruddy Turnstones, Rock Sandpipers, and Sanderlings. A total of 11 birds and mammal species seen at the exposed beaches were not observed at the protected beach: Northern sea lion Surfbird Sanderling Heermann's Gull Black Turnstone Brandt's Cormorant Harlequin Duck. Ruddy Turnstone Arctic Loon 596 Black Oystercatcher Rock Sandpiper 597 As most of these species are uncommon or absent in the protected waters of southern Puget Sound and Hood Canal, it is unlikely that they would be ob- served in protected rock locations in these areas. Similar differences among plants and invertebrates at exposed and protected sites were also noted. The three species of surfgrass are totally restricted at such sites. Extensive kelp beds, a strong contribut- ing factor to animal and plant diversity and biomass, rarely occur at protected rock sites. Conspicuous algae largely or totally restricted to more exposed conditions include: Giant kelp (Macrocystis integrifolia) Sea palm (Postelsia palmaeformis) Pelvetiopsis limitata Honey ware kelp (Alaria sp.) Pompon kelp (Pterygophora californica) (Occurs sub- tidally in Puget Sound where currents are strong, such as Agate Pass.) Feather boa (Egregia menziesii) Laminaria setchelii Lessoniopsis littoralis Conversely, there are few algae which are "restricted" to protected rock situations, and algae common on protected beaches are often abundant on exposed beaches. Algae which are most often conspicuous on protected shores include: Sea lettuce (Ulva spp.) Monostroma spp. Sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina) Enteromorpha spp. Rockweed (Fucus distichus) Sargassum muticum 598 rocky beach SUBMERGED (RIGH TIDE) SPLASH ZONE HIGH INTERTIDAL too MID INTERTIPAL LOW INTERTIVAL SUBTI PAL @ ASH SZPOLN-E 599 In addition, large algae which occur in a variety of sun at low tides, etc.) and predation. Their role conditions usually have a greater biomass of epiphytes is analogous to that of an upland forest. Structural growing on them in protected areas. Exposed condi- dominants on rock beaches often trap small amounts tions may be important for some marine plants which of sand, shell fragments, and organic debris, creating cannot tolerate heavy epiphytic growth, by scouring a microhabitat for organisms which would not other epiphytes from them. However, despite this, the wise be present on a "rocky" beach. Animals dependent number of species of algae occurring in southern upon these structural dominants consist mostly of Puget Sound and Hood Canal is reduced in comparison small crusteceans (amphipods, isopods, and tanaids) to northern Puget Sound and other more exposed areas. and insect larvae, but also may include a variety of Reduced salinity is probably a major factor in this other organisms. For example, beds of California trend. mussel often contain polychaete worms (e.g., Nereis vexi I I osa), ri bbon worms (e. g. , Empl ectoneura graci I e). Conspicuous invertebrates characterizing exposed peanut worms, hermit crabs, and a smal I sea cucumber, rock beaches include: as well as small crusteaceans and insect larvae. The fate of these dependent organisms is intimately Purple sea urchin tied to the fate of the structural dominant, and California mussel when the structural dominant is removed or dies off, Gooseneck barnacl.es the dependent organisms will quickly follow suit. Green sea anemone Turban snails These small organisms are usually extremely abundant, Red turban snails and provide important sources of food for many birds and fishes. Thus, the structural dominants are Structural Dominants important in indirectly supplying food for many organ- isms. Many birds and fishes, however, feed specifi- Structural dominants are organisms such as barnacles, cally on the structural dominants themselves. The mussels, surfgrass, or algae which provide some sort role of plants in providing habitat is discussed of refuge from physical factors (waves, currents, further in the Kelp and Other Algae Narratives. 600 Feeding/Resting/Nesting A variety of animals use rock beaches for nesting, feeding, and resting activity. Most of the invertebrates and some fish spend their entire life cycle on rocky shores. However, some of the more mobile animals, including some invertebrates (such as shrimp), birds, fish, and mammals spend only part of their life in intertidal or shallow subtidal areas, the rest of their time being spent in other areas. Marine mammals such as harbor seals and river otters use rocky beaches as resting and feeding areas, and some terrestrial mammals, such as raccoons, mink, and skunks occasionally forage here. Garter snakes have also been observed feeding on a variety of organisms during low tides. Many birds, including shorebirds, gulls, crows, diving birds, Bald Eagles, and Pere- grine Falcons feed along rock beaches in adjacent nearshore areas. Some migratory fishes, such as salmon and herring, also use rock beaches for a portion of their life cycles. Juvenile salmon feed heavily on small invertebrates before leaving for the open ocean, and herring attach their eggs to intertidal and shallow subtidal vegetation. See the Characteristic Plant and Animal section for more detailed information on fish and other wildlife use. Importance of Amount of Space Available A study in California on shorebird ecology revealed that available space rather than the amodnt of available food appears to be the environmental factor most important in limiting size and density of migratory shorebird populations. Thus, rock shelves which provide extensive horizontal feeding areas have higher density and species numbers than other rocky sites which have fairly steep profiles. However, rocky intertidal areas in general have few kinds of shorebirds and do not often have large aggre- gations as often seen on mudflats. The steep slopes, wave action, and brief exposure at low tide (most are migrants, therefore are here in winter when the tidal variation is least) have probably been major factors limiting shorebird abundance. Those species, such as Oystercatchers and Surfbirds, which are essentially restricted to rock are not abundant; because they are not often found outside this habitat it is very impor- tant to maintain undeveloped rocky shores with adequate refuges for these species. 601 Characteristic Plants and Animals Algae and Invertebrates The zonation of algae and invertebrates is more clearly evident on rock beaches than on any substrate type. The degree of zonation and the species present depend on the type of rock (e.g., hardness of rock), topography, and exposure to wind, waves, and currents. Plants generally are more abundant in lower zones than higher zones. Distributions of many spepies are patchy, especially in the upper zones. Some species, barnacles for example, show large seasonal fluctuations in number and biomass. Tidepools provide special refuges during low tide for organisms which could not otherwise survive the exposure to air. Table 631-1 lists the characteristic species of algae and invertebrates found on rock beaches. a. splash zone This zone is characterized by a small number of species. The exposure to dessication (drying out) is too great for all but a few hardy species. Salt water influence eliminates essentially all terres- trial organisms except a few lichens. Lichens often form a distinct band in this zone, and two common types are the black Verrucaria and the orange Caloplaca. An isopod, the rock slater, which feeds on decaying algae, is truly representative of this zone. Little algae is visable in this zone, unless the rocks, another green algae, Enteromorpha, may be abundant. Despite the apparent lack of algae, the green algae Prasiola meridionalis is present. In areas where there is freshwater seepage onto the limpet Collisella digitalis and littorine snails, which are herbivorous, occur in abundance. Microscopic algae (diatoms) are important primary producers, especially in winter when waves and cool weather keep rock surfaces damp, and may be the primary source of food for herbivores. Blue-green algae are also ususally present. Some of the species more characteristic of the next lower zone, 602 especially barnacles and some of the limpets, are often abundant in the lower part of the splash zone. C09 6"*tv, OF A V, Z'M' M, @27" '.-Vz . . . . . . . . . . TABLE 631-1. Characteristic Algae and Invertebrates on Rock Beachec ........... .... . .. ........ ............ . . . . . . . . . . ............ PLANTS Green Algae (Prasiola meridionalis) SPL (Enteromorpha spp.) SPL,H M T Grows where freshwater seep- age occurs or water is brack- ish. Edible Sea lettuce (Ulva spp.) H,M,L,T Edible Green rope [Acrosiphonia (Spongomorpha) coalital M,L (Monostroma -Spp-.) @,Lj Edible Brown Algae Rockweed (Fucus distichus) H,M Tar Spot (Ralphsia pacifica) H Honey ware kelp (Alaria spp.) H,M,L Edible Sea cabbage (Hedophyllum sessile) M,L (Leathesia difformis) M ........... ;gg Sugar wrack (L. saFcharina) L,SB Edible L,SB Split whip wrack (Laminaria setchellii) Seersucker (Costaria costata) Feather boa (Egregia menziesii) M,L (Desmarestia ligulata) L,3B (D. viridis L,SB Bladder leaf (Cystoseira geminata) Bull kelp (Nereocystis leutkeana) SB Edible Pompon kelp (Pterygophora californica) SB Giant kelp (Macrocystis Tnt@grifolia) SB Limited distribution (highest exposure) low= 604 26200 WMEMM (Lessoniopsis littoralis) Limited distribution (highest exposure) 3ea Palm (Postelsia palmaeformis) M,L Limited distribution (highest exposure) (Sargassu muticum) L,SB An introduced alga, most prom- inent in protected rock areas. Sea colander (Agarum spp.) L,SB Red Algae (Endocladia muricata) H'M Edible Red laver (Porphyra perforata) M, L Edible (Bar ia fuscopurpuLea) H,M Tar spot (Petrocelis meddendorffii) ndia (Hildenbra sp.) H (aiqartina papillata) H,M,L Contains high percent of carrageenan Tidal pool coral (Corallina vancouveriensis) M,L,SB,T Coralline red algae (Bossiella plumos @ - ' M,L,SB,T Coralline red algae (_C1_thothamnion.spp.) L LB -,T Coralline red algae (Calliarthron spp.) L,LB,T Coralline red algae Turkish towel (Gigartina exasperata) M,L@SB Contains high percentage of carrageenan Iridescent seaweed (Iridaea cordata) M,L,SB Contains high percentage of (Ordonthalia floccosa) L,T carrageenan BTack -Pine (Rhodomela larix) R,L T (Prionitis sFp-.) L,SB,T Vascular Plants Surfgrass (Phyllospadix spp.) L,T 605 TABLE 631-1. Characteristic Algae and Invertebrates on Rock Beaches (con't). . . . . . . . . .... ...... ....... . ... G INVERTEBRATES Molluscs Litto@@ine snail or Periw nkle (Littorina scutulata) SPL,H,M,T Periwinkle (L. sitkana) SPL,H,M,T Dog whelk (Thais emarginata) H,M Edible Dog whe I k (T_.can_a_1Tc_`u1_a_t_a@ M Edible NO. Dog whelk (T. lamellosa) H,M Edible Dire whelk (Searlesia dira) H,@ (Barleeia haliotiphilla) M Chink shell (Lacuna variegata) M Top shell (CaT-liostoma ligatum) M,L,SB Margarite snail (Margarites pupillus) M,L,SB Wrinkled.snail (A:mphissa columbiana) L - - Smooth velutina (Velutina bevjfgata@ E,SB Turban snail (Teaula funebralis) M,7 Edible Northern abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana) E,3B Edible Fingered limpet (Collisella digitalis) SPL,H,M Mask limpet (Notoacmea persona) @PL,@,T Shield limpet Collisella pelta) H,M,L,T Strigate limpet (C. strigatella) @,Mj Plate limpet (Notoacmea scutum) H,M,L,T Edible White-cap limpet (Acmaea mitra) M,L,T Keyhole limpet (Diodora aspera) L,SB Slipper shells (Crepidula spp.) M,L Sea lemon (Anisodoris nobilis) L,-�B Foot is edible. Sea lemon (Archidoris montereyensis) 1,SB __(P_ Jingle shell ododesmus macroschisma) Edible H,M California mussell (Mytilus californianus) Bay mussel (M. edulis) Edible; current commercial H,M ........... ..... . . . . ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... . .......... harvest involving raft culture. 1V 606 . ... ... ... . . .. .......... X "n . ........ ......... . --.,@;Xx; X, x*x, Pygmy mussel (Musculus pygmaeus) H Purple-hinged rock scallop (Hinnites multirugosus) L,SB Edible Arctic Saxicave (Hiatella arctica) L,TB Flat-tipped piddock (_@e_nitella penita) M,L Burrows in rock; can cause considerable erosion. Pacific oyster (Crassostrea ajg@s) M Uncommon; found only in pro- tected waters Leather chiton (Katharina tunicata) M,L L-ined chiton (Tonicella lineata) L Hairy chiton (Mopalia spp.) Eat some animal matter. Hairy chiton (Cyanopla dentiens) M Gum boot chiton (Cryptochiton stelleri) L,SB World's largest chiton Octopus (Octopus defleini) Edible Arthropods Barnacle (Chthamalus dalli) @PL,H Acorn barnacle (Balanus glandula) SPL,H,M,T Horse barnacle (B. cariosus) H,M,T Giant barnacle (B. nubilus) L,@B Gooseneck barnacle (Pollicipes polymerus) H,F Edible Purple shore crab (Hemigrapsus nudus) H,M Kelp or spider crab ( 'Pugettia gracilis) L,@Bj Northern Kelp crab (P. producta) M,L,SB Hairy cancer crab (Cancer oregonensis) M,L,SB Red rock crab (C. pTo-ductus) L,SB Edible Hairy hermit crTb (Pagurus hirsutiusculus) H,M,T Hermit crab (P. granosimanus) Transparent sFrimp (H spp.) L,SB T eptacarpus Edible Green shrimp (Hippolyte spp.) L,SB,T Edible andalid shrimp (Pandalus spp.) sspppppppp@.::@.@:@. Edible Short spined shrimp (Spirontocaris spp.) L,SB Edible P Gray shrimp (Crangon spp.) L,SB,T Edible 607 TABLE 631-1. Characteristic Algae and Invertebrates on Rock Beaches (con't). ... ...... ...... ... . ........ .. .... .. . ... . ....... ........... . .......... . . . .................. Rock slater pallasii) SPL Isopod (Idotea UP.) M,L Other isopods H,R,L,SB Numerous Tanaids H,M,I,SB Numerous Gammarid amphipods Numerous Caprellid amphipods M,L Insect (Dipteran) larvae SPL, H,M Echinoderms Ochre star (Pisaster ochraceus) M,L,SB Most characteristic starfish Leather star (Dermasterias imbricata) L,SB,T Sun star (Solaster stimE@o@) L,SB Eats other starfish Six-rayed star (Leptasterias hexactis) L Mottled star (Evasterias troschelii)- LB Blood star (Henricia leviiTs-cula) L Purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrot@s L,SB,T purpuratus) Occurs on exposed beaches Red sea urchin (L. franciscanus) L,SB,T Green sea urchin (S. droebachiensis) L,SB,T One of the longest scientific names of all animals. Black sea cucumber (Cucumaria pseudocurata) M,L Red sea cucumber (C. miniata) L,LB Edible Coelenterates Green anemone (Anthopleura xanthogrammica) L Contains symbiotic microalgae in its ti.ssue. 608 .......... Mmi 1. ....... ... W WEN OMNI<. 001ki-0*1 gg . ......... NOW IN11 I .... . .... Pink-tipped green anemone M,L (A. elegantissima) 1,LB (Tealia spp.) L,SB (Metridium senile) Sipunculids M,L Peanut worm (Phascalosoma agassizii) 'E Peanut worm (Themiste pyroides) In burrows of rock boring molluscs along outer coast. Annelids M,L Oligochaetes L,SB Calcareous tube worm (Serpula vermicularis) LB Feather duster worm (Endistylia vancouveri) M,L Pile worm (Nereis vexillosa) @iaa- Popular for use as fish bait x Nemerteans M,L Ribbon worms (Emplectonema gracile) Lives among mussels Legend: 1. PP = Primary Producer 2. SPL = Splash zone FF = Filter Feeder H = High intertidal (feeds on plankton and M = Mid=intertidal small particles of detritus) L = Low intertidal DETR = Detritivore SB = Shallow Subtidal CARN = Carnivore T = Tidepool SCAV = Scavenger Underlined zone(s) are zones of greatest abundance HERB = Herbivore 3. Economic Value - R = Recreational C = Commercial PC = Potential Commerical 609 610 b. upper intertidal zone This zone still has relatively few species relative to the the lower zone, with a fair amount of empty space due to the patchy distribution of most of the species. Algae becomes more conspicuous than they were in the splash zone. Most common are the red algae Endocladia muricata in the upper portions of the zone, with two species of filter feeding barnacles (Chthamalus dalli and Balanus glandula) dominating. The algae and barnacles provide habitat for numerous small crustaceans (such as isopods, amphipods, tanaids, and small hermit crabs) and insect larvae. Other common animals in this zone include the littorine snails and several species of limpets. During portions of the year, flies (adult dipterans) are abundant on rocky beaches. c- mid-intertidal zone Mussels are a very characteristic feature of the mid-intertidal zone. On exposed beaches the California mussel, along with gooseneck barnacles, invariably dominate this zone. On protected beaches, expecially when the slope of the rock is rather steep, no characteristic bank of mussels occurs due to heavy predatation by starfish (chiefly the ochre star, and the mottle star, and snails Thais spp.). In such situations, algae or barnacles may occupy the space left by the absence of mussels, or there may be large patches of bare rock. In Hood Canal the Pacific oyster often dominates this zone in place of mussels. Rockweed usually occurs in the upper and middle portions of the mid- i'ntertidal zone, being especially abundant in protected areas. Larger brown algae such as the sea cabbage and honey ware kelp are often present in the lower part of the zone. In highly exposed waters, the lower algae are usually dominated by the kelp Lessoniopsis littoralis or the sea palm, Postelsia palmaeformis. In the middle portions of is zone, sea lettuce may form a conspicuous dark green band. Sea Lettuce, being easily torn by strong waves, does not form the obvious band on exposed shores that it does on more protected shores, where it may replace the large brown algae lower in the zone. Halosaccion glandiforme may also be a dominant alga on exposed beaches. 611 Both the mussels and algae provide a complex, miniature "forest," which is literally swarming with small invertebrates, expecially small crusta- ceans. Included among these small organisms are nematodes, polychaetes, oligochaetes, tanaids, isopods, amphipods, insect larvae, a small sea cucumber (Cucumaria pseudocurata), nemertean worms, and peanut worms (members of the phylum Sipuncula). Other important species present in this zone include herbivorous chitons (Mopal i a spp. , Katheri na tuni cata, and Toni cel 1 a I i neata), coral I i ne algae, barnacles (especially Balanus cariosus and B. glandula), whelks (Thais spp.), and limpets. Anemones (particularly Anthopleura elegan- tissima) and echinoderms (starfish and urchins) begin to appear toward the lower end of the zone, but are more typical of the lower intertidal. d. lower intertidal zone GERATOSIONIA Since the lower intertidal zone is only rarely uncovered by the tides, it is a less stressful environment. As a result, it has the highest diversity in plant and animal life, and fewer fluctuations in populations. Soft bodied animals, which cannot tolerate the exposure to air found in the upper'tidal zones, become conspicuous. In addition, many specialized organisms which feed or live on only one species of plant or animal occur, indicating the complexity of this community. On moderately and highly exposed beaches, the biomass of plants is con- siderable, due mostly to the presence of kelps. Typical kelps include feather boa, honey ware kelp, searsucker, split whip wrack (Laminaria setchellii and L. groenlandica), and triple rib. Common red algae include Odonthalia floccosa, Rhodomela larix, Gigartina papillata, and Iridaea cordata. Surfgrass is extremely characteristic of the lower intertidal zone. In quieter waters, sea lettuce and closely related algae (Monostroma and Enteromorpha) may extend well down into the lower intertidal zone. The turkish tower is also common. In lower portions of the zone, large brown TONIGELLA 612 4-0-@ Am& Q algae characteristic of quieter waters may begin to appear, although these kelps are more abundant in sub- tidal areas. These include sugar wrack, seersucker, sea colander, and the sea cabbage. In Hood Canal and southern Puget Sound, the introduced brown alga Sargassum muticum is often the only large algae present in this zone. The animals of this zone are characterized by starfish, sea cucumbers, anemones, sea urchins, and certain crabs. Althrough several species of starfish may occur, the ochre star is certainly most typical on both exposed and protected shorelines. Sea cucumbers, especially the reddish-brown Cucumaria miniata, are abun- dant where boulders and crevices are numerous. Three species of urchins, all herbivores, occur in this zone. Purple urchins are restricted to exposed beaches, while green urchins appear to prefer moderately exposed or protected shores. Anemones include the green '(Anthopleura xanthogrammica) and pink-tipped anemones (A. elegantissima), the former restricted to highly exposed beaches and the lafter occurring at either exposed or protected sites. These anemones are unique in that symbiotic microalgae live inside them. Other anemones include members of the genus Tealia, which inhabit moderately exposed and protected shores, and Metridium senile, which pre- dominately occurs on protected beaches. Metridium is a filter feeder, while the other anemones mentioned here are carnivores and scavengers. Common crabs in this zone are the herbivorous kelp or spider crabs (Pugettia spp.) and carnivorous crab Cancer, oreqonensis. Several types of shrimp (Heptacarpus. Crangon, and Spirontocaris) move into intertidal regions during high tide to forage for food. These shrimp either move offshore at low tide or seek refuge in tidepools. 613 Other important herbivores include several species of chiton, among them the gumboot chiton reputed to be the world's largest chiton, chink shells, limpets, Margarite's snail, and the top snail. Filter feeding barnacles (Balanus spp.) are sometimes present, and occasional clams especially adapted to burrowing in rock may be present. In some areas these clams are so abundant as to riddle the rock with holes, causing large pieces of rock to be broken off during stormy weather by the battering of floating logs. This c:an result in greatly accelerated erosion of some beaches. Other organisms typical of the lower intertidal zone include sea slugs (nudibranchs), sea squirts (tunicates), and sponges. Below this zone the shallow subtidal zone begins. The most outstanding feature of this zone is the presence of the larger kelps (bull kelp, giant kelp, and pompon kelp), especially on moderately to highly exposed beaches. As this area is never uncovered by tides, it is the least stressed area, and thus has a more diverse, complex community. Birds and Mammals a . exposed intertidal zones Rocky intertidal areas provide feeding substrate for -2, Characteristic a number of species, (see Table 63 Species for all Beach Substrates@-many of which are essentially restricted and highly adapted to feeding here. Gulls forage on exposed rock beaches in tide pools and among algae covered rocks. Great Blue -ek, Herons feed in tidepools and perch on rock or kelp, snatching sculpins and other fish from the water. BLACK Crows are common throughout the beaches of Washington OYSTERGATCHM but a relative, the Raven, has a much-more restricted range. Ravens are more wary than crows, and are restricted primarily to the San Juans, Strait of Juan de Fuca, and outer coast. They are larger than. crows, have thicker bills and a distinctive wedge- shaped tail. Along rocky shores, they scavenge like the crow, but are generally seen only in small numbers. Ravens require a large breeding territory 614 which may cover more than 2,000 acres. Rocks exposed at low tide are also used as rest sites by many species, including harbor seals and sea lions. Other aquatic and terrestrial mammals forage along exposed rocky beaches. Raccoons, mink, and skunks, are among the more typical examples. Terres- trial birds, including Winter Wrens, Fox Sparrows, Savannah Sparrows, and Song Sparrows, also forage among rocks and algae exposed by falling tides. Shorebirds are much more dependent on exposed rock beaches than these terrestrial species and include some of our most uncommon and unusual birds such as: Black Oystercatcher o Black Oystercatchers feed primarily on rock substrate in the mid-intertidal zone where mussels are a pre- ferred food item. The long, chisel-like bill of the oystercatcher is inserted between the valves of the mussel, cutting the adductor muscle to expose an otherwise difficult to remove source of food. This feeding method is not used by all oystercatchers, however, some hammer the thin shell of the edible mussel until it breaks. Other food of Black Oyster- catchers includes limpets, chitons, small crabs, snails, and isopods. Oystercatchers breed along isolated rocky beaches just above high tide line, Washington breeding popu- lations being estimated at 250-300 birds. Breeding sites have been located only on small islands, al- though major winter areas and feeding habitat are more widespread. *These winter locations include 615 several mainland sites such as at Tongue Point in Bufflehead o Clallam County and on main San Juan islands such as The Bufflehead, also called "spirit-duck" or "butter- along the south shore of Lopez Island. ball" is a common bird throughout western Washington Black Turnstone o on fresh and salt water. This exuberant member of the duck family (Anatidae) might be seen in the The Black Turnstone is another of smallest farm pond, in a the shorebirds associated with sheltered bay, or along rocky shores where it dives rocky shores. Turnstones are named among kelp plants and within for their habit of turning over the protected waters shore- stones, pieces of algae and shore ward of floating @elp beds. debris under which they snatch The tiny female might fit in invertebrates seeking a moist your hand and the male is refuge during low tide. A study only slightly larger. He on Destruction Island indicates has a white patch on his that much of the turnstone's feed- dark head which on close ing activity occurs among the rock- examination reveals a glossy weed (Fucus distichus) in the mid- array of greens and purple. intertT-dal zone. Other shore birds The head feathers are often which feed primarily on rocky sub- erected as the males actively strates and are often found to- court gray and black feath- gether with turnstones are Rock ered females. They seem Sandpipers, and Surfbirds. always to be courting, swim- b. submerged intertidal and shal- ming toward one another with low subtidal chin up, then chasing, then diving together in small Large numbers of birds move in flocks. Diving for food wi th the tide to feed over the which includes amphipods, submerged rocky intertidal. They, shorecrabs, and mysids is also feed in adjacent subtidal most often interrupted by a 7 continued bout of play. areas and are especially abundant when kelp is present [see Kelp Narrative (No. 628) for more infor- Surf Scoter o mation]. Predators, including Bald Eagles and the rare Peregrine Falcon are attracted to concentra- Also known as patchhead, sea coot, surf duck, skunk- tions of marine birds along rocky shorelines where head, mussel bi 11 , King coot, and bal d-headed sea undisturbed conditions are critical for them to main- coot, the Surf Scoter is a very impressive and some- tain breeding sites. Examples of other species using what maligned diving duck. Although more partial to submerged rocky shores include: eelgrass than its relative, the White-winged Scoter, 616 animal food remains its most'important prey. Molluscs, prim- Z___ arily bivalves, are the Surf Scoters primary food source. They do feed on commercial species such as little-neck clams, however, food habits studies reveal that most items taken are noncommercial species. In rocky intertidal areas their food consists almost entirely of noncommercial species including barnacles, littorine snails, chitons, and starfish. Black Scoter o Black Scoters are the least common of the three scoters which occur in Washington. Ironically, they were once known as the "Common" scoter. Throughout the coastal zone they might be found diving in somewhat deeper water than their two more abundant relatives. However, in rocky areas they tend to feed quite close to shore. Several other deep-water species also are often seen closer in along rocky shorelines. These same animals are only seen further out, sometimes far off- shore, in more protected waters. A partial explanation for this is that rocky intertidal areas typically have steeper profiles. Thus, deep water where Black Scoters. forage is nearer to shore. This is especially understandable for larger animals such as killer whales which are able to skirt the shoreline along rocks, while only being physically able to swim in deep offshore waters within shallow bays of Puget Sound. Another reason birds and mammals feed closer to shore along rocky intertidal areas is the extremely rich and diverse fish and invertebrate community which'is concentrated along a fairly narrow band nearshore. Bottom feeders such as the Black Scoter must feed within the intertidal and shallow subtidal , not being able to dive much deeper than the outer margin of kelp beds. Prey of this scoter in rocky areas reflects the diversity of prey available and includes mussels, littorines and other snails, limpets, slipper shells, chitons, barnacles, and sea urchins. Pelagic Cormorant o The Pelagic Cormorant is one of several marine diving birds not restricted to feeding on the bottom. Pelagics are the smallest of three cormorants of Washington waters. Sometimes called shags, these long- necked, black birds are capable of extremely deep dives. They have highly wettable contour feathers, 617 AA "Or .. ... . ... ....... 6W . va"44 31 . . ....... ERR "vm sleek bodies, and webbed feet which allow them to pursue fish in waters as deep as 120 feet. They often feed in shallows along rocks and kelp beds, however, and perch on rocks or pilings with wings spread to dry. They nest in the San Juans and along the outer coast on steeper cliff faces than other cormorants. Nest ledges are often so narrow that the birds cannot turn around and must land and take off facing the cliff. They also roost on ledges or rock islands, thus they are not as vulnerable to oil spills as are grebes and alcids and other birds which roost on water at night. Although capable of deep dives, Pelagic Cormorants have been found to feed closer to shore and take shallower dives while in deep water than Brandt's Cormorants and several other diving birds. This allows each species to forage in somewhat separated zones and maximize feeding success. At other times, several species will all fly off to a concentrated area offshore where schooling fish are preyed upon in a mixed frenzy. These feeding assemblages are well advertised by screaming gulls and are signals to alert salmon fishermen that something is going on below the surface that they might be interested in. Pelagic and other cormorants, murres, auklets, grebes, and gulls might all participate as will seals and salmon. Feeding continues until the schools of fish are scattered. The birds quiet down and perhaps fly to another flock of screaming gulls. If all is quiet, the Pelagic Cormant often returns to a feeding area inside the margin of a kelp bed along a rocky shore. River Otter o River otters occur throughout Washington, but reach their highest densities in marine areas where they are often mistaken for sea otters. Any otter in salt or freshwater seen east of Cape Flattery is a river otter, and while both species occur along the outer coast, the river otter is far more numerous throughout the range of overlap. A smaller relative of the sea otter, river otters have longer taiTs, sleeker bodies, and swim with a lower profile than the sea otter. River otters move freely between fresh- water and marine areas, maintaining small, but critical "landings" along lakes, streams, and marine shores. Along rocky beaches otters spend most of the year in marine areas, feeding nearshore and periodically coming ashore at their traditional landings and den sites. Landings are often located on rock outcrops, islets, or at a point where beach substrate changes abruptly such as at the mouths of small pocket bays in the San Juan Islands. Rocky intertidal areas adjacent to shore landings provide a rich feeding area for otters in a concentrated area close to other habitat requirements. Otter densities are highest along rocky shorelines such as in the San Juans and unusually high numbers of otters' are often seen together in these areas. Over most of its range in North America, the ,river otter occurs singly or in small family groups of two to five. In the San Juans as 619 many as 12 otters have been observed together, suggesting that river otter social organization may be much different in marine areas. Unlike the sea otter, river otters prey mostly on fish, including rockfish, sculpins, herring, and blennies. Invertebrate prey in rocky areas includes small numbers of purple shore crabs, kelp crabs, mussels and possibly abalones. On sea bird nesting islands, they have also been known to prey on eggs and chicks of gulls and petrels. Because they live at the edge of the sea, river otters, like Bald Eagles, nesting sea birds, and Peregrine Falcons, are particularly vulnerable to shoreline development. Several critical areas are mapped in the Coastal Zone Atlas, however, all rocky shorelines are potentially critical otter habitat and should be main- tained as valuable natural areas. If we preserve rocky shoreline suitable for otters, we can be ensured of a healthy marine environment for other coastal predators, their prey, and ultimately for ourselves. Fish Above surface, there are few year-round vertebrate residents of the rocky intertidal. River otters, Pigeon Guillemots, and Glaucous-winged Gulls occur throughout the year, but most birds and some marine mammals are migratory. Thus, many birds will be extremely numerous during migration and conspicuously absent during summer months. Below the surface, however, the fish community associated with rocky intertidal beaches is largely resi- dential and nonmigratory. Movement between adjacent subtidal and intertidal areas occurs daily for many fish, much of the time being spent in deep waters. Onshore movement occurs at high tide when fish move in to the intertidal to feed. Fish restricted to the intertidal are small tidepool species including sculpins and blennies. Ledges and crevices increase structural diversity in rocky areas and offer numerous hiding places and refuges for eggs, juveniles and adult fish. Since kelp beds are often present, resident fish are distri- buted vertically as well as horizontally along rocky shores. Thus, some species prefer the canopy layer of kelp beds while others occur primarily along the slopes or on the bottom. Other fish prefer small patches of sandy substrate between rocks. Migratory fish, such as herring, salmon, and sand lance, occur periodically, sometimes in large numbers and often during both juvenile and adult stages. This is the case for herring, which occur as larvae in early spring and later as juveniles in early summer and into the 620 fall. Outmigrating- chinook salmon are present from late spring to early fall, while adults weighing twenty to over sixty. pounds are often caught along rocky shores in late summer. Some of the most popu- lar sports salmon fishing sites in Washington include the rocky shores at Pillar Point, near Neah Bay, Sekiu, and in the San Juan Islands. Examples of rocky shore fish include the following (see Table 613-2 for a more complete list): Kelp Greenling fv.. The most common large, resident fish along rocky shores is the kelp greenling. These smaller rela- tives of the lingcod are solitary, and as their name suggests are associated with, but not restricted to kelp beds. They are very beautifully marked fish, and have been mistakenly called rocktrout and kelp- trout. Formerly known "officially" as the Chirus, they were perhaps best described by J. K. Lord in rucu@> the mid-1800's as follows: "THE CHIRUS ..... a hand- some shapely fish, about 18 inches in length. Its sides, though somewhat rough, rival in beauty many a tropical flower; clad in scales, adorned with-colours not only conspicuous for their brilliancy, but Beautiful as well as tasty, the kelp greenling is grouped and blended in a manner one sees only repre- seldom caught by commercial fishermen. They are, sented in the plummage of a bird, the wing of a however, among the many species of rock inhabitants butterfly, or the petals of an orchid, this 'ocean enjoyed by sports fishermen. Prey of the kelp green- swell' is known to the ichthyologist as the Chirus- ling include amphipods,. clams and clam siphons, the Terpush (a file) of the Russians - the Idyajuk snails, crabs and small fish. Other than man, they of the Aluetian Islanders - the Tath-le-gest of the are preyed upon by lingcod, harbor seals, river Vancouver Islanders." otters, salmon and steelhead. Juveniles spend a portion of their lives in deeper offshore waters "...to give the faintest conceptiohs of the colour- before migrating to nearshore rocky areas where, as ings that adorn the Chirus red, blue, orange, and adults, they remain throughout the year. Predation green are so mingled, that the only thing I can by salmon apparently occurs when juveniles (one to think of as a comparison is a floating flower-bed, three inches) are in offshore waters. Sports fishing and even the gardener's art, in grouping is but a and predation by other species mentioned occurs prim- bungle contrasted with Nature's painting!" arily in nearshore waters. 621 Lingcod Rockfish The lingcod is one of the most highly prized nonsal- The term "rockfish" applies to a group of fishes monid fish. These large (length to five feet) rela- within the family Scorpaenidae represented in Wash- tives of the kelp greenling are fished commercially ington by approximately 35 species in the genus and by sports anglers and divers. Unfortunately, Sebastes. Also known as "rockcod," this group is the high demand for lingcod has seriously depleted quite diverse and not all are restricted to rocky populations in Puget Sound and Hood Canal. Fishing areas. Some of the more common species within rocky closures are now in effect and efforts are being areas are the copper rockfish, black rockfish, and made to reestablish depleted areas with transplants the yellowtail rockfish. of lingcod. They are not restricted to rocky areas, however, lingcod in nearshore rock habitat are espe- cially vulnerable to overfishing since many adults are nonmigratory. The strong attachment to one site has been demonstrated by tagging studies in which lingcod have been recaptured in the same location 12 years later. Other fish have been tagged, moved as far as six miles and recaptured at the original point of tagging. Adult males are particularly vulnerable since they are more often found nearshore than females. Males are also the guardian of nests which are located in rock crevices or beneath overhanging rocks extending from the intertidal to at least 62 feet below low tide. A study in Seattle found that the majority of nests were above the -25-foot level (relative to mean lower low water) and several (ten of 74) were within the intertidal. When the adult male is taken by a spearfisherman or by hook and line, the eggs are then vulnerable to predators. Prey of the lingcod includes a wide variety of fish including herring and sand lance which occur periodi- cally in rocky areas. Rockfishes have been identi- fied as a primary prey and lingcod are also canni- balistic, a fact which may suppress the movement by younger lingcod into rocky areas. Other prey include squid, octopus, snails, crabs, shrimps, and flatfish. Juvenile lingcod feed extensively on copepods and other small crustaceans. 622 Z@k @-@4 COPPER ROCKPICH YELLOW ROCKFISH MACK PJXKPIS14 Rockfish are very important to both commercial and sports fisheries. For example, catches by comfnercia7 draggers in 1977, yielded over 28,600 pounds and an estimated catch of over 90,000 fish were taken by sports fishermen in that same year. Increased fishing pressure has stimu- lated research into the management of this important group of fish. This research has pointed out many different habitat requirements, food habits, and behavior within the group. Thus, black rockfish are schooling fish which tend to move seasonally between deep and shallow near- shore areas along the same stretch of shoreline. Copper rockfish are solitary and have been observed to leave the nearshore environment along rocky shores in fall and winter. Such dif- ferences require differing fishery management strategies, and perhaps more importantly, point out the complexity of assessing impacts within rocky areas. Each species has adapted to a particular range of habitat requirements, occuring at different depths, seasons, substrates, and requiring different prey as well as many other subtle needs. Overfishing alone has been known to be detrimental to some fish (e.g., lingcod), therefore, we must carefully evaluate the effects of all our activities so that we maintain biological diversity as reflected in the genus Sebastes, the rockfishes. 623 ROrkWF-EP GUNNF-L PWF-T SMMP SOULFItA PAINTED GREFINUNG I-K AN. SAILFIN SCULPIN GRUNT BLACK PRICKLF-Wl< 624 Table 631-2 Characteristic Fish of Rocky Shores Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias C Ratfish Hydrolagus colliei Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi C,R Valuable baitfish Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha C,R Salmon are frequently fished Coho salmon 0. kisutch C,R nearshore off Chinook salmon 0. tshawytscha C,R rocky shores Northern anchovy E-ngraulis mordax C Populations reduced Eulachon Thaleichthys pacificus C,R Also called candlefish Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Tube-snout Aulorhynchus flavidus Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregat R Striped seaperch Embiotoca lateralis C,R Pile perch Rhacochilus vacca C,R Northern clingfish Uo-biesox maeandricus Mosshead warbonnet Chirolophis nugator Decorated warbonnet C. ocephalus Ribbon prickleback Phytichthys chirus Black prickleback Xiphister atropurpureus Penpoint gunnel Apodichthys flavidus Rockweed gunnel Xererpes fucorum Wolf-eel Anarrhichthys ocellatus Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus R Eaten by many fish, birds, Blackeye goby Coryphopterus nicholsi mammals Silvergrey rockfish Sebastes brevispinus C,R Rockfish are valuable Cqpper rockfish S. caurinus C,R commercial and recreatIonal Puget Sound rockfish S. emphaeus C,R fishes. Sport catch alone R = Recreational C = Commercial 625 Table 631-2 (Continued) ........... 'g Yellowtail rockfish S. fl@vidus C,R estimated to be over 90,000 Quillback rockfish S. maliger C,R fishe in 1977. Northeastern Black rockfish melanops C,R Pacific Coast commercial Vermilion rockfish miniatus C,R catch in 1976 over 126,000 China rockfish S. nebulosus C,R metric tons. They are often Tiger rockfish S. nigrocinctus C,R referred to as rockcod. Canary rockfish L. pinniger C,R Redstripe rockfish S. proriger C,R Kelp greenling Hexagrammos decaqrammus R Whitespotted greenling H. stellerl R Lingcod Ophiodon elongatus C,R Highly prized Painted greenling Oxylebius pictus Scalyhead sculpin Artedius harringtoni Sculpins are a diverse group Puget Sound sculpin A. meanyi Many are prey of several Spinynose sculpin Asemichthys tavlori birds, mammals, and other Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison fish. They are also referred Red Irish lord Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus to as bullheads. Northern sculpin Icelinus borealAs Longfin sculpin Jordania z Great sculpin Myoxocephal yacanthocephalus Sailfin sculpin Nautichthys oculofasciatus Saddleback sculpin Oligocottus rimensis Grunt sculpin Rhamphocotlus richardsoni Cabezon Scorpaenichthys marmoratus C,R Manacled sculpin Synchirus 2jjL Northern spearnose poacher Agonopsis emmelane Smooth alligatorfish Annoplagonus inermis Speckled sand dab Citharichthys stigmaeus R In patches of sand R = Recreational C = Commercial 626 unusual /rare/] i ttl e known species Many fish are unfamiliar to Washington residents simply because they occur beneath the water's surface. Other species are lumped into a large category such as "rockfish" because they appear to be one kind of fish. Commercial marketing practices do not help this situation since one never knows if "cod" in the package of fish in fish and chips is Pacific cod, copper rockfish, lingcod, or ? . Other fish are simply uncommon, rare, or are so small that they are un- noticed by most people. Among the latter are several species which inhabit rocky shores and include the following: Mosshead Warbonnet o This four- to five-inch fish is a member of the family Stichaeidae, a group often mistakenly called eels. They occur under rocks at low tide within the intertidal. Black Prickleback o A relative of the warbonnets, the black prickleback grows to 12 inches and also occurs under rocks at low tide. Rockweed Gunnel o Gunnels are similar in appearence to the warbonnet and prickleback, but are within another family, Pholidae. As its name implies, the rockweed gunnel inhabits the Fucus, or rockweed zone within the intertidal. Painted Greenling o Relative of lingcod and kelp greenling, the painted greenling grows to ten inches. They hang vertically along steep rocky areas. Puget Sound Sculpin o A member of the large family of sculpins, Cottidae. Length to two inches, this small fish occurs from Port Orchard to Queen Charlotte Sound in British Columbia. 627 Sailfin Sculpir. o The sailfin sculpin is a small (length to eight inches) nocturnal species which swims mainly with its long dorsal fin. They have been observed hanging upside down along the roof of a rock crevice with the long fin extending in front of the head. They are known to eat crustaceans. Grunt Sculpin o When taken out of water, these three-inch sculpins grunt and hiss, hence the name, grunt sculpin. They are known to eat barnacle larvae. The long pectoral fins are used to crawl over rocks and seaweed. Northern Spearnose Poacher o The scales of poachers are replaced by rows of plates with spines, which create a very rigid outer structure. They occur on mud bottoms, but have been observed in rocky areas. Use by Man Historical Changes and Trends Pacific Northwest' Indians living adjacent to the coast relied heavily on food from marine waters. Approximately 40 species of shellfish and other invertebrates were used as food, many of which occur in rock beaches. The reliance on salmon, halibut, whales, and/or candlefish was so overwhelming it strongly dominated cultural development. Since they first came to the Pacific Northwest, non-Indians have used rock beaches heavily for commer- cial fishing. Other activities., such as agriculture, industry, and construction of homes, tended to occur in protected waters where rock beaches only rarely occur, protected waters being more suitable for shipping related activities. In the last 40 years, land transportation has developed to the point where formerly remote, exposed beaches are accessible from the land. As a result, activities such as logging and home.construction have increased tremendously in the uplands adjacent to rock beaches. Recreation Value Rocky shores, especially in moderately or highly exposed situations, have an extremely high recreational value. Their rugged, untamed nature provides a strong attraction for people who do not normally en- counter the awesome power of the sea. The high diversity of plant and animal life also makes these areas desireable for nonconsumptive appreciation of wildlife. As mentioned earlier, a plethora of birds 628 and mammals can be observed including such rare or unique species as Bald Eagles, Peregrine Falcons, Harlequin Ducks, Black Oystercatchers, Ravens, river otters, and occasionally grey whales and killer whales. LVTTORINA What is perhaps most unique about the rocky inter- SITKANA tidal is that invertebrates are readily visible, unlike gravelly, sandy, or muddy beaches, and can be easily appreciated by many people. Several books have been written on the plants and animals occurring along Washington's coastline, with a definite empha- I sis on rocky beaches, where organisms are most easily observed. Tidepooling has become a-popular activity and has been the subject of many magazine articles and pictorials. Photography is also popular, espe- cially during periods of bird or whale migrations. For many people, just viewing the waves splashing against the rocks against the backdrop of a magnifi- cent sunset is worth driving many miles to see. The visibility and accessibility of organisms have Although many of the plants and animals found on also attracted a large number of scientists to study rocky shores are edible, relatively few species are varying aspects of rocky intertidal communities. collected as sources of food. Most notable are Rock beaches are by far the best studied beach type fishes, abalone, scallops, red rock crabs, oysters in Washington, and many of the basic principals of (when present), and occasionally shrimp, mussels, coastal ecology were first discovered studying rocky and sea cucumbers. Several of the fishes associated shores. Since they are so conducive to study, it is with rocky shores are highly sought by sport fisher- certain that continued work in the future will men; salmon, many species of rockfishes, sea perch, strongly mold our understanding of man's relation- kelp greenling, and lingcod are most popular. ship with the entire coastal zone. Rocky intertidal areas are also excellent educational Commercial Value facilities for students, providing an "open air classroom" where students can view many of the pro- Most species of commercial value support only limited cesses shaping the community. Many colleges and fisheries at present, and nearly all these are universities in Washington have marine laboratories species predominately associated with shallow sub- located adjacent to rock beaches, and most other tidal areas just offshore from the rocky intertidal. colleges and universities, and many high schools, Included are urchins (whose gonads are considered a offer classes in marine biology which feature field delicacy in Japan), octopi, rockfish, abalone, and trips to roqKy intertidal areas. scallops. 629 Adult salmon, which feed along rocky shores as juveniles, are commercially fished in shallow subtidal areas during migrations to their spawning areas. Herring, which use vegetation on rock and other beaches as a substrate for attachment of their eggs, also support commercial fishery in Washington. Intertidally, there are a few cases in Hood Canal where the Pacific oyster is abundant on protected rock beaches. In at least one of these areas (Pulali Pt. in Jefferson County) these oysters are com- mercially harvestable. In addition, a limited industry has existed in the past involving the sale of invertebrates (starfish, urchins, chitons, snails, and crabs) as curios. This industry is apparently extremely small or nonexistent at present. River otters which often rest and feed along rock beaches, are trapped commercially for their fur. Raccoons and mink, which occasionally forage on rocky shores are also trapped. Several species of potential economic importance occur on rock beaches, including many species of algae (e.g., kelps, Iridaea, and Gigartina; see Class Nos. 628 and 629). Animals of potential value include welks (Thais spp.), mussels, limpets,.goose barnacles, rockfishes, sea perch, large sculpins, rock crabs, shrimp, and sea cucumbers. The greatest contribution of rock beaches, economically, is through indirect pathways. Increasing evidence on the high productivity of plants on rock substrates makes it apparent that most of the primary productivity is used through detrital food pathways. This pathway reaches large numbers of commercially valuable species, most of them eventually harvested in other areas. In addition, species such as juvenile salmon and herring are consumed by larger fish and birds after they leave rocky inter- tidal areas. III. IMPACTS Increased human activity on or adjacent to rock beaches, including inten- s.ive recreational use, tends to impact use of these beaches by extremely sensitive types of wildlife. Among these sensitive species are Bald Eagles, Peregrine Falcons, river otters, harbor seals, and sea lions. The species most sensitive are those which occur predominately only on rock beaches, such as Black Oystercatchers and Surfbirds. Species such as the Bald Eagle, which use the interface between the uplands and the rock beaches are additionally impacted by the altering of adjacent upland areas. Development of these adjacent uplands can also severely limit recreational use of rock beaches by humans. Certain y moderately or highly exposed rock beaches, while some types of develop- types of development destro the esthetic value many persons attach to ment simply remove beaches from public access. 630 Intensive recreational use of rock beaches can also have other impacts, especially when the participants want to take home a few souvenirs from the beach. In the past, this amateur collecting has led to such severe depletion of certain organisms, that one would be hard pressed to find more than a few snails, and virtually no starfish, urchins, or chitons, on popular beaches. Collection of oganisms for com- mercial sale was a contributing factor to this depletion, although not to as great a degree. The problem became so severe that on some beaches in the states, signs have been posted forbidding the collection of any organisms. The Washington State Department of Fisheries requires anyone (even scientists) collecting nonfood organ- isms to obtain a special collector's permit, so the amount of collecting can be controlled. When overcollected, it can take many years for a beach to fully recover to its former state (if it ever does). Collection of certain "key" species, such as urchins or starfish, can result in the structure of the entire community being drastically altered. 631 STARFISH PREPATC)RS HA= VIN -10AAW 4qW GR6A'TER WIT. aqLj Wum wtm&ev 01-ACA 6COTIM SVRF SC421W 632 To illustrate how sensitive rocky beaches can be, consider the small lit- torine snails. Many people walking over the shoreline will undoubtedly crush large numbers of snails without even realizing it. On popular beaches, the numbers of these snails can be drastically reduced. Yet these small snail's are consumed by a large number of organisms (see Figure 631-4), all of which lose part of their food source when the snails are destroyed. Another recreational activity that is impacting sensitive wildlife species is recreational boating. The impact is significant in areas such as the San Juan Islands where boating is exceptionally popular. Industrial pol- lutants actually pose the greatest threat to intertidal communities, how- ever, as their impacts may reach over large areas. Most of these were discussed under Class No. 63 - Beach Substrates, as they apply to all types of substrates. Logging activities, especially transport and storage of logs in marine waters or rivers, can cause a special type of impact on rock communities. Floating logs are often bashed against rock beaches during winter storms -with such force that the organisms in the impacted area can be essentially scraped off the rock substrate. This occurs frequently enough that any particular spot on a moderately exposed beach on San Juan Island was found to have a 5 to 30 percent chance of being struck during a three-year period. Once a clearing is made, wave action can considerably enlarge its size. Up to 50 percent of the logs in the areas were cut, thus having originated from some type of logging or clearing activity, while for another 35 per- cent of trees the origins could not be determined. While this "denuding" of rock by logs is also a natural phenomenon, it appears to have been substantially increased through human activity. Succession appears to begin immediately in these cleared areas. In more remote areas, it was found that the number of logs resulting from human activity was greately decreased. Any type of mining operation on rocky beaches will essentially destroy the plants and animals dependent on that particular beach. This includes impacts on animals which normally would migrate into the area to feed, and secondary impacts on organisms dependent upon the primary production of rock beaches. Possible reasons for mining are mineral extraction, or rock or gravel removal. However, these activities are currently confined to upland areas, and mining activity does not currently threaten rock beaches. 633 ,NL '00 634 COBBLE (No. 632) 1. INTRODUCTION This beach type consists primarily of uniform-sized cobbles between 2.5 and 10 inches (6.4 - 25.6 cm.) in diameter. Some sand or gravel may also occur on portions of the beach, or in some cases even cover the cobble seasonally, especially in the high intertidal zone. A key feature of this beach type is wave energy strong enough to frequently roll the cobble about. These usually smooth cobbles have no (or very few) plants or animals (most notably barnacles, mussels, and algae) attached year-round. Cobble beaches are restricted to rather exposed sites, and are infre- quently encountered. In the lower intertidal portion of many beaches composed primarily of cobble, wave action is not as severe as in the mid- and high-intertidal, and cobble is not moved about appreciably. As a result, sand is present in these low areas, and algae and invertebrates appear on the surface of the cobble. The lower intertidal is more typical of a mixed coarse beach in this case (see Narrative No. 633), and far more productive than strictly cobble beaches. Examples of such beaches occur near Cherry Point in Whatcom County and Morse Creek in Clallam County. The Morse Creek cobble beach and others along the Strait of Juan de Fuca such as at Twin Rivers are influenced by the presence of a stream, with cobbles forming the major portion of the deltas. Il. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Cobble beaches support species poor communities, with low densities of organisms, as well as low biomass. Shifting of the cobble as a result of wave action makes survival extremely difficult for algae and benthic invertebrates, and is responsible for the lack of organisms on the cobble surfaces, as well as the absence of clams. The dominant in- vertebrates are flatworms and amphipods (see Table 632-1). As a result of the impoverished benthic community, numbers of bottom-feediN fish species and their densities are low. However, large numbers of pelagic fish, such as Pacific herring and surf smelt may occur. These species do not depend on benthic organisms as a food source. During the summer, when wave action is reduced, some ephemeral algae may occur on cobble. However, 635 macroscopic algae are not characteristic of cobble Nearshore and adjacent offshore waters of cobble beaches, and the occurrence of microalgae is limited. beaches are often very productive. This was espe- Organisms are thus dependent on food energy produced cially evident at a cobble beach along the Strait offshore or in adjacent beach areas. Water birds of Juan de Fuca at Twin Rivers (Clallam County). reflect this dependence much as fish do. Since Extensive kelp beds offshore modify wave exposure, algae is greatly restricted, herbivores are not and shallow subtidal areas are comparable to those present and birds are primarily represented by along mixed coarse beaches. Bottom feeding birds, fish-eating divers such as grebes, loons, and cor- those which feed in the water column, and surface morants. Refer to Table 63-2 in the Beach Narrative feeders such as gulls, Bald Eagles, and Osprey were (No. 63) for lists of characteristic birds and mam- observed at this site. Numbers of species and total mals of cobble beaches. numbers of individuals were consistently as high or higher relative to cobble sites without kelp beds Areas offshore from cobble beaches are usually very and exposed mixed coarse beaches as shown in Table productive, as wave action does not move about sub- 632-2. The total number of species observed on tidal sediments to a significant extent. Kelp beds cobble beaches throughout our sampling period was may be present in shallow subtidal areas, along highest (33 species) at Twin Rivers. with a rich.assortment of fishes and birds. A pro- ductive salmon fishery can be expected offshore. These offshore zones adjacent to cobble beaches provide areas shallow enough for bottom foraging birds and marine mammals to use and greatly increase the diversity of wildlife present. Numbers of species and individuals are high and comparable to those discussed in the Mixed Coarse Narrative. Our observations at cobble beach sample sites have shown they are much like mixed coarse beaches except in the high intertidal zones. Cobbles serve almost exclusively as rest areas for gulls along both beach types. However, mixed coarse beaches also provide open sandy or gravel patches in upper intertidal areas where shorebirds often feed. These patches also trap prey items for gulls and other beach scavengers such as raccoons and ravens. The clean, rather uniform upper intertidal of cobble beaches is much more sterile and provides limited feeding for these species. Killdeer were the only shorebird observed at our cobble beach sample sites and the significantly large numbers of gulls observed were 636 generally at rest. Cobble sites which lack kelp beds generally support fewer wildlife than areas such as Twin Rivers. However, schooling neritic fish are often present in large numbers and as a result marine bird and mammal predators are abundant. High counts of birds at South Beach (San Juan County) in October 1977 (Table 632-2) reflect this feature. Large numbers of murres and cormorants fed offshore on the day this count was taken and large numbers of gulls were attracted to prey brought to the surface by these diving birds. This is a common but irregular occurrence along South Beach and other cobble beaches and on many days very few species are observed as reflected by the November count of three birds in Table 632-2. Birds such as gulls and seabirds (Family Alcidae) respond to this patchy occurrence of schooling fish in several ways depending upon species. Fishermen also respond (in a manner much like the gulls) by watching the water for flocks of birds and moving to these feeding areas. Larger fish such as salmon are also attrached to these III. IMPACTS assemblages and are the reward for observant fisher- men. Marine mammals also feed in these assemblages which attract fish, birds, and fishermen from long The only food organisms present in large numbers on distances to cobble beaches. cobble beaches are oligochaete worms and amphipods, both of which are small organisms. Toxins such as oil would impact these species heavily, thus des- troying the only foods available to fish and birds. However, the high exposure of cobble beaches and large size of substrate particles would disperse pollutants rather quickly. Oligochaetes and amphi- pods are short-lived species, and if the source of the pollution was a one-time event (e.g., an oil spill) would tend to recolonize rather quickly, thus minimizing impacts to these beaches. Impacts in low intertidal portions of cobble beaches, especially those with kelp beds, may be more severe. Organisms affected will be similar to those discus- sed in the Kelp (No. 628) and Mixed Coarse (No. 633) Narratives. 637 exposed 0-1 Owl i ILL@ ,5 e rn i - proiwted e^ mt 140 w .. G. . -it!r 5 - -mm -- - Im AR -i@ 638 Table 632-1 CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF COBBLE BEACHES Trophic-1 zone(s) of Common Name (Scientific Name) Type I Occurrences INVERTEBRATES Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) (Procerodes paci fica Detr H, M, L a r-m-a-t-aT Detr IR, M,L Nemerteans Carn H, M Arthropods Beach hoppers (Maera dubia) Detr H, M, L Sow bug (Gnorim-osphaeroma Scav L Annelids oregoneuse) Oligochaete worms Dep H Polychaete worms (Hemipodus borealis) Carn M (Taccocirrus erotica) L FISH Common Name Scientific,Name Economic Comment Value Pacific herring Clupae harengus pallasi C, R Valuable bait and food fish Surf smelt Hypomesus preti05US C, R and prey of other fish, birds, and mammals. Longfin smelt Spirinchus thaleichthys C, R Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha C, R Chum salmon 0. keta C Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus C, R Walleye pollock Theregra chalcogramma C Redtail surfperch Amphistichus rhodorus R Saddleback gunnel Pholisornata Crescent gunnel P. laeta Sharpnose sculpin Clinocottus acuticeps Padded sculpin Artedius fenestralis Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison Tadople sculpin Psychrolutes paradoxus Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottug armatus Ringtail snailfish Liparis rutleri Rock sole Lepidopsetta bilineata C, R Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus C, R 639 Table 632-2 TOTAL NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS PRESENT AT A COBBLE AND MIXED COARSE SAMPLE SITE ALONG THE STRAIT OF JUAN DE FUCA, AUGUST - DECEMBER 1977 Species* Auq Sept Oct Nov Dec Mean Point Wilson 8 16 15 21 19 16 (Mixed Coarse) Twin Rivers 15 15 15 11 16 14 (Cobble/Kelp) South Beach 6 10 17 1 9 .(Cobble/No Kelp) Individuals Point Wilson 201 269 94 101 142 161 (Mixed Coarse) Twin Rivers 107 372 97 91 74 148 (Cobble/Kelp) South Beach 102 150 279 3 134 (Cobble/No Kelp *Total number of species observed at each site: Point Wilson 31 Twin Rivers 33 South Beach 25 640 OL 1.@ 77, A01 I . . . ...... ...... ....... "M''SA ON 'Fid Island Pac@,fog Co. 'SKA KETC H I C A N, A L@A '777? 641 AAA S@ "4,ft " @@L r@@ 642 MIXED COARSE (No. 63@) INTRODUCTION Mixed coarse beaches are as the name implies, com- prised of a combination of different particle sizes. Cobble, gravel, and sand are always present in vary- ing proportions, and boulders may or may not be present. In the most protected sites where mixed coarse beaches occur, some mud may also be present. Mixed coarse is one of the more common beach types Canal and southern Puget Sound, the opposite situa- in Washington. They occur in pockets throughout the tion occurs. Scattered boulders among cobble, San Juan Archipelago, along the Strait of Juan de gravel, and sand form a strip along the middle and Fuca, and form extensive stretches along the main- upper portions of the beach. This strip grades land i.n northern Puget Sound, Hood Canal, and central into a different beach substrate in the lower inter- Puget Sound. They also occur in southern Puget tidal , usually sand or muddy sand. Sound, but are not as common there as in other inland waters. While ranging in occurrence from Mixed coarse beaches often occur at the base of fairly high exposure areas to rather protected areas, eroding bluffs composed of glacial till, which mixed coarse beaches generally occur on moderately supply the source of sediments for the beach. As a exposed shorelines. result of longshore drift, finer sediments carried Some mixed coarse beaches, particularly those in by waves and currents often supply the source more exposed situations, undergo seasonal changes materials for adjacent beaches. in composition of beach sediments. Sand and small Mixed coarse beaches are generally very productive, gravel may wash up onto the upper beach during and contain diverse and complex biological communi- summer. This results in both a more level beach ties. Many of the species they support are commer- slope and a smaller average grain size in the upper beach. During winter, sand and small gravel is cially or recreationally important, and many others washed seaward, creating a steeper beach slope and of potential use are present. leaving behind the larger gravel, cobbles, and Many of the significant biological features relevant boulders too heavy to be moved by waves and currents. to mixed coarse beaches (such as productivity and The slope of mixed coarse beaches is normally moder- zonation) have already been discussed in the Rock ate to gentle. Typically, on beaches in northern Narrative (No. 631) and need not be repeated here. Puget Sound, the substrate grades 'from sand and/or Additional information on the value of algae is gravel in the upper portions to a more diverse com- found in the Kelp (No. 628) and Other Algal Com- position of sand, gravel, and cobble and, occasion- munities (No. 629) Narratives. However, mixed ally, boulders and mud in the lower portions. In coarse beaches do posses several unique attributes many protected areas, however, as in much of Hood which distinguish them from rocky beaches. 643 SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Mixed coarse beaches have a high species diversity as a result of the variety of substrates present. While boulders and large cobbles support many of the species typical of rock beaches, pockets of sand or sand and gravel support animals typical of sand or mixed fine beaches. In addition, the undersides of rocks or crevices between boulders support several distinct species either not typical of other beaches or which occur in greatly reduced numbers elsewhere. A specialized locale within a larger habitat or community type, such as the bottom of a rock, a crevice, or the holdfast (or "root") of a kelp, within a mixed coarse beach, is called a micro- habitat. Microhabitats often create a unique condition which is necessary for or conducive to the survival of certain species. In so doing, microhabitats tend to increase the diversity of an area. The, presence of a variety of microhabitats on mixed coarse beaches are responsible for the high diversity of species. Mixed coarse beaches have the highest species diversity of any beach type, with the exception of moderately to highly exposed rocky beaches. Density and biomass are also high. Characteristic Species The plants and animals of mixed coarse beaches are generally similar to those of rocky beaches. Species listed in the Rock Narrative (No. 631) as occurring on highly exposed beaches of the outer coast, however, are not likely to be found on mixed coarse beaches. In addition, the diversity of algae on mixed coarse beaches is lower than on rocky beaches, and species such as starfish and chitons are fewer in number of species and/or abundance. Vertebrates of mixed coarse beaches are comparable to those discussed for rocky shores. Diversity of some groups, including shorebirds, is higher on mixed coarse beaches because of the variety of substrates. However, some species which prefer rocky shores, such as the Black Oystercatcher, are not as abundant. In addition, sea otters and other species restricted to the outer coast are absent or uncommon along mixed coarse beaches. 644 The high intertidal and splash zones of mixed coarse beaches normally do not have as complex or diverse communities as the corresponding zones of rocky beaches. This is especially true if sediments are unstable in the upper portion of the beach as a result of either small particle size or rough wave action. The upper beach is in this case, similar to a cobble (Narrative No. 632) or mixed medium (No. 634) beach, with a correspondingly impoverished flora and fauna. Table 633-1 lists species present on mixed coarse beaches. Pockets of sand or sand and gravel on mixed coarse beaches provide habitat for a number of organisms, especially polychaete worms and clams which are not usually associated with rock beaches. The variety of polychates is great, and species present at any particular beach depend upon the amount. of sand present, exposure, and salinity. Some typical species include herbi- vores such as Nereis and Lumbineris, the detrivores Thelepus (which usually occurs in sand covered by rock), Cirratulus and Syllis, the deposit feeders Notomastus and Capitella, and the carnivores Hemipodus borealis and Glycinde 2jSja. Many of the clams which may be found are edible, including butter clams, native littleneck clams, Japanese littleneck or Manila clams, and soft-shell clams, as well as heart cockles. Also occurring are macoma clams, tiny transen- nella clams, and fat Pacific leptons. In the high intertidal and splash zone, large numbers of beach hoppers may occur, feeding on algal detritus cast upon the beach. 645 cn TABLE 633-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF MIXED COARSE BEACHES (Refer to Table 63-2 for Birds and Mammals) Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments (Scientific Name) Type 1 Occurrence2 Valud PLANTS Vascular plants Broad-bladed eelgrass PP L, 58 Important waterfowl food; many (Zostera marina) algae and invertebrates associated with eelgrass. INVERTEBRATES Molluscs Mask limpet HERB H, M (Notoacmea person Screw snail HERB L (Bittium eschrichtii) Sitka periwinkle or littorine HERB SPL, H, M snail (Littorina sitkana) Checkboard periwinkle or HERB SPL, H, M littorine snail (L. scutulata) Dire whelk CARN M, L (Searlesia dira) Moon snail CARN L, SB Edible (Polinices lewisii) Rock oyster or jingle shell FF M,L Edible (Pododesmus macroschisma) Butter clam FF L R, C Edible; popular among clam diggers (Saxidomus giganteus) Native littleneck clam FF M, L R, C Edible; popular among clam diggers (Protothac staminea) Heart cockle FF M, L R Edible; popular among clam diggers (Clinocardium nuttallii) Japanese littleneck or Manila FF M,L R, C Edible; popular among clam diggers clam (Tapes japonica) Soft-shell clam FF H, M, L R Edible; supports commercial industry (Mya arenaria) on East Coast Tiny transennella clam FF M,L (Transennella tantilla) Fat Pacific lepton FF M,L (Mysella tumida) Macoma clams DEP M,L (Macom spp.) M mat low so M410@@, men an Arthropods Beach hopper DETR SPL, H (Orchestia traskiana) Other amphipods DETR, HERB M, L Pill bug (Exosphaeroma spp.) DETR H, M, L Oregon pill bug DETR, SCAV H, M, L (Gnorimosphaeroma oregonense) Isopod HERB M, L (Idotea wosnesenskii) Hairy hermit crab DETR H, M, L (Pagurus hirsutiusculus) Hermit crab DETR M, L (Pagurus granosimanus) Purple shore crab SCAV-CARN H, M Prey of several marine birds. (Hemigrapsus nudus) Raccoons also feed on shore crabs. Hairy shore crab SCAV-CARN H, M (Hemi@rapsus oregonensis) Porcellain crab FF M, L (Petrolisthes eriomerus) Black-clawed crab CARN L (Lophopanopeus bellus) Red rock crab CARN L, LB R, PC (Cancer productus) Hairy cancer crab CARN M, L (Cancer oregonensis) Segmented worms (Annelids) Polychaetes Family Capitellidae (Notomastus tenius) DEP M, L Prey of many commercially and recrea- (Capitella capitata) DEP M, L tionally valuable fish. Cirratulidae (Cirratulus cirratus) DETR M, L Glyceridae (Hemipodus borealis) CARN M, L Goniadidae (Glycinde RjEt2) CARN M, L Lumbrineridae (Lumbrineris spp.) HERB M, L Nereidae (Nereis spp.) HERB M, L Onuphidae (Onuphis sp.) HERB M, L Opheliidae (Armandia brevis) DEP M, L M 4- 00 TABLE 633-1 (Continued) Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic (Scientific Name) Type1 Occurrence2 Valud Comments Serpulidae (Serpula vermicularis) FF M, L (Spirorbis spp.) FF M, Spionidae (Polydora spp.) DETR M, L (Spiophanes spp.) DETR M, L (Malacoceros glutaeus) DETR M, Syllidae (Syllis spp.) DETR H, M, L Terebellidae (Thelepus crispus) DETR M, L Echinoderms Six-rayed sea star CARN M, L (Leptasterias hexactis) Mottle star CARN L, SB (Evasterias troschelii) Green sea urchin HERB L, SB Gonads edible (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) Red sea cucumber DETR L, SB R Edible (Cucumaria miniata) White sea cucumber DETR L, SB Edible (Eupentacta quinquesemita) Burrowing sea cucumber DETR L (Leptosynapta clarki) Ubiquitous brittle star FF L, SB (Ophiopholis aculeata) Coelenterates Burrowing sea anemone CARN- M, L (Anthopleura artemesia) SCAV FISH Economic Common Name Scientific Name Value Comments Spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) C Edible Pacific herring (Clupea harengus) C, R Important bait fish Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) C, R Salmon occur nearshore as juveniles and are caught offshore along mixed Chum salmon keta) C coarse beaches. Coho salmon (0. kisutch) C, R Chinook salmon (0. tshawytsch C, R Cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki) R Surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) C, R Plainfin midshipman (Porichthys notatus) Attach eggs to rocks Northern clingfish (Gobiesox maeandricus) Adults attach to rocks with adhesive disc. Tube-snout (Aulorhynchus flavidus) Nests in algae Threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Shiner perch (Cymatogaste aggregata) R High cockscomb (Anoplarchus purpurescens) R Cockscombs and prickleback are gen- erally referred to as blennies. They Penpoint gunnel (Apodichthys favidus) R are valued by those who enjoy tide- pool life. Also, are prey of other Crescent gunnel (Pholis laeta) R fish and marine birds. Saddleback gunnel (P. ornata) R Copper rockfish (Sebastes caurinus) C, R Several rockfish may be present. All are valuable commercial and/or sports Black rockfish (S. melanops) C, R fish. Kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammQs) R Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) C, R Buffalo sculpin (Enophrys bison) R Sculpins are caught by young fishermen. Also prey of many other fish, marine Pacific staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) R birds and mammals. English sole (Parophrys vetulus) C, R LEGEND: ITrophic type 2Zones of Occurrence 3Economic Value PP = Primary Producer H = High Intertidal C = Commercial FF = Filter Feeder M = Mid-Intertidal R = Recreational DEP Deposit Feeder L = Low Intertidal PC = Potential Commercial SCAV Scavenger SB = Shallow Subtidal CARN Carnivore DETR Detritivore OMNI Omnivore HERB = Herbivore It "All r@j 3 Imi mot& A tjt p1l; -111"@@i Ow, 4 4,; 7,t@ A,. C 7 1k, 7 1;. 1 @ I I . I 161 M, .............. - ZI, Owl,_ CD Ln In more protected mixed coarse beaches, broad-bladed Representative Fish of Mixed Coarse Beaches: eelgrass sometimes occurs on pockets of sand. The presence of eelgrass increases productivity of the High Cockscomb beach and increases the diversity of species by creating a new microhabitat [a distinct flora and This eel-like inhabitant of mixed coarse beaches is fauna are associated with eelgrass; refer to the abundant beneath rocks in the mid- and low intertidal Seagrass Narrative (No. 627), for further informa- zones. The high cockscomb (once referred to as tion]. cockscomb prickleback) is able to slip between and beneath rocks because of its slender body. Here it Several species which occur on rocky beaches are seeks shelter and food. Egg5 are also laid beneath found in greater abundance on mixed coarse beaches. rocks and are deposited in small depressions or in These species are primarily more abundant because empty clam shells. Prey of the high cockscomb in- of the refuge from predators they obtain by spending cludes a variety of invertebrates which also occur much of their time, especially during low tides, beneath rocks. Food also includes a high percentage under rocks. Several species of crabs, such as of algae and invertebrates which inhabit growths of purple shore crabs, porcelain crabs, and hairy algae. The high cockscomb is unusual in that few cancer crabs frequently hide under cobble-sized other fish consume algae directly. Sea lettuce and rocks. Young red rock crabs are also common. The unidentified red algae comprised the highest percent- six-rayed or brooding starfish is the most common age (32%) of food items noted in a recent study of starfish of mixed coarse beaches, and green sea this fish in British Columbia. urchins reach their highest densities on this beach substrate. Isopods and amphipods are often the Garter snakes have been reported to prey on the most numerous invertebrates under rocks, with cobble- high cockscomb at low tide. Other predators thought sized rocks sometimes harboring hundreds of individ- likely to consume cockscombs include rockfish, green- uals. A few species of fish adapted totally to ling, sculpins, Red-necked Grebes, and Pigeon intertidal life also seek protection under rocks at Guillemots. low tides. These include northern clingfish, pen- point gunnels, and high cockscomb. Sculpins will also commonly be found under rocks or in shallow tidepools. Fish species diversity is generally high, especially when adjacent to kelp beds or when dense algae or eelgrass is present. Species listed in Table 633-1 inlcude many which also occur along rock beaches. Those discussed below are representative of the variety of fish inhabiting mixed coarse beaches: 651 Penpoint Gunnel The penpoint gunnel looks much like the high cocks- comb and several other fish commonly referred to as "blennies". Many persons also call them eels be- cause they are long and slender. Collectively, this group of fish are common inhabitants of mixed coarse beaches and have evolved a body shape suited to life among rocks and algae. They are preyed upon by a wide variety of fish, marine birds, and by raccoons and river otters. The penpoint gunnel is one of the large blennies, growing to 18 inches them intentionally (along with other bottom fish), (46 cm). It is further distinguished by the absence and accidentally while salmon fishing. The firm of pelvic fins and the presence of a spine at the flesh of these rockfish is excellent baked, or pre- head of the anal fin which is shaped like a pen pared as fish and chips. nib. They occur in mid- to low intertidal zones. Northern Clingfish Chinook Salmon The clingfish is another inhabitant of mixed coarse The chinook or "king" is one of the salmon which beaches which is often found beneath rocks. Its occur along mixed coarse beaches as juveniles. name is derived from the presence of an adhesive Here they feed and grow rapidly as they move into disc on the fish's underside. This disc is formed more open waters. When mature, they are often caught within the flexible pelvic fins and is used to cling by commercial and sport fishermen adjacent to mixed to rocks. They are known to feed on small crusta- coarse beaches. Chinooks are the largest salmon, ceans and molluscs. Along with blennies, clingfish attaining weights over 100 pounds (45.5 kg). Fish are important recreational fish for those who enjoy in the 20-40 pound range are not uncommon during turning over rocks in the intertidal zone. summer when thousands of sport fishermen pursue the king salmon. A popular winter sport fishery also Copper Rockfish attracts many persons. Winter and smaller chinooks are referred to as "blackmouths" and average 5-10 The copper rockfish is one of several fish which pounds. overlap in occurrence along rock and mixed coarse Combined commercial and sports catches of several beaches. Other rockfish, kelp greenling, and ling million pounds (454 metric tons equal one million cod are also among this group which includes many pounds) of chinook salmon are landed each year. inhabitants of kelp beds associated with mixed These substantial catches have been adversely coarse and rocky shores. affected by construction of dams and other impacts Copper rockfish are the most numerous of rockfish on spawning rivers. Hatchery and salt water pen- reported from inland waters and are valuable commer- rearing culture have contributed to enhancement of cial and recreational food fish. Copper rockfish this valuable salmon, but natural habitat must also are highly regarded by sports fishermen who catch be available to maintain chinook populations. 652 Representative Birds and Mammals Birds and mammals associated with mixed coarse beaches include many of those discussed for rock beaches. These species forage here on rocky surfaces and among the many spaces between cobbles and algae. Patches of sand and other nonrocky substrate also provide foraging areas. Thus, species associated with a variety of beach substrates often occur. For example, shorebirds of mixed coarse beaches include Black Oyster- catchers (rock inhabitant) and Sanderlings (sand inhabitant). The following are examples of other inhabitants of mixed coarse beaches: (Refer to Table 63-2 for a I i st of other species which may be present. Common Goldeneye In Hood Canal and other protected waters, mixed coarse beaches often form a narrow strip relatively high in the intertidal. This zone is a favored feeding area of Goldeneyes. Here they dive and pick invertebrates such as shore crabs and the tiny but numerous littorine snails from among the rocks. In more exposed areas, Goldeneyes also forage along mixed coarse beaches which are often covered with dense growths of algae. A related diving duck, the Bufflehead is often observed in close association with Goldeneyes in both situations. However, they have been observed to feed at different depths along mixed coarse beaches and the two species may be avoiding- food competition in this way. White-winged Scoter Three scoters are present along mixed coarse beaches, Surf, Black, and White-winged. During our studies, the White-winged Scoter was most often observed close to shore feeding in the same general areas as Common Goldeneyes, where both divers consume large numbers of shore crabs. Surf and Black Scoters were typically further offshore as illustrated in Figure 633-1. Red-necked Grebe Red-necked Grebes are one of five species of grebes observed along mixed coarse beaches during our studies. They were frequently seen diving nearshore at protected and exposed locations and are among the many recreationally valuable marine birds of our coastal zone. The rufous neck which distinguishes this diving duck is only worn during summer months. At other times, they may be drab in comparison to many water birds, but grebes dive gracefully and are a pleasure to observe throughout the year. 653 Heermann's Gull The Heermann's Gull is one of several gulls which may rest on rocks at low tide, feed nearshore, or perch on kelp beds along mixed coarse beaches. The bright red bill and slate black wings of adults contrast sharply with their white head and sets them appart from other gulls. They are also unlike most other gulls in that they are one of few birds which are reverse migrants. Breeding in the south, including islands in the Gulf of California, they fly north in late summer, when they may be seen along our coast. Raccoons A ubiquitous shoreline forager, the raccoon often feasts along mixed coarse beaches. Under rock inhabitants such as shorecrabs and blennies are among their prey. Raccoons are enjoyed by many per- sons who often befriend these curious mammals. They are also trapped for their fur and hunted by persons who raise dogs specifically for the chase. Use by Man Mixed coarse beaches provide many benefits to man. The production of algae (and occasional ee lgrass) in intertidal and shallow subtidal regions provides detrital foods which indirectly feed most species of fish and shellfish commercially harvested in nearshore areas. Many fish which are harvested far- ther offshore such as many salmon and English sole, spend a part of their life cycle feeding along mixed coarse beaches. Several rockfish (rock cod), as well as ling cod and kelp greenling, are rec- reationally fished in subtidal areas just offshore from mixed coarse beaches. Commercial and recrea- tional salmon fishing frequently occurs here, especially where kelp beds are present. Ling cod, several species of rockfish, and herring all lay eggs in lower intertidal and shallow subtidal areas. Surf smelt may spawn on mixed coarse beaches in the high intertidal zone if the substrate consists of sand and gravel. 654 Figure: 633-1 Diving Duck Distribution Along A Mixed Course Beach (several other species are also ofen present. those depicte generally feed at different depths as shown) mixed medium mixed course sitty sand (mud) Mixed coarse beaches may contain any of several recreationally important shellfish. Butter clams are often present, but native or Japanses littleneck clams, soft-shell clams, or heart cockles may be more abundant. Some mixed coarse beaches, particu- larly in Hood Canal, support populations of Pacific oysters. In parts of Dabob Bay, oysters are commercially harvested from mixed coarse substrates. Red rock crabs which are every bit as palatable as Dungeness crabs, are common, especially younger individuals. Shrimp often move into mixed coarse beaches during high tides to forage for food. Waterfowl, which help support a valuable hunting industry in Washington, frequently use mixed coarse beaches, especially if eelgrass is present. Species commonly found during portions of the year include Brant and American Wigeon. 655 Many species of potential use by man occur in mixed coarse beaches. Edible species not popularly harvested include, for example, a large number of algae, edible or bay mussels, sea cucumbers, whelks, and shiner perch. Nonconsumptive uses of mixed coarse beaches include bird-watching and use as an educational facility. The diversity of birds ils high along mixed coarse beaches during fall and spring migrations, especially if kelp beds occur offshore. Marine mammals can also be seen quite close to shore along mixed coarse beaches. Harbor seal s and sea I ions are the more commonly observed examples, but porpoi se and larger whales should be looked for. This is especially true along more exposed shores such as Point Wilson in Jefferson County. Kelp beds occur just offshore at this beach which is within Fort Worden State Park. The rich intertidal zone of the mixed coarse beach at Point Wilson attracts many persons who enjoy watching offshore wild- life and observing tidepool life beneath their feet. IMPACTS density and age structure. In addition, some of these long-lived species do not spawn on a regular, Mixed coarse beaches near large population centers, yearly basis. Poor conditions for spawning in such as Seattle and Tacoma, undergo intensive rec- adjacent areas may further delay recovery of a popu- reational use. As a result of clam digging, beach lation. Mixed coarse beaches are also used quite combing, and movement of rocks, populations of plants heavly by fish for spawning (e.g., Pacific herring, and animals are usually reduced compared to more tubesnouts, several species of sculpins, rockfish, remote areas. and, occasionally surf smelt, among others, spawn Structures such as jetties, groins, bulkheads, or on mixed coarse beaches). Eggs or newly hatched revetments tend to interfere with longshore drift. juveniles are most sensitive to pollutants, and As stated earlier, mixed coarse beaches are often populations of these species could be greately associated with eroding bluffs. The finer sediment impacted. Indirect impacts would also occur to from the bluff, particularly sand, are moved along species which spend a portion of their life feeding the beach by current and wave action. These sedi- on mixed coarse beaches through a loss of food ments are often the source material maintaining resources or protective cover. adjacent beaches. Structures which cut off the The presence of bivalves (clams, oysters, and flow of sediments to adjacent beaches often cause mussels) pose problems in areas where nontoxic, low these beaches to undergo erosion. levels of pollution occur. Bivalves are capable of Toxic substances which kill the animals of mixed concentrating pollutants such as heavy metals to coarse beaches tend to have fairly long-term effects, hundreds-of -thousands of times their concentration even if the exposure is only for a short time. in surrounding sea water. The bivalves can survive Many of the species, such as clams, mussels, or well enough with fairly high concentrations of most anemones, are long-lived. Thus, it may take popula- of these toxins, but the danger is for animals tions several years to reestablish their former (including man) which feed on clams. 656 MIXED MEDIUM (No. 634) are present. The community has low numbers of species, low densities of organisms, and negligible I. INTRODUCTION biomass. The organisms are extremely patchy in Mixed medium beaches occur in moderately to highly their distribution. exposed sites, and the substrate consists of pure Offshore, where sediments are more protected from gravel or a mix of gravel and coarse sand. The wave exposure, and thus less subject to movement, slope is fairly steep, thus the intertidal zone is the environment may be far more stable and produc- narrow. Mixed medium beaches most commonly form tive. When this occurs, there may be high numbers small indentations in the shoreline, often only 100 and high densities of fishes using mixed medium feet (30 m) in length, between rock outcrops. They beaches. However, the fish community has a greater are a common feature along rocky shores in the San pelagic component than bethic component as a result Juan Islands such as at Deadman Bay on San Juan of the lack of production on these beaches. Common Island. Mixed medium substrates also form a narrow pelagic fish include Pacific herring and surf smelt. fringe in high intertidal areas throughout Puget Surf smelt spawn in the upper intertidal of some Sound and Hood Canal, but this situation is discus- mixed medium beaches. The most common demersal sed in the Mixed Fine Narrative (No. 635) as these (bottom- f eedi ng) fish are shiner perch, Pacific protected beaches change to typically productive staghorn sculpins, crescent gennels, and juvenile mixed fine beaches in the mid- and lower intertidal. English sole. English sole, surf smelt, and Pacific As with cobble beaches, wave energy is high enough herring are commercially important species, although to constantly roll the gravel-sized fragments about. all are generally harvested in other areas. This movement eliminates the survival of organisms Because mixed medium beaches, most often occur in which would attach to the surface of the gravel small pockets between rock ourcrops, birds and (most notably barnacles, mussels, and algae). mammals associated with these areas are often those Abrasive action of the gravel also minimizes the of rocky shores. Refer to Table 63-2 in the Beach number of invertebrates surviving under or between Substrate Narrative, No. 63, for a list of charac- gravel particles. teristic birds and mammals. A notable shorebird II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES which occasionally uses mixed medium beaches is the Black Oystercatcher. Oystercatchers feed on rocky Mixed medium beaches are biologically unproductive substrate, but nest in patches of gravel just above and sparsely inhabited. Primary production is the interfidal zone. Nesting is known to occur on limited to the few microalgae which can survive Protection Island in Jefferson County, Smith Island among the constantly shifting sediments. Thus, the in Island County, in the San Juans, and on offshore relatively few animals which can survive in this islands al'ong the outer coast. environment are largely dependent upon energy As with fish, there is also a greater component of imported to the area by tides and waves. relatively pelagic or offshore birds and mammals The invertebrate community is dominated by small than those which feed near shore or on the beach at organisms (amphipods, flatworms, and oligochaete worms; see Table 634-1) and is detritus-oriented in its feeding. No clams and very few polychaete worms 657 low tide. These species are mostly dependent on fish or invertebrates produced in deeper water off mixed medium beaches or along adjacent rocky shores and kelp beds. Very few birds or mammals will occur on the beach itself except to rest or feed on food items washed ashore. This was apparent in five monthly observa- tions at Deadman Bay on San Juan Island. During this time, the only birds seen on the beach were two immature gulls feeding on a fish head. Total numbers of individuals and species observed were also low in other portions of the bay. Most birds (63 percent of all species observed) were in shallow subtidal areas or further offshore. These species were primarily diving birds which prey on schooling fish, or gulls and terns. Bottom feeding diving birds which are more dependent on invertebrates living on the beach substrate were few in numbers III. IMPACTS and generally occurred in more productive low inter- tidal or shallow subtidal areas. The moderate to high exposure of mixed medium beaches and the coarseness of the sediments would Other birds and mammals which occur along mixed tend to disperse pollutants such as oil from the medium beaches use the protected nearshore waters beach rather rapidly. The small organisms living as rest sites. They also feed along the rocky on the beach would be highly susceptible to such "shoulders" of the bays or rest on kelp plants pollutants, but would tend to re-inhabit the area which may float out over the gravelly substrate. quickly. Sublethal doses of toxins such as heavy Birds of prey such as Bald Eagles have been observed metals and pesticides are of concern, however, due over these small bays and will prey on water birds to the large numbers of fish which can be present seeking a sheltered rest area. Mammals known to along these beaches. Birds and mammals which feed occur within or along mixed medium beaches include on these fish would also be threatened by these river otter and killer whales. As with birds, these pollutants. Oil may pose a greater threat to birds m-arine mammals feed mainly on fish or other organ- than other organisms since they often rest on the isms produced outside the immediate environment of water's surface in small sheltered bays. mixed medium beaches. 658 Table 634-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS Trophic1 Zone(s) of 2 Common Name (Scientific Name) Type Occurrences INVERTEBRATES Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) (Procerodes pacific Detr H, M, L (1-taspiella armata) Detr H, M, L Nemerteans 1. Trophic Type: Ribbon worm (Amphiporus sp.) Carn H, M, L Detr = Detritivore Nematodes Detr H, M, L Carn = Carnivore Scav = Scavenger Arthropods Dep = Deposit Feeder Beach hoppers (Amphipod) (Maera dubia) Detr H, M. L 2. Zone of Occurrence: Sow,or pill bug Scav (Gnorimosphaeroma oregonense) H = High Intertidal M = Mid-Intertidal Annelids L = Low Intertidal Oligochaete worms Dep H, M, L Polychaete worms 1. Economic Value: Spionidae (Malacocerus glutaeus) Detr L Capitellidae (Capitella capitata) Dep L C = Commercial Cirratulidae (Cirratulus cirratus) Detr L R = Recreational Opheliidae (Ar-mandia brev-15@ L Archiannelid Saccocirrus erotica) L Common Name Scientific Name Economic Value Comment FISH Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi C, R Herring and smelt are valuable Surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus C, R bait and foodfish for humans and wildlife. Walleye Pollock Theregra chalcogramma C Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus C, R Also known as "true" cod. Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata R Striped seaperch Embiotoca lateralis C, R Whitespotted greenling Hexagrammos stelleri Examples of species "overflowing" Copper rockfish Sebastes caurinus C, R onto mixed medium substrates from adjacent rocky beaches or kelp beds Yellowtail rockfish S. flavidus C, R Padded sculpin Xr-t-edius fenestralis Silverspotted sculpin Blepsias cirrhosus English sole Parophrys vetulus C, R Occur in adjacent sandy areas. 659 ""e", pw, "k @xk '44 '@e N@_ A 71v6 IR K TO " IV iAl" MIXED FINE (No. 635) INTRODUCTION Description and Distribution Mixed fine beaches consist of a combination of gravel, sand, and mud. This substrate type is very common in central and southern Puget Sound, but outside this area it is restricted to bays, inlets, and lagoons. In extremely protected areas such as southern Puget Sound, the substrate will contain a high percentage of mud. The more protected the environment, the greater will be the amount of mud present. In such areas the beach substrate often grades into a salt marsh or bluff at its upper end. In more exposed areas, such as central Puget Sound and Hood Canal, the substrate consists of gravel and coarse sand in the upper intertidal, with fine sand and often some mud replacing the coarse sand in the lower intertidal zone. These more exposed beaches are usually bounded by a bluff or beach grassland at their upper margin. Mixed fine beaches are limited to fairly protected situations. Although pure gravel or mixed gravel and coarse sand beaches do occur in moderately to highly exposed areas, the substrate is unstable due to movement by wave action. This results in an entirely different fauna associated with these beaches, as was discussed in the Mixed Medium Narrative (No. 634). Mixed fine beaches, expecially in less protected areas, are intimately associated with eroding bluffs, which provide the source material for *the beach. The eroding sediments are necessary to replace sedi- ments which are moved away from the beach by longshore currents resulting from wave and current action. The beach slope may vary from one to two degrees to greater than 25 degrees. Usually the slope is greater in the upper intertidal zone, expecially on less protected beaches, and becomes more gradual in the mid and lower intertidal zones. Where mud is present, the slope is usually gradual. In these situations shallow tidepools may occur; which provide refuge' for small fish and invertebrates during low tides, may occur. Mixed Fine beaches are among the most popular recreational beaches, particularly for clam digging. They also support many other valuable marine invertebrates as well as fish, birds, and marine mammals. Eelgrass is generally present, adding greatly to the productivity. Refer to the Seagrass Narrative (No. 627) for information specific to eelgrass and the following discussions for other important fea- tures of mixed fine beaches. 661 SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Productivity Productivity of mixed fine beaches is related to the amount of vegetation present. While there is little data on productivity specifically for mixed fine beaches, productivity appears to be very high in protected areas where sea lettuce is abundant in the spring, summer, and fall. In southern Puget Sound, where eel- grass and kelp beds and rock beaches are scarce or absent, mixed fine beaches may be the most productive beach type. Outside of southern Puget Sound, eel- grass often occurs in the lower intertidal zone of mixed fine beaches, thus enhancing their productivity. Microscopic algae (mostly diatoms) also contribute to productivity. Their relative contribution becomes more important on beaches where there is little macroalgae present. Where salt marshes or beach grassland occur at the upper edge of the beach, beach production is further enhanced. The mud component of mixed fine beaches provides an excellent medium for bacteria. These microbes, many of which are not actually "primary" producers, play an important role in shoreline ecology. A major function of bacteria is the break- down of organic matter, which is an essential step in the recycling of nutrients. In addition,. the detritivores and deposit feeders which feed on this organic matter are in many cases more dependent upon the bacteria for nutrition than upon the organic matter itself. Studies have shown that as bacteria increase in numbers on detritus particules (small particles of organic matter) the nitro- gen and protein content of the particles increase. Certain bacteria are also important in maintaining water quality by breaking down pollutants (such as hydrocarbons) and maintaining an active sulfur cycle. Bacteria are reported to have a high productivity (up to ten grams per cubic foot per day). Habitat The fine sand and mud present in mixed fine beaches, especially in the lower intertidal zones, is an important component of this environment. Some important properties of these fine sediments are: 1) small particles have a greater total surface area than larger particles, thus more nutrients (and pollutants) adhere 662 Au. 41i'di, I)FACK qaMR@) -DARNACL-65, -PoLyCHfF,@Tf- WORMA? 'R@V- AVxA4 MIXED FINF DEACW EXPO@Er) (LOWTIDE-) CL-.jm,5, mug aw r P@6 CIV 663 to the sediments, 2) capillary action holds more water in the sediments during low tides, thus pro- tecting organisms from drying out, and 3) a greater amount of organic matter is present (wherever an area is protected enough for fine sediments to settle on the substrate, small detrital particles also settle out). The presence of gravel is also important, and makes the fauna of this beach type distinctive from those of sand, muddy-sand, or mud. Broken shells and their fragments also contribute to the unique structure of mixed fine beaches. Structural dominants (those species which provide refuge for small animals from exposure to sun, waves, currents, or predation) include algae such as sea used as forage and rest sites 'by birds, which feed lettuce, eelgrass, bay mussels,. clams, and the bur- on algae or eelgrass, including Brant, American rowing ghost and mud shrimp. Algae, eelgrass, and Wigeon, and other waterfowl. Killdeer, several gulls, mussels provide habitat for numerous small crusta- and crows forage for invertebrates when the tide is ceans and polychaete Worms. The clams and burrowing out and along the upper margins of the beach at high shrimp often host very specific organisms in their tide. Tidepools provide additional foraging areas burrows, such as pea crabs and scale worms. The for these species and terrestrial wildlife such as burrowing shrimp actually perfer muddy-sand to mixed raccoons and skunks. Deer, weasels, and coyotes are fine sediments, but as many mixed fine beaches con- also known to forage on mixed fine beaches during tain a muddy sand strip densely populated by shrimp, low tide. they deserve mention. Beaches submerged at high tide and nearshore habi- The abundance of prey on mixed fine beaches provide tats at all tidal stages are used by many of the excellent feeding areas for fish and crabs. They species which forage on exposed beaches plus a wide also provide a nursery area for juvenile flatfish variety of aquatic wildlife. Thus, gulls feed on and salmonids and are frequented by larvae of herring, the beach and on the surface of the water. Great sandlance, and candlefish. These beaches are the Blue Herons stalk exposed beaches with shallow water preferred spawning areas for surf smelt and where or tidepools and wade nearshore. A number of diving algae and eelgrass occur, they are often used by birds and some marine mammals feed nearshore, and herri ng as a substrate for attachment of their eggs. are particularly abundant when eelgrass is present. Some of the more common species include White-winged Mixed fine beaches also provide valuable habitat for Scoters, Common Loons, Red-necked Grebes, and harbor birds and mammals. Beaches exposed at low tide are seals. 664 There is very little information on how the different species of marine birds and mam- mals divide the resources available on mixed fine beaches. However,.each species has its own special requirements which must be protected to insure their continued presence. For example, Killdeer only feed on exposed portions of the beach, Great Blue Herons mostly in shallow water, and scoters only in submerged areas. We also know that some species feed nearer to shore than others and that some feed selectively on one or two prey items. Thus, Arctic Loons feed offshore on schooling fish while Common Loons often feed on sculpins in the intertidal. Brant are well known for their dependence on eel- grass and are often seen along mixed fine beaches where other waterfowl feed on eelgrass and algae such as sea lettuce. Still others, such as weasels and raccoons, forage on the beach and retreat to wooded areas nearby for cover. These examples demonstrate the variety of requirements of wildlife which use mixed fine beaches. We are continually becoming more aware of specific needs for each species and know now that a large number of wildlife depend on the substrate and relatively undis- turbed adjacent habitats. Therefore, it is important to protect the quality of mixed fine beaches and adjacent habitats to maintain the diversity of species which occur here. Characteristic Plants and Animals Plants and Invertebrates Intertidal zonation of mixed fine beaches is not as clearly defined as on rock beaches, but is present. Diversity and abundance increase as the amount of mud and organic debris present increases. 665 submerged (high tide) MIXED FINE BEAU-t- SPLASH ZONE HIGH INTERTIDAL <>- MID INTERTIPAL LOW Se SHALLOW SUBTIPAL 666 See Figures 635-1 and 2 for a representative cross-section of a mixed fine beach and-characteristic species in each zone at high and low tides. Table 635-1 provides a list of characteristic species, many of which are discussed below: splash zone The splash zone is limited in extent, as this beach type is restricted to fairly protected areas. Where mixed fine beaches are bordered on their upland side by eroding bluffs the splash zone is not characterized by a distinct biological community. Where there is no bluff behind the beach, salt marsh (see Narrative No. 623) or beach grassland vegetation (No. 312) usually occupy the "splash" zone. In highly pro- tected sites, the splash zone is essentially nonexistent. high intertidal zone The high intertidal zone is characterized by low diversity of organisms and low biomass, especially in less protected areas where there is essentially no mud present. Virtually no vege- tation is present (unless marsh vegetation occurs), and the invertebrates are dominated by oligochaete and polychaete worms, nematodes, and small crustaceans (especially amphipods). In protected areas, small individuals of barnacles, limpets, and littorines (Littorina), may be scattered on the larger gravel-sized rocks. Detritus which accumulates on less pro- tected sand and gravel beaches may support insect larvae as well as the familiar beach hoppers. 667 TABLE 635-1. Characteristic Plants and Animals of Mixed Fine Beaches. SPECIES Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments Common Name (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value PLANTS Green Algae Sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) PP M,L PC ................... . . . . . . . . . . (Ulva spp.) PP M'-E PC (Enteromorpha spp.) PP H,M,L PC (Monostroma spp.) PP M,L PC Brown Algae Rockweed (Fucus distichus) PP H,M,L Blister wrack (Laminaria bullata) PP L,3B PC Sugar wrack (L. saccharina) PP L,SB PC Seersucker (Gostaria costata) PP L,TB (Sargassum muticum) PP L,TB- PC Color changer (Desmarestia ligul@ta) PP L,SB Whip tube (Scytosiphon lomentaria) PP L Red Algae . .................. ........... (Neoagardhiel)a baileyi) PP L,SB PC in XXX. . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . 3:5 804, H,M,L PC eft N (Gigartina papillata) P P .. RR Red or purple laver, nori . . ..... ..... (Porphyra perforata) PP M,L PC . .......... (Gracilariopsis sjoestedtii) PP L,SB PC (Gracilaria verrucosa) PP L,TB PC (Polysiphonia spp.) PP L,SB X: Other Algae Diatoms PP H,M,L,SB 663 TABLE 635-1. Characteristic Plants and Animals. SPECIES Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments Common Name (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Vascular Plants XX Eelgrass (Zostera marina) PP L,SB P C INVERTEBRATES 'xi Molluscs Native little neck clam (Protothaca staminea) FF M,L,SB C,R Japanese littleneck clam (Tapes japonica) FF M,L C,R ...* ....... Soft shell clam (Mya arenaria) FF R,@,L PC,R lt4 .. ............... Washington or butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus) FF L,SB C,R Horse clam (Tresus capax and nuttallii) FF L,SB C,R .... ...... i. .. .. . . . .. Goeduck (Panope generosa) FF I, 3-B C,R FF M,L (Transennella tantilla) (Mysella tumida) FF M,E Cocle (Clinocardium nuttallii) FF H,M,-L,SB R . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . DEP M,L .. . ....... Bent-nose clam (Macoma nasuta) .... ....... Bay mussel (Mytilus edulis) FF M,L C ............. @@Xx 0 Pacific oyster (Crassostrea 2j22s) FF M,L C,R Variegated limpet (Notoacmea persona) HERB @,L Plate limpet (Notoacmea scutum) HERB @,L Littorine or periwinkle (Littorina spp.) HERB H,M,L Moon snail (Polinices lewisii) CARN !,@B Chink shell (Lacuna variegata) HERB L , TB 669 TABLE 635-1. Characteristic Plants and Animals. SPECIES Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments Common Name (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Echinoderms Brittle star (Amphipholis squamata) HERB L Mottled star (Evasterias troschelii) CARN L,SB Arthropods Acorn barnacle (Balanus glandula) FF H,M,L Horse barnacle (T. -cariosus) FF M,E Hairy shore crab (Hemigrapsus oregonensis) SCAV-CARN M,L Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) CARN-SCAV L,SB, R,C Red rock crab (C. productus) CARN-SCAV L,TB R,PC Xt:; Pea crab (Pinnixa faba) Comm L, TB (P. littoralis) Comm L TB Hair hermit crab y (Pagurus hirsutiusculus) DETR-SCAV M,L Hermit crab (P granosim nus) DETR-SCAV M,L .:: . . . . . .. . . . . ............ .......... . . . . ... .. Ghost shrimp (Callianassacaliforniensis) DETR M,L,SB PC,C Mud shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis) DETR M,L,SB PC Broken-back or gray shrimp (Cra@gon spp.) CARN T,SB,T PC Oregon pill bug (Gnorimosphaeroma oregonensis) SCAV H,M Isopod (Idotea wosnesenskii) HERB M,L (Exosphaeroma spp.) DETR M Amphipod (Corophium acherusicum) DETR H,M Other gammarid amphipods DETR H,M,L,SB Caprellid amphipods CARN M,L,SB Tanaids (Leptochelia FF spp.) Cumacean (Cumella vulgaris) DETR M,L Harpacticoid copepods DETR H,M,L 670 TABLE 635-1. Characteristic Plants and Animals. SPECIES Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments Common Name (Scientific Name) Type Occurrence Value Annelids Syllidae (Syllis spp.) DETR H,M (Exogone sp.) DETR M,L Capitellida (Mediomastus sp.) DEP H,M,L (Notomastus sp.) DEP H,M,L Lumbrineridae (Lumbrineris spp.) DEP H,L Opheliidae (Armandia sp.) DEP L Nereidae (Platynereis sp.) HERB L . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Nereis'spp.) HERB M,L R Spionidae T@@do@ra spp.) DETR M,L (Spio spp-) DETR M,L (Spiophanes spp.) DETR M,L Cirratulidae (Tharyx sp.) DETR M,L Polynoidae (Harmothoe sp.) CARN L Hesionidae (Ophio ro@us sp.) CARN L Oligochaetes DEP H,M,L Nematodes DETR H,M,L Nemerteans CARN H,M,L .......... Phoronids (Phoronopsis harmeri) FF L,SB. Legend: Trophic type Zone of Occurrence Economic Value PP= Primary Producer H = High Intertidal R = Recreational FF= Filter Feeder M = Mid-Intertidal C = Commercial COMM = Commensal L = Low-Intertidal PC = Potential Commerical DETR = Detritivore SB = Shallow Subtidal CARN = Carnivore T = Tidepool SCAV = Scavenger Underlined zone denotes zone of HERB = Herbivore greatest abundance. 671 F I (- LA 9Z E- ':@5 POLYC"AF-TE P PE DATO P G CALIFORNIA, lwfr-AL0 COULL SCUL91N SAr4p SOLE DO&FISH SANDERLING3 COMMON ENGLISH SOLV GOLDFNEYE -Lin CRESCENT HERRING PADD p srlul-pit4 CRABG cloppe Ft 9=KFISH PINK SALMON TOMCOP ROCK SOLE COMMON NFPHTYS SCOTER C 0 GOLE CID$40 Saut-FtN SAJ-MON 14-7 @t @i"- SHINSR THRCESFIINE PERCH SURF QCOTFR STICKLEBArA GREATER 81 GLAUCOUS-WINGW -1!,5, W- GULL S4C,AVP cl, r PENPOiNT STARR'f CAMNEL FLOVNPER 672 mid-intertidal zone The mid-intertidal zone is stongly dominated by filter feeding bivalves, most of which are also dominant in the lower intertidal zone. Most common are native and Japanese littlenecks, cockles, butter clams, horse clams, Transennella tantilla, and Mysella tumida. Softshell clams and the detritus-feeding bent-nose clam may be abun- dant where mud content of the substrate is higher. The distribution of these clams is usually quite patchy. In Hood Canal and central and southern Puget Sound, bay mussels often occur in large patches, especially on the alluvial fans formed by small creeks flowing across the beach. Polychaete worms are the most diverse group of organisms in mixed fine sediments, particularly when mud is present. Most species encountered are deposit or detritus feeders, while a few are either carnivorous or herbivorous. The dominant species will vary depending upon the amount of organic matter and mud in the substrate. The importance of polychaetes as food for a myriad of species is illustrated in Fig. 635-3 Small crustaceans are also an important part of the fauna in the mid-intertidal. Barnacles are usually fairly abundant on the pebbles of mixed fine beaches. In southern Puget Sound the hairy shore crab may reach densities of hundreds per square meter. These crabs seem to benefit from the presence of ghost and mud shrimp, into whose burrows they often scramble during low tides on hot summer days. Algae are patchy in distribution in this zone, with rockweed occasionally attached to pebbles, mussels, or sticks. In low salinity areas, such as near creek mouths, Enteromorpha is usually found attached to mussels or pebbles. 673 lower intertidal zone Many of the clams which occurred in the mid-intertidal zone are even more abundant in the lower inter- tidal. Bay mussels, however, become very uncommon due to predation by the mottled starfish and possibly crabs. Small crustaceans (harpacticoid copepods, isopods, amphipods, cumaceans, and tanaids) become extremely numerous, and the polychaete worms again show high diversity and abundance. Dominant species of these groups vary from site to site according to the amount of mud present. Larger crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimp, move into this zone during high tides to feed on small invertebrates. The amount of vegetation present may increase quite dramatically in this zone in comparison to the higher intertidal zones. Eelgrass may occur, along with the many species of plants and animals associ- ated with it (see Narrative No. 627). It is more likely, however, to find dense growths of green algae in well protected areas. See lettuce is the most abundant gree algae, but Monostroma and Enteromorpha also occur. Red algae such as Neoagardhiella baileyi often attach to small pebbles or clam shells, and the delicate Polysiphonia may attach to the siphon-of horse clams. Several large brown algae may occur in the lower portions of the zone, such as seersucker, sea collander, sugar wrack, blister wrack, and Sargassum muticum, but these algae are more abundant just below the low water mark in the shallow subtidal zone. Fish A large number of fish species are often associated with mixed fine beaches. For example, the highest number of species were captured in recent oil baseline beach seine samples along the Strait of Juan de Fuca at a mixed fine beach. The presence of eelgrass and location in a protected bay were thought to be contributing factors. Since eelgrass and moderately protected locations are often present, a species rich fish community may be typical throughout the coastal zone at mixed fine beaches. 674 In more exposed situations, the fish associated with mixed fine beaches include many which also occur in rockier habitat. This is particularly true in the San Juan Islands, where rocky shoulders protect small bays with mixed fine and gravel substrate. Many of the fish which feed along mixed fine beaches and in adjacent eelgrass and algae beds are highly valuable commercially and recrea- tionally. These include salmon, English sole, herring, and sea-run cut- throat trout. Oil baseline sampling indicated the importance of pro- tected mixed fine to these species, particularly English sole and herring which were caught in large numbers. Mixed fine beaches are known to be important nursery areas for English sole and recent sampling indicates their value for adults. Thus, maximum biomass of English sole recorded was at the mixed fine site owing to the large number of adults captured in winter. Other fish which occur are valuable indirectly to man or directly to other wildlife. Several of these species and commercially valuable fish associated with mixed fine beaches are discussed below and listed in Table 635-2. Staghorn Sculpin The staghorn sculpin is to salt water as the robin is to lawns. They appear to be everywhere, but are especially abundant along mixed fine beaches throughout the year. The abundance, ubiquity, and occurrence close to shore make them one of the most valuable prey species for near- shore wildlife as indicated by their known predators shown in Figure 635-4. These sculpins grow to 18 inches, but schools of much smaller staghorns are frequently seen at the water's edge. There, they may bury themsleves, all but the eyes, in bottom sand. They seem to come from nowhere if you disturb this hiding place by walking along shore. Sculpins feed on a large number of organisms, just as they are prey of so many others. Known prey include Gammarid amphipods, polychaetes, parasitic nematodes, shrimp including crangonids and ghost shrimp, shiner perch, shore crabs, and mysids. 675 Figure 63.j-,-@ SCULPIN PPE-DA-rOPS, look omor) 4, 0"Wt ANOON WMMON LootA POCK COMMON FOP G014>r44We C.ABEZOO OL.PSO 676 TABLE 635-2. FISH ASSOCIATED WITH MIXED FINE BEACHES, A PARTIAL LIST Spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) Starry skate (Raja stellulata) Pacific herring (Clupea harengus) Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) Chum salmon (0. keta) Coho salmon (57. kisutch) Chinook salmon (0. tshawytscha) Cutthroat trout T-Salmo clarkii) Surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) Plainfin midshipman (Porichtys notatus) Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) Pacific tomcod (Microgadus proximus) Walleye pollock (Theragra chalcoqramma) Threespine stickleback (Ga-sterest--eus aculeatus) Tube-snout (Aulorhynchus flavidus) Bay pipefish (Syngnathus griseolineatus) Rockfish (Sebastes species) White spotted greenling (Hexagrammos stelleri) Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) Sharpnose sculpin (Clinocottus acuticeps) Cabezon (Scorpaenichthys marmoratus) Buffalo sculpin (Enophrys bison) Roughback sculpin (Chitanotus pugetensis) Staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) Sturgeon poacher (Agonus acipenserinus) Great sculpin (Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus) Shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata) Striped seaperch (Embiotoca lateralis) Pile perch (RhacocITi-lus vacca) Snake prickleback (Lumpenus @agitta) Crescent gunnel (Pholis laeta) Saddleback gunnel (P. orna-ta5 Pacific sandlance (AT-m-modytes hexapterus) Speckled sanddab (Citharicht@ys stigmaeus) Pacific sanddab (C. sordidus) Rock sole (lepidopseT-ta bilineata) English sole (Parophrys vetulus) 'Starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) C-0 sole (Pleuronichth s coenosus) Sand sole (Psettichthys' melanostictus) 677 English Sole English sole are members of the family Pleuronectidae, the righteye flounders. These flatfish are known variously as flounders and sole and usually have the eyes and dark colora- tion on the right hand side of the fish. Halibut are also in this family and are perhaps the best known of the commercially valuable bottom fish. English sole are also commercially harvested and are intimately associated with mixed fine beaches, especially as juveniles. Filet of sole has long been a popular and valuable food, and several millions of pounds of English sole are harvested annually by U.S. and Canadian fishermen. English sole also provide sport fisher- man with an excellent fresh fish dinner; the continuance of which depends on protection of the quality of the nearshore envi ronment. Recent evidence in Elliot Bay has shown high S4 incidences of tumors and le Ions on English sole. High levels of pollutants such as Polychlorinated bi-phenyls (PCB) entering the Duwamish River and Elliot Bay from municipal and other wastes are suspected causes. Prey of the English sole include Gammarid amphipods, poly- chaetes, cumaceans, tanaids, harpacticoid copepods, mysids, crangonid shrimp, and clam siphons. Shiner Perch The shiner perch or "pogey" is the smallest member of the surfperch family (Embiotocidae), growing to about 6 inches. They are schooling fish which often occur in abundance along mixed fine beaches. Gammarid amphipods are favored food items of shiners which also consume harpacticoid copepods, calanoid copepods, polychaetes, mussels, and algae. Shiner perch are an important prey of Caspian Terns in Grays Harbor and are also consumed by other marine birds, harbor seals, and river otters. They are al so used by humans i n a variety of ways. Children often catch "pogeys" from piers in the spirit of fishing for fun. Other people use them as bait for rockfish, and although small are occasionally brought 678 home and eaten as fresh fish. Shiner perch are unusual in that they are one of the fish which gives birth to live (as. opposed to eggs) young. The ti ny young are born tai I f i rst, most of ten i n May or June. Sturgeon Poacher These intriguing fish are sometimes abundant nearshore along mixed fine beaches. The sturgeon poacher is a bottom dweller, as its downward directed mouth and somewhat flattened head suggest. They do look like sturgeon, but grow to only about 12 inches. Like their namesakes, the sturgeon poacher also has nighly modified "scales". While sturgeons have a scattering of bony plates replacing scales, the poacher has rows of spinous plates covering much of the body. The plates greatly restrict the fish's flexibil- ity, limiting all but stiff lateral movements. The importance of the large pectoral fins for swimming has been noted, and is apparently a trade-off for the stiff but protective armor covering of plates. Prey of sturgeon poachers include cumaceans, gammarid amphipods, harpacticoid copepods, shrimp and poly- chaetes. Pacific Herring and Coho Salmon These two fish are discussed together because of the important relationship between them, especially to the thousands of sports fishermen of Washington. Pacific herring are often abundant along mixed fine 4.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - 679 beaches where they spawn in eelgrass beds and reside while offshore they probably consume small schooling as juveniles. Herring juveniles are almost exclu- fish and a variety of invertebrates while surface sively planktivores, consuming copepods, mysids, and picking. crab zoea (larvae which are planktonic). Herring are, in turn, consumed by a wide variety of birds, Glaucous-winged Gull and Common Crow marine mammals, and other fish including Coho salmon. Coho, however, feed on a wide variety of other fish Anyone who has dug clams along mixed fine beaches is and invertebrates such as gammarid amphipods, cuma- aware of the expectant beach scavengers which most ceans, insects, barnacle and crab larvae, euphau- often include crows and the ubiquitous Glaucous- sids, and squid. wi-nged Gull. Both of these birds capture live prey, but feed extensively as beach scavengers. Broken Coho are a valuable sports fish and are renowned for clams, polychaete worms, crabs, and essentially all their fighting ability. They may be caught on her- "bite-sized" invertebrates uncovered by the clam ring, but are often fished near the surface with an digger will be taken by gulls and crows. They also artificial lure known as the Coho fly. scavenge the beaches and adjacent uplands. Birds Crows and gulls seem not to be affected as yet by the many pollutants which are concentrated as they A wide variety of birds and mammals use mixed fine are transferred through various food chains. However, beaches, especially as feeding areas. Some species other predators such as Peregrine Falcons and harbor occur throughout the year, while others are seasonal seals have been shown to be adversely affected. visitors. Refer to Table 635-3 for a listing of potential species and the following discussions for more detailed information on some of the more charac- terisitic species: Mew Gull Mew Gulls are small gulls distinguished by their relatively short, unmarked yellow bill and the large patch of white at the tip of their wing which con- trasts sharply with the black separating this patch from the otherwise grayish wing. Mew Gulls are present along mixed fine beaches throughout much of the year, and are especially com- mon when eelgrass is exposed at low tide. They also feed over submerged beaches and subtidally, where they are often observed picking at the water's sur- 680 face. Prey on exposed beaches includes polychaetes, Belted Kingfisher Kingfishers are familiar, raucous callers along the beach and often frequent in mixed fine areas. Their large head, long and stout bill, crest, and blue color separate the Kingfisher from all other local birds. The band across their white breast is also distinctive. The female is identified by the ores- ence of a rufous band below this bluish-grey one which is on both sexes. Kingfishers seek their prey, often small sculpins, in shallow water. They perch on pilings overhanging branches from which they may plunge directly when a fish is spotted. They also fly out over the water and hover in mid-air before diving for a fish. Their five to eight eggs are placed in long tunnels excavated in steep bluffs alongshore. Killdeer and other shorebirds The Killdeer is probably the most familiar shorebird in Washington. They are about the size of a Robin and distinctively marked with two black breast bands. Killdeer are well known for their broken wing display which distracts would-be predators from the nest or young. Both parents incubate and care for the young, so males or females might be the one leading you away if this behavior is observed. Killdeer were the most frequently observed shorebird on mixed fine beaches during our studies. Other species are infrequently observed and include those which more typically feed on rocky or muddier beaches. For example, Wandering Tattlers and Black Turnstones which usually prefer rocky areas, were observed and a Greater Yellowlegs, which is more common in tidepools on mudflats was seen along Sequim Bay on a mixed fine beach. Sanderlings and Spotted Sandpipers were also observed, both feeding along high inter- tidal areas which graded into mixed medium and coarse sand. European Wigeon and American Wigeon The European Wigeon occurs in small numbers, most often among a flock of the similar and abundant Ameri- can Wigeon. The primary physical trait separating the two species is the fox red of the European's head which is much unlike the green-tinged head of the American Wigeon. Both have a creamy white crown, which has led to the popular name "Baldpate" often applied to the American Wigeon. 6.81 ON 00 r1o TABLE 635-3 BIRDS OBSERVED AT MIXED FINE BEACHES DURING THE COASTAL HABITAT INVENTORY SPECIES BEACH 1 NEARSHORE2 OFFSHORE3 Common Loon X x Arctic Loon X Red-throated Loon X Red-necked Grebe X X Horned Grebe X X Eared Grebe X X Western Grebe X Pied-billed Grebe X Double-crested Cormorant X X Brandt's Cormorant X Pelagic Cormorant X X Great Blue Heron X X Brant X X x Mallard X X X Pintail X X European Wigeon X American Wigeon X X X Canvasback X Greater Scaup X X Lesser Scaup X X Common Goldeneye X X Barrow's Goldeneye x X Bufflehead X X Oldsquaw X White-winged Scoter X X Surf Scoter X X cn tj cn tn Black Scoter X :31 0 k 4 Hooded Merganser X X rt 0 0 M 0 Red-breasted Merganser X X " M W 4 a, Common Merganser X 0 M (n 01 (0 Sharp-shinned Hawk X 0 M H_ Bald Eagle X X X rt rD ::1 P. rt rt 0, Osprey X m M 0 01" H M Turkey Vulture X F@M rr SU H. D. Merlin X X X 0 o, rt Ct W Killdeer X Black Turnstone X a, Spotted Sandpiper X 0 0 Greater Yellowlegs X rA" 0 Fj Wandering Tattler X Sanderling X 0 Glaucous-winged Gull X X X F.- Thayer's Gull X X X 0 Western Gull X (t & M rt California Gull X X H. Mew Gull X X X Bonaparte's Gull X 0 0 Ct Heermann's Gull X X X 1< 0 Common Tern X x 0) 1@ Pigeon Guillemot X X Marbled Murrelet X 0 0 x Rhinoceros Auklet X 51 Common Murre X Belted Kingfisher X 0 M F, Barn Swallow X X Common Crow X Winter Wren X Song Sparrow X Both species feed along mixed fine beaches, consuming eelgrass, see lettuce, and Entero morpha. White-winged Scoter The White-winged Scoter is one of three scoters which occur in Washington waters and is perhaps the most frequently observed near to shore. They were observed at all mixed fine beaches during our studies, often in flocks which also include Surf Scoters and scaups. White-winged Scoters, not surprisingly, are distin- guished by the white patch (speculum) on the wing of both sexes. The male'is otherwise all black with a striking white eye patch that curves back and up. Females are dark brown with two light cheek patches. White-winged Scoters are often persecuted.because they do feed on commercially harvested clams. However, they feed on a variety of other organisms including oyster drills, littorine snails, limpets, shore crabs, barnacles, sea urchins, starfish, sand dollars, and eelgrass. Where they are a problem to commerci.al clam harvesters, they can be scared Away since they feed mostly by day. Mamma'ls Raccoon The raccoon is a widely known mammal , largely because it is so observable. Raccoons are often seen crossing the highway, begging food from campers or in the backyard, and while they scavenge food along beaches. Favored natural prey include a wide varity of items, but along beaches is often limited to shorecrabs and beach hoppers. Beach hoppers (sand fleas) are a sur- prisingly consistent and important prey of raccoons because of their small size. However, they are often quite abundant along mixed fine beaches where they feed on detritus in the high intertidal. We have often found sign of raccoon sug- gesting that an entire meal was composed of these tiny amphipods. 683, Figure 635-5 P1 ey of Hartor Seals PACIFIC COD ROCKPISH SQUID LAMPREY 14ERM IT CRA13S PUNGENESS CRAD STAG14ORN scumm Tomcop GHOST SHRIMP SLENNIES oil 1111W k " @ %%@, SAND LANCw I % k % @, % % NN, -- FLATWEAD soLE SAI-Mor4 PACIFIC HERRING SHORIECRASS SHINER PF-RC14 CRANGONIo SHRImp c !Zftt 68A Harbor Seal The harbor seal often feeds close to shore along mixed fine beaches and has also been observed mating in shallow-water at an isolated mixed fine beach. These seals are our only "earless" seal , family Phocidae; sea lions and fur-seals being members of the family Otariidae, or eared seals. Harbor seals are not really without ears, but do lack the external features of ears which are also quite reduced in sea-lions. Harbor seals are further distinguished by their short fore-flippers and dog-like face which often pops up to watch you walk the shore or glide by in a boat. The fur is spotted and color varies from whitish to dark gray, but'most often is bluish gray with black spots and irregular white rings and loops. Harbor seals are relatively nonmigratory and spend about half their time ashore at favorite haul out spots which include sand bars, isolated rock outcrops, rock islands, and islets, and artificial islands such as log rafts. Small groups or individuals may be somewhat scattered for much of the year, but there is a gathering in at the start of the early summer pupping season, to what are thought to be traditional pupping and breeding sites. These sites include year-round haul out areas such as the major Puget Sound site at Gertrude Island. There appear to be no territorial conflicts while on land, which is quite unlike the fierce inter- actions between bull sea lions and fur-seals. Pupping occurs from late June to early September with local variations in timing of birth, weaning, and the beginning of the breeding season. Pups are about 12 pounds at birth and double this weight when they are weaned at four to six weeks from the rich diet of milk containing 45% fat and 9% protein. Adult weights vary from about 180 to 300 pounds. Breeding begins soon after pups are weaned and following fertilization, there is a delay of implanta- tion which retards development of the fetus for approximately two months so that the total gestation period is nine to ten months. Harbor seals have apparently evolved this mechanism to coincide the timing of mating in late summer (when males and females are together on the pupping sites) with the optimum time the following spring for birth and survivial of pups. The harbor seal most often feeds in shallow water, although dives of 300 feet and dive durations of up to .25 minutes have been observed experimentally. Prey of the harbor seal is quite varied as illus- trated in Figure 635-5. They do consume salmon and occasionally are entangled in fishermen's nets. Fishermen respond at times by killing harbor seals, despite the fact that they are protected by-the Marine Mammal Act. The only other major predator of harbor seals in Washington is the killer whale. Other mamals observed on or adjacent to mixed fine beaches during our studies were coyote, striped skunk, long-tailed weasel, river otter, deer, and killer whale. 685 Use by Man Recreational fishing is also popular along mixed fine beaches, including pursuit of sea-run cutthroat Recreational Use trout which are most often caught in shallow near- shore waters. Salmon, flatfish, and Pacific cod are Historically, the major use of mixed fine beaches by also fished in these areas, although in slightly man has been for recreational (and to much lesser deeper waters. Other recreational activities include extent for commercial) clamming. In fact, this beach bird watching, swimming, and quiet strolls along the type is one of the most popular for use by humans beach. The latter being a pleasant activity enjoyed for gathering food. Native and Japanese littlenecks, throughout Puget Sound where mixed fine beaches pro- butter clams, and horse clams are the most popular vide firm and yet not too rocky substrate. species sought. Goeducks, the largest bivalve in Washington, are considered a 'prize' catch, but are Commercial Use unncommon in intertidal areas. Even when found, a determined clammer may have to dig a hole over three Natural populations of littleneck, butter, and horse feet deep to obtain a geoduck. clams are all currently harvested commercially from Cockles are also eaten, although they are not as intertidal beaches in Washington. The harvest of popular as other species. goeducks, however, is presently limited to subtidal areas. In some areas, such as in the San Juan Soft shell and bent-nose clams are also edible, but Islands, beaches have been seeded with young little- are not commonly collected by clam diggers. Soft neck clams in hopes of increasing the commercial shell clams are extremely popular on the east coast, harvest. This method of culture is comparable to but are only beginning to show signs of becoming the seeding of oyster beds, which has long been used acceptable on the West coast. Bent-nose clams are in Washington's waters. Mixed fine beaches are also unpopular because of their habit of feeding by vacu- often conducive to the commercial farming of oysters. uming off the top layer of sediment and detritus Commercial harvest of bay mussels is presently with their siphon. Thus, they contain large amounts limited to where they have been cultured on rafts. of sand and mud in their digestive tracts although Considering the large numbers of mussels which occa- it is expelled if the clams are left to soak in fresh sionally occur on mixed fine beaches, there is a salt water. Bay mussels are becoming a popular food potential for harvest in intertidal areas. However, item in some restaurants in western Washington. How- predators of mussels could pose a serious threat to ever, bay mussels are only rarely collected recrea- an intertidal population. tionally as a food source. Species of potential commerical value include various In portions of Hood Canal, where the Pacific Oyster species of algae and shrimp. Some of the algae which is well established, oysters are collected recrea- occur on mixed fine beaches are edible (e.g. , sea tionally. However, the number of public beaches lettuce and Neoagardhiella) and closely related algae where oysters occur is very limited. Dungeness crabs are popular foods in other parts of the world. Cran- and, to a lesser extent, red rock crabs are also gonid shrimp were harvested commercially in Puget sought recreationally at mixed fine beaches. Crabbing Sound before the more profitably pandalid shrimp is usually most lucrative in areas where eelgrass or industry developed. Ghost shrimp, which are both algae are present. edible and extremely palatable, provide another poten- 686 This problem is further compounded in mixed fine beaches, where bivalves (clams and mussles) form the foundation of heavy recreational and commercial use. Bivalves tend to concentrate many pollutants to phenomenal extents - as high as one million times the concentration in the surrounding water. Heavy metals, e.g., copper, mercury, and lead, are the worst offenders. However, organic wastes can also tial species for commercial harvest. There currently cause problems. Human sewage containing bacteria is a limited fishery for ghost shrimp as a bait for which enters the water is responsible for many areas fishing. Surf smelt, which lay their eggs in the of the state being closed to the commercial harvest high intertidal zone of gravel and sand beaches, of shellfish. Shellfish also concentrate some of support a commercial fishery in Washington. Herring, these bacteria, which can cause hepatitis or other which attach their eggs to marine plants, and juve- diseases if ingested by humans. nile flatfish, are commercially harvested species which occur on mixed fine beaches. Such beaches are Perhaps the most widespread impact on mixed fine reputed to be preferred feeding areas for juvenile beaches has been the result of recreational clam chinook, coho, and chum salmon, where these species diggers. There are some studies from the east coast feed mainly on small crustaceans. Candlefish larvae, which indicate young clams are not severely impacted which also frequent mixed fine beaches, historically by digging when precautions are taken (such as filling play an important role in Northwest Indian Culture, clam holes back in). However, mortalities to other as the oil of the fish had a wide variety of uses. types of animals can be very significant if caution Candlefish, herring, and smelt are important food is not observed. This is important in view of the items for larger carnivorous fish and birds, includ- many fish, birds, and crabs which feed upon these ing adult salmon. other organisms. III. IMPACTS Development of adjacent uplands areas is another widespread impact on mixed fine beaches. Wildlife The relationship of mixed fine beaches to protected affected by such an impact are sensitive species, environments largely determines their ability to such as Great Blue Heron, harbor seals, river otters, deal with various pollutants. In general, reduced and Pintail Ducks, as well as those dependent on the water circulation and wave action in protected areas waterland interface, such as Bald Eagles and Belted tend not to disperse pollutants, thus they accumulate Kingfishers which roost in trees along the shoreline in these areas. and feed nearshore. 687 I'M w m 1511_ Ell. '111OR JI SIZE @j. 125K T, 'R nIW*Q A W@ A-M, -U 'm Mih, iii NtU "'M W"np, Eli @Qw-4ggffi@A A TM 'M M g I'M YN, i@ 1 Cij,, MM MW ORIH M@, aml, R Nii`@,@ U 'ARAN-MuR 14 lug", my Ail@ 4 !i W -jai X -K ARM M IR OUR I'- j 4 IS 5 W@,Z@,N@ 11, , ,,, @,olodd",OMTIA, M, I IN __1_11 1 -1 -1 1-1- Z__ @, - - -0, Nil , @, M@ rgFggffg --, it Q JE4 'IN NEWUNOn i E@ @@ lij.1prf g MR Wl@ -;l, !v @@I I X mo 'MINI` lbufflilff Z, "W!_ g@ r- m Wdgglioj q@ ELL:- INA ;J UNIR$ '111 P N, ll,@115@M. ..... ... OmM@wWTJMW uo @@mm'ltg @3, "'MR, Niq 1@ IREI `H% gi, ;!1146% If a i "'a if '44 4 " i A __PE j@ IA@ 5.`@Iv 106 MTV, @l i-I q il A' R"NUI, NI-111-3,", tt. MR; Z, .0911 --', %, 'Rilil* "N VOZA tiH ''M msll@ wMD;u '0 112IN g :11ii'm "Aulli"T'll 11g, @2, I v "IM M T"'N -1@'! 4" ....... "Im ;;;`lA AIM'- n kii" A .............. M@,l R X ".,Eg, mp Z; ;iIgPli l6ull mi :!"ll U M *r "MIN PE -Ein W'l @!El mil q' 'N @Wi Vfl it m W @N@ I@ Ut '111 ME 'Pro NMVI@ -11 @,HIO fL w OM@�,,, IH -@ @@i "" SHE ffil 'M V Hi h 41 m w 2111 I'l,I mt, r @t i@ 1 @,-m R G T@ UNA 4 AR@, I@W 6 M AIFNI, FIR 1 4 111 :@, M-1 g Nw 1, w"'pg"m P, 4,Twl 4,40'16@!I,@,@, .........W IMP I h a, F,,4KJ;,@ilM,@ i@'11iii"M N m, @WP, Je jI SUP, NiiiiiPOMNIN RNMR,, H@ ,gp @,q < M, ... .......... .... IN If e @ov@,@A @'l W I J. ll@ All km @wl @N, m mt mqm rl K'iM, Otmi, A ""IEEZIMM, vJ %,w 44 00 00 HIM -J 4"1 Afg u @M@V'25 p 1 0@,i "1 '15, "WOW - 0__- EM"W" 0@ma SAND (No. 636) INTRODUCTION Definition and Distribution SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Sand beachese consist of particles ranging from .*15 to 2.0 mm in diameter. They can be divided Sand Beaches as Stressful Environments into either of two categories: 1) exposed or 2) protected. Exposed sand beaches are associated Sand beaches, most notably those in exposed situa- with high wave, wind, and current action. They tions, provide a highly stressful environment. occur extensively along the Pacific coast of Wash- Stressful properties of these beaches include the ington, especially south of Point Grenville. On following: relatively calm days on these beaches, the waves 1. Sand holds little moisture when the tide is are usually 3-6 feet (1-2 meters) high. Also in- out, especially in coarse sand, and thus cluded among exposed beaches are those somewhat affords little protection from dessication protected from direct pounding by oceanic waves, (drying out). but which still have high wind, wave, or current action. Such beaches occur at the mouth of Grays 2. Sand particles hold little detritus and few Harbor and Willapa Bay, and in small bays north of nutrients. Point Grenville, occasionally along the north side 3. Sand particles are subject to movement by of the Olympic Peninsula (e.g., Kydaka Beach), the wind, waves, and currents, and thus provide a southwest shoreline of San Juan Island (e.g. , Eagle constantly shifting substrate. This substrate Cove), and the west side of Whidbey Island. These instability is not restricted to exposed areas, semi-protected beaches have many features in common as sand bars in protected bays can shift con- with fully exposed sand beaches, but some important siderably. In addition, some beaches are faunal differences are evident. accreting while some are in the process of eroding. Thus, plants and invertebrates are Protected sand beaches are scattered throughout either constantly being buried by sand, or the inland waters of the state, especially at lower constantly being uncovered. To further com- tidal levels and near the mouths of bays. Waves plicate matters, some beaches will erode are usually less than 0.5 m in height. Specific during summer and accrete during winter. examples occur at False Bay on Sand Juan Island, 4. Exposed sand beaches are subjected to con- on the west side of Hood Canal north of Port stant, intense battering by the surf. Gamble, along King County shorelines, and at Birch Bay in Whatcom County. It is common to find some 5. There is limited primary production on exposed gravel mixed in with the sand in upper tidal levels. sand beaches relative to other beach types. 689 Protected sand beaches tend to exhibit these stressful properties on a much reduced scale. For example, wave shock is greatly reduced, thus sedi- ments are not shifted about as extensively. In addition, fine sand particles are present, and the ability of the substrate to retain water during low tides increases, affording inhabitants of sandy beaches greater protection. Algae and eelgrass may be present, which increase stability of the sediments and provide habitat for additional ani- mals. Certain types of benthic diatoms which secrete mucilage are also effective in stabilizing sand sediments, as are small tube-dwelling inver- tebrates. Broad sand beaches in Puget Sound, Hood Canal, Grays Harbor, and Willapa Bay tend to form sand "waves" resulting from wind, current, and wave action. The low spots, or troughs, between waves tend to remain moist at low tides, sometimes even forming small tidepools. These pools not only pro- tect small fish and crustaceans during low tides, but often support eelgrass and other algae. Habitat high tide. They in turn provide food for a variety Sand beaches provide an excellent feeding area for of fishes, birds, and marine mammals. Neritic fishes, diving birds, marine mammals, and inverte- fishes (those feeding on organisms in the water brates which move into the area during high tides. column) such as herring and smelt are present on Fishes commonly feeding along sand beaches include sand beaches at high tide. Diving birds include sand sole, English.sole, shiner perch, and staghorn, loons, scoters, and grebes. Harbor seals and river sharpnose, and tidepool sculpins. These fish feed otters feed along sandy beaches, while larger primarily on crustaceans (harpacticoid copepods, marine mammals, such as gray and killer whales and mysids, cumaceans, tanaids, isopods, amphipods, northern sea lions may cavort offshore. and shrimp). Surf perch are also present on Pacific coast beaches. Juvenile coho salmon feed When uncovered by the tide, sand beaches are fre- along sand beaches (from July to October), as do quented by Great Blue Herons, several gull species, pink, chum, and chinook salmon. Sand beaches pro- and shorebirds. These birds use sand beaches for vide the primary nursery areas for English sole, both feeding and resting. Terrestrial mammals and surf smelt often spawn in the upper intertidal which may occasionally wander onto beaches to gather zone. Herring also spawn on sand beaches but are food are raccoons, skunks, and bobcats. Deer have dependent on the presence of vegetation. Crabs also been observed along sandy beaches in protected and shrimp are also abundant on sand beaches at areas during our studies. 690 Productivity, Diversity, and Abundance The diversity and abundance of plants and animals on exposed, sand beaches is low compared to pro- tected sand beaches or other substrate types such as rock, mixed coarse, mixed fine, and muddy sand. Vegetation is restricted to benthic or interstitial microscopic plants (mostly diatoms), as there is no stable substrate on which macroscopic plants can attach. Thus, productivity is low, and animals are largely dependent on food brought in by the surf (diatoms and decaying plant or animal mate- rial). The stressful environment limits the number of animals which can successfully survive, and exposed beaches may have only a dozen species of invertebrates which occur in abundance. Because of this, numbers of organisms may fluctuate greatly. Razor clams, for example appear to produce a suc- cessful set of juveniles only once every several years. They are one of the most abundant organisms throughout much of the area where they occur, and have a great impact upon the total number of ani- mals present. Biomass of exposed sand beaches is very low when razor clams are absent. Bird species diversity is also typically lower on exposed sand beaches, largely because of the impoverished invertebrate fauna. However, where exposed sand beaches occur near protected mudflats, birds, and particularly shorebirds, can be very abundant. This is especially true during spring and fall migrations when ocean sandy beaches are often covered with a seemingly indistinguishable variety of flocking shorebirds. Thousands of other migratory birds also occur in nearshore waters along exposed sandy beaches. These birds may feed intertidally, rest just offshore, or fly by in large flocks during migration. There is evidence that fish species diversity and density may be lower along exposed sand beaches relative to other 691 beach substrates and more protected sand locations. Recent nearshore fish.studies have attributed low densities at exposed sand sites to direct exposure to wave surge and the unstable sand substrate. Protected sand beaches show a much greater diversity and abundance of both plants and animals than exposed sand beaches, due to the less stressful conditions. In addition to benthic and interstitial microalgae, eelgrass and occasional bits of algae usually occur. However, production is still lower than in other beach substrates (with the exception of cobble and mixed medium) because macroscopic vegetation is usually sparse. Thus, there is still a dependence upon energy imported by tides, waves, and currents. The presence of plants increases the food resources and habitat diversity available to animals. The presence of tidepools may also increase diversity. In general, the density and diversity of animals increases as the tidal elevation gets lower. The diversity of fishes and birds is strongly affected by the proximity of adjacent beach types. Where different substrates occur nearby, a greater Aiversity of vertebrates use the sand beaches due to "spillover" from these other areas. In general, the diversity and biomass of fishes is lower at sand beaches, even though the number of fish of each species may periodically be high. Birds of protected sandy beaches reflect the increase in available food and adjacent habitats within which they can feed. For example, waterfowl which feed on eelgrass and algae are more abundant, and a wider variety of other birds is often present. Diversity may be high in comparison to more exposed areas, but birds are not necessarily more abundant and some uncommon species are restricted to the exposed outer coast sandy beaches. These uncommon species include the Snowy Plover which is discussed in more detail in the Sand Dune Narrative (No. 722). Likewise, gray whales are abundant during migra- tion along exposed sand beaches quite close to shore, but seldom occur in our protected waters. 692 The splash zone of exposed sand beaches usually consists of extensive sand dune areas. Sands carried from the beach by wind and wave action are responsible for the gradual build-up of the dune. Sand dunes are discussed in detail in a separate narrative (No. 722). Along less exposed sand beaches, the splash zone typically forms a narrow strip of beach grassland (see narrative No. 312) and pure sand. Accumulations of driftwood are sometimes present, moved about only by a combination of storms and extreme high tides. Sand beaches are often bounded by bluffs at their upper end in Hood Canal and Puget Sound. In such situations, there is usually no strip of beach grassland present. Plants If macroscopic vegetation is present, it is only likely to occur on pro- tected sand beaches. Narrow-bladed or European eelgrass introduced to the West coast, is present in the upper part of the mid'-intertidal in portions of Willapa Bay, Grays Harbor, Hood Canal, and northern Puget Sound. Broad-bladed eelgrass is restricted to the lower intertidal zone, and often forms a narrow band which continues into shallow subtidal areas. Where broad sand flats occur, such as in Boundary or Birch Bays in Whatcom County, sediments tend to form a wave pattern which is readily visible from the air. The low spots between waves often form small tide- Pools, in which broad-bladed eelgrass is frequently present. Eelgrass tends to be less dense in sand than in muddy-sand substrates. Algae are scarce on sand beaches having only broad-bladed eelgrass, occassional pebbles or clam shells, worm tubes, or clam siphons upon which to attach. Examples of algae which may occur are sea lettuce (Ulva) and Entermorpha spp. , both green algae, the red algae @eoagardhi _E i @j ella baile brown algae Sa @j e 1 , and the 2:@ @assu@m muticum and Laminatj_a_-b-ullata . Microscopic algae uIld' consisting primarily oT @diatoms, nFay 'become 'sonumerous during certain seasons as to form a visible mat or film on the sediment surface. 693 At -AP V, Sw A-M, ol' 69 Invertebrates high intertidal The invertebrates most conspicuous in the high intertidal zone of exposed sand beaches is the familiar beach hopper or sand flea (mostly Orchestoidae californiana). In less exposed areas, another beach hopper (Ochestia traskiana) becomes more abundant. These small crustaceans (which are amphipods) are usually associated with algal detritus, upon which they feed. Beach hoppers are fairly restricted in the high intertidal, but occasionally are found' higher on the beach among driftwood. Other animals likely to be present are opossum shrimp and pillbugs, both of which also occur in lower zones as they largely follow the surf line, other amphipds, and deposit feeding oligochaete worms. mid-intertidal Exposed sand beaches As a result of a lack of moisture and nutrient retention by sand, most of the invertebrates on sand beaches are concentrated in the mid-and lower intertidal zones. Mid-intertidal zones of exposed beaches are marked by the presence of the filter feeding razor clam. The razor clam, which is more abundant in the lower intertidal zone (and shallow subtidal zone), is an important recreational resource to the people of Washington State. Conspicuous polychaete worms include the blood worm, which when present forms a narrow strip parallel with the water's edge along Pacific coast beaches, and the large, carnivorous worm, Nephtys. The ribbon worm can be distinguished by the absence of segments typical of poly- chaete worms, as well as by its orange color. The ribbon worm preys on small polychaete worms, and can reach lengths of 30 cm. The amphipod Eohaustorius washingtonius, which is related to the beach hopper, is one of the most abundant species on Pacific Coast beaches. Another amphipod, Dogielinotus loquax, also occasionally occurs in abundance. 695 Protected sand beaches Razor clams and blood worms do not inhabit sand beaches which are not exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, thus they do not occur in the Strait of Juan de ruca, Hood Canal , or Puget Sound. Ribbon worms and the polychaete worm Nephtys, on the other hand, occur in the most protected of sand beaches. The number of polychaete worm species 1A increases in more protected situations with the lugworm being one of the more obvious organisms. 0 The lugworm forms characteristic fecal mounds on the sediment surface which signal its presence. Burrowing species such as the lugworm are respon- sible for turning over marine sediments, much as earthworms do i n gardens. Small tube-dwelling Z invertebrates, such as the polychaete worm Polydora, can be important in stabilizing sand sediments through construction of their tubes. In situations where the tube interferes with shoreline sediments, a gradual build-up of the beach can occur. This phenomenon has reportedly occurred on the northwest side of Jetty Island in Snohomish County. Small crustaceans, especially amphipods, cumaceans, and harpacticoid copepods, are also dominant and impor- tant components of semi-protected and protected sand beaches and are important food sources for benthic-feeding fishes. The only large clam of these beaches is the white. sand clam, which differs from most other clams by being a deposit feeder k rather than a filter (or suspension) feeder. M Usually more abundant but much smaller in size, is the little transennella clam. Two species related to sea urchins and starfish are at times common on protected sand beaches. One is the sand dollar which feeds on detritus. Sand dollars are capable of becoming so dense that not only do they seem to form a solid mat of par- 696 tially buried individuals, but they form a strip which is visible on aerial photographs. Sand dollars also occur on exposed sand beaches, but are rarely found in the intertidal, preferring the more protected shallow subtidal areas. Much less con- spicuous when present is the burrowing sea cucumber. Both sand dollars and burrowing sea cucumbers are widespread in Hood Canal and Puget Sound. The burrowing sea anemone is misnamed, as it does not actually burrow in the sand. Instead, it lies partially buried in the sand attached to gravel or shell fragments. It is usually found in sand adjacent to beaches which contain cobble or gravel. lower intertidal Virtually all the species mentioned as occurring in the mid-intertidal zone are also present in the lower intertidal zone, usually in greater abundance. Several additional species which are rare in the mid-intertidal also occur. The beautiful purple olive shell is restricted to exposed beaches of the Pacific Coast. Semi-protected beaches are again dominated by a variety of polychaete worms and small crustaceans, which are also numerous on protected sand beaches. The largest i'ntertidal snail in Washington, the moon snail, is sometimes found on protefted sand beaches, along with one of its food items, the cockle shell. Both of these animals are more common on muddy-sand sediments, however. Occasional visitors to the intertidal (from the subtidal zone) include the vermillion star and tl@e striped sea slug. More commonly invading the intertidal during high tides to forage for food are Dungeness and red rock crabs and a vari ety of shrimp (e. g. , Crangon, Pandal us, Eual us, and Heptacarpus). Fish Several of the nearshore fishes which occur along sandy beaches are widely distributed on our coast. Some, like salmon, migrate great distances and occur seasonally and during various life stages in sand habitat. Many others occur along a variety of beach substrates duscussed in separate narratives and readers should refer to other fish sections, particularly in the Mixed Fine Narrative (No. 635) as well as literature suggested at the end of this narrative. Recent baseline fish sampling suggests that the number of species associated with sand beaches is relatively low compared to other beach substrates. However, the frequent occurrence of eelgrass in more protected areas increases the diversity of the habitat and these areas often support a greater variety of fish than exposed sites. Demersal fish (bottom dwellers) may be abundant at either exposed or protected sites and are often regarded as characteristic inhabitants of sandy nearshore waters. Representative species include English sole, sand sole, rock sole, c-o sole, and the Pacific staghorn sculpin. Refer to Table 636-1 for a listing of these and other characteristic fish of sand beaches, some of which are discussed in more detail below. 697 Rock Sole Despite its name, this flatfish frequently occurs on sand substrates and has been reported from much of Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Clams, clam siphons, polychaetes, shrimp, crab, sand lance, and brittle stars are known prey of the rock sole. They are present down to 200 fathoms (1,200 ft. or 366 meters), but are considered scarce below 100 fathoms. Rock sole are known to move into shallow water during the summer. The rock sole is a highly regarded food fish, and in Canada it is the most used of the smaller flatfish. Total annual production in the Cana- dian fishery in 1970 was reported to be 4.5 million pounds of rock sole. They are also fished commercially in Washington and often taken by rec- reational bottom fishermen. Another important flatfish of sand substrates is the English shole which is discussed in the Mixed Fine Narrative. Chum Salmon Small schools of juvenile chum salmon were reported in sandy nearshore areas during recent baseline sampling in the San Juan Islands. These observations were made during early summer when young salmonids often feed nearshore. Chum salmon are known to remain in nearshore waters throughout the summer after leaving freshwater soon after hatching in early spring. Food of young chums include insects and copepods and following movements to open waters, foods include euphausids, squid, amphipods, and crab larvae. Chum salmon are the latest of Pacific coast salmon to spawn and spawning populations occur in large rivers as well as some of our smallest coastal streams. Chum salmon have been a traditional favorite of Northwest Coast Indians because they smoke well. They are infrequently caught by sports f i shermen, but are an important commercial species. Sand Sole Sand sole are another of the many flatfish which may occur on sand sub- strate. They were consistently captured as juveniles in San Juan base- line studies, occurring in every sample taken in sand habitats where eelgrass was present. They were also taken at more exposed sites although not as frequently. Their food includes other 698 flatfish, herring, anchovies, crustaceans, and molluscs. Birds and Mammals The most characteristic of the various wildlife inhabiting sandy beaches are the sandpipers, and, appropriately enough, the most typical sandpiper on sand beaches is the Sanderling. Sandpipers belong to a larger group of birds referred to as shorebirds, which also include plovers, Black Oystercatchers, American Avocets, and phalaropes. Flocks of sandpipers are mystifying as they fly in tight formation, each turning in unison, then plopping down together and running in and out with the tide. Chances are good that the very light colored, small sandpiper seen running in and out at the water's edge is a Sanderling. However, there are several species of sandpipers and other shorebirds. Many of these occur along the extensive sandy beaches of the outer coast and on isolated sandy beaches of the inland waters. Some of the more familiar of these inland locations where concentrations of shorebirds occur are along Dungeness Spit in Clallam County, Birch Bay in Whatcom County, False Bay on San Juan Island, and at Cultus Bay in Whidbey Island. Throughout the coastal zone, shorebirds will often be obser- ved in mixed species flocks, especially while resting on the upper beach, on sand bars, spits, or in beach grass and marshes. However, they have different feeding strategies which is reflected in the variety of bill shapes and sizes, 699 and leg length. Generally, the larger bill is for Sanderling probing deep in the substrate, while shorter billed Large numbers of shorebirds migrate along the sandy sandpipers pick at the surface or turn over bits beaches of Washington and small sandpipers like of algae in search of prey. Larger shorebirds Sanderlings can often be seen in flocks of one generally take larger prey and tend to be more hundred or more birds during spring and fall. selective foragers in terms of food size than This flocking behavior in shorebirds is partially smaller shorebirds. However, there is quite a bit a response to predation by birds of prey. This of overlap in the prey taken and several species was demonstrated in a recent study on Bolinas Lagoon in California, where 13 percent of the Sanderlings can often be seen feeding together. A closer look wintering on the lagoon were estimated to have will often show that the birds are feeding in a been preyed upon by Merlins and other raptors. slightly different habitat or using different feed Sanderlings and other numerous shorebirds are also ing strategies. For example, the Greater Yellowlegs prey of raptors along our coast. It is important often feeds in tidepools while Western Sandpipers that we maintain the large numbers of shorebirds feed in diatom and silt covered depressions between which are required to support populations of less sand waves. Other examples and more detailed dis- abundant, and in some cases, rare birds of prey. cussions of characteristic wildlife occurring on sandy beaches follow. Refer also to Table 63-2 in Sanderlings winter as far south as Argentina and the Beach Substrate Narrative (No. 63) and other southern Chile and breed in the Arctic tundra. 7 beach narratives for information on more widely They may be found at the water's edge at low tide distributed species (see especially the Sand Dune in mixed flocks of Dunlins and Black-bellied Narrative, No. 722 for upper beach zone discussions). Plovers. They also feed in upper intertidal zones 700 where the sand is compact and dry, even when the Gray Whale tide is out. Prey of Sanderlings in a study at Several mammals frequent sand beaches, but one of Cultus Bay on Whidbey Island was primarily (97%) the most impressive, and certainly one of the amphipods, including beach hoppers and Corophiu largest is the gray whale. Once greatly reduced sp. Isopods, shrimp, and small numbers of molluscs in numbers by whalers, the gray whales along our were also consumed. Along the outer coast, razor coast have responded to international protection clams are often a prominent food item. afforded them in 1947. There are indications that gray whales have recovered to an original popula- Greater Yellowlegs tion size estimated to be about 15,000 animals in The Greater Yellowlegs was frequently observed the eastern North Pacific. Western North Pacific during our studies in the coastal zone. Along populations are nearly extinct and there is historic sandy beaches they often feed in tidepools where evidence of a Northern Atlantic Ocean population their long legs serve them well. Within these which is extinct. A recent report on marine mammals tidepools, eelgrass often appears at relatively of northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de high intertidal elevations. These scattered pools Fuca by Robert Everitt of the National Marine of eelgrass are rich feeding areas for the yellow- Fisheries Service should be referred to for more legs and several other birds such as Bonaparte's, details on gray whales and other marine mammals Mew, and Ring-billed Gulls. along our coastal zone. Northern Phalarope The phalaropes are examples of the diversity of feeding strategies employed by shorebirds. Northern Phalaropes may be seen ashore in "typical" shorebird habitat, but the usual feeding area is in open water. They often occur miles from shore where they feed by swimming in a circular spinning motion which apparently brings small organisms to the surface. Northern Phalaropes have also been observed feeding at the edge of shore in the gentle surf near Kydaka Point in Clallam County. At that location they were picking unidentified small prey from the water with a small flock of Bonaparte's Gulls. Ferry riders can observe these- intriguing shorebirds as they feed on the surface in open water during late summer migrations. Thousands of Northern Phalaropes can be observed during spring migration along the outer coast. 701 Use by Man Recreational Sand beaches are extremely popular for recreational use. Most popular are the exposed sand beaches of the Pacific Coast south of Point Grenville. One of the primary attractions of this area is the famous razor clam. On a weekend low tide during clamming season, as many as 100,000 people, some of whom travel hundreds of miles to seek their prey, crowd the beaches in search for this tasty clam. The razor clam is considered by many to be Washington's most palatable clam;. it is certainly one of the most challenging to dig as it is the only clam in Washington capable of digging as fast as, or in some cases faster, than its human preda- tor. Other attractions of the Pacific Coast beaches are the fresh air, the presence of the ocean and the constant pounding of the surf, the wide open spaces, are both edible. White sand clams are deposit and the change in atmosphere from heavily populated feeders, however, so their digestive tract is areas. Recreational fishing for salmon and other usually filled with sand which detracts from their species offshore is another major attraction. use as food. Beachcombing, an activity which has increased in popularity recently as a result of the publication Certain Indian tribes use shells of various types of several books and magazine articles, also draws in making jewelry. The purple olive shell, for a number of people to ocean beaches. These factors example, which is restricted to the outer coast, are responsible for the growth of tourism to a is frequently used by the Makah Indians in their multimillion dollar industry along the outer coast. jewelry. Sand beaches in protected areas also support high recreational use. These are usually the most popu- Several species of fishes which frequent sand lar beaches for swimming, sunbathing, and picnick- beaches are sought recreationally by fishermen. ing, and beachcombing of a different type than Included are salmon, surf perch, English sole, occurs on the outer coast (looking for shells, starry flounder, sand sole, herring, and smelt. sand dollars, etc. instead of glass floats, and Japanese bottles). During low tides, Dungeness Sand beaches are also among the most popular for and red rock crabs are collected for eating, espe- bird watching, particularly along the outer coast cially where eelgrass is present. Moon snails and where thousands of birds can be observed as they 702 white sand clams are rarely eaten by humans, but pass in migration. Spring trips to the coast are especially rewarding because of the weather, a chance to dig razor clams or the thrill of observing gray whales on their northern migration. Gray whales can often be seen just off the breakers which pound sandy ocean shore. Their vertical spout is often the only glimpse one gets, but that is' a rewarding sight for many whale watchers. Gray whales were once hunted commercially and neared extinction along our coast until granted international protection in 1947. They were captured by shore stationed whalers and were once hunted by Northwest Coast Indians. The Makahs were among those who developed strong tradi- tions surrounding the equipment, rituals, and skilled huntsmen who set out from coastal villages to capture gray whales. The last whale hunt by these people, who today still live close to the sea, occurred early in this century. A museum in Neah Bay now houses, among other relics from an archaeological dig near Ozette, reminders of Northwest Coast whaling activities. Commercial Razor clams support a limited commercial industry in Washington. They are the principle commercial species actually harvested from sand beaches as food. Other species which use sand beaches that are usually harvested in other areas include Dungeness crabs, Pandalid shrimp, salmon, English sole, sand sole, starry flounder, herring, and smelt. Crangonid shrimp supported a commercial fishery in Puget Sound at one time. Some sand inhabitants, such as sand dollars and moon snails, have in the past supported a limited industry based on their sale as curios. Pacific oysters are occasionally cultured on sand beaches, however, cul- ture is much more prevalent on beaches with varying amounts of mud pres- ent in the substrate. Hardshell clams, such as littleneck and butter clams, are also rarely, if ever, harvested from sand beaches. However, it is not because these clams cannot grow on sand beaches; there are some studies which indicate they will grow well on protected sand beaches. It appears that without the gravel present in the sediments where these clams normally grow, they are much more susceptible to predation by birds and fishes.* If predation were controlled, it appears hardshell clams could successfully be cultured on sand beaches. 703 Sand beaches have occasionally been used in the past as a source of sand for road construction or industrial purposes. This has several deleterious ramifications, however, which will be discussed in the next section. River otters and raccoons are commercially trapped in Washington. There is a substantial market for the fur of these mammals which occur on sand beaches. While not occurring intertidally, scallops may be found in offshore sand areas at depths of greater than 50-60 feet. IMPACTS Please refer to the beach substrate narrative (No. 63) for general information on impacts. Recreational Impacts The popularity of sand beaches as recreational areas has had a definite impact on their use by wildlife and by many persons who seek the solitude of the beach. To fully appre- ciate the magnitude of this impact, one needs to be present at Birch Bay or the sand beaches in King and Snohomish County during a warm summer day, or at Ocean Shores during a weekend low tide. Some consequences are: 1. Invertebrates suc h as sand dollars, moon snails, and crabs are collected as souvenirs. Collection usually results in depleted populations which also reduces the food available for birds and fishes which feed on these inverte- brates. Discussions with long-time residents of Birch Bay indicate that a drastic reduction in the number of sand dollars has occurred in conjunction with increased recrea- tional use of the beaches. 2. Human activity on the beaches, including use of motor vehicles where permitted or just walking, can impact organ- isms living at or next to the sediment surface. Small crustaceans which are important as food for shorebirds and fishes are very susceptible to such activities. The de- crease in numbers of sand dollars at Birch Bay may in part 704 be a. result of being crushed by human feet. 3. Displacement of birds and mammals from feeding and/or resting areas is a major consequence of intensive recreational use. Displaced animals have fewer sand beaches to retreat to because of the increasing popularity of these areas. 4. The popularity of razor clams has led to the possibility of over-exploitation of the resource. In recent years, populations of clams 'ive been severely reduced in some areas. The limit of clams which can be dug has been reduced, a. in 1978 part of the Long Beach Peninsula was closed to the digging of clams. This problem is compounded by the irregular, unpredictable nature of razor clam spawning. The clams may reproduce little for several years before having a highly successful year. This pattern may result from changes in the food source or some physical factor(s) such as tempera- ture. The uncertainty of clam reproduction makes management of such a highly used resource extremely difficult. 5 The attraction of sand beaches has resulted in associated development of adjacent upland areas. Examples are the Long Beach Peninsula, Ocean Shores, Birch Bay, and many beaches in King and southern Snohomish County which have become popular vacation spots or desirable residential and day use areas. Development of adjacent upland areas has the greatest impact on birds and mammals which use sand beaches. Interference with Sediment Drift The combined action of wind, waves, and currents on sand beaches has the effect of moving sand par- ticles predominantly in one direction. This process is called shoreline drift, and is an important feature maintaining the integrity of the beaches and adjacent dependent land features. As the expo- sure of sand beaches increases, so does the volume of sediment subject to movement. The two main sources of sediments on beaches are eroding bluffs and river borne sediments. The existence of areas such as spits, sand dunes, and beach grassland, are dependent upon shoreline drift to supply sand sediments. The sand beaches themselves are vulnerable to interference with shoreline drift and may undergo largescale erosion or accretion. Projects which interfere with shoreline drift include jetties, groins, and construction of dams on rivers which are important sources of beach material. Dependence on Adjacent Areas Since sand beaches are dependent on adjacent areas for part of the energy used, their fate is par- tially dependent on impacts to those adjacent areas such as eelgrass beds. 705 -j C:) TABLE 636-1, CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF SAND BEACHES (see Table 63-2 in Beach Substrate Narrative for Birds and Mammals) Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic (Scientific Name) Type I OccurrenceI Value3 Comments PLANTS L Green Algae Sea lettuce (Ulva spp.) PP M, L PC Edible; important waterfowl food. (Enteromorpha spp.) PP H, M, L PC Edible; important waterfowl food. Red algae (Neoagardhiell baileyi) PP L, SB PC Edible (Gracilari verrucosa) PP f, TB PC Edible (Polysiphonia) PP L, TB (Gigartina tepid PP L, TB (Gracilariopsis sp.) Edible Brown Algae (Sargassu muticum) PP L, SB PC Blister wrack PP L, SB PC (Laminaria bullata) Sea Colander (Agarum fimbriatu PP L, SB PC Seersucker (Costaria costata) PP L, SB Sugar wrack PP L, SS PC Edible l(Laminaria saccharina) (Leathesia difformis) pp L, SB (Scytosiphon lomentaria) PP L, SB Other algae Benthic diatoms pp H, M, L Vascular plants European or narrow-bladed PP H, M, L eelgrass (Zostera noltii) Broad-bladed eelgrass PP L, SB See Seagrass Narrative (No. 627) for (Zostera marina) further information. INVERTEBRATES Moluscs Razor clams (Siliqua patula) FF M, L, SB R, C Recreationally and economically important; restricted to Pacific Coast; edible. White sand clam DEP M, L (Macoma secta) TABLE 636-1 continued Transennella clam FF M, L (Transennella tantilla) Tellin clams (Tellina spp.) DEP M, L Heart cockle FF H, M, L, SB R Edible; occasionally dug recreationally (Clinocardium nuttallii) Soft-shell clam FF H, M, L R, PC (Mya arenaria) Purple olive shell SCAV M, L Restricted to Pacific Coast; used for (Olivella biplicat Indian jewelry Moon snail (Polinices lewisii) CARN L, SB Edible (although rarely eaten) Striped sea sluge CARN L, SB (Armina californica) Arthropods Harpacticoid copepods DETR H, M, L Important prey of fish including juvenile salmon Cumaceans DETR L Tanaids DETR M, L Beach hoppers or sand fleas Prey of several fish and birds; (amphipods) restricted to expsed beaches (Orchestoidea californiana) DETR H (0. pugettensis) DETR H (Trchestia traskiana) DETR H (Eohaustorius washingtonius) DETR H, M,L (Dogielinot loquax) DETR M, L (Maera dubia) DETR H, M (Paraphoxus milleri) DETR 9, M,L (Ampelisca spp.) M, L (Corophiu acherusicum DETR M, L (Anisogrammarus spp.) OMNI L Pillbugs or sowbugs (isopods) (Cirolana kincaidi) SCAV H, M,L (Gnorimosphaeroma orgonense) SCAV H, M (Exasphaeroma spp.) DETR M Opossum shrimp (mysids) (Archaeomysis grebnitzskii) DETR H, M,L (txLl spP - ) DETR IL, 3B (Neomysis spp.) DETR L , SB Gray or broken-back shrimp CARN L PC Formerly supported commercial (Crangon spp.) industry in Puget Sound Pandalid shrimp (Pandalus spp.) CARN L, SB R, C Other shrimp (Eualus spp.) CARN L, SB (Heptacarpus spp.) CARN L, SB (Sclerocrangon spp.) CARN L, SB Ghost shrimp (Callianassa sp.) DETR M, L Edible, sold commercially as fish bait Dungeness crab CARN-SCAV L, SB R, C Important recreationally and commer- (Cancer magiste cially; highly prized seafood Red rock-crab. 'WN-SCAV L, SB R, PC Also consumed as seafood, but in (C. productus) smaller quantities than C. magister CD @J C:) Co TABLE 636-1 continued Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of 2 Econo Comments 1 3 (Scientific Name) M,C Type Occurrence Value Segmented worm (Annelids) Oligochaetes DEP H, M Polychaetes Important prey of several fish and birds Capitellidae (Notomastus) DEP M, L (We-diomastus) DEP M, L Abar-enicolidae (Abarenicola) DEP M, L Goniadidae (Glycinde) CARN M, L Nephtyidae (Nephtys) CARN M, L Opheliidae @Euzonus) DEP M Orb 171 @Idae (Scoloplos) DETR L (wa-p-loscoloplos) OUR L Paraonidae (Paraonella) DEP M, L (Laronisy- DEP M, Spionidae (Polydora) DETR M, L (Scolelepis@ DETR M, L (Spio) DETR M, 1 (Splophanes) DETR M, L ( Py-gqso-o DETR H, M Syllidae (Syllis) DETR H, M, L Nemerteans Ribbon worm CARN M, L (Cerebratulus californiensis) Other nemerteans CARN H, M, L Echinoderms Sand dollars DETR M, L Often collected by beachcombers (Dendraster excentricus) Burrowing sea cucumber DETR M (Leptosynapta clarki) Vermillion star CARN L, S8 (Mediaster aegualis) Coelenterates Burrowing sea anemone CARN-SCAV M, L Nematodes DETR, H, M, L CARN, HERB "Wali "I"","""" "I TABLE 636-1 continued FISH Economic Common Name Scientific Name Value 3 Comments Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias C Ratfish Hydrolagus colliei Pacific Herring Clupea harengus C, R Important bait fish Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbusch C, R Salmon are among our most highly prized fish Chum salmon 0. keta C, R Coho salmon 0. kisutch C, R Chinook salmon 0. tshawytscha C, R Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki R Year-round sportsfish Dolly varden Salvelinus malma R Surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus C, R Longfin smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys C, R Anadromous Plainfin midshipman Porichthys notatus Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus C, R Important commercial foodfish Pacific tomcod Microgadus proximus R Walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma C Tube-snout Aulorhynchus flavidus Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Eaten by larger fish, marine birds, and mammals Bay pipefish Synanathus griseolineatus Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata R Prey of several fish, river otters, seals, birds Striped seaperch Embiotoca lateralis C, R Pile perch Rhacochilus vacca C, R Snake prickleback Lumpenus sagitta Penpoint gunnel Apodichthys flavidus Crescent gunnel Pholis laeta Saddleback gunnel P. ornata Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus Important prey of seabirds, other fish. Padded sculpin Artedius fenestralis Sculpins are a diverse groups of fish also known as bullheads. They are Sliverspotted sculpin Blepsias cirrhosus preyed upon by many other fish, birds, and mammals. Roughback sculpin Chitonotus pugetensis Sharpnose sculpin C. acuticeps Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison Soft sculpin Gilbertidia sigalutes Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus __j CD -Ij CD TABLE 636-1 continued Economi Common Name Scientific Name Value 3 Comments Great sculpin Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus Sailfin sculpin Nautichthys oculofasciatus Tadpole sculpin Psychrolutes paradoxus Sturgeon poacher Agonus acipenserinus Pygmy poacher Odontopyxis trispinosa Slipskin snailfish Liparis fucensis Showy snailfish L. pulchellus Pacific sanddab Citharichthys sordidus C, R Sanddabs, flounders, and soles are known collectively as flatfishes and Rock sole LeRidopsetta bilinaeta C, R are well known as seafood in the form of filet of sole, Slender sole Lyopsetta exilis R English sole Parophrys vetulus C, R Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus C, R C-0 sole Pleuronichthys coenosus C, R Sand sole Psettichthys melanostictus C, R LEGEND: 1Trophic type 2Zones of Occurrence 3Economic Value PP = Primary Producer H = High Intertidal C = Commercial FF = Filter Feeder M = Mid-Intertidal R = Recreational DEP Deposit Feeder L = Low Intertidal PC Potential Commercial SCAV Scavenger SB Shallow Subtidal CARN Carnivore DETR Detritivore OMNI omnivore HERB Herbivore 057@ kg @Z,,L i,,,# . . . . . . . . 'i G -zr A., '3 Mr, 'Al 'R NN A N H l7y@sj iilo WiPy@l le Tic, P C\j Muddy sand beaches typically are gently sloping, and in some areas, for example Padilla Bay, Grays Harbor and Wi 11 apa Bay, f orm extens i ve ti dal f I ats. Numerous tidal channels, which are extremely impor- tant as feeding areas for some fishes, dissect these broad tidal flats. Muddy sand beaches are restricted to areas pro- tected from wave or current exposure. They are also associated with the presence of eelgrass (refer to Narrative No. 627), which reaches its greatest density in muddy sand. The protected locale and presence of eelgrass make muddy sand beaches an extremely stable environment for the species which reside in them. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Muddy sand beaches have high diversities and den- sities of organisms, as well as high biomass. A MUDDY SAND (No. 637) major reason for this is the protected, stable nature of the environment. The lack of wave or INTRODUCTION current action allows fine sediments and decaying organic matter to settle out of the water column, This beach type consists of sediments composed of making this beach type extremely rich in detritus. a mixture of mud (silt and/or clay) and sand. The decaying organic matter provides food for a These sediments at first appear to contain a large large number of detritus and deposit feeding organ- amount of mud, but if picked up and rubbed between isms, and the nutrients are necessary for plants. onels fingers, are found to contain a large per- The vegetation of muddy sand beaches further reduces centage of sand. When walking through muddy sand, wave and current action. one's feet will sink only a couple of inches into the sediment. The mud present in the sediment holds large amounts of water by capillary action during low tides, Muddy sand beaches usually occur in the lower and protecting many of the smaller organisms living in mid-intertidal regions, with a beach type such as the substrate from drying out, The gentle slope mixed fine (see Narrative No. 635), mixed coarse of most muddy sand beaches, as well as the presence (No. 633), or sand (No. 636) in the higher zone(s). of eelgrass, often maintains a thin layer of water This pattern results from greater wave action in over the tide flats during low tide, which protects the upper intertidal zones which prevents mud invertebrates living on the surface of the sub- from settling down on the substrate. strate as well as small fishes. 713 Another reason for the high diversity, density, and biomass on muddy sand beaches is the high pro- ductivity. Muddy sand provides the optimal habitat for eelgrass in all areas of the state except southern Puget Sound (south of the Tacoma Narrows), where eelgrass is scarce or absent. The high pro- ductivity of eelgrass and its role in providing food and habitat is discussed in the seagrass nar- rative (see No. 627). Another species of eelgrass, narrow-bladed or European eelgrass, often occurs in the mid- and high intertidal zones, especially if the sediment contains little mud. Macroscopic algae also grow on muddy sand beaches, but their presence is somewhat limited by the amount of suitable substrate available. Algae grow attached to pebbles, clam shells, worm tubes, eel- grass, and, in some cases, even clam siphons. Some filamentous green algae form mats of inter- twining filaments which cover the tide flats. Certain other green algae, such as sea lettuce, continue to thrive while floating, after waves, currents,.or grazing by invertebrates have detached them from the substrate. These floating algae tend to accumulate in protected areas, such as in muddy sand beaches, especially if eelgrass, in which they get tangled, is present. Here these algae may continue to grow or they die and decom- pose, adding additional nutrients and detritus to the community. Microscopic algae, especially diatoms, also contri- bute to primary production. During portions of the year, microscopic algae become so abundant as to form a visible layer over the sediment surface. The presence of bacteria on muddy sand beaches is another factor which contribute to high density and biomass of organisms. Bacteria are reported to thrive at high rates of production on an aereal 714 basis. In addition, bacteria which break down dead plant and animal tissue provide highly nutritional food for deposit and detritus feeding organisms. It has been shown that some detritivores use only the bacteria growing on decaying organic matter as food, passing the detritus through their digestive system unaltered. When macroscopic vegetation is abundant, the production of muddy sand beaches exceeds the energy re- quirements of the community. When this occurs, large amounts of energy are exported to other areas, mostly in the form of detritus. This energy is extremely important in areas such as the offshore sub- tidal environment, as there is little or no primary production in these reas. Thus, they are totally dependent on imported energy. Also exported to other areas are large numbers of planktonic zoospores released by algae and planktonic larvae released by many benthic invertebrates. These zoospores and larvae are so abundant that they are an important component of the diet of many filter feeding organisms (such as clams, oysters, and some fish) in adjacent areas. The abundance of organisms and productivity of muddy sand beaches provides a rich feeding area for a variety of fish, birds, crabs, and shrimp. Intertidal vegetation is used by herring as a substrate for attachment of eggs. English sole and starry flounder use these beaches as nursery areas. Many other small fishes and invertebrates use the vegetation which provides refuge from predators. Tidal channels, when present, are important and heavily used feeding sites for juvenile salmonids, and contain large numbers of Pacific staghorn sculpins, shiner perch, and sticklebacks. Tidal channels are also feeding areas for ducks, gulls, and shorebirds. Wading shorebirds such as the Greater Yellow- legs are often observed stalking in shallow tide channels and Bonaparte's Gulls forage on small fish and shrimp which swim or get washed by. Eelgrass often grows in the channels and may extend rather high on the beach because of relatively deep water in these tidal streams. Waterfowl concentrate here and feed on eelgrass plants while predators such as Great Blue Herons snatch sculpins from among the plants. Much of the shorebird feeding activity in the coastal zone is concentrated on silty sand and muddy beaches in relatively nonvegetated zones. Thousands of migrating and over-wintering shorebirds descend on these flats to feed as tides recede. Invertebrates consumed by the shorebirds are largely dependent on detritus produced within adjacent eelgrass beds even.tholugh feeding occurs primarily above the eel- grass zone. Adjacent salt marshes also contribute significant amounts of detritus to the beaches and as tides rise, shorebird feeding often extends up into the low marsh. 715 Intertidal and shallow subtidal vegetation provides food and foraging areas for large numbers of birds, especially water- fowl. Diving birds feed on fish and invertebrates during high tides and along the water's edge, while other birds feed on invertebrates and stranded fish when tidal flats are exposed during low tides. Occasionally, terrestrial mammals such as raccoons, deer, and skunks forage on muddy sand beaches. Nearshore, or when high tides cover the tidal flats, aquatic mammals such as harbor seals and river otters feed along these beaches. The presence of eelgrass strongly influences the use of muddy sand beaches by wildlife, and since so much of the activities of fish, birds, and mammals is concentrated in the eelgrass zone, readers are urged to refer to the Seagrass Narrative (No. 627). Many of the characteristic birds and mammals of muddy sand beaches listed in the general beach narrative (No. 63) are discussed in the Seagrass Narrative. Characteristic fish of muddy sand beaches are listed in Table 637-1 in this narrative. It has already been stated that the protected environment of muddy sand beaches and the presence of vegetation causes sediment and detritus particles to settle out of the water onto these beaches. The result of this is that there tends to be a gradual buildup of the tideflats. Eventually on some of the more protected muddy sand beaches, the elevation of the beach can build up to the level where marsh plants could colonize. This process would be most likely to occur on broad tide flats such as those in Grays Harbor, Willapa Bay, and Padilla Bay. Strong evidence of this process is apparent in Skagit Bay, where salt marsh plants can be seen 716 invading the tideflats. TABLE 637-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS M ggag @R 31.ii Common Name Zone(s) of (Scientific Name) Comments 2 Occurrence PLANTS Green Algae Sea lettuce (Ulva $pp.) M, L Edible; abundant seasonally; important ix. a4 waterfowl food. 10 WE & (Enteromorpha spp.) H, M, L Edible; abundant seasonally; important waterfowl food. (Monostroma spp.) M, L Edible; abundant seasonally; important waterfowl food. (Rhizoclonium sp.) Brown algae Red algae @: J@r'. (Neoagardhiella baileyi) L, SB Edible Other algae g Benthic diatoms H, M. L Abundant seasonally Vascular plants Broad-bladed eelgrass L, SB Important waterfowl food; increases (Zoster marina) diversity of habitat. European or narrow-bladed H, M Important waterfowl food. eelgrass (Z. noltii) INVERTEBRATES Moluscs Bent-nose clam M, L Edible, but usually contains sand and (Macoma nasuta) mud in stomach, therefore not popular. CO TABLE 637-1 continued Common Name Comments (Scientific Name) Macoma clam H, M, L (M. inquinata M. irus) Macoma clam H, M (M. balthica M. inconspicua) Heart cockle H, M, L Muddy sand is optimal habitat (Clinocardium nuttallii) Soft-shell clam H, M, L Introduced; supports commercial har- (Mya arenaria) vest on East Coast; in brackish water areas. (Cryptomya californica) M, L Commensal of ghost and mud shrimp Tiny transennella clam M, L (Transennella tantilla) Pacific oyster M, L Supports large industry in Washington (Crassostrea Rjq@s) Atlantic oyster M, L Rare; relic of former commercial (C. virginica) industry Moon snail L, SB Edible, rarely eaten; more often taken (Polinices lewisii) by beachcombers (Batillaria attramentaria) M, L Introduced; not widespread but abun- dant where present (Aglaia diomedea) M, L Arthropods Leptostracan H, M, L (Nebalia pugettensis) Harpacticoid copepods H, M, L Important food for juvenile salmon Cumaceans M, L Tanaids M, L (Leptochelia spp.) Pill bug H, M, L In brackish water areas; largely under (Gnorimosphaeroma orgonense) debris on beach Amphipods (Corophiu acherusicum) M, L mel NO ON TABLE 637-1 continued Common Name Zone(s) of Comments (Scientific Name) Occurrence2 Amphipods (Continued) (Corophiu salmonis) H, M, L Abundant in low salinity areas; very important food for shorebirds and juvenile fish (Anisogrammarus confervicolus) H, M, L In brackish water; often under debris on beach (Ampitho spp.) M, L Gray or broken-back shrimp L Formerly harvested commercially in (Crangon spp.) Puget Sound Ghost shrimp M, L Edible, used as fish bait (Callianassa californiensis) Mud shrimp M, L Edible, used as fish bait (Upogebia pugettensis) Pea crabs M, L Commensal in larger clams and in ghost (Pinnixa spp.) and mud shrimp burrows Hairy shore crab H, M, L (Hemigrapsus oregonensis) Dungeness crab L, SB Supports large commercial industry (Cancer magister) in Washington Red rock crab L, SB (Cancer productus) Segmented worm (Annelids) Oligochaete worms H, M, L Polychaete worms: Abarenicolidae Prey of many fish and birds important lugworms M, L in turning over tideflats sediments (Abarenicola pacific Capitellidae (Notomastus tenuis) M, L (Capitell capitaia) M, (Mediomastus spp.) M, Cirratulidae (Cirratulus cirratus) M, L 719 TABLE 637-1 continued Common Name Zone(s) of Comments (Scientific Name) Occurrence*' Dorvilleidae (Dorvillea rudolphi) L Glyceridae (Glycera rugosa) M, L (Hemipodus borealis) M, L Goniadidae (Glycinde RiSla) M, L Hesionidae (Ophiodromus pugettensis) M, L Lumbrineridae (Lumbrineris spp.) M, L Maldanidae 4pinted-tub or bamboo worm M, L (Axiothella rubrocincta) Nereidae (Platynereis bicanaliculata) L Opheliidae (Armandia brevis) M, L Paraonidae (Paraonella sp.) H, M, L Phyllodocidae (Eteone longa) H, M, L Spionidae (Malacoceros glutaeus) M, L (Pygospio) H, @, L (Polydora) M, L (Spiophanes) M, L Syllidae (Exogone lourei) L Terebellidae (Eupolymnia heterobranchia) M, L (Pista brevibranchiata) L Echinoderms 720 Sand dollars M, L Often collected by beachcombers (Dendraster excentricus) TABLE 637-1 continued Common Name Zone(s) of Comments (Scientific Name) Occurrence2 Burrowing sea cucumber M (Leptosynapta clarki) Vermillion star L, SB (Mediaste aegualis) Ribbon worms (Nemerteans) (Paranemertes peregrin M, L Nematodes H, M, L Anemones (Coelenterates) Brooding sea anemone H, M, L (Epiactis prolifera) (Edwardsiella) H, M (Edwardsia) H, M FISH Common Name Scientific Name Comments Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias Pacific herring Clupea harengus palla si Spawn on eelgrass and algae Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Juvenile salmon feed nearshore and in eelgrass beds. Coho salmon 0. kisutch Chinook salmon 0. tshawytscha Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki Surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus Longfin smelt Spirinchus thaleichthys 72 1 Plainfin midshipman Porichthys notatus Attach eggs to rocks TABLE 637-1 continued -Common Name Scientific Name Comments Pacific tomcod Microgadus proximus Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Bay pipefish Syngnathus griseolineatus Bay pipefish are one of many fish which are primarily associated with Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata eelgrass along muddy sand beaches ( see also characteristic species Snake prickleback Lumpenus sagitt for eelgrass) Saddleback gunnel Pholis ornata Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus Prey of many other fish, seabirds and mammals Sharpnose sculpin Clinocottus acuticeps Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus Cabezon Scorpaenichtys marmoratus Sturgeon poacher Agonus acipenserinos Pacific spiny lumpsucker Eumicrotremus orbis English sole Parophrys vetulus Primary nursery area Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus Sand sole Psettichthys melanostictus LEGEND: 1Trophic type 2Zones of Occurrence 3Economic Value PP = Primary Producer H = High Intertidal C = Commercial FF = Filter Feeder M = Mid-Intertidal R = Recreational DEP Deposit Feeder L = Low Intertidal PC = Potential Commercial SCAV Scavenger SB = Shallow Subtidal CARN Carnivore DETR Detritivore OMNI Omnivore HERB Herbivore 72 2 PIA SALT N4AFtSVA rviuppy SANQ M SPAM SAL-r wATER Use by Man Recreational use of muddy sand beaches is fairly high. These beaches are noted for their excellent crabbing, especially when eelgrass is present. On some of the beaches where tideflats are broad, waterfowl are heavily hunted. Occasionally cockles or soft-shell clams are dug. Many of the fish which spend a portion of their life on muddy sand beaches such as salmon, cutthroat trout, English sole, and starry flounders attract attention from hopeful anglers. Fishermen often use ghost shrimp collected on muddy sand beaches for bait. Bird watchers can usually find a wide assortment of bird- life to enjoy, especially in the fall and spring during migratory seasons. Deer and elk, which are infrequent visitors to beaches, are hunted heavily in western Washington. The commerically harvested species of muddy sand beaches are led by the Pacific oyster. Harvest of oysters is perhaps more prevalent on muddy sand beaches than on any other beach type. Oyster culture is a major industry in the state of Washington. The only other species commercially harvested on muddy sand beaches is the ghost shrimp, which supports a very limited industry as a source of bait for fishermen. Several species which use muddy sand beaches as nursery, nesting, or feeding areas are commerically harvested in other areas. Among them are salmon, English sole, starry flounder, Dungeness crabs, and pandalid shrimp. Raccoons, which are frequent visitors to beaches at night, are trapped for their fur. 723 Several plants and animals present on muddy sand beaches are potentially important commercial or recreational species. Ghost and mud shrimp, which can reach amazing densities, are edible and.quite tasty. In addition, they are a nuisance to oyster growers in some areas, so harvest would have double value. Several edible algae of muddy sand beaches, among them sea lettuce, the green algae Enteromorpha monostroma, and the red algae Neoagardhiella, could potentially be cultured. Sea lettuce may be abund- ant enough in some areas to allow harvest of exist- ing stocks. The seeds of broad-bladed eelgrass are also edible, however, eelgrass is of such great ..j importance biologically that harvest is not recom- 1b mended. Other edible animals of muddy sand beaches include crangonid shrimp and moon snails. Soft- shell clams support an extensive industry along the east coast, and are abundant enough in some areas to support commercial harvest in Washington. 4 GRMAT716K )(IFLLOW L_F" 724 IMPACTS The fine sediments which occur on muddy sand beaches tend to hold pollu- tants on these beaches. Oil products, heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides tend to bind to the surface of the mud, thus becoming incor- porated into the sediments. The lack of strong wave or current energy reduces the chance that pollutants will be washed away. Muddy sand sediments near sources of pollution consistently have pollutants present in them, as does the biota. Activities such as dredging and disposal resuspend these polluted sediments in the water column, exposing them to possible uptake by animals and plants. The presence of pollutants on muddy sand beaches are of concern to man as many commercially important species frequent these beaches. Any human activity which affects the primary producers of muddy sand beaches, especially those affecting eelgrass, will greatly reduce the high biological value of the beaches. Species affected would include juvenile salmonids, English sole, Pintail, Wigeon, Brant, Dungeness crabs, and shrimp. Many other important nearshore animals which use energy exported from muddy sand beaches would also be affected. Exces- sive dumping of sewage effluents, changes in water temperature, increased siltation, and many types of industrial effluents can all decrease- primary productivity. Activities which lower the dissolved oxygen content of water on those muddy sand beaches where the tidal flats are extensive can cause great stress to the organisms inhabiting them. These beaches naturally have stressfully low oxygen content during part of the year, due largely to the presence of decaying organic matter. Additionally, on warm days during incoming tides the seawater advancing over the tideflats can reach 700F. (210C.). The stress caused is not usually directly fatal, but organisms affected are more likely to fall subject to predation or disease. Processes which interfere with the natural build-up of sediments, and subsequent invasions of the tideflats by marsh plants, will actually decrease the extent of marshes adjacent to muddy sand beaches. Activi- ties such as dredging of the flats (for navigation or clams) will pre- vent the build-up of sediments, preventing colonization of marsh plants. The marsh will continue, however, to develop into a terrestrial environ- ment at its upland edge (see Salt Marsh Narrative-No. 623), and will gradually be reduced in size. 725 OR, . . . . . . . . . . .111Z -4 726 MUD (No. 638) INTRODUCTION Muddy beaches have been the most misunderstood and abused beach type in Washington. Mudflats sometimes release a foul odor, are a hinderance to navigation, and cannot easily be walked upon by man. As a result, mudflats have historically been considered wastlands. Filling of beaches to create agricultural or urban land, and dredging for the creation or expansion of port and marine facilities have occurred more often on mud than on any other beach type. This is largely related to the extensive use of protected estuarine areas where sediments are likely to contain mud. The nearby presence of man has also been responsible for heavy pollution of mudflats as pulp and paper mills, saw mills, food processing plants, and other types of industries have been con- structed. In addition, sewage effluents have been dumped in marine waters with little or no preliminary treatment. This alteration and pollution of mudflats has been unfortunate since they are now known to be important areas both in terms of biological function and commercial/ recreational use by man. Mud sediments consist predominantly of fine silt and clay particles, although some sand may be present. Only those beaches occurring in the most protected portions of bays and estuaries are able to retain these fine sediments. Usually varying amounts of small wood fragments similar to saw dust are also present in the sediments. Mud flats can be extremely difficult and even dan- gerous to walk across, particularly if there is no sand in the sediments; one may easily sink well past the knees in soft mud. Salt marshes are usually associated with mud beaches, and pro- duce much of the energy which is consumed on the mudflat itself. In areas where salt marshes are absent or form only a narrow finge in the high intertidal, the narrow upper portions of mud beaches are often steeper and contain some gravel mixed in the substrate. This is especially true if a bluff is present along the shoreline. 727 Usually located near rivers and streams, most mud- flats receive considerable freshwater influence. Some mudflats, however, occur in areas such as the San Juan Islands, where salinities remain fairly high throughout the year. Mud beaches typically form broad, almost level tideflats, with occasional tidal channels created by water draining off the flats at low tide. Examples of mud beaches are found at Mud Bay (Thurston County), Fidalgo Bay (Skagit County), Drayton Harbor (Whatcom County), and just north of Bowerman Air Field in Grays Harbor (Grays Harbor County). Mud beaches are rich in numbers of organisms and where salinities remain fairly high, diversity of organisms is also great. Food webs are large and complex, and affect many species of commercial importance to man. Bacteria SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Mudflats provide an excellent environment for bac- Mud beaches occur in areas protected from waves teria (or microbes, as they are often called). and currents, and are a relatively stable environ- These microbes are extremely important in the ment. Protection from waves and currents allows ecology of mudfalt communities. Mud typically has small particles of silt, clay, and organic matter a shallow (usually less than 1 inch or 2.5 cm thick) (detritus) to settle out of the water, forming the oxygenated layer at the surface, which is a brownish mudflat. Considerable organic matter is present color. Below this layer is a black anoxic layer due to the nearness of the mudflats to marshes of sediments. Digging into this black layer and/or rivers. Eelgrass and algal beds are also releases small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H S) sometimes present on the tideflats and contribute gas, which has an order reminiscent of rotten ecAs. organic matter. Thus, mudflats are an organically This gas is produced by anaerobic bacteria which enriched system, providing a food base for many derive chemical energy from sulfur compounds. animals. In addition, many nutrients bind to small This energy is used in much the same manner that silt and clay particles, and as these particles plants use the energy in sunlight to produce organic settle onto the mudflats, nutrients are available matter. These anaerobic bacteria thus contribute for use by plants and animals. to the primary production of mudflats. Fine sediments and organic matter hold large Other types of bacteria are essential for breaking amounts of water, largely by capillary action and down dead plant or animal matter into detritus maintain a thin layer of water over the mud at low which is fed upon heavily by other marine organisms, tide. This moisture helps protect the many small especially in mudflats where large amounts of organisms which live within or at the surface of detritus settle. For many detritivores (detritus the mud. feeding organisms) these bacteria are analogous to 728 the bacteria in the rumen of a cow; they break be of global importance. Bacteria are also valu- down organic matter not digestible by the animals able to man in breaking down certain pollutants, into a form which is digestible. The bacteria such as sulfur and sewage products. themselves are also often digested as a food source, and as they become more numerous on the detritus Succession upon which they grow have been shown to increase Mudfalts are important in maintaining the salt the nutritional value to detritivores of the detri- marshes which are so often associated with them. tus bacteria complex. Other detritivores digest As silt, clay, and detrital particles slowly settle and receive nourishment from only the bacteria onto mudflats, the elevation of the mudflat is growing on the detritus. The actual detrital par- gradually built up. As elevation increases, marsh ticles are passed through the digestive tract and plants colonize the upper portions of the mudflat. back into the environment, where they will once The result is that marshes tend to slowly advance again culture bacteria. Extensive mudflats are seaward. This successional development on mudflats important in providing the needed surface area and is important in maintaining marshes since a gradual the proper environment where organic matter can be buildup of soil creates an upland environment converted to a form usable by animals higher in encroaching on marshes on the landward side. the food web, and where nutrients are made avail- able for recycling by plants. Production Bacteria are also important in the cycling of Mud beaches have myi primary productivity, espe- nutrients such as sulfur and nitrogen. It has cially when salt marshes or eelgrass beds, or been implied by some scientists that their impor- both, are present. (Refer to Salt Marsh Narrative, tance in this respect reaches far beyond the mud- No. 623, and Seagrass Narrative, No. 627, for flats in which the bacteria live, and may perhaps further information.) Algae such as sea lettuce (Ulva) also contribute to primary productivity when present. The occurrence of algae is partially limited by the absence of a firm substrate for attachment, although filamentous green algae may seasonally form thin mats over the mudflats without requiring a solid base for attachment. Some inver- tebrates promote the growth of algae on mudflats. The tube-building polychaete worm, Platynereis bicanaliculata, for example, is known to grab pieces of floating sea lettuce and attach them to its tube. The alga continues to grow while attached to the the tube, and the worm, which eats algae, has a constant supply of food available. Another source of primary production is benthic diatoms. These diatoms may form a visible "scum" on the mud surface during portions of the year. 729 ARC upland marsh mud f lat eel qrGS-'R water (shalloui) Little work as been done on the productivity of bacteria. However, it has been estimated that the productivity of bacteria in intertidal mudflats is as high as .38 ounces (11 gm) per cubic foot per day. If this figure is accurate, bacteria are of far greater importance ecologically than ever thought before. The high productivity of mudflat systems, supplemented by organic matter sup- plied by rivers and adjacent upland areas, supports large numbers of animals. The majority of these animals obtain food by eating detritus or preying on detritivores. In general, the detrital food pathway is more important than pathways involving direct grazing of vegetation. Density and Diversity The density of invertebrates on mud beaches is extremely high, and in the high intertidal is greater than at comparable elevations on any other substrate. This density is of tremendous importance to vertebrates, especially shorebirds, which feed on these invertebrates. High intertidal areas are exposed a large percentage of the time by low tides, greatly increasing the amount of time available for shorebirds to feed in comparison to mid- and lower intertidal zones. This is especially critical during winter when mean tidal levels are often increased by storms and high freshwater runoff. During these periods, the availability of feeding area is a critical factor for shorebirds. The birds become heavily dependent on these high elevation mudflats; since they offer the greatest food resources. Mudflats are, therefore, extremely impor- tant in supporting shorebirds and shorebird predators such as falcons, especially 7-30 during winter. While the density of invertebrates is extremely high on mud beaches, the diversity varies in relation to fluctuations in salinity. Mudflats occurring in estuaries, where salinities change greatly according to season, typically have fewer species which can survive, and, therefore, have low diversity. Small organisms (primarily crustaceans and pol chaetes), whic may reach densities of greater than 9,300 per ft (100,000 per m ), usually dominate numerically. These small organisms provide the major sources of food for shorebirds, juvenile fishes, and crabs which forage on mudflats. Mud beaches which occur in areas where salinities remain fairly stable throughout the year (such as in the San Juan Islands) are also dominated numerically by small crustaceans and polychaetes; however, the diversity of species is extremely high. Characteristic Species Invertebrates Larger invertebrates found on mudflats include red rock crabs, Dungeness crabs, hairy shore crabs, mud shrimp, macoma clams, soft shell clams, heart cockles, and occasionally, Pacific oysters. High salinity mud- flats may also have moon snails, native littleneck clams, and Japanese littleneck or Manila clams, but these species are not "characteristic" of mudflats. Refer to Table 638-1 for a list of characteristic plants, invertebrates, and fish occuring on mud beaches and to Table 63-2 for lists of birds and mammals. Fish Large numbers and varieties of fish feed along mud beaches, particularly if eelgrass is present in lower intertidal and shallow subtidal areas. For example, in northern Puget Sound baseline sampling, mud/eelgrass habitats supported the richest, most abundant neritic (feed in the water column) fish assemblages. Fish which occur in this area include juve- nile English sole and starry flounders, three-spine sticklebacks, Pacific staghorn sculpins, spiny jumpsuckers, snake pricklebacks, shiner perch, sharpnose sculpins, saddleback gunnels, surf smelt, and Pacific herring. Mudflats serve as nursery areas for juvenile English sole and starry flounder, especially when eelgrass is present. Tidal channels provide important feeding areas for juvenile chinook, chum, and coho salmon, as well as sculpins, starry flounder, and shiner perch. Repre- sentative examples of fish inhabitating mud substrates include the following: 731 So 7p '14 732 TABLE 638-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments (Scientific Name) TypeI Occurrence2 Value3 PLANTS Green Algae Sea lettuce (Ulva) Pp M, L PC Edible; important waterfowl food. (Enteromorpha spp.) PP H R, L PC Edible; important waterfowl food. (Monostrom spp.) pp M: L PC Edible; important waterfowl food. Diatoms Pp H, M, L Abundant seasonally. Vascular plants Broad-bladed eelgrass Pp L, SB Important waterfowl food; increases (Zostera marina) diversity of habitat. INVERTEBRATES Molluscs Soft-shell clam FF H, M, L R, PC Introduced; harvested commercially on (Mya arenaria) East Coast. Heart cockle FF M, L (Clinocardium nuttallii) Bent-nose clam, DEP M, L Edible, but contains mud in stomach. (Macoma nasuta) Macoma clam DEP H, M (M. balthica = M. inconspicua) Macoma clam DEP H, M (M. inquinata = M. irus) (Cryptomya californica) FF M, L Commensal in ghost and mud shrimp burrows. Tiny transennella clam FF M, L (Transennella tantilla) Pacific oyster FF M, L C, R Supports large commercial industry in (Crassostrea ajg@s) Washington. 733 I I Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments (Scientific Name) Type 1 Occurrence2 Value3 Molluscs (Continued) (Batillaria attramentaria) CARN M, L Introduced with oysters. (Aglaja diomedea) CARN M, L Arthropods Leptostracan FF H, M, L (Nebalia pugettensis) Ostracod DETR L Harpacticoid copepod DETR H, M, L Important food for juvenile salmon. Cumaceans (Cumella vulgaris) DETR M, L Tanaid DETR M, L (Leptocheli savignyi) Tanaid (Pancolus) DETR M, L Pill bug SCAV-HERB H, M, L Usually under debris on beach. (Gnorimosphaeroma oregonenses) Amphipods (Corophium acherusicum) DETR M, L Abundant on high salinity mudflats. (C. salmonis) DETR H, M, L Abundant in low salinity mudflats; important food for shorebirds and juvenile fish. (Anisogammarus confervicolus) OMNI H, M, L Usually under debris on beach; impor- (Ampithoe spp.) M, L tant food for fish and shorebirds. Mud shrimp DETR M, L R, PC Edible, used as fish bait. (Upogebia pugettensis) Hermit crab (Pagurus spp.) DETR M, L Hairy shore crab SCAV-CARN H, M, L (Hemigrapsus oregonensis) Dungeness crab CARN L, SB R, C Supports large commercial industry (Cancer magiste in Washington. 734 Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments (Scientific Name) TypeI Occurrence2 Value3 Red rock crab CARN L, SB R, PC Edible. (Cancer productus) Insect larvae HER9 H, M (Paraclunio alaskensis) Segmented worm (Annelids) Oligochaete worms DEP H, M, L Polychaete worms Abarenicolidae lugworms DEP H, M, L (Abarenicola pacifica) Capitellidae (Capitella capitata) DEP H, M, L (Redioma,stus ambiseta) DEP H, M, L (Notomastus tenuis) DEP H, Dorvilleidae (Dorvillea rudolphi) H, M, L Glyceridae (Hemipodus borealis) CARN M, L 6oniadidae (Glycinde Rjq2) CARN M, L Hesionidae (Ophiodromus pugettensis) CARN M, L Lumbrineridae (Lumbrineris) HERB M, L Nereidae (Platynereis bicanaliculata) HERB H, L Opheliidae (Armandia brevis) DEP H, M, L Orbiniidae (Scoloplos armiger) DEP H, M, L Phyllodocidae (Eteone longa) CARN H, M, L Sabellidae (Manayunkia pacifica) DETR H, M aestuari;a) H, M 735 Common Name Trophic Zone(s) of Economic Comments (Scientific Name) Occurrence z Value3 W-- Spionidae (Polydora kem@i japonica) DETR H, M, L (Polydora jj2L) DETR H,L (Polydora socialis) DETR M,L (Streblos,pio benedicti) DETR H, M,L Syllidae (Exogone lourei) DETR M,L Ribbon worms (Nemerteans) (Paranemertes peregri a) CARN M,L Nematodes DETR, H, M, L CARN, HERB Anemones (Coelenterates) (Edwardsia) H, M, L (.Edwardsiella) H, M, L Phoronid harmeri) ILL-11 L FISH Economic Common Name Scientific Name Value Comments Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias C American shad Alosa sapidissima C, R Introduced. Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi C, R Spawn when eelgrass present. Northern anchovy Engraulis mordax C, R Pink salmon Oncorhynchus qorbuscha C, R Juvenile salmonids feed over submerged mudflats. Chum salmon 0. keta C Coho salmon kisutch C, R 1Lj Chinook salmon 0. tshawytscha C, R 736 Common Name Scientific Name Value Comments Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki R Surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus C, R Longfin smelt Spirinchus thaleichthys C, R Three-spine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Common prey of several other fish and birds. Bay pipefish Syngnathus griseolineatus Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata R Prey 'of many fish, birds, and marine mammals. Snake prickleback Lumpenus sagitta Saddleback gunnel Pholis ornata Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus Prey of many fish, birds and marine mammals. Arrow goby Clevelandia ios Padded sculpin Artedius fenestralis Sharpnose sculpin Clinocottus acuticeps Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus Tidepool sculpin Oligocottus maculosus Tadpole sculpin Psychrolutes paradoxus I LEGEND: 1Trophic type 2Zones of Occurrence 3Economic Value PP = Primary Producer H = High Intertidal C = Commercial FF = Filter Feeder M = Mid-Intertidal R = Recreational DEP Deposit Feeder L = Low Intertidal PC = Potential Commercial SCAV Scavenger SB = Shallow Subtidal CARN Carnivore DETR Detritivore Underline = Zone of greatest OMNI Omnivore abundance HERB Herbivore 737 English Sole Juvenile English sole are especially abundant on muddy beaches. The protective eelgrass habitat, which is often present, and an abundance of food are considered as major factors in supporting these and other muddy beach inhabitants. English sole are popular commercial and recreational food fish. Salmon Salmon are not generally thought of as inhabiting muddy shores. Adults are fished in open water far from shore or along more exposed beaches than mudflats. However, juvenile salmon frequent these pro- tected mud substrates, retreating to stream and tidal channels when low tides drain the shallow mud- flats. Mudflats are a dominant feature of the estuaries where large numbers of juvenile salmon first enter the marine environment. They feed on a variety of mudflat invertebrates including large quanti- ties of insects and amphipods. Shiner Perch Shiner perch are often very abundant, and were noted as the predominant schooling fish at the San Juan Island mud and eelgrass site during recent baseline fish sampling. In Grays Harbor, shiner perch are a major prey of Caspian Terns which feed over the extensive, shallow waters submerging intertidal mudflats. "'C J-1 12- 738 are not consumed by humans directly, but many species we eat or enjoy in other ways are sculpin predators. Starry Flounder Starry flounders are distinguished by the alter- nating light and dark banding on their fins and tail. The skin is rough due to small projections on the scales which are visible when examined closely. They grow to approximately 36 inches (91 cm) and may weigh up to 20 pounds (9. 1 kg). Pacific Staghorn Sculpin Birds The staghorn sculpin has been noted as one of the Dunlin most common and abundant bottom dwelling fish on A wide variety of shorebirds depend on mudflats mud substrates in Washington waters. Staghorn for feeding habitat, primarily during spring and sculpins tolerate wide ranges of salinity and may fall mirgrations. Dunlins are one of the most extend from the estuarine, mudflat environment to common and abundant of this migrants and among freshwater. They are prey of several other fish, those which also winter in Washington. Dunlin birds, and mammals; Great Blue Heron, Kingfishers, have been observed to prefer areas within mudflats Caspian Terns, river otters, and Common Loons are at or near the water' s edge and where a surface all known to feed on this ubiquitous sculpin. film of water persists when tides recede. They Staghorn sculpins also consume young of their own probe the surface layer with their slender bills species. Other food items include stickleback, and consume mostly invertebrates. Prey items also ghost shrimp, and a variety of other invertebrates. include seeds of salt marsh plants. Because they are so numerous, staghorns are impor- During studies of Dunlin at Grays Harbor, the tant in energy transfer within mudflat communities. amphipods Corophium sp. and Anisogrammarus confer- They consume small organisms (juvenile fish and vicolus were major food items. Thousands (high invertebrates) which then become available to counts of approximately 10,000 Dunlins were noted larger predators (adult fish and other vertebrates) during the periods March-May and October-January) which consume staghorns. These larger predators of Dunlin feed on these invertebrates within the would not be able to take advantage of the tremen- Grays Harbor area each year. Elsewhere, Corophium dous quantities of smaller organisms on mudflats and related invertebrates of mudflats also support without the link in food pathways p'rovided by mid- migrant shorebirds as well as many other birds and sized organisms like the sculpin. Thus, the commercially valuable fish. Other predators also Pacific staghorn sculpin should be regard as a consume these organisms which prey on mudflat major contributor to economically and recreation- invertebrates. Among these predators is the Pere- ally valuable fish, birds, and mammals. Staghorns grine Falcon [subspecies: Amercian Peregrine Falcon 739 (Falco peregrinus anatum), is an endangered species]. A Peregrine Falcon was observed to use sites where shorebirds concentrated as a feeding area in Grays Harbor. The remains of eight Dunlin wereassumed to have been left by a Pere- grine at a roost site in the Harbor. Western and Least Sandpipers Both these birds are among the small sandpipers commonly referred to as 11peeps." They are both quite small (both under 7 inches or 18 cm) and some- what difficult to distinguish from a distance. Like other sandpipers, they are often regarded as indistinguishable, light-colored birds all belonging to the same species. However, as discussed in the Sand Narrative (No. 636), there are several species of shorebirds and each has a distinctive feeding area. Because Western and Least Sandpipers are so similar, the compete for much the same food items and feeding area. For example, a study in California noted that both these sp'ecies shared many of the same kinds and sizes of prey. Feeding areas ove 'rlapped on mudflats, but Least Sandpipers tended to feed more often higher in the intertidal. They are able to co-exist on the same mudflats, partially because of this difference in distribution. They also migrate at different times of the year, thus, staggering arrival times as they pass along our coast. Perhaps more importantly, Western and Least Sand- pipers are small. Becauseof their size, they are able to feed on the most numerous prey items availPle on mudflats 2[small invertebrates which reach densities of 9,300 per ft (100,000 per m )]. These small organisms are so abundant that they are able to support many other predators (fish and birds) in addition to the large numbers of sandpipers which compete for food. Larger shorebirds may also feed on the same food items as Western and Least Sandpipers, but in general they consume larger prey. These larger prey organ- isms are not as abundant and neither are their predators. Larger shorebirds include Whimbrels, Black-bellied Ploveris, and Willets. These and other shore- birds have evolve.d@physical traits and behavior which tend to segregate feeding areas and organisms more so than observed for Western and Least Sandpipers. The following diagram (Figure 638-1). adapted from a recent shorebird study illustrates distribution of feeding above and below the surface of beach and water surfaces.' 740 FIC7URE ree-olAir, 0197-RI&I770M OVV A4i1A?r-LA7S AM? AtEW.9HORH WATERS OY,9etZor.-P SHOREOWPS' VERTICAL FEEPING RANGE ASOVE AND AT SURFACE I AT VAP,%(ING DF-PT14S WITHIN SUBSTRATE 12117--WEEV4 WATER OP VLACH (SOMe MA? ALGO FEW ON SURFACr-) SVRFACE AND SURSTRAT6 I IYEACM C*4W I SUBSTRATE WA-rVFt sURFAM REACH SUPPOCE t9 ne Oc Z Ix LU LU LU a z LLJ 01 eo I> - CL Uj 6L -z cc Uj 9 :i t OL 14P z z LLJ ty 31: 4-6 o4 11 W n :1 @? 1@ . 9T LU - an 0 Ld Shorebirds are able to probe below the surface to varying depths according to bill length (the numbers indicate both length of bill and depth to which they can probe in inches). They also have varying leg lengths, and are able to wade in shallow water, as illustrated by the Greater Yellowlegs which feeds in tidalpools and shallow nearshore waters. Phalaropes generally feed while resting on the water's surface, while Plovers feed on organisms on the surface of beach substrates. 741 ftoliolm IM" AFT 742 pursued by duck hunters. All who enjoy bird watch- ing also seek the teal to observe its attractive coloration and aerial maneuveri.ng. These small ducks are especially enjoyable to observe at close range so that one can hear their wings whistling as they fly past, or watch their dabbling feeding habits. Canvasback and Ruddy Duck Both Canvasback and Ruddy Ducks are diving ducks which were most often observed feeding over sub- merged mudflats during our studies. The larger Canvasback is distinguished from other ducks by its sloping crown to bill profile which gives the head (reddish brown in males) an elongated appearance. Ruddy Ducks are about the size of the more common Bufflehead with which they are confused from a distance. The bright blue bill of the male is distinctive, but it becomes black during fall and winter. Ruddy Ducks are not as abundant as they once were due to overhunting and loss of breeding habitat. Canvasbacks have also decreased in numbers and have been considered to be endangered by some Green-winged Teal authors because of a steady reduction of breeding habitat and excessive hunting mortality. Canvas- The Green-winged Teal is one of several waterfowl backs are considered uncommon in Washington waters which feed on mudflats. They may occur in shallow and critical winter concentrations noted in the waters of submerged flats or on the mud surface at Coastal Zone Atlas include: North Padilla Bay and low tide. Teal are often concentrated along tidal Samish Bay, Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor, Whidbey channels and salt marsh margins where they may be Island Basin Area, Dungeness Bay, and Elliot Bay. joined by the larger Pintail. American Wigeon Other wintering areas noted during this study and also occur with these ducks, but feeding habits others are Port Susan Bay, Drayton Harbor, Budd and areas generally do not overlap. Teal and Pin- Inlet-, Annas Bay, and Lynch Cove. tails both consume more animal matter than wigeons, Canvasbacks are among several ducks noted to be which feed primarily on eelgrass and algae. Green- susceptible to lead poisoning due to consumption winged Teal food items include seeds of salt marsh of lead shot (from shotguns). Development of non- plants, insects, and amphipods. toxic steel shot for use by hunters might ease Green-winged Teal are the smallest dabbling duck this problem. Protection of breeding habitat and (surface feeders which include Mallards, Pintail, winter feeding areas such as mudflats will also and other teal). They are abundant and often help enhance the survival of Canvasbacks. 743 such as raccoons and river otters feed on a variety Eared Grebe of fish and invertebrates on the flats. However, Eared Grebes are also diving birds, but are not many more mammals benefit from organisms which members of the duck family. They are very similar occur on mudflats during part of their life cycle to the more common (on salt water) Horned Grebe and move offshore at later stages. For example, which also occurs over submerged mudflats. The marine mammals including harbor seals, sea lions, larger Red-necked and Western Grebes (all members and killer whales feed on fish which use mudflats of the family Podicipedidae) more commonly occur as nursery areas. further off shore or along more exposed shores. Use by Man Eared Grebes are uncommon in western Washington where known areas of concentrations include Willapa Mud beaches support many species which are recrea- Bay, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, San Juan Archi- tionally or commercially important. Pacific pelago waters, and Padilla Bay. Large numbers of oysters which support a valuable industry are Eared Grebes were observed on Mud Bay on Lopez commercially harvested on mud beaches primarily Island during our studies. in southern Puget Sound and Willapa Bay. How- MERLIN ever, mud beaches can pose problems for the Merlin survival of oysters, despite the organic The Merlin is a small falcon which often feeds enrichment which assures adequate food sup- on shorebirds concentrated on mudflats. Mer- plies. Constant siltation in protected lins and other birds of prey require large muddy areas and the danger of oysters numbers of shorebirds and are examples of sinking can result in smothering of the predators at the pinnacle of marine food SHOREBIPDS oysters. Thus, some mud beaches have webs. One of viewing these food webs is been modified by dumping gravel over as a pyramid of numbers as depicted in INYERTORATES the mud to minimize problems of oys- Figure 638-2: ters smothering. In addition, 5MALL FISHE9 cement walls to retain sea water Fewer species and individuals are rep- and sprinkler systems have been resented in each level of the pyramid. S employed to protect oysters from Top level consumers are far less com- pyramid of number excessive temperatures during mon than secondary consumers such as low tides. the shorebirds and many are threatened by reduc- Waterfowl, particularly Pintails, American Wigeons, tions in prey populations (loss of shorebirds and and Green-winged Teal are common along mud beaches amphipods affects Merlins) and by loss of habitat as migrants and winter visitors. Thousands of (loss of marsh and mudflats eliminate prey of these birds frequent 'mudflats, especially those shorebirds and amphipods as well as roost sites adjacent to salt marshes where they are sought by for Merlin). duck hunters and bird watchers. Mammals Most of the species of direct value to man spend Like humans, other mammals generally use organisms only a portion of their lives on muddy beaches and 744 produced on mudflats in other areas. A few mammals are harvested in other areas. Chinook, coho, and chum salmon, English sole, starry flounder, Dungeness crabs, surf smelt, and Pacific herring are all harvested in offshore areas. Many of the mammals which occasionally use mud beaches for feeding or resting such as river otters, deer, raccoons, and mink are harvested by man for food or for their fur. All these species are also valued by all who enjoy watching wildlife. Ghost and mud shrimp, soft-shell clams, and sea lettuce are all edible and represent species of poten- tial use by man. Ghost shrimp are the only species currently harvested for commercial use, and are sold as bait. This is an extremely small industry in Washington at present. Soft-shell clams were harvested commercially for a short period in Port Susan and Skagit Bays, but this industry is not currently in operation. . The high diversity of birds associated with mud beaches, particularly during spring and fall migra- tions, makes them popular bird-watching areas. This is especially true for areas which do not have extensive urban development nearby. Bird-watchi-ng has become an important industry in Washington during the last decade, contributing a large percentage of the several hundred million dollars added to the State's economy each year by nonconsumptive wildlife users. IMPACTS Although biologically productive and containing large numbers of organisms, mudflats provide many stresses to the organisms inhabiting them. Often they occur near areas where rivers or streams meet marine waters. Thus, salinity is between that of salt and fresh water, and usually varies signficantly with the amount of freshwater flow. Temperatures reach extremes which further stress organisms. During summer, when hot weather corresponds with daytime low tides, water can be heated in excess of 21'C. (70'F.) as tides bring water in over sun-warmed mudflats. During winter, low tides occur during night when temperatures are coldest, thus occasionally exposing tideflats to freezing weather. Another stress on mudflat organisms is the decreased level of dissolved oxygen. Since decaying organic matter is abundant on mudflats, and this process requires oxygen, dissolved oxygen levels are normally low on mud beaches. During summer, the problem is compounded, as warm water holds less oxygen than cold water. Because of these stresses, mudflat communities, especially those in estuaries, are sensitive to activi- ties which alter their environment. For example, activities which affect dissolved oxygen can greatly impact the number and variety of invertebrates occurring in the mudflat. Organic wastes, such as sewage effluents, food processing plant wastes, and large amounts'of wood chips, require oxygen to 7.45 decompose, and thus tend to lower oxygen content in the water. The number of animals using the mudflats can be reduced drastically as a result. Storage of logs in intertidal areas not only produces wood debris which requires oxygen to decompose, but also repre- sents another type of impact; that of smothering and crushing benthic invertebrates. A study in Everett Bay, Snohomish County, indicated that the number of invertebrates was significantly reduced by log rafting. However, most of the invertebrates in the study area were small, short-lived species capable of reestablishing their population within a short period (two months) after removal of the logs. Thus the impact can be rather ephemeral if storage is not a long- term event. If, on the other hand, storage occurs in an area where longer-lived invertebrates reside (such as soft- shell clams), or during a critical time period (such as during migration of juvenile fish), the impacts can have longer-lasting repercussions. The fine sediments present in muddy substrates tend to bind with inorganic materials, such as nutrients, as stated earlier. By the same means, toxins bind to fine sediment particles, so that mud beaches, especially those near sources of inorganic pollutants (e.g. , heavy metals), are 746 likely to accumulate toxins. Some of these toxins are incorporated into the biota of the area, while some remain bound to the sediments. Disturbance of the sediments through activities such as dredging, poses the thre 'at of making these toxins available to the biota once again. Reworking of the sedi- ments by burrowing organisms (such as ghost and mud shrimp) will result in a long-term, slow release of toxins. The problem of toxins in areas where the substrate is primarily mud poses another problem. Such areas are normally very protected, with restricted move- ment of water. As a result, toxins in the water stay in the area longer, and are not diluted as quickly. In parts of southern Puget Sound, water takes in excess of 20 years to completely turnover. Thus, pollutants discharged into the water in small but constant quantities can accumulate to extremely high levels over long periods of time and pollut- ants remain in the water for long periods of time after the source of pollution is cut off. This is true for organic wastes as well. In southern Puget Sound, oyster farmers in several small embay- ments are threatened by the continual release into the water of small amounts of sewage from septic tanks. The buildup of coliform bacteria can make it unsafe for humans to consume oysters in these areas, thus jeopardizing the existence of the oyster industry in these areas. 7@,,7 10 IL YO Am 748 EXPOSED AND OTHER LANDS (No. 7) The exposed and other lands classification includes features which are treated in greater detail in the geology maps of the Coastal Zone Atlas. Significant formations which have important biological values are Rock (No. 71), Sand (No. 72), Spits (No. 74), and Bluff (No. 76). Rock islands or emergent rocks often too small to be designated in the Coastal Zone Atlas are important areas for seabirds and harbor seals. Othigr Land s 749 ROCK (No. 71) Uplands in which exposed rock composes approximately 30 percent or more of surface'area are classi- fied as rock habitat. Classifications included are Rock Outcrops (Narrative No. 711), Talus (No. 712), Rock Islands and Islets (No. 713), and Cliffs (No. 714). Upland rocky areas are especially common in the San Juan Islands and occur less extensively along rocky shores of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the outer coast. Isolated rock outcrops also occur in Puget Sound and along the western shore of Hood Canal. Vegetation is typically sparse but highly adapted to the rigors imposed by thin soil layers and an exposed location. Wildlife use is primarily for nesting and roosting. Cliffs and islands offer isolated locations and are the major marine bird and mammal breeding sites in Washington. Some of western Washington's more unusual terrestrial wildlife also occur in extensive rock uplands as discussed in the Rock Outcrop Narrative. "Y' Coastal rocky areas are among the most scenic in Washington and provide valuable wildlife habitat. Many of the small islands in the San Juans have been set aside as wilderness areas in recognition of these values. Other rock habitats'are within parks or refuges and several others rate high for possible inclusion in county, state, or federal parks or refuges. Lichens and mossess are characteristic on rocky sites,-and small annuals are often abundant in pockets and crevices with AX accumulated soil. Common species are small-flowered A@ blue-eyed Mary, chickweed monkeyflower, field chickweed, and broadleaf stonecrop. 4@14 750 ROCK OUTCROP (No. 711) I. INTRODUCTION Rock outcrops occur primarily as rocky projections Appearing bare from a distance, closer examination scattered throughout the coastal zone, particularly of the rock outcrops reveals unique associations of in the San Juan Archipelago. Not suprisingly, these plants and animals. Plants emerge from and produce outcrops are most often associated with rocky inter- cracks in the rocks; examples include saxifrage tidal areas where they typically form a narrow fringe which literally translated means "rock breaker", and between the salt water and vegetated uplands. Rock gold-back fern. outcrops sometimes have a very steep profile, in which case they may be mapped as cliffs, but most Patches of grasses and wildflowers occur on soil often rock outcrops are gentle slopes. accumulated in shallow depressions, while scattered marshes and small ponds unexpectedly occur in deeper Rock outcrops are usually quite small; in many areas depressions. Shrub and tree cover is sparse, and smaller than the minimum map size of the Coastal grades into the more open slopes creating an insepa- Zone Atlas. These outcrops are a dominant feature rable matrix of exposed rock woodland, shrub, and of the San Juan shoreline, but also occur along the grassland. The overall plant and animal diversity western shore of Hood Canal, the outer coast, and of the area increases as additional cover types are the Strait of Juan de Fuca. considered. It is, however, the presence of a rocky substrate (the rock outcrops) which sets this site Occasionally, rock outcrops cover more extensive apart as one of the truly unique coastal features of areas as on the west slope of Mount Dallas. These Washington. extensive rocky slopes provide a striking contrast to the typically wet and forested coastline of Wash- ington. Rainfall is much lower on Mt. Dallas than in most of the coastal zone, which in combination with the rocky substrate produces desert-like condi- tions, providing habitat for uncommon and rare plants and animals. Much of the rock outcrop area on the west side of Mount Dallas on San Juan Island was mapped as cliff. It was difficult in this area to draw a line between cliff and rock outcrop. Since one cover type grades into another, the entire west Mount Dallas area should be regarded as a matrix of cover types on a rock substrate, the entire area being an extrememly complex rocky slope. 751 Historically, rocky areas have been regarded as nonproductive. Crops do not fare well on rocky soils and construction is difficult. However, rocky shorelines are becoming increasingly popular because of their high esthetic value. Recreational values are especially high, and many persons have chosen rocky shorelines as home sites despite inherent difficulties of living on the rocks. Human activities, particularly housing, now pose a serious threat to rocky areas including Mount Dallas and other San Juan @ites. II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Rock outcrops most often rise from the rocky intertidal as small patches but occasionally extend over several acres of upland habitat. Nearshore Kelp forests often dominate the nearshore areas adjacent to rock outcrops. Smaller marine algae occur above the tidal zone where salt spray splashes the rocks. An abrupt change from marine to upland vege- tation often occurs on rock outcrops, however, spray may influence the sparse rock vegetation quite high above the waters edge. For example, at Eagle Point on San Juan Island, seashore salt grass occurs in large patches 30 to 40 feet above the water's surface. Encrusting lichens cover the rock surfaces and grasses, other than seasho,re saltgrass, also occur in addition to fat-hen, grindelia, and occasionally peppergrass. Most of these species are also found on salt marshes in pro- tected muddy bays. It is on these grass-covered rock outcrops along the edge of rocky shores that much marine bird nesting occurs. Glaucous-winged gulls sometimes nest on rock outcrops on the main islands in the San Juans and perhaps on the mainland. However, major colonies of nesting gulls occur primarily on the more isolated small islands scattered throughout the San Juan Archipelago (See Rock Island Narrative, No. 713, for more detailed information). 752 The river otter is another species which makes extensive use of rock outcrops at the shore's edge. Otters come ashore on outcrops to roll and play on grass which is matted down and sometimes dug up in the process. They also defecate here, leaving evidence of their presence. The recurring sign and presence of otters on the rock outcrops is evidence of outcrop importance to these intriguing mammals which are adapted to life on land, freshwater, and the marine environment. Higher Ground Above the strong influence of salt spray, upland vegetation begins to appear on the rock outcrops and in the shallow soil between the rocks. Typical plant species pio- neering on bare rock include lichens (Physcia stellanis, Umbilicaria spp., Verrucaria sp. and Caloplaca spp.) and mosses. The mosses Polytrichum piliferum, Polytrichum juniperum, Hedwigia ciliata, Rhacomitrium canescens and Grimma spp. colonize cracks and mi nute accumul ati ons of soi 1 , and eventual ly Through death and decay contri bute to the slow build up of soil. Vascular plant species typically occurring on the rock outcrops include selaginella, little hairgrass, Lemmon's needlegrass, pine bluegrass, small-flowered blue-eyed mary, Menzies' larkspur, field chickweed, sheep sorrel, chickweed monkey flower, and broadleaf sedum. Lanceleaved stonecrop (Sedum lanceolatum var. nesioticum) occurs in the San Juan Archipelago in this and similar exposed rock habitats (e.g. , cliffs and rock islands) Several ferns are characteristically found in the crevices of rock outcrops or cliffs in the driest area's of the coastal zone, including gold-back fern, maidenhair spleenwort. parsley fern, and aspidotis. Aspidotis is a reliable serpentine rock indicator. Although occasionally occurring on other rock types, it is always present on serpentine. Plants found in deeper soil between rock outcrops usually include the grassland species discussed in the Open Grassland Narrative (No. 313). Camas (Camassia spp.), death- camas, tomcat clover, Pomo-celery lomatium, California poppy, sea thrift, and small flower fringecup are common spring-blooming wildflowers. Throughout the rain shadow area of the northern Puget Trough occurs perhaps the most unexpected member of our coastal flora, brittle cactus. The main distribution of this cactus is east of the Cascade range, but a small disjunct population survives in San Juan, Island, Whatcom, Jefferson, and Clallam counties. Charac'teristically occurring in rock outcrop or open grassland habitats, brittle cactus forms low mounds at the base of the outcrops or in the grassland. 753 , egm gg . . .. . ... NI 'NA S@ 01 N@ Wng" Nli-I &k P @, I-` 71 t 0) em\,, X 4 \ ro, 754 Menzies' Journal of Vancouver's Voyage, April to October, 1792 Trees may occur sporadically throughout areas mapped as rock outcrop. Garry oak, madrona, Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, and Rocky Mountain juniper are the usual species, but on the west side of Mt. Dallas, big- leaf maple occurs in this very atypical habitat. Representative Plants and Animals of Rock Outcrops Gold-back fern This is one of a few ferns that are essentially restricted to rock crev- ices. Gold-back ferns derive their name from the presence of a golden powder (the spores) on the lower surface of the frond. As with all ferns, the gold-back produces numerous spores (some ferns producing as many as 52 million spores on a single leaflet). Spores are wind disseminated, and unlike flowering plants, do not develop directly into the "adult" form. Instead, the few which successfully germinate, develop into a stage known as a gametophyte. The gametophytes produce eggs and sperm which combine to give rise to new spore-producing plants (sporophytes, or the familiar "adult" form of the gold-back fern). Since the sperm actively swims to the egg, free surface water must be available for successful reproduction. Water which collects in small depressions among the rocks for brief periods in otherwise dry outcrops is, therefore, critical in the life cycle of these and other rock crevice ferns. Con- struction, trampling by hikers, and rock garden collectors pose a threat to these plants because of their restricted range and habitat requirements. Stonecrops The stonecrops are fleshy, thick leaved plants which are a distinctive part of rocky areas includ- ing outcrops and cliffs. The broadleaf stonecrop is our common species. The small (less than one inch long) leaves are individually wedge-shaped and arranged in rosettes. Small clusters of bright yellow flowers appear in May and June and add to the color of rock faces. 755 The lanceleaved stonecrop is far less common, and is being considered for proposal as a rare or endangered plant in Washington. Rock Wren Like the cactus of the San Juan Islands, Rock Wrens are an example of a unique species occurring in dry sites in the coastal zone. A more typical resident of eastern Washington, the Rock Wren is known to occur in the coastal zone in the vicinity of the west side of Mt. Dallas on San Juan Island. It is thought that populations might fluctuate consider- ably, however no thorough investigation has been ROCK conducted of Rock Wrens in the San Juans. They' may also be present on the open west slopes of parts of y Orcas Island and other rock areas in the San Juans. Birds of Prey Raptors which occur along rock outcrops include Bald Eagles, Golden Eagles, Merlins, and Red-tailed Hawks. Birds of prey hunt these open areas, and perch in nearby woodlands. Trees are often scattered throughout rock outcrops, however, and provide roost sites within the immediate area. This is evident single landowner along private rocky beaches. Ex- at Dallas Mountain where an occasional maple or tensive rocky areas are rare in the coastal zone snag interrupts the rocky terrain. These trees and include the area along the west side of Mount diversify this sparsely vegetated habitat. Critical Dallas on San Juan Island which is perhaps the as roost sites, they also enhance the esthetic value finest example of a rock upland and one of the most of coastal rock outcrops. Small pockets of shrub unique sites in the coastal zone.. The area also and grassland which support the small mammal prey encompasses extensive patches of open woodlands, of raptors also occur in outcrops. cliffs, and small marshes. These habitats support III. IMPACTS several uncommon species including Rock Wrens, Burrowing Owls, and giant fawn-lily (Erythronium oregonum) a proposed rare/endangered plant species. Coastal rock outcrops are valuable esthetically and Tt has also been designated as a critical area for as unique habitat which supports some of the most Bald Eagles. Unfortunately, housing threatens uncommon species in western Washington. Small out- Mount Dallas and several other rocky areas in the crops are numerous and are often occupied by a coastal zone. 756 Despite their solid, unbreakable appearance, all rock outcrops are fra- gile areas which contain microhabitats easily destroyed. In many cases, heavy use by persons walking through outcrops can trample vegetation or disrupt breeding birds. Thin soil layers are easily disturbed by trampling, off-road vehicles, or by construction activities. Because of the open nature of rock outcrops, they generally lack vege- tated buffers which tend to isolate animals from noise or sight of human activities. Therefore, human activity quite some distance away poses a threat to several species. Increasing boat traffic along shore will displace nesting marine birds as well as mammals, such river otters, from small coastal outcrops. In more extensive inland outcrops, such as at Mt. Dallas, this effect is caused by vehicles, construction, and large numbers of people walking through the area. Houses and associated activity are, therefore, especially destructive to the unique fauna of rock outcrops since the sphere of potential impacts extends far beyond the immediate vicinity of the building. For example, Bald Eagles are certain to be displaced by disturbance occurring at greater distances from them than in forested areas. Esthetic values are also easily diminished because of the open nature of rock outcrops. Buildings, or in many cases, one building, can effectively destroy an area visually. Thus, human and wildlife values are extremely sensitive to any impacts occurring in rock outcrops. We urge the preser- vation of Mount Dallas and suggest that other valuable rocky areas be identified for possible preservation. One such area is on the east side of Massacre Bay on Orcas Island. 757 TALUS (No. 712) Talus was mapped in very few locations within the coastal zone. Locations include slopes near Decep- tion Pass in Skagit County, at Point Disney on Waldron Island, and along the west side of Lummi Island. Talus slopes are piles of rock fragments which drop from cliffs and accumulate in uniform masses at the base. 4 No information is available concerning biological features of coastal Washington talus slopes, how- tation and wildlife is somewhat similar ever, vege to that described in the Cliff (No. 714) and Rock Outcrop (No. 711) Narratives. Major differences wou Id result from the relative instability of the s ubstrate. When rock slides recur frequently an improverished flora and fauna is to be expected. Stable talus slopes will be more completely vege- tated and provide suitable crevices for nesting birds and small mammals. 758 ROCK ISLANDS (713) INTRODUCTION All areas mapped rock island (713, 7131, 7132, 7133) to islands. These large islands, as with most size- in the Coastal Zone Atlas were 50 acres or smaller. able San Juan islands, are populated today by people This was an arbitrary size chosen because of the who reflect an interesting history of change in island unique features of smaller islands and islets. The life. Early occupation of islands was difficult following discussion includes all islands, although because of water barriers, however, European settle- small, non-peopled islands are emphasized because of ment quickly paved a way with power boats, ferries, their significant value for wildlife. Refer to the highways and bridges. The early day sense of isola- Sand Island Narrative (No. 721) for specific infor- tion is now largely restricted to small, non-ferry mation restricted to that class. Otherwise, the trafficked islands, or to the non-tourist season. information below is relevant to islands of varying i substrate and size. Refer also to specific narra- Just as some people seek solitude on islands, other tives describing the vegetative cover on islands animals and plants also seek isolation or have been (e.g., See Conifer Narrative No. 41 for information isolated on islands. Herein lies the unique value on No. 7133 Island, Conifer). of islands to plants and animals. Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands in the 1800's and Islands occur throughout the coastal zone of Washing- observed several qualities peculiar to islands. His ton and are an exclusive feature within the San Juan' observations form the basis of present island biogeo- Archipelago. The San Juans extend into the Canadian graphical research which has led to many basic concepts Gulf Islands and into Washington counties other than of evolution and ecological relationships. San Juan (e.g., Lummi Island in Whatcom County, Williamson Rocks in Skagit County). These islands are thought to be a submerged extension of the Olympic Mountains and include approximately 457 islands and rock islets at high tide, of which 175 are named. Sizes vary from small rock islets barely exposed at high tide, to 57 square mile Orcas Island, the largest in the group. Other major San Juan Islands include San Juan, Lopez, Blakely, Stuart, Lummi, Cypress, and Sucia. Small islets and islands are less numerous outside the San Juan Archipelago. Among these is Protection Island in Jeffereson County which is a major seabird nesting area. Several large islands are prominent features in Washington's coastal zone. Whidbey, Bainbridge, Vashon, Anderson, and Hartstene are all distinguished by varying degrees of isolation afforded 759 Ad' Air Y" V Ir Y V, PYI A coastal island's value as a resting and breeding site usually corresponds to its degree of isolation and lack of disturbance. Islands have served as natural research laboratories principally because they are isolated. Island flora and fauna are restricted and often much different from mainland populations. The uniqueness results from the isolation, modified competition, space limitation, and special climates characteristic of islands. Major factors affecting colonization of islands are size and distance from the mainland. Another feature which affected Pacific Northwest islands was glaciation. Once thought to have been a land refuge, the San Juans are now believed to have @een completely covered with ice during the last glaciation. Therefore, terrestrial life has had to re-invade the islands in the past 12-13,000 years over water barriers of varying distance from the mainland. In general, the degree of colonization or similarity to the mainland increases with island size and nearness to the mainland. Thus, Whidbey Y Island flora and fauna is fairly indistinguishable from the mainland while that of Orcas Island reflects 760 its insular situation and life on tiny Williamson Rocks is very unique although quite limited. Smaller islands are much less like the mainland and are further distinguished by the protection afforded by the water barrier. The smaller and more isolated islands can not support terrestrial predators and thus are extremely valuable breeding and resting sites for marine birds and mammals. Numbers of species may be limited on most small islands, but densities are quite high because of limited space and the limited number of undisturbed islands. Humans can and have severely impacted many islands, which further restricts present populations on remaining islands. It is essential that future development be restricted and activities limited on small islands to insure the continued existence of species which rely on the natural protection of islands. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Islands are extremely valuable and unique areas for wildlife, particularly as breeding and rest sites for marine birds and mammals. This results from several features discussed in more detail below: Isolation Island flora and fauna are restricted by the water barrier separating them from mainland sources of potential colonizers. This tends to reduce the number of species present and varies with island size and distance from the mainland. The San Juan Islands provide an excellent example of the effect of insularity. As on most islands, there are a few terrestrial mammals, many of which have been introduced. According to a recent study, 24 terrestrial mammals are known to occur. Of these, nine were introduced, eight are native, and seven are bats. Terrestrial mammals reported from the San Juan Islands are listed in Table 713-1. At least fifteen species of marine mammals have been recorded for the area and include: Northern Fur Seal Goose-beaked Whale Short-finned Pilot Whale California Sea Lion Dall Porpoise Harbor Porpoise Northern Sea Lion Humpbacked Whale Pacific White-sided Dolphin Harbor Seal Sperm Whale Minke Whale Common Dolphin Fin Whale Killer Whale 761 Reptiles and amphibians are also limited on islands because they face the same barriers to colonization as most mammals. The following species are known to occur in San Juan County: Rough-skinned Newt Taricha granulosa Western Toad Tu-foboreas Pacific Tree Frog Hyla regilla Red-legged Frog Rana aurora Northern Alligator Lizard Gerrhonotus coeruleus Northwestern Garter Snake Thamnophis ordinoides Western Terrestrial Garter Snake Thamnophis elegans Common Garter Snake Thamnophis sirtalis Birds are more sucessful colonizers than terrestrial mammals with the exception of bats. However, the bird species recorded from the islands are fewer than for western Washington as a whole. A 1964 listing of San Juan Archipelago birds included 216 species as compared to an approximate figure of 325 species which have been recorded for western Washington. See Table 713-2 for a listing of birds recorded from the San Juan Islands. Species occurrence on a given island varies greatly, largely in response to island size and presence of suitable habitat. In this respect, islands are no different from, and in fact provide an excellent model for mainland "islands" of isolated pockets of differing habi- tat types. Thus, a one acre shrub covered island may have one isolated pair of nesting White-crowned Sparrows, while a one acre patch of shrub surrounded by a mainland forest may also have an isolated pair of nesting White-crowned Sparrows. Another island analogy is the continuous fragmentation and isolation of natural vegetation due to urbanization. These pockets of vegetation surrounded by urban development are becoming more widespread in the coastal zone (See Figure 713-1). The significant difference, however, between mainland and "true" islands is the presence of the water barrier which surrounds "true" islands. Water acts as a barrier to terrestrial predators and the rich, rocky intertidal zone surrounding small islands creates ideal habitat for marine birds and mammals. Thousands of migrating birds roost on small islets and islands, while breeding birds nest in numbers varying from a single isolated pair of gulls on an unnamed San Juan rock islet to the estimated 17,108 breeding pairs of Rhinoceros Auklets which nest in burrows on Protection Island. A summary of northern Puget Sound and Strait of Juan de Fuca marine bird breeding populations are listed in Table 713-3. This information is adapted from a recent study of northern Puget Sound marine birds which should be consulted for more detailed discussions of seasonal 762 distribution and abundance of birds in northern Washington waters. The northern znt S I -*,v now "low A19" A t 0*. lk 764 FIGURE 713-2 Northern Puget Sound and Strait of Juan de Fuca Harbor seal haul out sites. Sites identified during recent study: Everitt, Robert D. , Clifford H. Fiscus, and Robert L. DeLong, 1979. Marine mammals of Northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. NOAA Tech. Memo. ERL MESA-41. 765 Puget Sound report also contains a listing of species and numbers of breeding pairs which occur on each island censused during recent studies. Species which nest on two major breeding islands, Smith and Protec- tion, are listed in Table 713-4. This table also includes a summary of breeding species which nest on the numerous islands in the San Juan Archipelago. Islands identified in recent nesting surveys are critical areas for those species which breed in Wash- ington's coastal zone. All other small islets and islands are also critical as rest and feeding areas for many more species which nest elsewhere in Wash- ington or in more distant areas. Examples of some of these species were discussed in the Rocky Inter- tidal Narrative (No. 631) and include Harlequin Ducks, Peregrine Falcons, Bald Eagles, Heermann's Gulls, Bonaparte's Gulls, Wandering Tattlers, and Black Turnstones. Year-round protection must be afforded islands since required use includes nesting, feeding, roosting, and molting sites for some species through- other marine mammal populations, including use of out the year. Refer to the Characteristic Species islands by seals and sea lions. section of this narrative for representative examples of the varied use of islands by both birds and mammals. Large concentrations of breeding seabirds and the protective isolation of islands also make them ideal Marine mammals feed nearshore along rocky islands habitats for birds of prey. Coastal islands are and several species require the protected shores of critical areas for the very few nesting Peregrine small islands as haul out and nursery sites. The Falcons in Washington and also support migrant popu- harbor seal is the most common marine mammal which lations of peregrines. For example, recent observa- rests on small islands in Washington. Sea lions, tions of the Peregrine Falcon have been made on sea otters, and river otters also depend on these Protection Island and further attest to the signifi- protected rest sites. Islands supporting large cant wildlife value of this threatened island. Bald numbers of harbor seals include Protection Island, Eagles are also dependent on several islands for Smith and Minor Islands, Sucia Island, Bare Island, nesting and as roost or feeding sites throughout the Ripple Island, Sentinel Island, White Rock, and year. The San Juan Islands are especially noted for Gertrude Island. Map locations of harbor seal haul- concentrations of nesting eagles and support appproxi- out sites identified during recent studies in northern mately 50 percent of the total nesting Bald Eagles Puget Sound are illustrated in Figure 713-2. Refer in Washington. Golden Eagles are among the other to the study by Everitt, et al. , cited in Figure birds of prey which occur on islands and are one of 766 713-2 for detailed information on harbor seal and the rarest nesting birds in western Washington. Isolation has also historically affected man's impacts on islands although modern technology now allows us to quickly cross water barriers. Islands are still relatively inaccessible and, as a result, many reflect near pristine conditions. Most of the smaller islands in Washington are roadless and not peopled. Several NORTH are included in a protected status as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System or as Wilderness Areas. Wilderness status has been recently afforded to more than 80 islands in the San Juan Archipelago. Wilderness status recognizes their unique values for "ISLANDS" wildlife and human intrusion is strictly limited; OF VEGETATION IN all are closed to the public. Others have ben set URBAN LANDSCAPE, aside as State and County parks or preserves. Many BELLINGHAM, WK. of these islands reflect conditions present through- out the coastal zone prior to massive settlement. The presence of large, undisturbed seabird colonies is one example of this isolation effect. Another is the presence of old growth forest, the most exten- sive in the coastal zone being on Long Island in Willapa Bay. This approximately 560 acres of old growth has withstood the near total elimination of virgin forest along the coast and stands as the finest example of pristine conditions outside National Park boundaries. Scattered old growth conifers also occur on islands in the San Juans. Most of these are small stands or isolated trees, but are nonethe- less valuable for many reasone including their use by Bald Eagles. Climate/Substrate Effects Small islands are predominantly rock which suports a unique flora and fauna discussed in several narra- tives: Open Grassland; No. 313 Shrub/Exposed Rock; No. 323 Open Woodlands; No. 44 fig. 713-1 Rock Outcroppings; No. 711 767 The unusually dry climate in the San Juan Islands, and Wildlife Service and are closed to the public. when combined with the rocky substrate, produces Those not posted should also be considered as sensi- even more unusual conditions for a western Washington tive areas and avoided if possible. There i s a location. These areas support brittle cactus and limited number of islands which means a limited birds such as Burrowing Owls and Rock Wrens which amount of space for nest and rest sites. Continued are more typical of eastern Washington deserts. disruption of any island could, therefore, result in permanent displacement of those species which depend on island rest or nest sites. Commercial/Esthetic/RecreationaI Benefits Larger islands which do support human populations Characteristic Species are among the most popular recreational areas in Washington. The San Juan Islands in particular are Several narratives discuss species which occur on reknowned for boating, fishing, camping, diving, and islands; refer to the appropriate aquatic and terres- other outdoor pursuits. The feeling of "leaving it trial associations (e.g., Open Grassland No. 313 for all behind" is especially felt when one is surrounded grass covered island). Some of the nesting species by water and the unique climate of the San Juans are discussed in the Cliff Narrative (No. 714) and further heightens this island appeal. others include: The pleasantly dry climate in the San Juans also attracts permanent residents and, as stated, most of the larger islands are inhabited. Island living is very appealing even without the dry climate as exhib- ited by the popularity of homes on Bainbridge, Mercer, or Vashon Islands. A distant location pro- tects the San Juans from the extreme overcrowding occurring on these satellites of Seattle, but over- flowing ferry docks attest to the popularity of the San Juan Islands throughout the summer months. Many island residents are dismayed by the great influx of summer visitors each year, although for others, tourism simply means more business. It is essential, however, to restrict development and recreational activities on many of the islands to protect breeding seabirds, marine mammals, and other unique biological features of islands. In general, islands without ferry service should be regarded as unique natural areas which can not sus- tain short- or long-term human occupation. Most crucial seabird colonies are posted by the U.S. Fish 768 Tufted Puffin The Tufted Puffin is one of our most spectacular seabirds. Also called the sea parrot, puffins are members of the Alcidae family, commonly referred to as Auks. All auks are highly adapted to an aquatic life and, like the Rhinoceros Auklet, Tufted Puffins only come ashore in the breeding season when they lay their single egg in a burrow nest. The Tufted Puffin is mostly black and similar in appearance to the Rhinoceros Auklet during winter. in spring, its white face, yellowish tufts and large, bright orange-red bill distinguish the puffin from all near relatives and suggest a relationship with tropical forest parrots. Puffins are very much water birds, however, and may dive as deep as one hundred feet in pursuit of fish and inverte- brate prey. Tufted Puffins nest in large numbers in British Columbia and Alaska, and are primarily restricted to the outer coastal islands in Washington. Like other alcids, Tufted Puffins are very vulnerable during oil spills. Tufted Puffin populations have seriously declined as indicated in recent northern Puget Sound marine bird censuses. These studies note that large populations once nested on Bare Island, Waldron Head, Flattop Island, Smith Island, and Protection Island with smaller numbers occurring throughout the San Juand Islands. The only substantial populations now nesting in northern Washington are at Tatoosh and Protection Islands. Reasons suggested for decline include a decrease in herring populations and increased human disturbance in the San Juan Islands. Rhinoceros Auklet The Rhinoceros Auklet, or "rhino", is named for the hornlike projection at the base of its bill. This dark-colored alcid is a relative of the more colorful Tufted Puffin and also excavates a burrow nest. Rhinos feed at varying distances from their breeding islands and return at night with a bill load of fish and an occassional squid to feed the nestlings. They,require breeding sites with a substrate loose enough for burrowing and yet stable enough to prevent collapse. The gently sloping vegetated bluffs on Protection Island provide these requirements and are ideal nest sites for Rhinoceros Auklets. Protection Island supports a major percentage of Washington's breeding population, other important colonies being at Smith Island and Destruction Island. As with many birds, Rhinoceros Auklets are flightless when they undergo a molting period during late summer. They are especially vulnerable to oil at this time as well as when large numbers are concentrated near breeding colonies or at feeding sites. 769 Glaucous-winged Gull Glaucous-winged Gulls are the most frequently observed 11seagulls" in western Washington and suffer a bit in popularity because they are so common. However, on close examination, like the ubiquitous robin, these gulls are extremely beautiful birds. Immatures are a dull grey-brown, but the adult in breeding plummage is an immaculate white bird with subtle grey back and wings Z which show a white "window" at the tip. The yellow bill has a bright red spot on the lower mandible and the feet are pink. A lack of any black in the wing separates the Glaucous-winged from most large gulls, although hybrids do occur, particularly with the darker Western Gull, which confuses identification of them. Like other large gulls, they scavenge beaches, open water, shoreline restraunts, and garbage dumps for a variety of foods. Natural prey includes crabs, scul- pins, chitons, andmussels. Nesting is usually in colonies such as on the eastern spit of Protection Island which is the largest colony TVFTCL? PUFFIN in our inland waters, with about 1,500 pairs. They have also been known to nest on pilings and on roofs of buildings. Territories are defended around the nest which generally contains two to three eggs by the second week in 3une. Both parents incubate the eggs which hatch in about four weeks. Many young do not survive the nestling period due to predation, delayed hatching, and attacks by other gulls when territorial bounds are crossed by chicks. On the average, slightly more than one chick is fledged (successfully leaves the nest) by each breeding pair of gulls. The young grow quickly and at about eight weeks of age are fully grown and begin to leave the nesting island. Young and adults gradually disperse, some remaining together into the winter while others go their own way soon after fledging. Most adults return to favored foraging areas which are usually less than 100 miles from the nest island. Their foraging and rest sites are scattered throughout the coastal zone and allow anyone with an interest to observe animal behavior at close hand. Get to know these familiar gulls, and it is likely you might also become acquainted with an individual or pair that might return year after year to the same location for as long as 20 years. Once you have distinguished a Glaucous-winged Gull from other "seagulls," the more subtle traits which differentiate individuals may be looked for. Like humans, they are all different 770 even though all gulls might look the same. We know that gulls recognize their own offspring and that mates identify one another. You might use different clues than gulls to identify individuals, but it is still possible to separate one from the crowded flock. They have all adapted to a variety of environmental features and reflect a complex array of genetic differences. Watch the gull or gulls in your neighborhood or at a favorite beach. They are all generally alike, but one might prefer a certain rock or piling, while another prefers to feed just offshore. Some become tame enough to hand feed and most gather quickly when clams are being dug or fish are cleaned. The gulls are long-lived and learn their surroundings and accompanying activitites well in their life- time. If this preferred habitat is lost because of development, chances are that the gulls will sur- vive. This is not true for most species because of their specialized habitat requirements. Glaucous- winged Gulls are one of a few native species benefiting from humans in that we throw out enough garbage to subsidize an excess population. However, their breeding islands are critical habitat for their survival and if the breeding site is destroyed, that segment of the gull population will be lost. Islands are at a premium and most, if not all, breeding space is already taken. This is true for gulls and for other island nesters. Small islands, therefore, are critical limiting factors which must be preserved to maintain populations of Glaucous-winged Gulls and several other marine species. IMPACTS Islands are very susceptible to human disturbance because much of their value to wildlife depends on isolation. In recognition of this value several islands have been designated as Wilderness areas and are closed to the public. Other islands lack the official designation as Wilderness, but still re- quire protection from most human activities. Some of the threats unique to islands are discussed below, but it should be remembered that many activities relevant to other areas will have pronounced impacts on islands. Introduced Species/Predators Island flora and fauna have evolved in the absence of many species present on the mainland. The result is a dynamic balance among species that are present which is easily upset by the introduction of any exotic (introduced from adjacent islands, mainland, or distant area) organism. The most dramatic example is the presence of the European rabbit in the San Juans as discussed in the Open Grassland Narrative (No. 313). 771 Man is another exotic on most Washington islands and we should respect those areas unsuitable for our presence (e.g. , Wilder- ness Areas in the San Juan Archipelago). Intentional and accidental introductions which occurred in the past are re- minders, that we have visited many islands and left our mark in many ways. Examples have varied and include the presence of Norway rats on Lopez Island, Peacocks on Protection Island, red fox on Henry Island, European polecats on San Juan, and domestic animals on several islands. Dogs, cats, sheep, and rabbits are the most common of the domestic animals which represent significant predation and competition threatening native plants and animals. Efforts should be made to remove exotics from island communi- ties now affected by their presence and further.introductions should not take place except under strict control. Unfortun- ately, such control is lacking in most cases and intentional introductions meant to control other species have often failed. Thus, foxes were introduced on San Juan Island to control rabbits to no avail. Perhaps the old lesson of Prevention is indeed the best cure. Boatin The tremendous increase in pleasure boating in recent years poses a special threat to islands. We might all wish to escape to our own private island retreat, but the same values 77Z Table 713-3. MAMMALS REPORTED FROM THE SAN JUAN ISLANDS Vagrant Shrew (Sorex vagrans) Yuma Myotis (Myotis yumanensis) Long-Legged Myotis (Myotis colans) California Myotis (Myotis californicus) Long Brown Myotis (Myotis jucifugus) Silver-haired Bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) Townsend's Big-eared Bat (Plecotus townsendii) Big Brown Bat (Epitesicus fuscus) * European Ravbbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) Townsend's Vole (meadow mouse) (Microtus townsendii) * House Mouse (Mus musculus) * Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus) * Black Rat (Rattus rattus) * Douglas Squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasii) * Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger) * Townsend's Chipmunk (Eutamias townsendii) * Red Fox (Vulpes fulva) Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Mink (Mustela vison) River Otter (Lutra canadensis) Black-tailed Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Introduced of isolation that attract humans are what necessi- vious discussions in the Island Narrative before tate the exclusion of our presence. Most smal I proceeding with construction activities. If con- islets and islands are critical habitat for resting struction must take place, consult with responsible or breeding birds and mammals and require complete individuals or agencies concerning timing to mini- protection from human disturbance. Many islands are mize disruption during critical seasons. Real estate posted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as being development on Protection Island deserves special closed to the public. Boaters should respect these mention here since this seabird nesting site is per and other small islands by steering a wide course haps, the most imminently threatened island in Wash- around them. Likewise, isolated coves on larger ington. Natural values of this island have been islands are often important marine bird and mammal discussed in this and other narrative sections (see feeding sites and occasionally are adjacent to Bald especially Open Grassland, No. 313). A brief review Eagle nest trees. Boating disturbances will be mini- includes the presence on Protection Island of the mized if anchorage is restricted to established largest known Glaucous-winged Gull Colony in our marinas and state park moorage sites. Studies should inland waters, the majority of Washington's breeding be conducted to determine the carrying capacity of population of Rhinoceros Auklets, nesting Black boating in Washington waters, especially in island Oystercatchers, Tufted Puffins, Pelagic Cormorants, areas. Additional boats, boating activities, and and Pigeon Guillemots, and the use by many other associated marinas and other facilities are a threat species including Peregrine Falcons, harbor seals, to islands and ultimately to the entire marine envi- and Harlequin Ducks. A part of the island is set ronment of Wash,ington. Limiting the numbers of aside as the Zella M. Schultz Sea Bird Sanctuary. marinas, moorage sites, and other boating facilities However, various plans to develop the island have will decrease impacts on wildlife while enhancing been proposed. Present use of the island is mostly the value of the boating experience. by summer visitors who have been constructing cabins and adding house trailers to the island at an in- Construction creasing rate. Human presence on Protection Island is incompatible with the high wildlife values and A limited amount of building related activity, such sensitivity of many of the species present. However, as navigational markers, radar equipment, lighthouses, the island is inhabited and compromises must be made and homes and businesses, on larger islands must by all concerned individuals and agencies. Landowners occur. However, many islands are unsuitable for any should reconsider their plans for future activities construction activity. The most crucial sites which on the island. Those wishing to remain should respect will not tolerate buildings and associated activity breeding requirements of nesting birds and minimize are those used as marine bird and mammal breeding or disruptive activities. This would inc@lude care in rest sites as well as those supporting Bald Eagles not trampling auklet burrows and avoidance of gull or unique plant communities. colonies during the breeding season. Others may wish to sell or donate land to be added to the Sea Several narratives (see especially Rock Outcrops, Bird Sanctuary. No. 711; Open Grassland, No. 313; and Oak Savannah, No. 441) address unique communities associated with County and State agencies responsible for management islands. We advise careful consideration of natural decisions on the island should carefully evaluate 774 values discussed in these sections and in the pre- the negative impacts of further encroachment while negotiating with landowners to minimize wildlife losses. Landowners willing to sell or donate land should be encouraged to do so, but all attempts to escalate real estate speculation should be averted. A lack of water has been a key factor in modifying island development plans of professional real estate developers. Further development of the area must be prevented because of the high wildlife values of Protection Island. We suggest that all parties involved meet and agree upon a plan of action which will eventually preserve Protection Island as a wildlife sanctuary. Oil Spills The threat of oil spills is discussed in other sections; the impact section of the Rocky Beach Substrate Narrative (No. 631) is especially relevant to island shorelines. Oil is mentioned here because of the potentially disastrous effects of a spill on colonial nesting marine birds. The most vulnerable birds to oil are divers and include the highly aquatic members of the Alcidae family such as the Tufted Puffin, Rhinoceros Auklet, and Common Murre. These colonial nesters are espe- cially vulnerable to oil spills for several reasons: 1) Nesting islands are near major shipping lanes and proposed oil terminals. For example, Protection Island is in the vicinity of Port Angeles. 2) Alcids spend most of their time on the water, coming ashore only to nest. They are frequently exposed to even minor spills because of their continual presence on the water. 3) Local spi 11 s i n di stances f rom the col ony (whi ch vary wi th speci es) could wipe out a majority of the breeding population. This could happen directly if adults are oiled or indirectly if hatching success is affected. For example, adults with small amounts of oil on their plum- age might coat their eggs with oil, an event which has been shown to result in a failure of eggs to hatch. 4) If populations are reduced, many years would be required to rebuild populations because alcids have a very low reproduction potential. For example, it has been estimated that 53 years are required for a popula- tion of Common Murres to double its population. 775 Islands are also extensively used by other marine birds and mammals as rest sites and are, therefore, vulnerable throughout the year to the threat of oil. Harbor seals, river otters, and sea otters are all affected by oil in varying degrees and use islands throughout the year. Harlequin Ducks are flightless during much of the time they roost on or near islands and are especially vulnerable in late summer. Gulls and cormorants can fly to avoid spills, but feed on the water and would suffer losses of food and feeding areas. All other island inhabitants would also be affected in varying degrees by oil spills. Suggested References: Bakus, G.J. 1965. Avifauna of San Juan Island and Archipelago, Washington. Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington. 36 p. Everitt, Robert D., Clifford H. Fiscus, and Robert L. DeLong. 1979. Marine mammals of Northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. A report on Investiga- tions Nov. 1, 1977 - Oct. 31, 1978. U.S. NOAA, MESA Puget Sound Project, ERL MESA-41. 191 p. Frazer, D.A. 1975. Breeding biology of the Tufted Puffin (Lunda cirrhata): A review. M.F.R. Prof. Paper, U.W. College of Forest Resources Leschner, Lora L. 1976. The breeding biology of the Rhinoceros Auklet on Destruc- tion Island. M.S. Thesis, U.W. Leslie, P.H. 1966. The intrinsic rate of increase and the overlap of successive generations in a population of guillemots (Uria aalqe Pont.). J. Animal Eco. 35: 291-301 Manuwal, David A., Terence R. Wahl, and Steven M. Spiech. 1979. Seasonal distribu- tion and abundance of marine bird populations in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and northern Puget Sound in 1978. U.S. NOAA, MESA Puget Sound Project, Unpublished manuscript. Schoen, John W. 1969. Mammals of the San Juan Archipelago: Distribution and colo-, nization of native land mammals and insularity in three populations of Peromyscus maniculatus. M.S. Thesis, University of Puget Sound. 119 p. Vermeer, K. and R. Vermeer 1975. Oil threat to birds on the Canadian west coast. Can. Field Nat. 89(3): 278-298 Wilson, Uhlrich W. 1977. A study of the biology of the Rhinoceros Auklet on Protec- tion Island, Washington. M.S. Thesis U.W. 776 Table 713-2. BIRDS REPORTED FROM SAN JUAN ARCHIPELAGO Common Loon Common Merganser Spotted Sandpiper Artic Loon Red-breasted Merganser Wandering Tattler Red-throated Loon Canada Goose Greater Yellowlegs Red-necked Grebe Brant Lesser Yellowlegs Horned Grebe Snow Goose Baird's Sandpiper Eared Grebe Turkey Vulture Least Sandpiper Western Grebe Goshawk Short-billed Dowitcher Pied-billed Grebe Sharp-shinned Hawk Long-billed Dowitcher Short-tailed Albatross Cooper's Hawk Western Sandpiper Fulmar Red-tailed Hawk Sanderling Sooty Shearwater Rough-legged Hawk Dunlin Fork-tailed Petrel Swainson's Hawk Pectoral Sandpiper Double-crested Cormorant Marsh Hawk Northern Phalarope Brandt's Cormorant Osprey Red Phalarope Pelagic Cormorant Peregrine Falcon Pomarine, Jaeger Great Blue Heron Merlin Parasitic Jaeger American Bittern American Kestrel Skua Mallard California Quail Glaucous-winged Gull Pintail Bobwhite Western Gull Green-winged Teal Mountain Quail Herring Gull Blue-winged Teal Chukar California Gull Cinnamon Teal Gray Partridge Ring-billed Gull American:Wigeon Blue Grouse Mew Gull European Wigeon Ruffed Grouse Bonaparte's Gull Gadwall Ring-necked Pheasant Heermann's Gull Wood Duck Sandhill Crane Sabine's Gull Canvasback Virginia Rail Red-legged Kittiwake Greater Scaup Sora Black-legged Kittiwake Lesser Scaup American Coot Common Tern Common Goldeneye Black Oystercatcher Caspian Tern Barrow's Goldeneye American Golden Plover Common Murre Bufflehead Black-bellied Plover Pigeon Guillemot Oldsquaw Semi-palmated Plover Marbled Murrelet Harlequin Duck Killdeer Rhinoceros Auklet White-winged Scoter Rock Sandpiper Tufted Puffin Surf Scoter Surfbird Band-tailed Pigeon Black Scoter Black Turnstone Rock Dove Ruddy Duck Ruddy Turnstone Mourning Dove Hooded Merganser Whimbrel Barn Owl 777 Screech Owl Common Crow Black-throated Gray Warbler Great Horned Owl Chestnut-backed Chickadee Townsend's Warbler Snowy Owl Black-capped Chickadee Hermit Warbler Pygmy Owl Bushtit MacGillivray's Warbler Burrowing Owl Red-breasted Nuthatch Yellowthroat Saw-whet Owl Brown Creeper Wilson's Warbler Common Nighthawk House Wren House Sparrow Black Swift Winter Wren Western Meadowlark Vaux's Swift Bewick's Wren Red-winged Blackbird Rufous Hummingbird Long-billed Marsh Wren Brewer's Blackbird Belted Kingfisher Rock Wren Brown-headed Cowbird Common Flicker Sage Thrasher Western Tanager Pileated Woodpecker American Robin Black-headed Grosbeak Lewis' Woodpecker Varied Thrush Evening Grosbeak Red-breasted Sapsucker Hermit Thrush Purple Finch Hairy Woodpecker Swainson's Thrush House Finch Downy Woodpecker Western Bluebird Cassin's Finch Willow Flycatcher Townsend's Solitaire Pine Siskin Western Flycatcher Golden-crowned Kinglet American Goldfinch Dusky Flycatcher Ruby-crowned Kinglet Red Crossbill Western Wood Pewee Water Pipit Rufous-sided Towhee Skylark Cedar Waxwing Savannah Sparrow Horned Lark Loggerhead Shrike Vesper Sparrow Violet-green Swallow Northern Shrike Dark-eyed Junco Tree Swallow Hutton's Vireo Chipping Sparrow Rough-winged Swallow Solitary Vireo White-crowned Sparrow Barn Swallow Warbling Vireo Lincoln's Sparrow Cliff Swallow Orange-crowned Warbler Golden-crowned Sparrow Purple Martin Nashville Warbler White-throated Sparrow Steller's Jay Yellow Warbler Fox Sparrow Common Raven Yellow-rumped Warbler Song Sparrow 778 TABLE 713-3 -SUMMARY OF MARINE BREEDING BIRD POPULATIONS- NORTHERN PUGET SOUND AND STRAIT OF JUAN DE FUCA, WEST TO TATOOSH ISLAND. (adapted from: Manuwal, David A., Terence R. Wahl, and Steven M. Speich, 1979. Seasonal distribution and abundance of marine bird populations in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Northern Puget Sound in 1978. U.S. NOAA, MESA Puget Sound Project, Unpublished Manuscript.) Total Breeding Population Island or Area Estimated (Pairs) Comment San Juan Islands 5,192 Marine bird nesting occurs on numerous small islands and isolated sites on larger islands. Smith & Minor Isla nds 842 Major breeding site Island County Protection Island 19,137 Refer to Table 713-4 and Text. Northern Areas 653 Port Angeles.Bay 38 Seal and Sail Rocks 60 Tatoosh Island 2,194 Several other outer coast nesting islands occur south of Tatoosh. Other (totals of Pigeon Breeding populations of Murrelets & Gillemots & Marbled 1,807 Guillemots more widely distributed Murrelets which nest in than other species and include scattered locations.) mainland locations. Total 29,204 779 TABLE 713-4 MARINE BIRD BREEDING POPULATIONS OF PROTECTION AND SMITH ISLANDS, INCLUDING A SUMMARY OF SAN JUAN ISLANDS. (From: Manuwal, et al., 1979 and Wilson, Uhlrich, 1977.) Smith Island Protection San Juan (includes Island Islands Minor Island) Number of I Number of Number of Breeding Pairs Breeding Pairs! Species Breeding Pairs Comment Pelagic Cormorant 100 295 297 Refer to Cliff Narrative Double-crested Cormorant 182 Ma. or nest sites subject to boating disturbance and are along oil route. Black Oystercatcher 6 4-6 27 Refer to Rocky Beach Narrative -winged Gull 106 1,500+ Glaucous 3,987 See Text, this narrative Pigeon Guillemot 30 180 580 Refer to Kelp Narrative Marbled Murrelet 116 Refer to Forest Narrative See text, this narrative Rhinoceros Auklet 600 17,108 3i Tufted Puffin (Present) 50 1. 3 Has declined recently; see text this narrative ............................ Total 19,137 5,1 780 CLIFFS (No. 714) INTRODUCTION Cl i f f s are verti cal or near verti cal rock wal I s whi ch occur most often at or near the water's edge along rocky shorelines. They are distinguished from bluffs, which are sometimes vertical walls, but are composed of sand and mixed substrates. We distinguish cliffs from rock outcrops; however, it is often difficult to separate the two. At Mt. Dallas on San Juan Island, the extensive rocky areas defy separation into clearly defined areas based on slope. There- fore, areas mapped as cliff on Mt. Dallas are not entirely sheer rock walls, but also include more gently sloping and flat rock substrate. The entire west Mount Dallas area is an extremely diverse site, with rock as a major factor influencing physical and biological features. Elsewhere, most cliffs are more clearly distinguish- able, such as along Sares Head, near Tongue Point, the south end of Lumimi Island, and Lawrence Point on Orcas Island. These and other cliffs generally lack the partial soil layer present on rock outcrops. Much of the information discussed in the Rock Out- 'crop Narrative (No. 711) is relevant to cliffs. POA PANYPHOLIS However, plants are often restricted to encrusting lichens and those capable of growing in rock crevices and shal I ow soi 1 , i ncl udi ng stonecrop and saxi f rage. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Flora The flora of rocky cliff faces is composed of species adapted to the dry conditions typical of this habitat. Whatever the exposure (north, south, east, or west) shallow soil limited to pockets or ledges insures that water availability will be a factor limiting 781 z _M7 Al. Y.75 -14 IN, 45 5, 4x, IF ft-A . ..... IN OP VI Art 782 which plant species can survive. Cliff faces positioned directly above exposed shores may be sub- jected to salt spray, further increasing drought stress and influencing which species will occur within the spray zone. Succession on cliff faces is relatively simple, limited to pioneering lichens and mosses, and succeeded by the climax community dominated largely by perennial herbs. Many species are quick-growing, flowering early in the spring and remaining dormant through the summer. Occa- sionally trees and shrubs may become established, especially Douglas fir, grand fir, madrona, and ocean spray. These species are typically dwarfed, and rarely if ever dominate the plant community. W. C. Meunscher, in The Flora of Whatcom County, mentions the following species as common on cliffs and ledges along the seashore: Field chickweed, broadleaf stonecrop, smallflower fringecup, pomo-celery lomatium, shooting star, large-flowered blue-eyed Mary, dwarf owlclover, and rosy plectritis. Other species common on cliff faces throughout the coastal zone include Wallace's selaginella, licorice fern, small-leaf alumroot, Sitka valerian, checker lily, and naked broomrape. Due to their, inaccessibility, and because cliff habitat is a relative uncommon type in coastal Washington, little study has been devoted to the composition and dynamics of cliffside plant com- munities. As a result, spoonwort a small mustard apparently restricted to the salt spray zone on cliffs along the outer coast, has been reported only rarely in western Washington-, this may reflect the activities of local botanists more than the true distribution and abundance of the species. Three plant species with very restricted distributions in Washington occur on seacliffs. Pigmy-weed has been reported from the cliffs at Deadman Bay, San Juan County, seacliff bluegrass from the sea- cliffs near Ilwaco, Pacific County, and Tracy's mistmaiden from Clallam and Pacific counties. All three species are being considered for rare or endangered status. Fauna Vegetation is often sparse due to the lack of horizontal surfaces and extensive soil development and animals inhabiting cliffs are restricted by the lack of vegetation and a firm footho ,1 d. However, cliffs function much like islands because few predators can climb the "sea"'of sheer rock. Several birds and an occasional mammal have adapted to the rigors of cliff dwelling in response to this protection, and perhaps to the competition for limited space on "true" islands. Mainland cliffs offer much the same protection as island cliffs, so these cliff nesters also are able to to use sites throughout the coastal zone where suitable breeding habitat occurs. However, islands still provide much of the cliff nesting habitat, perhaps because disturbance excludes use of some mainland cliffs as nest sites. 783 N4 z@ Qg IWO Cliff Nesters Pelagic Cormorant Pelagic Cormorants are the smallest of three Washington cormorants and are easily recognized in the breeding season by the presence of white patches on their flanks. The rest of the body is a green glossed black except for a red pouch just under the long, slender bill. Pelagic Cormorants may nest on a more gentle slope, but of the three species, they are most likely to nest on a cliff face. When all three occur together, Pelagics nest on cliff faces, Brandt's on gentle slopes, and Double-crested on cliff tops. The narrow nest ledges offer little room and birds often land and take off facing the cliff, being unable to turn around. Three to seven long, bluish eggs are laid in nests constructed mostly of seaweed. Preference for seaweed has been noted in several areas includ- ing Northern California where recent observation indicated use of seaweed even when vascular plants were available nearby. Fork-tailed Storm Petrels Petrels typically nest in burrows, however, Fork-tails have been observed nesting in natural rock crevices. Petrels are small, swallow-like birds, which are rarely seen in sight of land. Feeding occurs during daylight 784 at sea where they may move as far as 357 miles (600 oi 1 , despite the 1 ack of recent major spi I I s. Oi 1 km) on foraging trips. Because of their small size is continually pumped from bilges and spilled in (8-9"), petrels are susceptible to predation at small quantities. Murres are continually on the nesting colonies from several species, including water and often raft in large flocks. Contact with gul I s. They return to nests at ni ght to avoi d preda- oil is, therefore, more frequent than for birds which tion and it is thought that the musky smell of their roost ashore like cormorants, or are not as adapted burrows may guide the parent to the nest site. The to aquatic life such as gulls. Major oil spills only known nest sites in Washington occur along the pose a very serious threat to many marine birds; outer coast where an estimated 1,900 pairs breed on Common Murres are among those most highly threatened. the Bodelteh Island group. Pigeon Guillemot Common Murre Another member of the family Alcidae, Pigeon Guille- Common Murres occur throughout the coastal zone, but mots nest in a variety of situations including rock breeding islands are restricted to the outer coast, cliffs. They are unlike most other alcids in their where approximately 12,000 pairs nest on several usual lack of colonial nesting. They are probably islands protected by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- the only alcid which nests on the mainland, where vice. Despite the fact that these island are pro- they most frequently nest in shallow burrows along tected and nest sites are along inaccessible cliffs, steep bluffs. Murres are particularly vulnerable to human disturb- ance, Like other members of the family Alcidae, murres are highly adapted to an aquatic existence. Children often mistake them for penguins, but the mistake is an intuitive recognition of convergent features. In fact, murres and other alcids are the northern hemi- sphere's equivalent to the penquins of southern regions. You might, therefore, say that murres are northern penguins which have not lost the ability to fly. They even stand erect while on land, penguin- fashion. The high degree of adaptability to water is expressed in the Murres' body shape; legs are set well back, wings adapted to swimming, and by the fact they only come ashore to breed. Because of this, they are LILLAF-A EEE_CTA highly susceptible to oil pollution and are often seen along the coast emersed in a deadly coat of 785 Common Raven Ravens nest in trees and on cliff faces where a stick nest is constructed. Breeding status along the coastal zone is not well known and should be investi- gated. Known or suspected nest sites should be reported to the Washington Game Department nongame species program. Cliff Swallows Appropriately named, the Cliff Swallow uses cliff faces as substrate to attach its gourd-shaped mud nest. Like Barn Swallows, they also nest on man-made structures. They are one of the very few organisms that have adapted to bridges and building, using the sides as nest sites. They may nest singly, but more often in colonies of up to several hundred. Black Swift Swallow-like, the swifts spend much of their time in flight and are highly adapted for aerial pursuit of insects. Their longer, sickle-shaped wings distin- guish them from swallows. They feed on flying insects Cliff nests are placed in crevices where one or two which are captured on the wing, sometimes incredible white to greenish, dark spotted eggs are laid. Their distances away from nestlings awaiting in protected bright, orange-red feet are a distinguishing feature cliff ledge nests. During summer storms, they might of these black seabirds with white wing patches. fly from nest sites several hundred miles until Since they breed throughout the coastal zone, Pigeon favorable weather is encountered. They return to Guillemots are the most observable nesting seabirds. the nest when the storm is over and feed the young The sight of orange feet amidst a blur of black and which survive without food due to lower metabolism, white flying into a cliff or bluff nest is a valuable an adaptation allowing the young to be raised in wildlife experience which can be enjoyed from south- alternating periods of plenty and shortage. ern Puget Sound to the outer coast. Black Swifts are known to nest under waterfalls, on Guillemots feed close to shore near the nest site mountain cliffs, and along coastal cliffs. Breeding and can be observed at fairly close distances flying status along the coastal zone is unknown, but they to and from the nest carrying single fish to their have been observed along cliffs near Tongue Point in 736 young. Clallam County. Peregrine Falcon The Peregrine Falcon has long been a symbol of superior speed and power among those who practice the King's sport of falconry. Peregrines fly, then swoop dramatically on other birds which they literally knock out of the sky with clenched talons. Swirling, they often fly back to snatch their prey from mid-air before it falls to the ground. Unfortunately, the Peregrine Falcon is an endangered species due to the accumulation of pesticides concentrated in prey species which include marine birds. A very few cliff nests are known in Washington, all of which require strict protection not only because they are rare but because falconers still seek these birds for sport. Apart from the few breeding falcons in Washington, migrants also occur which require protection and suitable habitat. This includes protection of known roosting sites and wintering areas. All areas supporting Peregrines should be identified, however, much discretion is applied to release of information concerning this sensitive species. As stated, nests are especially vulnerable. Wintering or foraging sites are also vulnerable to a variety of potential impacts. In general, areas supporting large concentrations of water birds are potential Peregrine Falcon habitat. Seabird nesting islands are also favored falcon habitat. Protection Island in Jefferson County is an area where Peregrines have been observed. Several thousand seabirds nest here and offer potential prey. Unfortunately, development threatens much of the island and may limit use of the island by falcons. X4 11GIS c-repl inus, -3, N4@ ""r, 'z 7V" - 12 12 12 2 X", 'i A "'WE Mg Zhg@l 4 A@ 5 71 OMP Ow 787 FORKTAI LEV STORM PETRELe IMPACTS As illustrated by the examples of nesting birds, cliffs provide valuable and protected habitat for several species. All iden- tified nesting areas require protection from most human activ- ity, especially during the breeding season. Little is known about breeding distribution of several species, therefore, all cliff areas should be regarded as potential nest sites and be provided adequate protection. Cliffs are potential sites for rock quarries, however, coastal areas are too valuable for marine birds to allow rock extrac- tion. It is fairly common to find a road at the base of a cliff. This may have an impact on the plant community by providing access for collectors, and on the animal community if road activity is above the tolerance level of cliff dwelling species. The principal value of cliffs does not lie in commercial exploitation, but rather in their esthetic values and wildlife habitat. 788 6B C, -TAW Nz- WIT Aip, g- kya@3 N dim,* 4 77, -.7-9 790 Deception Pass State Park, Whidbey Island SAND (No. 72) The sand classification was used for areas in which sand or aqqreqate comprises approximately 30 percent or more of exposed surface areas. These include Sand Islands (No. 72.1), Sand Dunes (No. 722), Slide (No. 723), and Sand and/or Gravel Bar (No. 724). SAND ISLANDS (No. 721) Includes: Vegetated Sand Island 7211 Nonvegetated Sand Island 7212 Sand Islands are generally small, nonrocky islands which occur in protected bays or estuaries. They differ from sand and gravel bars in that surface areas occur which are above mean high water. Refer to the Rock Island Narrative (No. 731) for significant features of islands in Washington's coastal zone. Sand islands share a majority of these features. The following points distinguish sand islands from others, or are characteristic of notable sand islands: w Sand islands typically occur in more protected locations than rock islands and are, by definition, composed of less stable material. They are often subjected to periodic shifting as a result, especially when they form at mouths of rivers. For example, Sand Island at the mouth of the Columbia River has shifted considerably to the north and east. Because of this natural instability and shifitng, considerable energy has been expended to control erosion and accretion processes in the Columbia River. w Plant communities are generally restricted to beach grasslands. Refer to the Beach Grassland Narrative (No. 312) for a discussion of associated features and species. a Animal species diversity is not as great as on rock islands because of the limited vegetative structure. However, the value of breeding and haul- out sites for marine mammals and nesting and resting areas for birds is significant. Sand Islands in Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor are excellent examples of major harbor seal hauling out areas and breeding grounds include 791 lower elevation shoals (sand and/or gravel bars). Suggested References: In Grays Harbor, as many as 1,400 harbor seals 1 center their activity around the Sand Island shoals. Penland, Stephen T. 1976. The natural history This may be the largest harbor seal breeding colony and current status of the Caspian Tern (Hydro- in Washington and Oregon. Examples of breeding progne caspia) in Washington State. Unpublished birds on sand islands in these areas are summarized Master's Thesis, University of Puget Sound, in Table 721-1. These islands are especially impor- Tacoma, Wn. 101 p. tant for Caspian Terns which have been considered as being potentially threatened with extinction in 1. (Consult Penland's thesis for management Washington. recommendations and assessment of potential Caspian Tern nesting colonies in eastern Washington, threats to Caspian Terns.) in Oregon, and in coastal California have already declined or disappeared due to human interference and development. It has been suggested that Caspian Tern nesting colonies be set aside as natural pre- serves and that controlled access to the islands be in effect during their breeding season, from March 15 to September 1. Table 721-1 EXAMPLES OF BREEDING BIRD USE OF SAND ISLANDS IN WASHINGTON'S COASTAL ZONE Nesting Island Location Species Present Comment Whitcomb Island Grays Harbor Caspian Tern Largest known Caspian Tern colony in Washington Glaucous-winged Gull (an estimated 1,240 breeding pairs in 1976). Western Gull Washington is the northern limit of breeding Hybrid Western X range of Caspian Tern in the Pacific Northwest. Glaucous-winged Gulls One of only two known nesting sites of Ring- Ring-billed Gulls billed Gulls in western Washington. Goose Island Grays Harbor Glaucous-winged Gull Caspian Terns once nested on the island. Western Gull (Approx. 1,000 pairs nested in 1973; birds were Hybrid Western X absent in 1976.) Gull competition and loss of Glaucous-winged Gulls nesting habitat due to erosion are proposed causes. Sand Island Gray's Harbor Caspian Tern Terns first discovered nesting in 1976. Glaucous-winged Gull Western Gull Hybrid Western X Glaucous-winged Gulls Unnamed Island Willapa Bay Caspian Tern First recorded nesting site of Ring-billed on Ellen Sands Glaucous-winged Gull Gulls in western Washington (1976). Western Gull Western X Glaucous- winged Gull Hybrids Ring-billed Gulls 793 AERIAL PHOTO OF LEADBETTER POINT, PACIFIC COUNTY TWT7 R FV@ J. IL SAND DUNES (No. 722) INTRODUCTION Sand dunes were mapped at only three locations along the coast (excluding Grays Harbor County): Cattle Point on San Juan Island (San Juan County), at Deception Pass on Whidbey Island (Island County), and on the Long Beach Peninsula (Pacific County). The Long Beach dunes are by far the largest, covering approximately 19 miles along the peninsula, the northernmost 3 miles of which are within the Willapa National Wildlife Refuge at Lead- better Point. The Cattle Point site covers 98.6 acres (40 ha) and is within San Juan National Historic Park, and the 26.4 acre (10.7 ha) Whid- bey Island site is in Deception Pass State Park. Dunes are formed by the interaction of sediment supply, wind, and vegeta- tion. The structure of dune formations may be quite complex, and numer- ous descriptive terms are used to define various areas as shown in Figure 722-1. Long Beach Peninsula dunes are the best developed of the three sites and the formation here can be divided into three major zones- 1) Foredune 2) Unstabilized 1),ines 3) Stabilized Dunis A fourth zone, the dune forest, is often considered in accounts of dune communities and will be discussed in the Coniferous Forest Narrative (No. 41, Conifer Forest), Sand beaches are also an associated habitat which should be referred to (No. 63, Sand Beach). Specific zones present at each of the Washington sites are presented in Table 722-1. Table 722-1. S, 3nes of the Dune Community Present at Three Coastal Wab-ngton Sites. Beach Foredune Unstabilized Dunes Stabilized Dunes Dune Forest Cattle Point cobble X Deception Pass sand/gravel X x with wet hollows x with wet hollows X Long Beach sand X x with wet hollows x with wet hollows X Peninsula 795 The Deception Pass dunes also represent a well-developed dune formation. A dune wildrye-dominated foredune is present, and areas of unstabillized and stabilized dunes are interspersed with one another, the stabilized areas supporting small patches of forest. The impact of heavy use is obvious in some areas, although efforts are being made to minimize these disturbances through the construction of path- ways and interpretive displays. The San Juan Island site is highly unusual in that sediments are derived from upland, rather than marine sources. This site is severely altered by rabbits and will be discussed in more detail in the impacts section. BEACH FORE DUNE UNSTABILIZED DUNE STABILIZED DUNE DUNE FOREST DUNE HILLOCKSS SHIFTING DUNE NATURE DUNE DUNE WOODLAND SYNONYMS PRIMARY DUNES BACK DUNE SECONDARY DUNES Figure:722-1 Zonation and some physical characteristics of sand dune communities SEDIMENT CHARACTERISTICS:COARSE SOIL HUMUS CONTENT AND WATER-RETENTION: CAPACITY EXPOSURE TO BLOWING SAND AND SALT SPRAY: 796 PLANT DENSITY : SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Plant Communities The characteristic role of vegetation in the dune s ystem is stabilization. This role is effectively accomplished by the prostrate growth form of many of he species, and the binding of the upper sand layer by the network of roots and rhizomes. Another func- tion is the acceleration of sand deposition as a result of reduced wind speed over the vegetated sur- face of dunes. Man-made barriers have been used in attempts to stabilize dunes, but often become buried by sand and cease to function. Dune vegetation, on the other hand, grows with the developing dune, and plant communities change as dune formation proceeds. The dune system may be divided into three major zones as depicted in Figure 722-1 and described below: 1) Foredune: Immediately above high tide line, all the previously mentioned species except sea environmental conditions are very unfavorable for rocket, which is usually restricted to the foredune. plant growth. Unstable substrate, low nutrient sup- Vegetative cover is not dense enough to stabilize ply, lack of water, salt spray, and abrasion from the sand, and dunes in this zone are constantly blowing sand are major selective factors, and only a shifting, subjecting plants to burial or uprooting. few plant species have adapted to this harsh environ- ment. Typical species found nearest the beach are There are two major micro-environments in the unstab- dune wildrye, seashore bluegrass, European beachgrass, ilized dune zone. One is the environment on the top and sea rocket. As individuals become established, and sides of each individual dune. Here, exposure loose sand is stabilized by their extensive, spread- is great, subjecting plants to strong winds, low -water ing root systems, and blowing sand is deposited around supply, and shifting substrate. The second is the the bases of the plants, slowly accumulating and area between the dunes, referred to as the dune forming low mounds. Beyond these embryo dunes, plant hollow or dune slack. These low spots are usually density increases, resulting in increased rates of at or near the water table and often have standing deposition and stabilization, and enviro-nmental con- water for several months of the year. As a conse- ditions are modified to the extent that several quence, marsh and swamp species are characteristic additional species become established. of dune hollows, in striking contrast to the drought- tolerant species on the dune proper. Vegetation is 2) Unstabilized Dunes: Beyond the foredune, beach sparse in these hollows as it is throughout the strawberry, bighead sedge, sea purslane, beach unstablized dunes, but includes pioneers of the wet- morning-glory, sand verbena, and sandmat occur with land community that subsequently develops. 797 3) Stabilized Dunes: Between the unstabilized dunes and the dune forest lie the stabilized dunes. This is an area of nearly solid vegetation cover, supporting many plant species on the dune proper and in the dune hollows. In addition to previously mentioned species, seaside tansy, seashore lupine, red fescue, licorice fern, black knotweed, and sea thrift are common on the dunes. Kinnickin- nick, a low, mat-forming shrub occurs near the forested upland. Env-ironmental conditions may be modified sufficiently to allow up- land species to become established. At Leadbetter Point, Western red cedar and red alder were both observed in the stablized dune area. Both species were dwarfed and had saltburned branch tips, reflecting the rigors of life in this exposed habitat. Dune hollows support dense stands of slough sedge, rushes, and Pacific silverweed. Shrubs occurring in these wet spots include twinberry, spiraea, and Hooker's willow. Tree seedlings become frequent at the inland margin of the stabil- ized dune. On the Long Beach Penninsula, shore pine was the only species observed. At Deception Pass, Sitka spruce, grand fir, and Douglas fir dominate the dune forest and seedlings of all three occur throughout the dunes. Endemic Plant Species The flora of Washington dunes and beach grasslands includes the following species endemic to the Pacific coast, and restricted to these habitats: yellow sand verbena (Abronia latifol.ia) pink sand verbena (A. umbellata) coastline bluegrass (Poa confinis) seashore bluegrass (P. macrantha) seashore lupine (LupTnLFs littoralis) beach peavine (Lathyrus littoralis) silver bursage (Ambrosia chamissonis) black knotweed (Polygonum paronychia) northern dune tansy (Tanacetum douglasii) 798 Fauna Animals associated with Washington dunes follow much of the same changes as vegetation progresses from embryo dune to backdune areas. These changes are primarily in response to the increasing plant divers- ity, cover, and complexity in each of the three zones previously described. In general, there is an increase in numbers of animal species as zones change from embryo dunes, to stabilized dunes, to the highly diverse fauna of dune forests. Adjacent cover types, wet spots within the dunes, and other micro- habitats unique to each site also add to faunal diversity within the dune environment. Major cover types and associated fauna are mentioned here, but are discussed in more detail in separate narratives. For discussion of the overlap and interrelationships between high intertidal beach zones, embryo dunes, and dune formations refer especially to the Conifer Forest Narrative (No. 41) for dune forest species, Freshwater Marsh Narratives (Nos. 621 and 622) for species associated with dune hollows, and the Sand Beach Narrative (No. 636). Additional features of each of the three Washington sites create distinctive conditions for the variety of wildlife they share in common, and furthermore for species unique to each dune location. Long Beach Peninsula dunes, which include Leadbetter Point, are known as one of the most outstanding bird watching areas in Washington. Dune fauna at this site is strongly influenced by the ocean beach, extensive salt marsh, complex of dune forest, swamps, dune hollows, and the rich waters of nearby Willapa Bay. One of the unusual breeding birds is the Snowy Plover, which nests here and in Grays Harbor County. These restricted dune nest sites are the northernmost breeding sites of these shorebirds along the Pacific Coast and the only known nest sites in Washington. Other unusual breeding birds may include Ring-necked Ducks, Northern Shovelers, Blue-winged Teal, and Cinnamon Teal which are known to nest in dune hollows on the Oyehut Penninsula in Grays Harbor County. Studies have shown ponds in these dunes to be productive breeding sites for other waterfowl including Mallards and Green-winged Teal. Additional birds reported to occur at Leadbetter Point by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are listed in Table 722-2. Mammals in this area include Townsend's voles which are an abundant source of prey for Marsh Hawks and coyotes. Other mammals include black bears which forage on the dunes and retreat to dune forests for cover. Deer, raccoons, and deer mice also occur. Rabbit sign has also been noted at Leadbetter Point, however, they appear to be uncommon and not a threat to dune plant communities as the European rabbits are on San Juan Island. The San Juan Island dune sites are adjacent to the open grassland which dominates the southern tip of the island. These two areas are structurally similar and fauna is typified by ground dwellers (rabbits) and birds of prey (Bald Eagles, Golden Eagles, Red-tailed Hawks and others). Rabbits have severely altered vegetation in the dunes as discussed in the impacts section. 799 Whidbey Island dunes lie between the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Cranberry Lake, one of a very few lakes within the coastal zone (as defined in this inventory). This site is a fascinating wildlife area as a result of the diversity of upland, marine, and freshwater habitats present. Characteristic Species Many of the Leadbetter Point birds listed in Table 722-2 occur at other dune locations. Several of these species are characteristic of dunes and other open habitats such as grasslands, meadows, and sandy beaches. The list also includes species inhabiting dune forests and some which are restricted to open waters adjacent to the dunes. Others occur only in marshy areas of dune hollows. They are all included because of the interrelationships of each of these habitats and associated species. For example, Common Flickers are often thought of as forest birds, but are common on dunes where they forage on the ground, drift logs, and on shore pines. Bushtits forage and possibly nest in Hooker's willows in the dune hollows, and chickadees search for insects in willows and advancing shore pines. Open water birds and intertidal foragers such as shorebirds rest in dunes, fly by, or are preyed upon by other dune inhabitants. Species most often associated with dunes are those which inhabit the more open and exposed fore- dunes. Some nest locally, while others are winter visitors from their northern tundra breeding grounds. Representative examples are discussed below: Snowy Plover Snowy Plovers are small (6-7"; 15-18 cm.) relatives of the familiar Killdeer. They are distin- guished by their pale color which blends perfectly with the sandy habitat they choose for nest sites. Their distribution is worldwide, but occur only along river banks, on coral beaches, or in sand dunes. The northern breeding range extends along the Pacific Coast to Washington and our only known 'coastal nesting birds occur at Leadbetter Point and in Grays Harbor County. They are especially vulnerable to disturbance because of their restricted nesting habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has posted Leadbetter Point breeding habitat to prevent destruction of nest sites. Other dune areas should also be protected to preserve existing and potential nest sites of these uncommon shorebirds. %_3 0 0 Lapland Longspur These sparrow-like birds breed in arctic tundra and occasionally winter along our 'coast. They occur in flocks with Snow Buntings and Horned Larks and have been recorded as uncommon to rare at Leadbetter Point. They should be looked for at other dune sites. Snow Bunting Snow Buntings are also sparrow-like birds of the tundra which sometimes appear in mixed flocks along dunes and sandy beaches in winter. The summer male is all white except for a patch of black on its back. Both sexes are distinguished from similar birds in winter by their large white wing patches. Snow Buntings are considered uncommon at Leadbetter Point. Another bunting, McKay's, has recently been observed in the Ocean Shores vicinity. This was the first recorded sighting in Washington of this northern bird which nests on small islands in the Bering Sea. Horned Lark Horned Larks are more common than the species mentioned above and are characteristic birds of open habitats including dunes and open grasslands. They likely occur at all three dune sites, and are known to nest in open grasslands adjacent to the San Juan dunes. The birds occurring on the Long Beach Penninsula comprise a distinct subspecies, recognized by their redder beak and yellower face. IMPACTS Sand dune formations are dependent upon the deposition of erosion sedi- ments by longshore currents for their source material. The San Juan Island dunes are an exception in that sediments here are derived from upland sources deposited during the last glaciation. The general area supplying sediments for the other sites discussed are: Deception Pass Dunes: Sandy eroding bluffs to the south. Long Beach Penninsula: Erosion sediments from the Columbia River. 801 Housing Construction on the dunes is causing considerable As a result of this dependency, any action altering destruction of large areas along the Long Beach Pen- the supply of sediments will impact dune formations. insula. Losses due to expanded resort and home con- Human activities on dunes with adequate sediment struction is particularly regrettable in view of the supply may also be destructive. All three Washi ton fact that on the Long Beach Penninsula and south for sites show the effects of overuse or abusive ac,,,vi- 18 miles into Oregon is the only sizeable area on ties. Sand dunes are fragile areas, the stabilization the Oregon and Washington coast with a parallel afforded by vegetation easily disrupted, often with ridge dune system (sand ridges running parallel long-lasting effects. Destruction of the plant cover to the shore). may cause succession to revert to its earliest stages, and can lead to the destruction of larger areas by Introduced Species changing wind flow patterns. Two introduced species which have had pronounced Recreation impacts on Washington dunes are European beachgrass and European rabbits. Recreational use of the beach and dunes is very heavy on the Long Beach Peninsula, a popular resort area. European beachgrass (also referred to as "marram grass") is native to northwestern Europe and has Hiking is a tolerable recreational use of the dune been widely planted in the northern hemisphere be- communit , but trails should be established to avoid cause of its superior abilities as a sandbinder. y excessive trampling of vegetation. Construction of Lateral root development is stimulated by the slow artificial walkways, as has been done at Deception burial of aerial stems, making it especially well Pass State Park, is desirable if large numbers of adapted to the embryo and unstabilized dune areas. people visit a given dune location. The wal kway Introduced in 1869, at San Francisco, European beach- will minimize trampling and can also be used as an grass has spread the length of our coast and is now educational pathway through the dune community. abundant on the Long Beach Peninsula, less so at Deception Pass, and lacking at Cattle Point. The Off-road vehicle use is not a tolerable use of dunes. introduction of this exotic species has had a pro- Throughout the dunes, especially near populated areas, found effect on the character of the dune flora. scenes similar to Figure 722-2 are common. California studies show that species diversity is depressed on European beachgrass dow'nated foredunes, Such destructive activity is certainly facilitated with adjacent wildrye dominated fo edunes supporting by the fact that driving on the beach along the Long twice as many species. Beach Penninsula is permitted and encouraged by the maintenance of access sites. This off-road travel The European rabbit has greatly modified the San is also detrimental to razor clam beds, a potential Juan Island dune site and plays a major role in main- hazard to beach recreation, and a disruption to wild- taining and expanding existing dunes. Canada thistle life. Especially vulnerable are the small numbers and bracken fern, common weeds throughout western of nesting Snowy Plovers at Leadbetter Point. Washington, dominate the area and it appears that 802 rabbits are inhibiting the establishment of typical dune vegetation. Rabbits have been observed to create new dune areas along Cattle Point by removing vegeta- tion and exposing sand soil layers. The sand is then shifted by the wind, thus creating active dunes which cover surrounding open grassland vegetation. The San Juan rabbit population provides a substan- tial source of food for birds of prey including Bald Eagles, however, their destructive effects on plant communities must be considered in management deci- sions affecting the Cattle Point area. Sand Removal On the Long Beach Peninsula, sand re- moval from the beach is a common practice, primarily for two purposes: For use as fill in the creation of cranberry bogs, building sites, and septic tank drainfields; and for the maintenance of an ocean view. In areas where large amounts of sand are re- moved, or sand removal continues for an extended period, recent studies indicate that growth of the foredune may be slowed in the vicinity. Removal of the foredune for view maintenance not only destroys the plant and animal community in the immediate area, but exposes the residence to winter storm waves and allows sand to blow through the opening, possibly to accumulate around buildings and roadways. Driftwood Removal With the aid of chain saws and four-wheel drive vehicles, driftwood removal is undoubtedly proceeding at a faster rate than ever before. As driftwood is incorporated into the build- ing foredune, it stabilizes the sand and as it slowly decays, adds organic matter to the slowly developing soil. The removal of driftwood exposes the foredune to wave action, and increases the vulnerability of the foredune to erosion by wind and waves. 803 00 C:) 4@- Table 722-2 BIRDS OF LEADBETTER POINT Season/Relative Abundance Known to nest in area (Leadbetter Species Spring, Summer. Fal I Winter. (or Oyehut) Western Grebe c r c c Northern Fulmar r r u Pink-footed Shearwater u Sooty Shearwater u c a Short-tailed Shearwater r r Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel r Brown Pelican u r Double-crested Cormorant C c c c Brandt's Cormorant c u c c Pelagic Cormorant c u c c Great Blue Heron c c c c x American Bittern r u u r Whistling Swan c c Trumpeter Swan u c Canada Goose c c c c x Brant a u a Emperor Goose r r White-fronted Goose u u Snow Goose u u u Mallard c c c c x Gadwall c r c c Pintail c u a c x Green-winged Teal c u c u x Blue-winged Teal u r u u x Cinammon Teal r r r r x American Wigeon c r a c Northern Shoveler u r u c x Wood Duck u c c u x Ring-necked Duck U c U x White-winged Scoter c u a a Surf Scoter c u c a Common Merganser 6 u U C Turkey Vulture r u Goshawk u r r c x Sharp-shinned Hawk u u c Cooper's Hawk u u u c Red-tailed Hawk u u c c x Swainson's Hawk r r Rough-legged Hawk u u c Golden Eagle r r Bald Eagle u u u u x Marsh Hawk u u c c x Peregrine Falcon u u r Merlin r u u American Kestrel u r u c Osprey u M MM M MM M M M M M mm.m Ruffed Grouse c c c c x Ring-necked Pheasant c c c c x Sandhill Crane r Virginia Rail u u u u x Sora u c c x Semipalmated Plover c r C u Snowy Plover u u r x Killdeer c c c c x American Golden Plover u u r Black-bellied Plover c r c c Surfbird u u r Ruddy Turnstone u u r Black Turnstone u u c Black Oystercatcher u r u Common Snipe c u C u x Long-billed Curlew u u Whimbrel c c u Spotted Sandpiper c u c u Wandering Tattler u u Willet, r r r Greater Yellowlegs c u c u Lesser Yellowlegs c u c c Red Knot u r u r Sharp-tailed Sandpiper r r Pectoral Sandpiper u c u Baird's Sandpiper u u Least Sandpiper a u a a Dunlin a u a a Short-billed Dowitcher u u Long-billed Dowitcher a u a a Stilt Sandpiper r r Semipalmated Sandpiper r r Western Sandpiper a c a a Buff-breasted Sandpiper r r Marbled Godwit r u Sanderling c u c a Red Phalarope r r Wilson's Phalarope r Northern Phalarope u u Parasitic Jaeger r u u Long-tailed Jaeger r Glaucous Gull u u u Glaucous-winged Gull c u c c Western Gull c u c c Herring Gull c u c a Thayer's Gull u u u California Gull u c c u Ring-billed Gull c u c c x Mew Gull c r c c Bonaparte's Gull c c u Heermann's Gull u u c c 00 C:) co CD Table 722-2 (Cont.) BIRDS OF LEADBETTER POINT Season/Relative Abundance Known to nest in area (Leadbetter Species Spring, Summe Fall Winter, or Oyehut) Black-legged Kittiwake u c u Sabine's Gull r r Common Tern r u c Arctic Tern r u Caspian Tern u u Common Murre c u c Pigeon Guillemot c u c Marbled Murrelet r r Cassin's Auklet r Rhinoceros Auklet r r Tufted Puffin r r Screech Owl c c C c x Snowy Owl r r Common Flicker a a c c x Pileated Woodpecker u c u r Red-breasted Sapsucker u u u u Hairy Woodpecker c c c c x Downy Woodpecker u u u u Western Wood Pewee u u u Horned Lark u u r Violet-green Swallow c c c x Tree Swallow c c u r Bank Swallow u u Rough-winged Swallow c c u r Barn Swallow c c u x Cliff Swallow c c u x Steller's Jay c c c c x Scrub Jay r r r r Common Crow u u u U x Black-capped Chickadee c u c c x Chestnut-backed Chickadee c c c a x Bushtit u u u u x Red-breasted Nuthatch c c c c x Brown Creeper u u u u x Winter Wren c c c c x Bewick's Wren c c u u x American Robin q c c a x Varied Thrush c u c a Hermit Thrush u u u u Swainson's Thrush c c u x Western Bluebird u r u u Golden-crowned Kinglet C u c c x Ruby-crowned Kinglet u u u Water Pipit u u u Cedar Waxwing c u c u x Northern Shrike u u c Starl i ng c c c c x Hutton's Vireo u u u u x Solitary Vireo u u u x Warbling Vireo u u u x Oregon-crowned Wabler c u x Nashville Warbler u c u x Yellow-rumped Warbler c c C u x Black-throated Gray Warbler c u c x Townsend's Warbler u X MacGillivray's Warbler u u x Common Yellowthroat u u u x Wilson's Warbler u c u x Western Meadowlark c c u x Yellow-headed Blackbird r r Red-winged Blackbird c c u u Brewer's Blackbird a c c a Brown-headed Cowbird c c u c x Western Tanager c c x Black-headed Grosbeak u u X Evening Grosbeak C u c u Purple Finch u u u u House Finch C u u c x Common Redpoll u u Pine Siskin c u c a x American Goldfinch a u c a x Red Crossbill t u u c x Rufous-sided Towhee u u c c x Savannah Sparrow u c u r x Dark-eyed Junco c c c a x Chipping Sparrow u u u White-crowned Sparrow c u u C x Golden-crowned Sparrow C u C Fox Sparrow u u c Song Sparrow C c c c x Lapland Longspur u u r Snow Bunting u 1 a abundant c common u uncommon r rare co C) -4 I FIGURE 722- 2 Destruction of the vegetative cover by careless use Off Road Vehicles, Long Beach Peninsula, Pacific Cojtf@ AL, k@ i6 PAW x", PS NX-".@ 07- IWIM 808 Suggested References: Boorman, 1. 1, 1111* land Dunes in: Barnes, R, S, K. (ed . ) The Coastl i ne. John Wiley & Sons. 161-197. Carefoot, Thomas. 1977. Pacific Seashores - A Guide to Intertidal Ecolo University of Washing- ton Press. 208 pp. McHarg, Ian L. 1969. Desi n With Nature. Doubleday & Co. , Inc. New York. 198 pp. Phipps, James B. and John M. Smith. 1978. Coastal Accretion and Erosion in Southwest Wash5n@ton. Wa/DOE/CA/78-12. 75 pp. Wiedemann, A. M. et al. 1969. Plants of the Oregon Coastal Dunes. Oregon State University Book- store Inc. Corvallis, Oregon. 17 pp. Fred Stevens of San Juan Environmental Studies kindly provided information concerning San Juan rabbits. SLIDE (NO. 723) Slide's are areas of sand or gravel substrates which drop from steep slopes, leaving a scar at the source and producing an accumulation of substrate at the base. 809 SAND AND/OR GRAVEL BAR (No. 724) Sand or sand and gravel bars (also referred to as shoals) are intertidal de- posits which are covered at mean high water. Sediments forming bars are deposited as a result of longshore drift, and tend to be unstable, particularly when no gravel is present. This instability results in a constant shifting of sand bars, and sand and gravel bars may shift if wave energy is strong enough. Most of this shifting assumes a seasonal pattern. The constant shifting of, sand bars creates harsh conditions under which few invertebrates and essentially no algae (except a few microscopic algae) can survive. Thus the few animals present must rely heavily on foods brought in by the tides. Bars of sand and gravel, and occasionally some cobble, are more stable than pure sand bars, and tend to contain a greater diversity and abundance of invertebrates and, in some cases, seaweeds. Organisms present are typical of those found in mixed fine beaches (refer to Narrative No. 635), and often con- tain large numbers of littleneck, butter, and horse clams. Use of sand or sand and gravel bars by birds and marine mammals is limited by the amount of time such bars are covered by water during high tides. However, they often provide extremely important resting areas when uncovered. For example, the bars within Grays Harbor centered around Sand Island are key haul- out sites for the largest known breeding population (approximately 1,400 animals) of harbor seals in Washington and Oregon. Harbor seals haul out on bars in many other locations throughout the coastal zone, including Skagit and Padilla Bays. In summer months seals may give birth to and nurse pups on these bars as well as using them as rest sites throughout the year. Bird use of sand or sand and gravel bars is not limited to resting. Gulls and shorebirds are among the more common birds which do loaf here, but many also feed on shoals, especially shorebirds. 310 AM- 'lot 041' 1 co I I I I CO-170 @;- Phi,:, an imPor I f _ fi d shorebi I (Magnified 20-x) I 1 7/1 I I - I I Spit in the northwest corner of Sequim Bay, Clallam County, enclosing Paradise Cove. 2 Al VA Z*",t MAMW RA 75 814 SPIT (No. 74) includes: Vegetated Spit (No. 741) Non-vegetated Spit (No. 742) L INTRODUCTION Spits are shoreforms created when sediments are deposited by wind and water currents. Sources include sand or gravel eroded from bluffs and cliffs, and sediment transported by rivers. Spits are frequently curvilinear in shape with a wave- built berm and cobble or other coarse substrates on the outer (exposed) side, and a more gently sloping inner (protected) side. These protective barriers frequently provide condi- tions for mudflats, lagoons, and salt marsh complexes to develop. Readers are advised to refer to the Coastal Drift Sector narrative in each Atlas volume for further infor- mation on spit formation. Vegetated portions of spits which are larger than minimum mapping size are designated by appropriate cover type, e.g., Beach Grassland (No. 312), Salt Marsh (No. 623). 815 II. SIGNIFICANT BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Plant Communities Beach grassland and salt marsh are the most commonly found habitat types associated with spits. Beach grassland usually occupies the exposed side of spits, beginning just above high tide line, and is well adapted to the harsh environment. On the inner side of spits, protected from wind and wave action, salt marsh vegetation often occurs. Both these plant communities help stabilize the spit substrate, the beach grassland forming a first line of defense against erosion by wind and waves. For complete discussions of salt marsh and beach grassland, refer to these narratives (Nos. 623 and 312, respectively). Refer also to Table 74-1 for a list of characteristic plants. Characteristic animals are also listed in Table 74-1 and discussed below. Animals Spits are a harsh environment for many invertebrates due to the instabil- ity of the substrate, poor moisture and nutrient retention, wind and wave exposure, and changing salinities. On the higher (supra-littoral) parts of a spit, animal diversity is relatively low, dominated by arthropods. They are generally concentrated under drift'wood and decaying algae. Also frequently occurring at this level are invaders from the upland, including flies, beetles, and arachnids. Invertebrate visitors from the sea that may be found here are amphipods (e.g., Orchestoidea californiana on exposed spits and Orchestia traskiana on protected spits) and isopods (e.g. , Allonicusus perconvexus on exposed spits and Porcellio scaber on protected spits). For invertebrate residents of the beach substrate on the spit, refer to the appropriate substrate types - e.g. , Sand (No. 636), Mixed Fine (No. 635), etc. 816 TABLE 74-1 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS Relative a b Occurrence Season Comments PLANTS Beach wildrye (Elymus mollis) C Perennial Beach grassland Silver bursage (Ambrosia chamissonis) C Perennial Beach grassland Bighead sedge (Carex macrocephala) C Perennial Beach grassland Yellow Sandverbena (Abronia latifolia) C Perennial Beach grassland Beach peavine (Lathyrus japonicus) C Perennial Beach grassland Pickleweed (Salicornia virginica) C Perennial Salt marsh Saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) C Perennial Salt marsh Arrowgrass (Triglochin maritimum) C Perennial Salt marsh Glaux (Glaux maritima) C Perennial Salt marsh Creeping bentgrass ( Agrostis alba) C Perennial Salt marsh Fungi Bacteria INVERTEBRATES Beach hoppers (amphipods) C Res Pillbugs (Isopods) C Res Insects C Res Spiders & mites (Arachnids) C Res 817 Relative b Occurrence Season Comments BIRDS Great Blue Heron C Res Often rest on spits Green-winged Teal C MW Protected side American Wigeon C MW Protected side Harlequin Duck U MW, 5 Exposed areas Bald Eagle U Res, MW Day roost site Marsh Hawk U Res Hunt along beach grassland Peregrine Falcon R Res Endangered species Merlin U Res American Coot C MW Killdeer C Res Often nest here Black-bellied Plover C MW Many shorebirds use spit as rest Least Sandpiper C MW si-te during high tides Dunlin C MW Western Sandpiper C MW Sanderling C MW Glaucous-winged Gull C Res Gulls and, occasionally, terns nest California Gull C MW on spits. They often rest here. Bonaparte's Gull C MW Common Tern C MW Belted Kingfisher C Res Common Flicker C Res Feed on ground and drift logs Horned Lark U MW Purple Martin U Sum Nest in pilings Common Crow C Res Ubiquitous 818 Robin C Res Relative a b Occurrence Season Comments Water Pipit C MW Savannah Sparrow C Res M@iy nest White-crowned Sparrow C Res Song Sparrow C Res Lapland Longspur U MW Snow Bunting U MW MAMMALS Vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) U Res Beach grassland Raccoon (Procyon lotor) C Res Forage along spit -Mink (Mustela vison) U Res Forage along spit Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) C Res Forage along spit Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) C Res Beach grassland Townsend vole (Microtus townsendii) C Res Beach grassland Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) U Res Use spit as rest site REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS Garter snakes (Thamnophis spp.) U Res aC = Common bR Year Round Resident U = Uncommon MW Migrant and/or Winter Resident R = Rare Sum = Summer Resident C I=C, 819 Both vegetated and nonvegetated spits are used year-round by birds and mammals, although some species may be present only a short time during migration. A significant value of spits is their use as resting sites for large numbers of animals, particularly birds. Their isolation and unob- structed view make them especially important for safety and freedom from disturbance. Numerous shorebirds, gulls, terns, waterfowl, and harbor seals frequently can be observed on undisturbed portions of spits. Spits with a minimum of disturbance are used as nesting sites by a number of birds. Groundnesting songbirds (Pas- serines) such as Savannah Sparrows frequently breed on vegetated spits. Shorebirds, gulls, terns and some seabirds have historically used, or are presently using, spits as their primary nesting territory. For example, the largest known colony of Glaucous-winged Gulls in the State's inland waters occurs on the Kanem Point spit on Protection Island in Jefferson County. The use of spits as feeding sites is limited by low prey diversity. However, some animals are commonly observed hunting, particularly along vegetated spits. Insectivorous birds forage along drift log and beach grass areas, while raccoons and skunks regularly feed along the shorelines. Marsh Hawks, Red-tailed Hawks, and Merlins are frequently observed hunting along spits in search of small mammal or shorebird prey. Bald Eagles and other raptors also use posts and higher driftlogs on spits as perches during the day. Dungeness Spit in Clallam County provides an example of the significant value of spits to wildlife. Karl Greubel of Port Angeles has been hiking the spit for several years and began monthly bird counts there in 1977. 820 @h ..... ....... .ENIP e4 N ij. RPM J, . .. ... ... Lj! "I have been hiking the Dungeness Spit for more than eight years and have been impressed by the constant changes that occur on it. Changes occur not only in the wildlife but in the ever-shifting nature of the spit itself." Karl Greubel Jan. 1977 During two years of bird surveys along Dungeness Spit, Mr. Greubel walked over 288 miles and observed 96 species. 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"IR, ,@1, ,@,@ , !@,"-",11, @:,5::::: ))) @-- "I 11I -- - @,,- ,,", - @@@ "I'll 11 I11 "I'll,I,fl," -, -?@,,,@,?,,, "llp, L,@Wfjt@I@,, .11 11 @,4 11- --------- - , ,If @I- ,11 - ,,,@."I11@@,k- Table 74-2 SHOREBIRDS OBSERVED ON DUNGENESS SPIT, SEPTEMBER NOVEMBER 1977 AND 1978 High Daily Species Count Black Oystercatcher 5 Semipalmated Plover 50 Killdeer 23 Black-bellied Plover 100's Ruddy Turnstone 15 Black Turnstone 38 Whimbrel 6 Greater Yellowlegs 4 Wandering Tattler 9 Willet 1 Surfbird 8 Red Knot 5 Sanderling 100's Semipalmated Sandpiper 2 Western Sandpiper 100's Least Sandpiper 17 Dunlin 1000's Short-billed Dowitcher 100's Marbled Godwit 2 Northern Phalarope 6 823 Other notable birds recently observed on Dungeness Spit by Mr. Greubel or other persons include Pere- grine Falcons (a rare and endangered species), Snowy Owls, Bar-tailed Godwits (very rare in Washington), Bald Eagles (a threatened species), and Ruffs (shorebird rarely observed in Washington). Many of the birds observed at Dungeness and other spits are directly dependent on the spit for a nest site. These and a wide variety of other species ranging from brant to oysters are indirectly depen- dent, since the spit is a key feature in the formation of other habitats as discussed below. Functions A salient feature of spits is the role they play in producing an environment suitable for the forma- tion of other, biologically productive ecosystems. A spit, due to its location, often creates a lagoon on its protected side. These lagoons are frequently fed by streams 'incapable of flushing out all sediments settling in the lagoon. The lagoon acts as a sediment trap and slowly fills. As it does, a marsh develops and expands, eventually filling the entire lagoon. Lagoons (No. 56) and salt marshes (No. 623) are described in their respective sections. At other times, spits may form a prot ected bay. In this protected situation, nutrient-enriched sedi- ments are stable enough for marine vegetation and animals to become established. Thus, the bay be- comes rich in algae (especially ulvoids and diatoms), eelgrass, benthic organisms, fish and birds. Dungeness Spit in Clallam County provides an example of this situation, with its extremely diverse habitats. The habitat diversity of the total system affords a synergistic value much greater than the sum of its parts, spits being a small but important aspect. With high diversity comes a seemingly unending array of wildlife: river otters and raccoons at the head of the bay formed inside the spit; Savannah Sparrows, and Song Sparrows along the beach grassland; Kingfishers, Great Blue Herons, Greater Yellowlegs, Western Sandpipers, Least Sandpipers, Black-bellied Plovers, Common Terns, Bonaparte's Gulls, Whimbrels, and several other shorebirds on the mudflats and near shore along the inner margin; White-winged Scoters, Common Loons, Red-breasted Mergansers, and Buffleheads in the bay; Rhinoceros Auklets, Red-throated Loons, Common Murres, Western Grebes, Bonaparte's Gulls, Heermann's Gulls, and harbor seals offshore along the outer margin. 284 III. IMPACTS Spits, formed as they are by wind, current, and wave action are inherently unstable and dynamic. Thus, any action that alters the equilibrim of accretion and erosion can generally be counted on to change the character of the spits themselves. Man's activities can affect this equilibrium in a variety of ways. Coastal Zone Atlas users will want to refer to the Drift Sector discussions in the Atlas for details describing spit formation and disturbances. Bulkheads, highways, or railroads along the base of feeder bluffs will reduce the supply of sediments which originally formed and presently help maintain the spit. Dam construction also reduces the amount of materials available for maintenance. Without a constant supply of sediments, spits may deteriorate, which in turn affects the many dependent biological and physical features previously described. Groins, jetties, revetments, or piers along a beach can interfere with longshore drift, consequently affecting the supply of substrate material to dependent spits. Careless logging and agricultural practices in adjacent habi- tats can increase river-borne sediments and thereby smother life in intertidal parts of spits. This increased sedimenta- tion may also hasten the development of marshes in lagoon areas. Construction in the vicinity of, and on spits can have numer- ous and far reaching effects on wildlife use. The immediate loss of vegetation and wildlife occurs at the construction site by direct covering of organisms. Adjacent areas are severely disturbed by construction equipment and roads. The loss of stabilizing vegetation can result in wind and water erosion of the spit itself. Sea walls and revetments intended to reverse this process result in additional wildlife losses in the intertidal regions of the spit. 825 C\j co An adjunct to construction on spits is the accompanying increase in human and pet activity. The loss of nesting Caspian Terns and gulls from Damon Point in Grays Harbor County appar- ently can be attributed to develop- ment at nearby Ocean Shores. Recrea- tional activities and potential development on Protection Island in Jefferson County currently threatens nesting birds and harbor seals. Recreational activities have the obvious impact of frightening (or, in some cases, destroying) wildlife in the vicinity, and if frequent enough, may result in their leaving permanently. This, in effect, is a virtual loss of habitat. A more insidious impact is the cumulative result of countless human feet tread- BLUFF (No. 76) ing on vegetation and substrate. This seemingly innocuous activity Refer to the Forested Bluff Narrative (No. 47) for eventually can result in the dis- discussion of all bluff classifications. appearance of species intolerant of such abuse (e.g., most plant species in the beach grassland cover type), and the existence of dependent animals may be threatened, or at least nega- tively modified. Impacts can be moderated by avoidance of vegetated portions of spits and limiting access to spits with breeding bird colonies or otherwise sensitive areas. 827 HENRY HALVORSON We had come to visit Thorndyke Bay and a part of our hello was as always, a talk with Henry. He, had walked down from his cabin and sat with us along the beach. An osprey circled the bay and Henry sampled the oysters we cooked over an open fire. Behind us were woods older than me, almost as old as my dad. Henry had been here when this forest was cut, some of the trees for the first time. He'd worked in logging camps most of his, 80 plus years of living along Hood Canal. He told us about that time in his second generation Swedish/ American tongue. Thousands and Thousands of salmon. Ducks darkening the sky. Trees cut high above the base to take only the best. The straight, clear grain of old growth. Black bears along the creek. Deer and deer hunting. Logging camp cooks. His eyes twinkling, hands clasped behind his back, Henry also told us about more recent days. It had been his birthday and friends surprised him with a party up the canal a mile or two at the Trails End Tavern. Somebody broke into his cabin while he was away and took his two best shirts. He looked across the bay and told us of how more people were moving in and that he'd heard that plans were underway to develop Thorndyke Bay. He said he didn't want to be around when that happened. About one year later Henry got sick and a relative brought him to Port Townsend for medical attention. He left his old grey pickup, his cabin and his life on Thorndyke Bay. Away from Hood Canal, he died. I'd always thought that Henry's presence somehow protected Thorndyke, its salt marsh, and dependent animals. He'd been there when it was first touched by axes, roads and human interests. He saw it grow back a bit and for a long time he was the only year- round human resident on the bay. Now he's gone. I 828 don't know about Thorndyke. Ron Hirschi, may 19-80 pl- t". zg ........... 40 5 6Z2 NK WD- 3P@ ;'t "'Tar, 7 ri IW @W, P ti, -Tim ;45 Oll "a'sin MM'T"7., 00 I%L 110, X" I Ak 4 Ito 14, APPENDIX I The following is a list of coastal plants presently under consideration for rare, threatened, or endangered status in Washington. None of these species currently enjoy official status, but as more information becomes available, many will surely be proposed for official listing by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The habitats listed for each species are not exhaustive, and similar land cover types may also provide suitable habitat. For example, if freshwater swamp is listed, the possibility of the species occurring in other freshwater wetland habi- tats should not be excluded. Information on these species is still being compiled by the Washington Natural Heritage Program, and Atlas users are encouraged to contact them for current information concerning reported locations and habitats. 831 FAMILY LATIN NAME COMMON NAME HABITAT Campanulaceae Howellia aquatilis Howellia lakes and ponds Lobelia kalmii brook lobelia bogs, lakes, and ponds Caryophyllaceae Arenaria paludicola swamp sandwort swamps Compositae Lasthenia minor var. maritima hairy lasthenia rock islands and cliffs Crassulaceae Sedum lanceolatum var. nesioticum lanceleaved stonecrop rock islands and cliffs Tillaea erecta pigmy weed cliffs Cyperaceae Carex livida pale sedge bogs and swamps Carex pauciflora few-flowered sedge bogs Carex pluriflora several-flowered sedge freshwater and brackish marshes, riparian zones Carex stylosa long-styled sedge freshwater marshes Scirpus cyperinus var. brachypodus. wool-grass freshwater wetlands Fagaceae Chrysolepis chrysophylla golden chinquapin forested uplands Graminae Agrostis aeguivalvis Alaska bentgrass bogs, lakes, and ponds Calamagrostis crassiglumis thickglume reedgrass freshwater wetlands, riparian zones Poa pachypholis seacliff bluegrass cliffs Hydrophyllaceae Phacelia bolanderi Bolander's phacelia bluffs and cliffs Juncaceae Juncus supinus bulbous rush lakes and ponds Leguminosae Lupinus macrocarpus var. scopulorum chick lupine open grasslands Liliaceae Erythronium revolutum coast fawn-lily forested uplands Fritillaria camschatcensis black lily freshwater wetlands Menyanthaceae Nephrophyllidium crista-galli deer-cabbage lakes and ponds Papaveraceae Meconella oregana meconella grasslands and rock outcroppings Plantaginaceae Plantago macrocarpa Alaska plantain bogs, lakes, and ponds Polypodiaceae Woodwardia fimbriata chain-fern bluffs Ranunculaceae Anemone felix var. oregana Oregon anemone freshwater wetlands Coptis asplenifolia spleenwort-leaved goldenthread freshwater wetlands Delphinium nuttallii Nuttall's larkspur open grasslands and cliffs Rosaceae Sanguisorba menziesii. Menzie's burnet bogs 832 APPENDIX 11 Endangered and Threatened Birds and Mammals Known to Occur in Washington Coastal Zone (as listed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service) COMMON NAME LATIN NAME STATUS Birds Short-tailed Albatross Diomedea albatrus Endangered Bald Eagle fialiaeetus leucocephalus Threatened Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum Endangered Aleutian Canada Goose Fr--anta canadensis leucopareia Endangered Brown Pelican Pelicanus occidentalis Endangered Mammals Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus Endangered Fin Whale B. physalus Endangered Sei Whale 97 borealis Endangered Gray Whale Eschrichtius robustus Endangered Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae Endangered Right Whale Balaena glacialis Endangered Sperm Whale Physeter catodon Endangered 833 APPENDIX III Common and Latin names of plants mentioned in the text. Vascular plants, mosses, and freshwater algae are listed together in alphabetical order by common name; marine algae by common name under the appropriate phylum. Many species of fungi and algae lack common names and if referred to by Latin name in the text, they are not included here. VASCULAR PLANTS and FRESHWATER ALGAE arrow-grass Triglochin maritimum arrowhead Sagittaria spp. Aspidotis Aspidotis densa baldhip rose Rosa gymnocarpa Baltic rush @u_ncus balticus beach morning-glory Convolvulus soldanella beach pea Lathyrus littoralis beach peavine Lathyrus japonicus beach strawberry Fragaria chiloensis beakrush Rhynchospora alba beaked sedge Carex rostrata bighead sedge Carex macrocephala big-leaf maple Acer macrophyllum bishops-cap Mitella spp. bitter chokecerry Prunus emarginata blackberry Rubus spp. black cottonwood Populus trichocarpa black knotweed Polygonum paronychia black locust Robinia pseudo-acacia black twinberry Lonicera involucrata bleeding heart Dicentra formosa blister buttercup Ranunculus sceleratus blue-eyed Mary Collinsia parviflora blue wildrye Elymus glaucus bog birch Betula glandulosa bog cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccos bog laurel Kalmia occidentalis bog St. John's-wort Hypericum anagalloides Bolander's rush Juncus bolanderi 834 bouncing bett Saponaria officinalis bracken Pteridium aquilinum brittle cactus Opuntia fragilis bro6d-bladed eelgrass Zostera marina broadfruited burreed Sparganium eurycarpum broadleaved shooting star Dodecatheon hendersonii broadleaf stonecap Sedum spathulifolium buckbean Menyanthes trifoliata California buttercup Ranunculus californicus California false hellebore Veratrum californicum California poppy Eschscholzia californica calypso Calypso bulbosa camas Camassia spp. Canada thistle Cirsium arvense cascara Rhamnus purshiana cat-tail Typha latifolia cheatgrass Bromus tectorum checker lily Fritillaria lanceolata chickweed monkey flower Mimulus alsinoides coast black gooseberry Ribes divaricatum coastline bluegrass Poa confinis common bladderwort Utricularia spp. common camas Camassia quamash common cattail Typha latifolia common dandelions Taraxacum officinale common forget-me-not Myosotis scorpioides common rush Juncus effusus common spike-rush Eleocharis palustris common velvet-grass Holcus lanatus coontail Ceratophyllum demersum coralroot Corallorhiza spp. cotton grass Eriophorum chamissonis cow parsnip Heracleum lanatum crabapple Pyrus fusca creeping bentgrass Agrostis alba creeping buttercup Ranunculus repens creeping velvet-grass Holcus mollis crowberry Empetrum nigrum daffodils Narcissus sp. dagger-leaf rush Juncus ensifolius dark-throat shooting star Dodecatheon pulchellum deadly zigandenus Zygadenus venenosus 835 death camas Zygadenus venenosus deer fern Blechnum spicant Deptford pink Dianthus armeria devil's club Oplopanax horridum dogwood Cornus spp. Douglas' aster Aster subspicatus Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas' water-hemlock Cicuta douglasii dulichium Dulichium arundinaceum dune tansy Tanacetum douglasii dune wildrye Elymus mollis dwarf owlclover Orthocarpus pusillus early blueberry Vaccinium ovalifium elderberry Sambucus spp. Elodea Elodea canadensis enchanter's nightshade Circaea alpina Enteromorpha Enteromorpha spp. Eriophyllum Eriophyllum lanatum European beachgrass Ammophila arenaria European eelgrass Zostera noltii evergreen huckleberry Vaccinium ovatum false lily-of-the-valley Maianthemum dilatatum fat-hen Atriplex patula felonwort Solanum dulcamara fescue Festuca spp. field chickweed Cerastium arvense filaree Erodium cicutarium fireweed Epilobium angustifolium foamflower Tiarella trifoliata foxglove Digitalis purpurea fragrant water lily Nymphaea odorata fringecup Tellima grandiforum Garry oak Quercus garryana giant fawn-lily Erythronium oregonum giant vetch Vicia gigantea Glehnia @ff_lehnia leiocarpa gold-back fern Pityrogramma triangularis gorse Ulex europaeus graceful arrow-grass Triglochin concinnum grand fir Abies grandis 836 Greene's bogorchid ffa-benaria greenei green sedge Carex oederi grindelia Grindelia intergrifolia gumweed Grindelia intergrifolia hairgrass Aira spp. hairy cats-ears Hypochaeris radicata hairy honeysuckle Lonicera hispidula hairy manzanita Arctostaphylos columbiana hardhack Spiraea douglasii hardstem bulrush Scirpus acutus hazelnut Corylus cornuta hemlock-parsley Conioselinum pacificum Himalayan blackberry Rubus discolor honeysuckle Lonicera spp. Hooker's onion Allium acuminatum Hooker's willow Salix hookeriana horned pondweed Zanichellia palustris huckleberry Vaccinium spp. humped bladderwort Utricularia 2j@@ Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis kinnickinnick Arctostaphylos uva-ursi kneeling angelica Angelica genuflexa Labrador tea Ledum groenlandicum lady fern Athyrium felix-femina lanceleaved stonecrop Sedum lanceolatum var. nesioticum large flowered blue-eyed Mary Collinsia grandiflora Leichtlin's camas Camassia leichtlinii Lemmon's needlegrass @@ lemmonii licorice fern Polypodium glycirrhiza lilaeopsis Lilaeopsis occidentalis Lindley's microseris Microseris lindleyi little hairgrass Aira praecox lodgepole pine TT"n-us contorta low clubrush Scirpus cernuus Lyngby's sedge Carex lyngbyei madrona Arbutus menziesii maidenhair spleenwort Asplenium trichomanes manroot Marah oreganus marels tail Hippuris vulgaris marram grass Ammophila arenaria 837 marsh skull-cap Scutellaria galericulata marsh yellowcress Rorippa islandica Meconella Meconella oregana Menzies' burnet Sanguisorba menziesii Menzies' larkspur Delphinium menziesii mistletoe Phoradendron flavescens morels Morchella spp. mother-of-thousands Tolmiea menziesii mountain balm Ceanothus velutinus myrtle boxwood Pachistima myrsinites naked broomrape Orobanche uniflora narrow-bladed eelgrass Zostera noltii nettles Urtica dioica ninebark Physocarpus capitatus nitella Nitella sp. nodding onion Allium cernuum Nootka rose Rosa nutkana northern dune tansy Tanacetum douglasii northern wormwood Artemesia campestris ocean spray Holodiscus discolor orange honeysuckle Lonicera ciliosa orchard grass Dactylis glomerata Oregon ash Fraxinus latifolia Oregon grape Berberis nervosa Oregon wood sorrel Oxalis oregona osoberry Oemleria cerasiformis Pacific blackberry Rubus ursinus Pacific dogwood Cornus nuttallii Pacific silverweed Potentilla pacifica Pacific willow Salix lasiandra paper birch Betula papyrifera parsley fern Cryptogramma crispa path finder Adenocaulon bicolor peppergrass Lepidium virginicum var. menziesii pickleweed Salicornia virginica pigmy-weed Tillaea erecta pine bluegrass Poa scabrella pink sand verbena Abronia umbellata poison oak Rhus diversiloba Pomo-celery lomatium Lomatium utriculatum 838 pondweed Potamageton spp. purple cinquefoil Potentilla palustris quaking aspen Populus tremuloides rattlesnake plantain @oodyera oblongifolia red alder Alnus rubra red currant Ribes sanguineum red elderberry 3-ambucus racemosa red fescue Festuca rubra red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium red osier dogwood Cornus stolonifera reed canarygrass Phalaris arundinacea rein orchid Habenaria spp. rhododendron Rhododendron macrophyllum Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopuloru rosy plectritis Plectritis congesta rush Juncus spp. salal Gaultheria shallon salmonberry Rubus spectabilis salt grass Distichlis spicata sand-dune sedge Carex pansa sandmat Cardionema ramosissima sand verbena Abronia spp. sawbeak sedge Carex stipitata saxifrage Saxifraga integrifolia scalepod Idahoa scapigera Scot's broom Cytisus scoparius scouler willow Salix scouleri seacliff bluegrass Poa pachypholis seacoast bulrush Scirpus maritimus sea-pink Armeria maritima sea purslane Honkenya peploides sea rocket Cakile edentula seashore bluegrass Poa macrantha seashore lupine Lupinus littoralis seashore salt grass Distichlis spicat seaside amsinckia Amsinckia spectabilis seaside arrow-grass Triglochin maritimum seaside bulrush Scirpus maritimus seaside buttercup Ranunculus cymbalaria seaside tansy Tanacetum douglasii sea thrift Armeria maritima selaginella Selaginella wallacei 839 serviceberry Amelanchier spp. sheep sorrel Rumex acetosella shooting star Dodecatheon spp. shore buttercup Ranunculus cymbalaria shore pine Pinus contorta silver bursage Ambrosia chamissonis silver hairgrass Aira caryophyllea simplestem burreed -�P-arganium emersum Sitka sedge Carex sitchensis Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis Sitka valerian Valeriana scouleri skunk cabbage Lysichitum americanum slender boykinia Boykinia M@j@ slough sedge Carex obnupta small-flowered blue-eyed Mary Collinsia parviflora smallflowered fringecup Lithophragma parviflora smallflowered prairiestar Lithophragma parviflora smallflowered woodrush Luzula parviflora small-fruited bulrush �C-irpus microcarpus small-leaf alumroot Heuchera micrantha small spike-rush Eleocharis parvula snowberry Symphoricarpos albus soft brome Bromus mollis soft rush Juncus effusus softstem bulrush Scirpus validus spatterdock Nuphar polysepalum speedwell Veronica spp. sphagnum Sphagnum spp. spiked water milfoil Myriophyllum spicatum spirea Spirea douglasii spoonwort Cochlearia officinalis spotted coralroot Corallorhiza maculata spreading rush Juncus spiniformis spring-gold Tr-ocidium multicaule starflower Trientalis latifolia star-flowered Solomon's Seal Smilacina stellata stinging nettle Urtica dioica stink currant Ribes bracteosum stonecrop Sedum spp. stonewort Chara spp- 840 sundew Drosera rotundifolia surfgrass Phyllospadix spp. swamp gooseberry Ribes lacustre swamp sandwort Arenaria paludicola sweet gale Myrica qale sword fern Polystichum munitum tall peppergrass Lepidium virginicum var. menziesii tapered rush Juncus acuminatus thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus thistles Cirsium spp. threadleaf phacelia Phacelia linearis thrift Armeri-a maritima tiny mousetail Myosurus minimus tomcat clover Trifolium tridentatum touch-me-not Impatiens noli-tangere Townsend's cordgrass Spartina townsendii trailing blackberry Rubus ursinus trembling aspen Populus tremuloides trillium Trillium ovatum twinberry Lonicera involucrata twinflower Linnaea borealis vanilla leaf Achlys triphylla velvet-grass Holcus spp. vine maple Acer circinatum Wallace's selaginella Selaginella wallacei watercress Rorippa nasturtium-aguaticum water fern Azolla mexicana water lentil Lemna minor water parsley Oenanthe sarmentosa water shield Brasenia schreberi water starwort Callitriche spp. water weed Elodaea canadensis wavy water-nymph flexilis waxmyrtle Myrica spp. weeping alkaligrass Puccinellia distans western blue flag Iris missouriensis western dock Rumex occidentalis western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla western red cedar 1@@ plicat western springbeauty Montia sibirica western white pine Pinus monticola Wigeon grass Ruppia maritima 841 wildcherry Prunus sp. willow Salix spp. wood groundsel Senecio sylvaticus yarrow Achillea millefolium yellow flag Iris pseudacorus yellow sand verbena Tb-ronia latifolia yerba buena Satureja douglasii yew Taxus brevifolia MARINE ALGAE Brown Algae (Phaeophyta) bull kelp Nereocystis leutkeana bladder kelp Cystoseira geminata blister wrack Laminaria bullata color changer Desmarestia ligulata feather boa Egregia menziesii giant kelp Macrocystis integrifolia honey ware kelp Alaria marginata kombu Laminaria spp. pompom kelp Pterygophora californica Rockweed Fucus distichus Sargassum Sargassum muticum sea cabbage Hedophyllu sessile sea colander Agarum spp. sea palm Postelsia palmaeformis seersucker Costaria costata split whip wrack Laminaria setchellii sugar wrack Laminaria saccharina tar spot Ralphsia pacifica whip tube Scytosiphon lomentaria Green Algae (Chlorophyta) Enteromorpha Enteromorpha spp. green rope Acrosiphonia (Spongomorpha) coalita sea lettuce Ulva spp. 842 Red Algae (Rhodophyta) black pine Rhodomela larix iridescent seaweed Iridaea cordata nori Porphyra spp. ogo Neoagardhiella baileyi red laver, purple laver, nori Porphyra perforata tar spot Petrocelis meddendorffii tidal pool coral Corallina vancouveriensis turkish towel Gigartina exasperata Yellow-Green Algae (Chrysophyta) diatoms many species of microscopic algae including: Asterionella spp. Coscinodiscus spp. Skeletonema spp. Navicula spp. Melosira spp. 843 APPENDIX IV Common and Latin names of vertebrates mentioned in the text. FISH American shad Alosa sapidissima Arrow goby Clevelandia ios Bay pipefish Syngnathus griseolineatus Black bullhead Ictalurus melas Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus Blackeye goby Coryphopterus nicholsi Black prickleback Xiphiste atropurpureus Black rockfish Sebastes melanops Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosis Buffalo sculpin Enophrys bison Cabezon Scorpaenichthys marmoratus Canary rockfish Sebastes pinniger Carp Cyprinus carpio China rockfish Sebastes nebulosus Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta C-0 sole Pleuronichthys coenosus Coastrange sculpin Cottus aleuticus Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch Copper rockfish Sebastes caurinus Crescent gunnel Pholis laeta Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki Decorated warbonnet Chirolophis polyactocephalus Deepsea skate f@@a abyssicola Dolly varden Salvelinus malma English sole Parophrys vetulus Eulachon (candlefish) Thaleichthys pacificus Goldfish Carassius auratus Great sculpin Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus Grunt sculpin Rhamphocottus richardsoni High cockscomb Anoplarchus purpurescens Kelp greenling Hexagrammos decagrammus 844 Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides Largescale sucker Catostomus macrocheilus Lingcod Ophiodon elongatus Longfin sculpin Jordania zonope Longfish smelt Spirinchus thaleichthys Longnose dace Rhinichthys cataractae Longnose sucker Catostomus, catostomus Manacled sculpin Synchirus Rilli Mosshead warbonnet Chirolophis nugator Northern anchovy Engraulis mordax Northern clingfish Gobiesox maeandricus Northern sculpin Icelinus borealis Northern spearnose poacher Agonopsis emmelane Northern squawfish Ptychocheilus oregonensis Olympic mudminnow Novumbra hubbsi Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi Pacific sanddab Citharichthys sordidus Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus Pacific spiny lumpsucker Eumicrotremus orbis Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus Pacific tomcod Microgadus proximus Padded sculpin Artedius fenestralis Painted greenling Oxylebius pictus Peamouth Mylocheilus caurinus Penpoint gunnel Apodichthys flavidus Pile perch Rhacochilus vacca Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Plainfin midshipman Porichthys notatus Prickly sculpin Cottus asper Puget Sound rockfish Sebastes emphaeus Puget Sound sculpin Artedius meanyi Pygmy poacher Odontopyxis trispinosa Quillback rockfish Sebastes maliger Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Ratfish @y-drolagus colliei Red Irish lord Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus Redside shiner Richardsonius balteatus Redstripe rockfish Sebastes proriger Redtail surfperch Amphistichus rhodorus Ribbon prickleback Phytichthys chirus Ringtail snailfish Liparis rutleri 845 River lamprey Lampetra ayresi Rock sole Lepidopsetta bilineata Rockweed gunnel Xererpes fucorum Roughback sculpin Chitonotus pugetensis Saddleback gunnel Pholis ornata Saddleback sculpin Oligocottus rimensis Sailfin sculpin Nautichthys oculofasciatus Sand sole Psettichthys melanostictus Scalyhead sculpin Artedius harringtoni Sharpnose sculpin Clinocottus acuticeps Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregata Shorthead sculpin Cottus confusus Showy snailfish Liparis pulchellus Silvergrey rockfish Sebastes brevispinus Silverspotted sculpin Blepsias cirrhosus Slender sole Lyopsetta exilis Slipskin snailfish Liparis fucensis Snake prickleback Lumpenus sagitta Smooth alligatorfish Annoplagonus inermis Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka Soft sculpin Gilbertidia sigalutes Speckled dace Rhinichthys osculus Speckled sanddab Citharichthys stigmaeus Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias Spinynose sculpin Asemichthys taylori Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus Starry skate Raja stellulata Striped bass Roccus saxatilis Striped seaperch Embiotoca lateralis Sturgeon poacher Agonus acipenserinus Surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus Tadpole sculpin Psychrolutes paradoxus Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus Tidepool sculpin Oligocottus maculosus Tiger rockfish Sebastes nigrocinctus Torrent sculpin Cottus rhotheus Tube-snout Aulorhynchus flavidus Vermilion rockfish Sebastes miniatus Walleye pollock Theregra chalcogramma Western brook lamprey Lampetra richardsoni 846 White spotted greenling Hexagrammos stelleri White sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus Wolf-eel Anarrhichthys ocellatus Yellow perch Perca flavescens Yellow rockfish Sebastes flavid-us AMPHIBIANS Northwestern salamander Ambystoma gracile qracile Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana Cascades frog Rana cascadae Dunn's salamander Pethodon dunni Green frog Rana clamitans Long-toed salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum Northern Olympic salamander Rhyacotriton olympicus olympicus Northern red-legged frog Rana aurora aurora Northern rough skinned newt Taric-ha .qranulosa granulosa Oregon salamander Ensatina eschscholtzi oregonensis Pacific giant salamander Dicamptodon ensatus Pacific tree frog Hyla regilla Spotted frog Rana pretiosa Tailed frog Ascaphus truei Van Dyke's salamander Pethodon vandykei Western red-backed salamander Plethodon vehiculum Western toad Bufo boreas REPTILES Common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis Northern alligator lizard Gerrhonotus coeruleus principus Northwestern garter snake Thamnophis ordinoides Pacific gopher snake Pituophis melanoleucus catenifer Painted turtle Chrysemys RjElLa Rubber boa Charina bottae Sharp-tailed snake Contia tenuis Western fence lizard Sceloporus occidentalis Western pond turtle Clemmys marmorata Western terrestrial garter snake Thamnophis elegans Western yellow-bellied racer Coluber constrictor mormon 847 BIRDS American BAtern Botaurus lentiginosus American Coot Fulica americana American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica American Goldfinch Spinus. tristis American Kestrel Falco sparverius American Robin Turdus migratorius American Wigeon Anas americana Ancient Murrelet Synthliboramphus antiquus Anna's Hummingbird Calypte anna Arctic Loon Gavia arctica Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea Baird's Sandpiper Calidris bairdii Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Band-tailed Pigeon Columba fasciata Barn Owl Tyto alba Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Barrow's Goldeneye Bucephala islandica Belted Kingfisher Megaceryle alcyon Bewick's Wren Thryomanes bewickii Black-bellied Plover Pluvialis squatarola Black-capped Chickadee Parus atricapillus Black-headed Grosbeak Pheucticus melanocephalus Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla Black Oystercatcher Haematopus bachmani Black Scoter Melanitta aigra Black Swift Cypseloides niger Black-throated Gray Warbler Dendroica nigrescens Black Turnstone Arenaria melanocephala Blue Grouse Dendragapus obscurus Blue-winged Teal Anas discors Bobwhite Colinus virginianus Bohemian Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus Bonaparte's Gull Larus philadelphia Brant Branta bernicla Brandt's Cormorant Phalacrocorax penicillatus Brewer's Blackbird Euphagus cyanocephalus Brown Creeper Certhia familiaris Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater 348 Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis Bufflehead Bucephala albeola Burrowing Owl Speo@jto cunicularia Bushtit Psaltriparus minimus California Gull Larus californicus California Quail Lophortyx californicus Canada Goose Eranta canadensis Canvasback Aythya valis7ineria Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia Cassin's Auklet Ptychoram2hus aleuticus Cassin's Finch Carpodacus cassinii Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum Chestnut-backed Chickadee Parus rufescens Chipping Sparrow Spizella passerina Chukar Alectoris chukar Cinnamon Teal Anas cyanoptera Cliff Swallow @_etrochelidon pyrrhonota Common Crow Corvus brachyrhynchos Common Flicker Colaptes auratus Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula Common Loon Gavia immer Common Merganser Mergus merganser Common Murre Uria aalge Common Nighthawk C-hordeiles minor Common Raven Corvus corax Common Snipe Capella gallinago Common Tern Sterna hirundo Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas Cooper's Hawk Accipiter cooperii Dark-eyed Junco Junco hyemalis Dipper Cinclus mexicanus Double-crested.Cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus Downy Woodpecker Dendrocopos pubescens Dunlin Calidris alpina Dusky Flycatcher Epidonax oberholseri Eared Grebe Podiceps nigricollis European Wigeon Anas penelope Evening Grosbeak Hesperiaphona vespertina Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis Fork-tailed Storm Petrel b-ceanodroma furcata Fox Sparrow Passerella iliaca Gadwall Anas strepera 849 Gray Partridge Perdix perdix Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias Great Egret Casmerodius albus Great Horned Owl Bubo virginianus Greater Scaup Aythya marila Greater Yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca Green Heron Butorides virescens Green-winged Teal Anas crecca Golden-crowned Kinglet Regulus satrapa Golden-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia atricapilla Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Goshawk Accipiter gentilis Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus Glaucous-winged Gull Larus glaucescens Hairy Woodpecker Dendrocopos villosus Hammond's Flycatcher Empidonax hammondii Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus Heermann's Gull Larus heermanni Hermit Thrush Catharus guttatus Hermit Warbler Dendroica occidentalis Herring Gull Lafts ar2entatus Hooded Merganser Lophodytes cucullatus Horned Grebe Podiceps auritus Horned Lark Eremophila alpestris Horned Puffin Fratercula corniculata House Finch Carpodacus mexicanus House Sparrow Passer domesticus House Wren Troglodytes aedon Hutton's Vireo Vireo huttoni Killdeer Charadrius vociferus Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla Lesser Scaup Aythya aftinis Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes Lewis' Woodpecker Asyndesmus lewis Lincoln's Sparrow Melospiza lincolnii Loggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus Long-billed Marsh Wren Telmatodytes palustris MacGillivray's Warbler Oporornis tolmiei Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 850 Marbled Godwit Limosa fedoa Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus Marsh Hawk Circus cyaneus Merlin Falco columbarius Mew Gull Larus canus Mountain Quail Oreortyx pictus Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura Nashville Warbler Vermivora ruficapilla Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis Northern Oriole Icterus g,9_1b@la Northern Phalarope Lobipes lobatus Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata Northern Skrike Lanius excubitor Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis Olive-sided Flycatcher Nuttallornis borealis Orange-crowned Warbler Vermivora celata Osprey Pandion haliaetus Parasitic Jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps Pigeon Guillemot Cepphus columba Pileated Woodpecker Dryocopus pileatus Pine Grosbeak Pinicola enucleator Pine Siskin Spinus EjE@Ls Pintail Anas acuta Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos Pelagic Cormorant Phalacrocorax pelagicus Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Pomarine Jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus Purple Finch Carpodacus purpureus Purple Martin Progne @_@ Pygmy Owl Glaucidium gnoma Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator Red-breasted Nuthatch Sitta canadensis Red-breasted Sapsucker Sphyrapicus ruber Red Crossbill Loxia curvirostra Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus Redhead Aythya americana Red Knot Calidris canutus Red-legged Kittiwake Rissa brevirostris Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena Red Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius 851 Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis Red-throated Loon Gavia stellata Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus Rhinoceros Auklet Cerorhinca monocerata Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris Ring-necked Pheasant Phasianus colchicus Rock Dove Columba livia Rock Sandpiper Calidris ptilocnemis Rock Wren Salpinctes obsoletus Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopus Rough-winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx ruficollis Ruby-crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres Ruff Philomachus pugnax Ruffed Grouse Bonasa umbellus Rufous Hummingbird Selasphorus rufus Rufous-sided Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus Sabine's Gull Xema sabini Sage Thrasher Oreoscoptes montanus Sanderling Calidris alba Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis Saw-whet Owl Aegolius acadicus Screech Owl Otus asio Semipalmated Plover Charadrius semipalmatus Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus Short-tailed Albatross Diomedea albatrus Skua Catharacta skua Skylark Alauda arvensis Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Snow Goose Chen caerulescens Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca Snowy Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Solitary Vireo Vireo solitarius Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia 852 Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus Sora Porzana carolina Spotted Owl Sf-rixocTT-dentalis Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularia Surfbird Aphriza virgata Surf Scoter Melanitta perspicillata Starling Sturnus vulgaris Steller's Jay Cyanocitta stelleri Swainson's Hawk Buteo swainsoni Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus Thayer's Gull Larus thayeri Townsend's Solitaire Myadestes townsendi Townsend's Warbler Dendroica townsendi Tree Swallow Iridoprocne bicolor Trumpeter Swan Olor buccinator Tufted Puffin Lunda cirrhata Turkey ge-leag gallopavo Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura Varied Thrush Ixoreus naevius Vaux's Swift Chaetura vauxi Vesper Sparrow Pooecetes gramineus Violet-green Swallow Tachycineta thalassina Virginia Rail Rallus limicola Wandering Tattler Heteroscelus incanus Warbling Vireo Vireo gilvus Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta Western Bluebird '@'ialia mexicana Western Flycatcher Empidonax difficilis Western Grebe Aechmophorus occidentalis Western Gull Larus occidentalis Western Meadowlark Sturnella neglecta Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri Western Tanager Piranga ludoviciana Western Wood Pewee Contopus sordidulus Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus Whistling Swan Olor columbianus White-breasted Nuthatch Sitta carolinensis White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis White-winged Scoter Relanitta fusca Willet Catoptrophorus semipalmatus 853 Willow Flycatcher Empidonax traillii Wilson's Phalarope Steganopus tricolor Wilson's Warbler Wilsonia pusilla Winter Wren Troglodytes troglodytes Wood Duck Aix sponsa Yellow-billed Loon Gavia adamsii Yellow-rumped Warbler Dendroica coronata Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia MAMMALS Beaver Castor canadensis Big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus Black bear Ursus americanus Black rat Rattus rattus Black-tailed deer Odocoileus hemionus Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Bobcat Felis rufus Bushy-tailed woodrat Neotoma cinerea California myotis Myotis californicus California sea lion Zalophus californianus Coast mole Scapanus orarius Cougar Felis concolor Coyote Canis latrans Creeping vole Microtus oregoni Dall's porpoise Phocoenoides dallii Deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus Douglas squirrel Tamiasciurus douglasii Dusky shrew Sorex obscurus Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus Elk Cervus elaphus Ermine Mustela erminea European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus False killer whale Pseudorea crassidens Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Fisher Martes pennanti Fox squirrel Sciurus ajgtr Gapper red-backed mouse Clethrionomys gapperi Goosebeak whale Ziphius cavirostris 854 Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus Gray wolf Canis lupus Harbor porpoise Phocoena phocoena Harbor seal Phoca vitulina Hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus House mouse Mus musculus Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Killer whale Orcinus orca Little brown myotis Myotis lucifugus Long-eared myotis Myotis evotis Long-legged myotis Myotis volans Long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata Marten Martes americana Masked shrew Sorex cinereus Mink Mustela vison Minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata Moore's beaked whale Mesoplodon carlhubbsii Mountain beaver Aplodontia rufa Muskrat Ondatra zibethica Northern elephant seal Mirounga angustirostris Northern flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus Northern fur seal Callorhinus ursinus Northern right-whale dolphin Lissodelphis borealis Northern sea lion Eumetopias jubata North Pacific beaked whale Mesoplodon stejnegeri North Pacific giant bottlenose whale Berardias bairdi Norway rat Rattus norvegicus Pacific jumping mouse Zapus trinotatus Pacific water shrew Sorex bendirii Pacific white-side dolphin Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Pallid bat Antrozous pallidus Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum Pygmy sperm whale @@ breviceps Raccoon Procyon lotor Red fox Vulpes vulpes Red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Right whale Eubalaena glacialis River otter Lutra canadensis Saddleback dolphin Delphinus delphis Sea otter Enhydra lutris Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis 855 Shortfin pilot whale Globicephala macrorhynchus Short-tailed weasel Mustela erminea Shrew-mole Neurotrichus gibbsii Silver-haired bat L@a@sionycteris noctivagans Snowshoe hare Lepus americanus Sperm whale Physeter catodon Striped porpoise Stenella coeruleoalba Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis Townsend's big-eared bat Plecotus townsendii Townsend's chipmunk Eutamias townsendii Townsend's mole Scapanus townsendii Townsend's vole Microtus townsendii Trowbridge's shrew Sorex trowbridgii Vagrant shrew Sorex vagrans Western gray squirrel Sciurus griseus Western red-backed vole Clethrionomys occidentalis Western spotted skunk Spilogale gracilis Whitehead grampus Grampus griseus Yuma myotis Myotis yumanensis 856 GLOSSARY accipiter e A hawk in the family Accipitridae (e.g. , sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawks, and Goshawks). accretion 9 The process of matter building up along the shoreline or river banks. abyssal zone 9 Refers to the deepest areas of the ocean extending from 3,000 to 4,000 meters below the water's surfce to the ocean bottom. aerobic * Organisms thriving only in the presence of free oxygen. amphibian e Organisms adapted for life either on land or in water, e.g. , frogs, salamanders, newts. anadromous Oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in fresh water. anaerobic Organisms capable of living in absence of free oxygen. annual * Plant that lives for only one year. anoxic * Lacking or containing extremely low amounts of oxygen. aphotic zone 9 Ocean waters which are so deep they receive no light at all. aquaculture 9 The growth of aquatic organisms (freshwater or marine) under controlled conditions. assimilation Conversion into protoplasm of ingested and digested nutrient material. autotrophic Plants which make their own food by photosynthesis; they form carbohydrates and pro- teins from carbon dioxide and inorganic compounds. bathypelagic zone e Deep ocean waters in the aphotic zone, from around 1,000 meters to 3,000 or 4,000 meters below the water's surface. benthic * Organisms living on the bottom of lakes or marine waters. benthos e The aquatic community of bottom-dwelling life. berm * A ledge of mud, sand, or gravel deposited just above normal high water by wave action. 857 biocide 9 Collective term for herbicides and pesticides; used to identify those substances intro- duced into the environment which are harmful to many organisms in addition to those which they are meant to control or destroy. biogeography 9 The part of biology dealing with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. biomass * The living matter in a given space. brackish e Fresh water mixed with salt water. broadleaf trees e A general term used to distinguish large-leaved from needle-leaved trees; e.g. red alder, bigleaf maple, black cottonwood, madrona. bulkhead e An embankment for holding back water. canopy e Topmost layer of leaves, twigs, and branches of forest trees, or of other woody plants. carnivore * Organisms which eat flesh of animals; secondary consumers. carri on * The decayi ng f I esh of a dead body. carrying capacity e The limit to the amount of life, in numbers or mass, that can be supported by any given habitat. (In another context, used to express reasonable limits of human use of a resource.) channelization * To direct streamflow in man-made channels. clay 9 A firm, but moldable, fine-grained earth. climax * The mature or stabilized stage in a successional series of communities, when dominant species are completely adapted to environmental conditions. clonal * Asexual reproduction of plants by root sprouting. colonization a Establishment of species on a given area. community * Any group of populations of plants and animals living in a given area or physical ',habitat. competition 9 This occurs when a number of organisms of the same or of different species use common resources that are in short supply. 858 coniferous * Any cone-bearing trees or shrubs which are mostly evergreens, e.g. , Douglas fir, cedar, spruce. consumer * Organisms which ingest other organisms or particulate organic matter. consumptive use 9 In reference to wildlife, consumptive uses are those in which fish, waterfowl, or other animals are harvested. A broader definition includes harvest of mushrooms, blackberries, and other wild plants. cover (type) e Land cover in a particular area, generally defined by the plant community, e.g., shrub cover. deciduous o Trees which lose their leaves at the end of the growing season, e.g., red alder, maple, birch. demersal o Organisms living on or near the bottom of a body of water. deposit feeder 9 An animal (usually a polychaete worm or clam) which feeds by ingesting sediment. Organic matter contained in the sediment is absorbed, while inorganic matter is passed through the digestive system and excreted. detrital pathway 9 Foodchain which goes from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to detritus-feeding organisms and their predators. detritivore e Organisms which subsist on organic detritus. detritus * Particles of plant matter in varying stages of decomposition. dredge spoils 9 Waste matter removed in making excavations. dominant species * Species prevalent in a particular community, or at a given period, which also may determine conditions of that area. duff * Decaying plant matter on the ground in a forest. dysphotic zone e Ocean waters below the euphotic zone which extend from about 100-200 meters below the surface to about 1,000 meters in depth. This zone receives too little light for photosyn- thesis. ecology e The relationship between organisms and their surroundings. 859 ecosystem a Any unit containing a community and physical environment functioning together to direct a flow of energy within the system. ecotone a A transition between two or more diverse communities. This community often contains many organisms of each of the overlapping communities and also has species characteristic of-the ecotone. Ecotones often have greater numbers of species and individuals than the communities surrounding it, i.e. , the edge effect. edge effect e The tendency for increased variety and density of species at community junctions. eelgrass e Marine vascular plant also referred to as crabgrass. Unlike algae, eelgrass is rooted in the beach substrate and is a flowering plant. Refer to the Seagrass Narrative (No. 627) for information concerning this marine plant which supports a wide variety of commercially and recreationally valuable organisms. endemic Native species restricted to a certain region or part of a region. epifauna Organisms living on the bottom surface of aquatic systems, either attached or moving freely on the surface. epilimnion * The upper, warm circulating water above the thermocline (a steep temperature gradient) in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. epiphyte * Plant which lives on surface of other plants. euphotic zone e The total area of water illuminated by sunlight in lakes, ponds, reservoirs, or oceans in which photosynthesis occurs. euryhaline Marine organisms adaptable to a wide range of salinity. eutrophic An aquatic system which provides (more than) adequate nutrition for most of the organ- isms living there. eutrophication e Nutrient enrichment, leading to excessive growth of aquatic plants. extreme high water (EHW) * Highest elevation the tide reaches in a typical year. evergreen * Plants having green leaves throughout the year, e.g. , Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, juni- pers, rhododendron: opposed to deciduous. 860 exotic * An introduced species not native to an area or region. exposed beach * A beach which is subjected to contant heavy surf and/or strong currents. exudation * Any discharge through an incision or pore. feral * An organisms that is wild or has escaped from cultivation o r domestication and reverted to a wild state. filling Artificial elevation of land by deposit of soil or sediment. filter feeder 9 An animal which uses feather-like structures to filter microscopic organisms and detritus from the water. Also called suspension feeding. f i ngerl i ng * A young f i sh about the I ength of, a f i nger. fledge * To grow the feathers necessary for flying. floodplain s The area of shorelands extending inland from the normal yearly maximum storm water level to the highest expected storm water level in a given period of time (i.e. , 5, 50, 100 years). flora 9 Plants. food chain 9 The step-by-step transfer of food- energy and materials, by consumption, from the prim- ary source in plants through increasingly higher forms of fauna (animals). food web * The network of feeding relationships in a biological community. fry * A very young f i sh general ly sti 11 retai ni ng i ts egg sac. game species * Animals classified by the Washington Department of Game that can be legally hunted or fished within predetermined seasons. Examples include deer, elk, waterfowl, and steelhead. granivorous * Feeding on grain and seeds. grazing pathway * Food chain which starts from a green plant base, goes to grazing herbivores and on to carnivores. groin * A small jetty extending from shore to prevent beach erosion. 861 groundwater * Water found underground in porous rock strata and soils, contributes largely to stream- f I ow. habitat e The place where an organism lives. This definition includes organisms as well as the abiotic environment. habitat partitioning * The division of a resource or habitat continuum by physical, behavioral or temporal differences of species which otherwise might use the very same resources. halophyte * Plant capable of thriving on sal t- impregnated soils. hectare e A metric measure of surface, equal to 1,000 square meters (2.471 acres). herbaceous e Any seed plant whose stem withers away to the ground after each season's growth, as di sti ngui shed f rom a tree or shrub whose woody stem I i ves f rom year to year. herbivore * An animal subsisting on plant matter, a primary consumer. heterotrophic Organisms or systems which are dependent on other organisms or systems for food and energy. holoplankton Organisms that remain for their entire life cycle in the plankton population of aquatic systems. humus e A dark material formed by decomposition of vegetable or animal matter and constituting the organic part of soils. hydrophyte * An aquatic plant. hypertrophic conditions e Conditions extremely amenable to growth of organism(s). hypolimnion * The deep, noncirculating water in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. indicator species e A species chosen to represent some particular environmental condition. infauna * Organisms that dig into the bottom substrate of aquatic systems or construct tubes or burrows. insectivore * Any animal or plant that feeds on insects. 862 insular 9 Detached, isolated, as on an island. interstitial a Of, forming, or occurring in small or narrow spaces between things, e.g., particles of sand or gravel. intertidal @ The zone between high and low tides. invertebrates * Animals not having backbones, e.g. , crabs, crayfish, worms, clams. ion * An electrically charged atom or group of atoms which can often combine with other atoms to form new compounds, e.g. , the sodium ion and chloride cations can join together to form table salt. light compensation level @ The depth at which photosynthesis (production) just balances respiration (consumption) in aquatic systems. limnetic 9 The open-water zone which extends to the depth of effective light penetration in lakes, large ponds, and reservoirs. litter e The surface layer of the ground in which the leaves are slightly decomposed, usually per- taining to forests. littoral * The shallow-water region of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs where light can penetrate to the bottom. macrophytes e Large plants. mariculture 9 The husbandry of marine plants and animals. mean high water (MHW) * Yearly average of all high tides. mean higher high water (MHHW) * Yearly average of all higher high tides. mean 1 ow water (MLW) e Yearly average of al 1 1 ow ti des. mean lower low water (MLLW) e Yearly average of all lower low tides. The mean lower low water mark is designated as the 0.0 level in tide tables and most tidal elevations are discussed in terms of feet above or below MLLW. 863 median zone @ That area of the coastal zone with intermediate moisture relations, including the eastern half of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Puget Sound Basin. meroplankton e Organisms which spend only part of their life cycle in the plankton population of aquatic systems. mesic s Conditioned by temperate moist climate, neither xeric (dry) or hydric (wet). mesopelagic zone a The ocean water zone below the euphotic zone which receives too little light for photosynthesis. It extends from about 100-200 meters below the surface to about 1,000 meters below the surface. microalgae * Extremely small algae. microbe e A bacterium, a mico-organism. microphytes * Any small plant. molt * To cast or shed periodically the outer covering, whether of feathers, hair, skin, or horns. morel e Any of a group of small edible mushrooms. mucilage * Any of various thick, sticky substances produced by some invertebrates and plants. Mycorrhiza * Association of the vegetative structure of fungi with the roots of a higher plant. neritic zone * The ocean's shallow water (near shore) zone above the continental shelf; coastal waters. net primary productivity * The rate of storage of organic matter in plant tissues in excess of the respiratory utilization by plants during the period of measurement. neuston Organisms floating or swimming in surface water, or inhabiting surface film. niche The place or role of an organism in its biotic environment. This includes the physical space occupied by an organism, its functional role in the community and its position in environ- mental gradients, such as temperature and moisture. 864 nitrogen-fixation e The process by which some plants, e.g.' , legumes, such as peas and beans move atmospheric Nitrogen into the productivity cycle. This enriches the soil without the use of heavy nitrate fertilizers. nonconsumptive use e In reference to wildlife, nonconsumptive uses include photography, watching wildlife, and other forms of nonharvest enjoyment of animals and their habitat. nursery area e A place where young stages of aquatic I ife concentrate for feeding or refuge. oligotrophic * An aquatic system which provides few foods and supports few species. Applied to geologically young lakes which typically receive few nutrients from their surrounding watersheds. omnivore e An animal which eats both animal and plant tissues. opportunistic * Species capable of rapid colonization of disturbed areas and/or that can take advan- tage of temporary changes in a given resource(s). organochloride @ Organic compounds such as the insecticide DDT which contain chlorine and hydrocar- bons. osmosis * The tendency of a fluid to pass through a semipermeable membrane, as the wall of a living cell, into a solution of higher concentration, so as to equalize concentrations on both sides of the membrane. oxbow 9 The crescent-shaped bend in a river which may be cut off from the river by sedimentation, forming an oxbow lake. parasite e An organism living with or within another to its own advantage in food or shelter. passerines * More than half of all birds belong to this group of small or medium-sized, perching songbirds. They have grasping feed with the first toe directed backward. pelagic * All of the free-swimming and floating life inhabiting open water. periphyton a The plants adhering to parts of rooted aquatic plants. perennial * Plants which persist throughout the year, or for a number of years. photic zone 9 The water zone where sunlight can penetrate and photosynthesis can occur. In the Northwest, from 10 to 50 feet. In the tropics light can penetrate as much as several hundred feet and allow algae to grow. 865 phytoplankton e The marine or freshwater plants drifting with the surrounding water; plant plankton. pioneer species e The first species to attempt colonization of an area. plankton * The marine or freshwater plants and animals drifting with the surrounding water, in- cluding animals with weak locomotory power. p I umage 9 Abird's feathers. poikilotherm * A "cold blooded" animal ; its temperature varies with that of the surrounding medium of air, water, mud, etc. , e.g., fish, reptiles, amphibians. point bar * A bar in a river or stream channel formed by deposition of sand, gravel, or other mate- rial on the inside portion of channel curves. polygon e Individual mapping unit which defines cover type. pool 9 Areas of rivers and streams which generally have slower currents and soft substrate, as opposed to riffles. population a A group of individuals of any one kind of organism. prey @ An animal hunted or killed by other animal. primary consumer * Organisms which feed directly on living plants or plant remains. primary productivity * The rate at which sunlight is stored by photosynthesis of producers (e.g. , green plants) in the form which can be used as food materials. primary succession * The development of a community beginning on an area that has not previously been occupied by a community, e.g. , a newly exposed rock or sand surface. productivity * The rate of storage of organic matter. profundal zone * The bottom and deep-water area of lakes, reservoirs, and ponds which is beyond the depth of effective light penetration. protected beach * Beaches which rarely, if ever, are affected -by waves greater than two feet in height or scoured by strong tidal currents. 866 raptor 9 A general term applied to a bird of prey, e.g. , eagle, hawk, owl , vulture are all raptors. reptile 9 E.g. , snakes, lizards, turtles. redd @ Scrapings in gravel in which salmon, trout, and other fish lay their eggs. relict e A plant or animal living on or in a.particular area as a survivor from an earlier period. rhizome * A thick horizontal stem partly along and partly under ground, sending out shoots above and roots below. riffle e Areas of rivers or streams having fast currents and rocky or other hard substrates, as opposed to pools of rivers and streams. riparian o Frequenting, growing on, or living on the banks of streams or rivers. riverine e On or near the banks or a river; riparian. rubble o Rough, irregularly broken pieces of stone, brick, etc. runoff o Rain in excess of the amount absorbed by the ground. salmonid o Salmon and trout. salt pans o Pools of highly saline water. sapling o A young tree. scavenger o Any animals that eat refuse and decaying organic matter. secondary consumer o Carnivorous (flesh-eating) organims which feed on primary consumers or on other secondary consumers. secondary succession o Community development proceeding in an area from which a community was removed, e.g., a clearcut and burned forest. sedge e Any of several coarse, grasslike plants usually growing in tufts or clumps in wet ground. The leaves have three sharp edges. sediment @ Any matter or mass deposited by water or wind. seedl i ng o A very young tree. 867 seral stage (or step) * The relatively transitory communities occurring throughout succession toward a climax community. shoal * A sand bar or piece of rising ground forming a shallow place, especially one visible at low water. snag * Dead trees often partially broken or decayed; these are required by many wildlife. species richness * Number of species present. standing crop * The total weight of I iving matter in a given place at a given time. stenohaline 9 Organisms adaptable to a narrow range of salinity. strand 9 Land at the edge of a body of water especially ocean shore. subcanopy * The forest stratum located above the shrub layer and beneath the canopy. succession e Ecosystem development; an orderly process of community.development that involves changes in species and community processes with time. symbiosis * The living together of two dissimilar organisms in close association or union, especially where this is advantageous to both. talus e Piles of rock fragments which drop off cliffs and accumulate in uniform masses at the base of cliffs. taxonomic names * Names established by the scientific classification system for plants and animals. thermocline * The zone of water in lakes, ponds, or reservoirs which has a steep temperature gradi- ent, preventing complete circulation of surface waters (the epilimnion) and bottom waters (the hypolimnion). tidegate e A structure which allows drainage of freshwater through a one-way valve into marine waters at low tide. High tide conditions force the valve to close, thus preventing intrusion of salt water into the freshwater area. turbidity * The relative degree to which sediment in a given aquatic system is stirred up. 868 understory e The vegetation beneath the canopy layer; i.e. , herbs, shrubs, saplings. upland e Terrestrial areas above tidal or freshwater influence. A broad transition zone such as a marsh often creates an indistinct boundary between "wetland" and '.upland". vascular * Plants having ducts which convey sap, e.g. , eelgrass, Douglas fir, alder, and wildrose. vegetative reproduction e Reproduction by bud-formation or other asexual method in plants and animals. warren a Rabbit den. water quality * Water quality values are relative measures dependent on the given species or eco- system involved (e.g., eutrophic lakes having many nutrients support fish which do not require great amounts of oxygen; algae may be abundant. This same lake probably does not support trout, and the water may not be suitable for human consumption.) zooplankton 9 The marine or freshwater animals, including those with weak locomotory power, which drift with the surrounding water. zoospore * A motile, flagellated asexual spore, as of certain algae and fungi. 869 I I I I I I I INDEX I I I I I 1 870 1 11R, SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION abyssal zone, 417 albatross, black-footed, 426,427 Aberdeen, 294,389 agriculture, impacts on sloughs, alder: 355,452 Aberdeen-Hoquiam, 376 409 red, 100,116,213ff,244,247, Admiralty Inlet, 415,421,452 agriculture, impact on lakes, 350 250,338,407 Agate Pass, 598 air quality, salt marsh affecting, algae, 30,33,36 American Camp, 80,86,89 503 amphipods, 388,514,612,657,674,678, Anacortes, 24 algae: (salt water), 595 679,680,690 An@erson Island, 36,333 as food, 565 anchovy, 419 Annas Bay, 743 as habitat, 560 anemone: green sea, 600,613 Barney Lake, 347 as herring spawning substrate, pink tipped sea, 613 Battle Point, 75 561 white sea, 35 Bear River, 377 as livestock feed, 565 arrow grass, 397,408 Beaver Lake, 347 as pollution indicators, 566 arrowhead, 338 Beckett Point, 82,152 birds and mammals and, 562- ash, Oregon, 231,116 Bellingham, 86 563 aspen, trembling, 213ff,239,454 Big Beef Lagoon, 401-402 harvest of, 568 auklet, rhinoceros, Birch Bay, 24,239,689,693,699,704 red, 612 88.,218,427,526 Blakely Island, 333 zonation of, 558 769,775 Bodelteh Island, 435 algal communities, 556-569 avbcet, American-, 6�9 Boundary Bay, 693 algin, 566 bacteria, 296,622,687,714,728 British Columbia, 83,225,440 amphibians: San Juan Island, 762 barnacles: 35,611.,674,683 Buck Bay, 379 stream, 316 gooseneck, 600,611 Budd Inlet, 743 aquaculture, 52 beachhoppers, 495,685,695 Burley Lagoon, 396 artificial nests; osprey, 346 beachgrass, European, 802 Camano Island, 396 Bald Eagle Management Guidelines, bear, black, 96,100,103,182 Cape Flattery, 412,545,547,594 157 beaver, 71,123,124,318-319,345, Cape Johnson, 421 bank vegetation, as cover along 348,349,355-359 Carroll Island, 435 sloughs, 410 beaver, mountain, 101 Cattle Point, 80,86,89,90,91,92,596, bar, sand/gravel, 810 beetle: bark, 101 795 Barbee Mill Company, 31 click, 101 Cedar River, 127 btathy'pelagic zone, 417 whirligig, 340 Chehalis, 294 beach substrates (see also substrate bentgrass, creeping, 452 Chehalis River, 322 types), 571-590 birch, paper, 219ff,277,458 Chehalis River Estuary, 376 beach, impacts, 586-589 bittern, American, 342,345 Cherry Point, 24,635 beaches (see also substrate types), blackberry: 97,100,104 Chuckanut Bay, 594 571-590 Himalayan, 83 Clallam County, 49,50,73,78,86,90, beaver ponds: 355-359 trailing, 452 164,208,239,225,277,278,322,364, increase of habitat blackbird: Brewer's, 84 374,377,412,435,457,484,479,482, diversity by, 356 red-winged, 342 495,545,547,589,594,596,616,621, and wildlife, 356 bladderwort, 339 635,636,681,689,699,701,703,783, impact of removal, bleeding heart, 146 820,823 358-359 blister wrack, 674 Clear Lake, 347 beaver: restocking of, 358 bloodworm, 695 Columbia River, 115,121,209,295,322 trapping, 358 blue-green algae, 338 346,347,379,381,388,394 blueberry, 97 Copalis River, 594 871 fiftsid web., I I SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION benthic organisms; marine open water, bluebird, western, 273 Cosmopolis, 389 420 bluegrass: coastline, 798 Cowlitz Bay, 526 biocide, 46,248 Kentucky, 83,92 Cranberry Lake, 333,343 bird populations; high in riparian, seacliff, 783 Crescent Beach, 208 121 seashore, 798 Crockett Lake, 396 birds and mammals associated with bobcat, 321 Cultus Bay, 699,701 seagrass, 524-529 boykinia, slender, 116 Cypress Island, 594 birds and mammals: algae and, 562- bouncing bett, 83 Dabob Bay, 53,54 563 brant, 587,512,524,562,664,725 Deadman Bay, 657,658,783 sand dune, 799-810 brome, soft, 83 DeBay Slough, 347 intertidal (beach bryozoa, 340 Deception Piss, 80,84,415,594,795 substrates), 578- buckbean, 338 Destruction Island, 616 582 bufflehead, 348,394,526,616 Discovery Park, 40 birds of Leadbetter Point, 804 bulrush: 338,506 Dosewallips River, 478,499 birds: of rock outcrops, 756 hardstem, 394,408,452 Drayton Harbor, 24,728,743 stream, 317-318 seacoast, 408 Duckabush River, 478,499 boating: effects on wildlifi, 28 small-fruited, 116 Dumas Bay, 379 impacts, 446,772-774 bunting, snow, 801 Dungeness Bay, 743 impacts in channels, 411 burreed, 116 Dungeness River, 164 bog wildlife, 462-463 bursage, silver, 798 Dungeness Spit, 73,78,277,278,374, bogs, 451-465 bushtit, 103,124 699,820,823 boulder zone, river, 294 buttercup, California, 84 Duwamish Estuary, 381 Bowles, J. Hooper, 86 cactus, brittle, 83,86,269 Duwamish River, 294,322,324,376,480, brackish marsh, 477-508 caddis fly, 302 673 brackish marsh plants, 483 camas: deaih, 91 Duwamish waterway, 117 brackish swamp, 451-465 Leichtlin's, 269 Eagle Cove, 689 buffer zone: 14,278 candlefish, 314,419,664,687 Eagle Point, 89,90,752 around marshes, 472 canvasback, 562,743 Ediz Hook, 374,589 benefit to sloughs, 410 cascara, 239,249 Edmonds, 28 for bald eagles, 127 caterpillar, tent, 190 Edmonds ferry dock, 35 for osprey, 346 cats-ears, hairy, 82 Ellen Sands, 793 stream (riparian), 120- cattail, 338,342,394,407,452,467 Elliot Bay, 678,743 121,125,127,128,129 cedar, western red, 107,116,244,247, Elwha River, 322,377,589 streamside vegetation, 452 English Camp National Historic. 328 cheatgrass, 83 Park, 262,265 bulkhead: 283 cherry, wild, 235 Everett, 294,324,376,411 beach grassland as natural, chickadee: black-capped, 237 Everett Bay, 33 78 chestnut-backed, 190 False Bay, 689,699 burning, 25 chink shells, 614 Fay Bainbridge State Park, 40 canals, 411 chipmunk, Townsend's, 102,145,182, Fidalgo Bay, 728 Carter, President, 130 201 Fidalgo Head, 80,84,594,596 cavity nesting, 8 chiton: 612 Fidalgo Island, 84 census, national bald eagle, 89 gumboat, 614 Fort Lewis, 24 channelization, stream, 327 chokecherry, bitter, 231 Garrison Bay, 255 channels, 410 cladocerans, 388 Gertrude Island, 685 872 SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION chemical spills, 24 clam: bent-nose, 673,686 Gibson Spit, 73,495,504 cliffs, 781@788 butter, 60,645,673,686,703 Glen Cove, 240 coastal drift sectors, 278 hardshell, 53,60 Goose Island, 80,92,793 coastal marsh characteristics, 484 horse, 53,60,673 Grays Harbor, 53,86,389,429,517,678, Coastal Zone Atlas, update, 36' Japanese littleneck, 52,53,60, 689,690,693,713,716,728,738,743, commercial value, sea products*, 441 645,673,686 791,793 coniferous forest productivity, 174 littleneck, 33 Grays Harbor County, 53'86,294,376, coniferous forest types, 171 macoma, 645,731 389,426,429,442,477,4@0,489,517, construction, impacts on islands, 774 Manila, 645,731 594,678,689,690,693,704,705,713, corn fields, 46 native littleneck, 645,686,703, 716,791,793,799 corridor, riparian zone as, 121.123 731 Grays Marsh, 474 corridors: 41 razor, 691,695,696,702,703,700 Green River, 322 estuaries as, 388 soft shell, 60,394,645,686,731 Hamma Hamma River, 452,461 lakes and ponds as, 349 transenella, 645,673 Hancock Lake, 452,461 rivers as, 321 white sand, 696,702 Haro Strait, 437 to marsh, 500 clingfish, northern, 651 Henry Island, 454 wildlife, 279 cockle: 60,686 Hood Canal, 52,57,192,379,401,421, critical areas for sea lions, 435 heart, 645,673,731 422,499,514,517,526,593,611,622, critical biological areas, 281,593, cockscomb, high, 559,651 630,643,657,661,673,686,689,690, 620 cod: ling-, 622 693,697,750 Cummins, Kenneth, 134 Pacific, 686 Hood Canal Bridge, 25 currents, marine, 414 common rush, 338 Hoquiam, 294,389 dams, 130,326 coontail, 339 Hoquiam River, 294 Dawson, William, 209 coot, 394 Iceberg Point, 90 DDT, 346 copepods, 340,388,674,678,679,690 Ilwaco, 426,783 Department of Natural Resources, 66 coralroot, 146 Island County, 56,107,208,255,256, desert conditions in coastal zone, cordgrass, Townsend's, 506 333,343,396,415,421,451,452,461, 83 cormorant: 35 479,506,540,594,657,689,699,701, detrital pathway: kelp, 538 Brandt's, 596 743,795 salt marsh, 494- pelagic, 427,784,617 Jagged Island, 435 497 cottonwood, black, 116,127,407 Jefferson County, 52,53,54,60,73,75, seagrass, 513-514 cougar, 198,208 82,88,152,239,240,334,379,394,396, detritus: in streams, 299 coyote, 41,46,51,182,183,321,664, 397,401,403,477,479,489,504,596, salt marsh, 494-497 686 616,630,657,769,774,775 dikes, 474 crab: 34,622 Jetty Island, 696 dissolved oxygen; stream demands, Dungeness, 383,388,494,529,686, Johns Prairie, 256 298,304 697,702,703,723,725,731,745 Kah Tai Lagoon, 396 diversity: algae, 557 hairy cancer, 651 Kellogg Island, 376 natural grasslands hairy shore, 408,673,675,731 King County, 6,24,27,36,40,41,117, increasing coastal, 85 kelp (spider), 613 127,239,240,277,294,322,324,333, domestic animals, 6,8,9 pea, 664 350,376,379,381,415,421,479,480, dredge waste disposal, 28 porcelain, 651 678,689,704,705,743 dredging: 68 purple shore, 651 King Spit, 75 impact on seagrass, 531 red rock, 494,529,652,686,697, Kitsap County, 24,30,31,40,57,239, impacts in channels, 411 702,731 396,402,451,452,454,477,479,522, shore. 683 598,627 873 SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATI6N driftwood removal, impact on dunes, Crangon, 613 Kydaka Beach, 689 803 crayfish, 335,340,342 Kydaka Point, 701 dune: animals of, 799-810 creeper, brown, 190 Lake Washington, 26,31,350 plants of, 797-798 crow:_75,235,614,680 Lawrence Point, 781 sand, 795-808 Cumaceans, 678,679,680,690 Leadbetter Point, 799,800,804 Dungeness Spit birds, 820-823 currant, red, 247 Liberty Bay, 30 dysphotic zone; marine open water, currants, 407 Liliwaup River, 211 417 daffodils, 83 Long Beach Peninsula, 101,374,377, edge effects: 23,24,41,163 damsel fly, 340 379,451,705,795 in riparian habitat, dandelions, 82 Long Island, 103,174,205 121 Deer: 23,25,27,41,71,95,96,97,321 Lopez Island, 84,239,594,616,744 salt marsh, 499-502 342,356,386 Lummi Island, 594,781 edge: beach grassland as, 75 black-tailed, 46,51,85,103,109, Lynch Cove, 743 grasslands diversity forest 110,182,188,201,210,240,235,664, Magnolia (King County), 277 marsh/mudflat, 398 685,690 - Mason County, 24,192,205,211,239, marsh/water, 398 Deptford pink, 83 255,256,322,451,452,454,477,479 wetland/upland, 461 desmids, 34 Massacre Bay, 113,757 eelgrass, 511-533 Odevil's club, 236 Maury Island, 240 emergent plants, lake, 338 diatoms, 338,340,691,695,714 Mora, 86 endangered species: 24,445,454,461 dinoflagellates, 392 Morse Creek, 635 482,753,756,783,787 dipper, 317 Mt. Dallas, 269,271,272,274,751,756, salt marsh, 493 Dogielinotus, 695 757,781 endemic plants, dune, 798 dogwood: 235 Mud Bay, 728,744 epifauna, marine, 420 Pacific, 244 Naselle River, 377 epiphytes, seagrass, 518 red osier, 116,355,407 Neah Bay, 621,703 erosion, 33,38,111 Douglas' aster, 452 Nemah River, 377 erosion control: 283 dowitchers, 495 Nisqually Delta, 33,34 salt marsh affect- dragonfly, 340 Nisqually Flats, 86 ing, 503 duck: Harlequin, 542,596,629 Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge, along streams, 125 ring-necked, 799 474 esthetic values of natural features, ruddy, 743 Nisqually River, 46,117,322,504 6 wood, 124.202 Nooksack River, 127 esthetic values of wildlife, 442 dunlin, 386,739 North Peapod Rock, 80 estuaries, 373-393 eagle: bald, 140,163,190,194,202,208, North River, 377 estuarine pollutants, 390-392 209,237,265,271,272,278,35,82,85, Oak Harbor, 256 estuarine zone, river, 293 89,121,129,318,342,405,461,528, Oakland Bay, 256,454 estuary and bay formed by geological 563,601,616,628,629,630,636,658, Ocean Shores, 704,705 forces, 379 687 Olympia, 6 estuary as corridor, 388 bald-management recommenda- Olympic Mountains, 80 estuary as nutrient and pollutant tions, 127 Olympic National Park, 205,210,211 trap, 390 golden, 190,265,271,272 Olympic Peninsula, 25,142,198,210, estuary as stressful environment, 594 385 Orcas Island, 101,113,333,379,757 estuary definitions, 377 781 estuary formation, 377 Oregon, 440 874 SUBJ ECT SPECIES LOCATION estuary productivity, 383-384 eelgrass.: 28,39,396,398,401,511-533, Oyehut Peninsula, 799 estuary: examples of by county, 378 662,664,674,683,686,690,714,715 Ozette River (offshore rocks), 435 historical changes, 389 narrow-bladed, 693 Pacific coast, 52,594,689,690,695, impacts on by altered river broad-bladed, 517,693 697,702 flow, 390 description of species, 517 Pacific County, 33,52,71,101,103,117, zonation within, 383 European, 517 174,205,214,241,244,250,295,322, euphotic zone; marine open water, elderberry: 97 346,347,374,377,379,381,388,389, 415,418 red, 235,244 421,426,451,477,479,489,512,517, eutrophic lakes, 338 elk, 46,71,182,198,201,210,321,342 524,690,693,705,783,795,799,802, eutrophication, 19,26,338,350 356,386,489 804 exotic animals: 23 Endocladia, 611 Pacific Flyway, 386 impact in grasslands, 91 Entermorpha, 30,405,558,566,598,673, Padilla Bay, 33,512,517,524,587,713, exotic plants, 23,97,100,105,506 674,683,693,724 716,743,744 exotic species: 25,771-772,802 Eohaustorius, 695 Palix River, 117,377 farm pond, 361-365 eriophyllum, 83 Partridge Point, 107 ferry routes; for wildlife viewing, falcon, peregrine, 49,76,86,140,164, Pass Lake, 333 442 528,601,616,629,630,739,787 Penn Cove, 30 fertilizer: 51 fat hen, 452 Pierce County, 24,36,40,41,86,117, agricultural impact on fawn-lilyj giant, 756 239,255,256,262,294,322,324,333,376, lakes, 350 feather boa, 598 396,415,454,477,480,685 impact on streams, 326 fern: bracken, 91,91 Pillar Point, 621 filling, salt marsh, 506 chain, 24,281 Point Bolin, 452 fire, shrub maintenance by, 95,105 gold-back, 755 Point Defiance Park,,40 fish farming in ponds, 362 sword, 247,452 Point Disney, 255 fish food habitr., stream, 315 fescue: 83 Point Grenville, 689 fish habitat requirements, stream, Idaho, 83,92 Point Roberts, 426 302-304,306-316 filaree, 91 Port Discovery, 52 fish hatcheries, 60 fir: Douglas, 100,107,227,244,245, Port Gamble, 522 fish migration, interference with, 247,255,256,269 Port Gamble Bay, 31 35 grand, 244,247 Port Orchard, 627 fish: kelp, 541-542,554-555 fireweed, 236,247 Port Susan,,506 list of stream, 329-330 fisher, 142,208,210 Port Susan Bay, 743,745 stream, 306-316 flatfish, 622,686,687 Port Townsend Pulp Mill, 334 fishery production of Puget Sound, flatworms, 340,657 Possession Sound, 421 441 flicker, common, 85,183,273 Protection Island, 73,75,82,88,643, fjord-type estuary, 379 flounder, starry, 27,316,388,408, 769,774,775,780 floating-plants, lake, 339 529,702,715,723,731,739,745 Puget Sound, 53,192,209,281,413,415, flood control and channelization, flycatcher, western, 240 593,594,598,613,622;643,657,661, 327 foxglove, 83 662,673,693,697,702,714,744 flood control: salt marsh affecting, fringecups, 146 Pulali Point, 630 503 frog: Pacific tree, 235 Puyalltip River, 117,294,322,324,376 wetlands as, 471 red-legged, 338 480 flood, control of, 125,130 fulmar, northern, 426 Pysht River, 482 flooding, 33 garter snake, common,' 316 Quillayute Needles, 435 floodway 'zone, river, 294 geese: Canada, 31,474,512 Rosario Strait, 437 food chain, stream, 120 snow, 493,506 Samish Say, 53,743 875 SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION food chains, salt marsh, 489-497 geoduck, 53,421,686 Samish Island, 459 food habits, stream fish, 315 gigartina, 66,558 San Juan Archipelago, 80,83,90,255, forest buffer zone, 155 goldeneye, common, 563 256,259,269-272,274,643,744.,751 forest canopy, 141 goldfinch: 83 San Juan County, 60,80,84,86,89,90, forest canopy food web, 141 American, 85 91,92,101,113,228,239,245,255,256, forest habitat fragmentation, 155 gonyaulax, 392,588 262,269-274,333,379,429,435,437, forest herb and ground layer, 146 gooseberry, coast black, 247 454,477,517,526,540,594,596,616. forest productivity, 140 gorse, 97,100,101,105 621,637,689,699,728,738,744,751, forest shrub layer, 145 goshawk, 272 752,756,757,781,783,795 forest size: 155 Gracillaniopsis, 66 San Juan Islands, 30,80.82,83,84,86, wildlife relationships grape, Oregon, 107,240,244 87,89,90,91,113,152,188,190,192, to, 41 grass: orchard, 83 245,255,256,259,260,262,269-272, forest structure, 152ff velvet, 83 273,274,333,429,517,540,594,596, forest subcanopy, 145 gr eared, 744 614,615,619,633,657,675,686,738 forest succession, 152 horned, 526,543 Sand Island, 793 forest: dry zone, 244 pied-billed, 346 Saratoga Oassage, 421 median zone, 244 red-necked, 664 Sares Head, 781 moist zone, 244 western, 427 Saturna Island, 83 fragmentation, of habitats, 762 Greene's bog orchid, 269 Seabeck Bay, 57 freshwater influence an marine circu- greenling-. kelp, 420,422,621 Seattle, 6,27,36,127,294,376,415 lation, 415 . painted, 627 Sekiu, 621 freshwater marsh, 467-474 grosbeak, black-headed, 236 Sequim, 90,255,364,457 freshwater slough, defined, 407 grouse: blue, 189 Sequim Bay, 52,681 freshwater swamp, 451-465 ruffed, 235 Seward Park, 40 fungi, 149 guillemot, pigeon, 75,278,543,785 Shelton, 255 fur trade, 358 gull: Bonaparte's, 427,429,528,715 Shoal Bay, 379 Godfrey, Earl W., 229 glaucous-winged, 35,39,75,528, Skagit Bay, 716,745 Greubel, Karl, 820-823 752,770 Skagit County, 33,34,45,46,49,53,80, gravel bars, 810 Heermann's, 596 115,117,123,164,239,268,322,333,. gravel extraction; impact on streams, mew, 680 347,377,380,411,459,479,480,504, 326 ring-billed, 793 512,517,524,596,713,716,728,743, grazing pathway, salt marsh, 489-493 gulls, 636 744,745,781 habitat creation, reefs for fish, 35 gumweed, 92 Skagit Flats, 33,34,380 habitat diversity, beaver ponds gunnel: crescent, 657 Skagit River, 46,164,115,117,322,479, increase, 356 penpoint, 651 480,504 habitat fragmentation, 762 rockweed, 627 Skagit River Delta, 377 habitat interrelationships in estu-, saddleback, 731 Skagit Valley, 380 aries, 374,383 0 hairgrass: 83 Skokomish River, 322,499 habitat interrelationships in lagoons, little, 83,753 Smith Creek, 377 397 silver, 83 Smith Island, 540,657,780 habitat partitioning of the marine halibut, Pacific, 422 Snohomish County, 28,33,35,41,117, environment, 430-432 Halosaccion, 611 205,294,322,324,364,376,396,411, habitat, providd by kelp, 536-538 hardhack, 116 451,479,506,517,696,704,705 heavy metal contamination, 687 harpacticoid copepods, 408,420 Snohomish River, 33,117,294,322,324 heavy metals, and algae, 568 hawk: Cooper's, 85,142,155,265,271, Snohomish River Estuary, 376 herbicide; 2,4,5-T, 97 272 Snoqualmie River, 127 876 SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION herbicides, 25,189,351 marsh, 46,71,76,85,109 South Beach, 637 herring spawning, 522-524,561 red-tailed, 25,46,51,69,85,182, Southern Puget Sound, 405 high intertidal zone, 576 183,2j7,265,271,272 Spike Rock, 435 housing: impact on lagoons, 406 rough-legged, 86,272 Split Rock, 435 impacts on dunes, 802 sharp-shinned, 96,103,142,190, Stavis Bay, 396 impacts on streams, 130 272 Steilacoom, 24 human, 188 Swainson's, 86 Stillaguamish Flats, 364 impoundments, 394 hazelnut, 244 Stillaguamish River, 479 Indian use of kelps, 548 hemlock: 100 Strait of Juan de Fuca, 106,192,384, infauna, marine, 420 western, 116,244,247,250 412,421,422,429,435,437,451,482, insularity, 152 Heptocarpus, 613 540,594,614,635,643,6749701,744, intertidal zonation: 573-577 heron, great blue, 31,35,61,140,188, 750 wildlife and, 189,125,202,237,427,459,500,527, Stretch Island, 454 576,585 543,614,664,687,690,715 Striped Peak, 206 intertidal zones, 576 herring: 383,419,422,440,522-524, Sucia Island, 435 intertidal, impacts, 586-589 561,622,630,664,675,687,702,703, Swinomish Channel, 411 introduced species: 771,772 715 Tacoma, 6,36,255,294,376 dunes, 802 Pacific, 635,657,679,731,745 Tacoma Narrows, 415 invertebrates, stream, 305-306 huckleberry: evergreen, 107,240,244, Tacoma Tideflats, 498 island nesting, outer coast, 426 452 Tacoma vicinity, 86 island size, 762 red, 239 Tatoosh Island, 435 island, climate/substrates effects hummingbird, rufous, 103,235 Thorndyke Bay, 396,397,401,403,504 on, 767-768 hydra, 340 Thorndyke Creek, 379 islands: 759-780 Iridaea, 66,558 Thurston County, 6,46,86,205,239,255, isolation and, 761-767 isopods, 30,340,514,612,674,690 256,477,504,728,743 sand, 791-793 jaeger: parasitic, 429 Tongue Point, 206,596,616,781 use by marine mammals, 435 pomarine, 426 Triangle.Cove, 396 Johnson, R. Ray, 134 jay, Steller's, 201 Twin Rivers, 635,636 Jones, Dale A., 134 junco: 102 Umatilla Reef, 435 kelp: 535-555 dark-eyed, 183,197 Vancouver Island, 85,255,259 birds and, 542-544 juniper, Rocky Mountain, 255,256,269 Vashon Island, 240,421 characteristic plants and kelp: bull, 66,540,614 Waldron Island, 255,262 animals, 552-555 giant, 66,540,595,598,614 Washington Park, 80 fish and, 541-542,554-555 honeyware or wing, 541 Westport, 426,442 harvest of, 549 honeywave, 598,614 Whatcom County, 24,f5,127,239,268, mammals and, '545-547 pompom, 540,598,614 426,458,477,478,517,594,635,689, Northwest Coast Indians and, kestrel, American, 272 693,699,704,728 548 killdeer, 75,85,394,636,664,681 Whidbey Basin, 421 lagoon: birds and mammals of, 401 kingfisher: 342,398 Whidbey Island, 82,101,107,208,255, defined, 396 belted, 163,278,529,563, 256,333,343,594,689,699,701,743 enclosed, 396 685,687 Whitcomb Island, 793 fish and invertebrates of, kinglet: golden-crowned, 188 401 ruby-crowned, 188,190 food chains, 398 kinnikinnick, 107 open, 396 knotweed, black, 796 plants of, 401 Laminaria, 598,695 productivity, 318 877 SUBJECT SPECIES LOCATION lake mixing, 335 lark, horned, 85,86,801 Willapa Bay, 33,52,53,54,56,71,101, lake nutrient cycles, 337 laver, 558 205,347,376 379,383,389,421,479, lake productivity: 337,338 lepton, Pacific, 645 482,502,512:517,524,690,693,713, relationship of Lessoniopsis, 598,611 716,743-744,791,793 depth t. 337 lichen, 75,602,753 Willapa National Wildlife Refuge, lake sizeo;'relationship to wildlife, lilaeopsis, 408 103,474 342 lily-of-the-valley, 452 Willapa River, 377 lake succession, 338 lily: checker, 83 lake vegetation, 338 chocolate, 92 lake zonation, 334 limpet, 683 Langmuir circulation, 415 Lindley's microseris, 83 Leopold, Aldo, 129 lingcod, 419 limnetic zone; of lakes, 335,340 littorina, 667 littoral drift, 35 @ littorine, Newcomb's, 493 littoral zone; of lakes, 334,338 liverwort, 338 livestock impacts on ponds, 364 lizard, western fence, 152,240 livestock impacts on streams, 130 locust, black, 231 logging practices, relationship to longspur, lapland, 801 osprey, 346 loon: arctic, 427,596 logging: 68,633 common, 342,347,526,664 along streams, 120,IZ9 low clubrush, 408 impacts on lakes, 351 lugworm, 696 impacts on sloughs, 409-410 lumpsucker, spiny, 731 impacts on streams, 129,325- lu'pine, 107 326,328 madrona: 2399244,255,256,269 Lord, J. K., 621 Pacific, 107 lower intertidal zone, 576 mallard, 46,345,474 Makah Indians, 702 manroot, 83 mammals: intertidal, 578-582 manzanita, hairy, 107 San Juan Island, 773 maple: bigleaf, 116,127,231,244,269 stream, 319-319 vine, 104,239,244 marinas, impact on lagoons*, 405 mare's tail, 338 Marine Mammal Protection Act, 437 martin: 142 marine mammals: 434-435,438,442,445 purple, 208,238 San Juan Island, 761 mayfly, 340 - marine slough, defined, 408 meadowlark, western, 84,85 marsh functions, 485,504 meconella, 83 marsh impacts, 472-474 Menzies, Archibald, 239,256 marsh plants, 467-468 merganser, hooded, 202,356,370 marsh size, relationship to wild, merlini 25,76,86,109,113,272,744 life, 500 Metridium, 613 marsh values, 485,504 mice, meadow, (see vole) marsh: comparison to bog and swamp, midge, 120,300,306,340 455 milfoil, spiked water, 339 freshwater, 467-474 mink, 121,344,348,356,408,615 Menzies, Archibald, 9D,239,256 mission bells, 107 878 SUBJECT SPECIES mid-intertidal zone, 576 mist maiden, Tracy's, 783 mining operation, 633 mistletoe, 262 Moclips Cetological Society, 437 monostroma, 30,558,566,598,674 mycorrhizal relationships, 146 moss, 75,753 National Oceanic and Atmospheric mosshead warbonnet, 627 Administration, 437 mountain beaver, 149,201,240,236 Nature Conservancy, 90 mountainbalm, 104,235,247 neritic waters; high productivity mouse: deer, 96,100,102,108,183 of, 417 gapper red-backed, 197 nestingi by birds of prey, 85 house, 100 cliff, 784-787 Pacific jumping, 101 grassland bird, 87 mousetail, tiny, 83 salt marsh, 497-498 murre, common, 775,785 Sand Island, 792-793 murrelet, marbled, 163,202,427,526 seabirds on islands, '762- muskrat, 124,338,344,348,356 766,769-771 mussel: 30,35,56, sno4 plover, 800 bay, 664,673,674,686 waterfowl in dune hollows, California, 595,600,611 799 Mysella, 673,674 woodpecker, 124 mysid, 675,690 nitrogen fixation, 218,227,232,248 nematodes, 675 North American Indians, beaver nemertean worm, 612 and, 357 Neoghardiella, 66,674i686,695,724 nutrient cycle: 514 Nephtys, 695,696 marine open water, nettles, 91.116,236 418 newt, rough-skinned, 201,338,344 salt marsh, 502 nighthawk, common, 85,87,183 nutrient transfer, in lagoons, 398 ninebark, 116 nutrient traps, salt marshes as, 502 n1tella, 339 off-road vehicle: 274 Nori, 64 impacts to dunes, nuthatch, red-breasted, 203,264 802 oak, Garry, 255,256,259,269 oil: 18,24,587,658 ocean spray, 247,269 impacts on algae, 567 octopus, 622 impacts on kelp, 549 oligochaete, 612,657,695 impacts on marine open water, olive shell, purple, 697,702 446 Olympic salamander, 316 impacts on'salt marsh, 507 onion: Hooker's, 92 impacts on seabirds, 775-776 nodding, 269 impacts on whales, 437 orchid: calypso, 145 oligotrophic lakes, 338 Greene's bog-, 269 Olympic Mountain rainshadow, 269 rein, 92 open water, marine, 412-447 osoberry, 239 osprey management recommendations, osprey, 163,342,346,636 346-347 osprey management recommendations, 346 879 SUBJECT SPECIES oxygen depletion; in lakes, 335 ostracods, 340 oyster culture, in lagoons, 405 otter: 356 oyster production in estuaries, 383 river, 36,61,71,86,121,123, Pacific flyway, seagrasses and, 512 1259140,279,319,321,342,349,386, pastoral zone, river, 293 408,499,500,528,547,619,629,630, peat, 457 658,678,685,687,753 peat removal, 465 sea, 445,545-546 pelagic birds, 426 owl: barn, 69,498 pesticides: 19,51,658 burrowing, 86,272,756 in lakes, 351 great horned, 85,142,202,272 peregrine falcons and, pygmy, 201 787 saw-whet, 189 seagrasses and,.531 short-eared, 76,85,498 photic zones; marine open water, 415- snowy, 76 417 spotted, 142,146,153,208,211 photosynthesis, importance in oyster: 34,383,389,405 streams, 299 drill, 54,683 plant diversity; in riparian habitat, drill, Japanese, 390 216 eastern, 53 planting for wildlife, 14,25 Olympia, 52ff planting, riparian, 130 Pacific, 611,630,686,703,716, plants: dune, 797-798 731,744 grazing impact on, 92 oystercatcher, black, 75,596,601,629, of rock outcrops, 753-756 657,699 soil stabilization byy parsnip, cow, 71,92 pollution stream, 296,35 peamouth, 342 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), 678 peanut worms, 612 pond, farm ' 361-365 peavine, beach, 798 pools, stream, 297 peewee, western wood, 199 predator size; relation to territory Pelvetiopsis, 598 size, 502 perch: pile, 30,35 predators, of San Juan rabbits, 86 shiner, 408,643,675,678,690, primary productivity, marine open 715,731,738 water, 418 surf, 690,702 productivity: algae, 558 yellow, 342 beach, 571 petrel: fork-tailed storm, 426,784- coastal marsh, 485 785 estuarine, 120,383-384 Aeach's storm, 426 forest, 140 phalarope, northern, 429,701 kelp, 535 phytoplankton: 430 lagoon, 398 freshwater, 337 seagrass, 512 pickleweed, 397,408,480 stream, 117 pigeon, band-tailed, 182,240 profundal zone; of lakes, 335,341 pillbugs, 695 protected species, 211 pine: lodgepole, 107,244,256,269 western white, 244 880 SUBJECT SPECIES Protection Island breeding birds, pintail, 489,512,562,687,725,744 780 pipit, water, 502 Puget Sound: areal extent of, 413 platynereis, 729 depth of, 413 plover: black-bellied, 75,528,740 salinity of, 413 snowy, 692,800 fishery production of, poacher, northern spearnose, 628 441 poison oak, 262 pulp and paper mill, 68 polychaetes, 514,612,645,673,674, rainshadow, Olympic, 84 678,679,680,696 rare and endangered species: 82 polysiphonia, 674 rare and endangered species, Wash- pondweed, 338,339 ington State (plant), 81,83 porphyra, 64 rare species, 24 prairie star, smallflower, 83 recreation: impacts on lakes, 351 prickleback: black, 627 impacts on dunes, 802 snake, 731 recreational values of beach grass- puffin, tufted, 769,775 lands, 78 pygmy-weed, 783 red tides 53,392,588 quail, mountafn, 100 reptiles; San Juan Island, 762 rabbit: European, 80,85,86,91,108, stream use, 316-317 113,771,802-803 reservoir impacts on aquatic system, raccoon, 8,41,51,75,123,240,319,321, 370-371 , 342,386,408,527,563,615,685,704, reservoirs, 367-371 723 resting area, beach grassland as raven: 273,614,629,786 (for shorebirds), 75 ribbonworm, 695,696 riffles, stream, 296 ring-necked.duck, 348 riparian, values of, 128 robin, 8,84,85,183,240 river delta estuary, 377 rockfish: black, 622 rivers and streams, 293-331 copper, 622 rivers: historical changes, 324 yellowtail, 622 logging impacts on, 325-326 rockweed, 598,611,616 roadbuilding, impacts on streams, 326 rose: 107 rock outcTops: 751-757 baldhip, 240,247 birds of, 756 Nootka, 75,107,247,452 plants of, 753-756 rosy plectritis, 83 rock quat-ries, 788 rotifers, 340,388 roost trees, birds of prey, 85 rush, common, 71 rotenone; use in lakes, 351 sablefish (black cod), 426 runoff: 350-351 salal, 107,236,240,244,269 impacts on streams, 326 salamander: Dunn's, 201 salinity., 413 northwestern, 344 estuary, 381 western red-backed, 201 salmon, 675,686,702,703,738 salmon: 27,28,34,123,328,307-312 salmon culture: 60ff 338,383,388,394,494 on lagoons, 406 chinook, 61,62,302,307,389, salmon life histories, 307-312 408, 690,731,744 881 SUBJECT SPECIES salmon, temperature ranges for, 298 chum, 28,61,302,311,389,405,408, salt marsh, 477-508 690,698,731,745 salt marsh detritus, 494-497 coho, 61,62,302,309,389,408,422, salt marsh food chains, 489-497 442,679,690,731,744 salt marsh plants, 480-482 juvenile, 33 salt marsh trophic relations, 489-497 pink, 28,61,310,389,690 salt marsh wildlife, 490-492 sockeye, 312,341,349,389 salt marsh; size relationships to salmonberry, 97,100,107,232,236,239, functioh & value, 504-505 244 t salt marsh: as rest sites for wild- salmonids, 397 life, 499 Solomon's seal, star-flowered, 92 cover for wildlife, 497 sand dollar, 683,696,704 creation on dredge sand lance, 419,422,622,664 spoils, 39 sanderling, 75,596,681,700,701 filling, 506 sandpiper; least, 386,740 historical changes on, 480 rock, 596 impacts due to upland spotted, 317,681 disturbance, 506 western, 740 importance to salmon, 494 sandwort, swamp, 71 Interrelationships with sapsucker, red-breasted, 201 sloughs, 408 sargassum, 598,674,695 nut-rient cycling, 502 satureja (yerba buena), 107 productivity, 34 scalepod, 83 recreational use of, 504 scaleworm, 664 salinity change impacts, 506 scallops, 30,60,704 use by seals, 499 scaup: greater, 512,526,562 salt marshes of Whatcom County, 478 lesser, 345,347 salt marshes, list of those with scoter: black, 617 published information, 477 surf, 427,526,616 salt meadow, 477-508 white-winged, 664,683 salt meadow plants, 482-483 Scot's Broom, 23,83,97,100,104,105 San Juan Island bird list, 777-778 sculpin: great, 559,628 San Juan Island breeding bird sum- Pacific staghorn, 408,657, mary, 780 675,690,697,715,731,739 San Juan Island mammal list, 773 prickly, 314,341 San Juan Islands, 760-780 Puget Sound, 627 sand bars, 810 sailfin, 628 sand dunes, 795-808 sharpnose, 690,731 sand islands, 791-793 tidepool, 690 sand removal, impact on dunes, 803 sculpins, 120 sea otter distribution, 545-546 sea cabbage, 613 seabird nesting: cliff, 784-785 sea colander, 613,674 island, 762-766, 769-771 sea cucumber: 612,613 northern Puget burrowing, 697 Sound summary of, 779 sea lettuce, 30,39,56,405,.558,598, 611,664,674,683,693,724,728 882 SUBJECT -SPECIES San Juan Islands, 780 sea lion: 630,744 Sand Island, 792-793 northern, 435,596,690 sea palm, 598,611 seabirds, impacts of oil spills on, sea slug: 614 775-776 striped, 697 -seagrass, 511-533 sea squirt, 614 seagrass: birds and mammals, 524-529 sea urchin: 613,683 characteristic plants and green, 613,651 animals, 519 purple, 600,613 epiphytes, 518 seagrass, 30,511-533 fish and, 522-524 seal, harbor, 19,125,499,630,664,678, nutrient cycle, 514 685,687,690,716,744,791-792 protect nearshore environ- seapink, 83 ment, 516 searsueker, 612,674 as human food, 529 seaweed, 556-572 invertebrates and, 518 sedge: Lyng .by's, 397,408 productivity of, 512 slough* 71,407 trophic relationships, 512-514 selaginella, i53 seaweed, 556-572 serviceberry, 97,247 seaweed culture, 64ff shearvater, sooty, 426 seaweed, uses by humans, 565-566 shipworms, 30 sediment drift, 33,35 shooting star, broad-leaved, 83 sediment, control of stream, 125 shooting star, dark-throat, 83 sedimentation; in estuaries, 380 shore buttercup, 408 sedimentation, impacts in sloughs, shorebirds, 499,823 409 shorecrabs, 493 sensitive habitats; marsh, 473 shovelerl northern, 799 sensitive species; marsh, 473 shrew-mole, 197 sewage disposal, impact on lakes, shrew: masked, 100 350-351 Pacific water, 344 sewage pond, conversion of natural vagrant, 182,498 pond to, 334 shrimp: 529,622,675,680,686,690, ,sewage: impact on lagoons, 405 697,703,723,724 impact on algae, 568 coon-striped, 30 impact on kelp, 549-550 shellfish harvest, impact on sea- ghost, 52,394,664,673,675, grass, 532 686,723,724 mud, 394,664,673,724,731 shorebird use of salt marsh, 499 ocean pink, 421 shorebirds, Dungeness species list, opossum, 695 823 Pandalid, 421 shoreline drift, interference with, silverweed, Pacific, 71 589 siskin, pine, 188,221 ,siltation; of lakes, 351 skunk: 51,386,615 Skagit Flats Raptor Census, 49 striped, 75,108,685 slides, 809 skunk cabbage, 116,236 sloughs, 407-410 skylark, 85,87 883 SUBJECT SPECIES small mammals as prey for hawks and smelt; 383,419,702,7Q3 owls; marsh, 497-498 longfin, 341,349 Smith Island breeding birds, 780 surf, 635,657,687,690,745 snags: 146,163 snail: littorine, 562,633,683 in riparian zone, 124 Margarite's, 614 soil stabilization by plants, 110, moon, 702,724,731 ill red turban, 600 species diversity, 34,35 top, 614 SPECIES LIST; animals of shrub/ turban, 600 exposed rock, 113 snake, northwestern garter, 201 birds and herring snowberry, 97,107,239,240,247,269 spawning, 522 soft rush, 46 birds and mammals of sole: C-0, 549,697 swamps and bogs, 459-463 English, 27,419,440,494,529, birds observed on farm pond, 363 738,745,657,675,678,690,697,702, fresHwater marsh wild:ife, 469 703,715,723,725,731,738,745 kelp characteristic plants ano rock, 697 animals, 552-555 sand, 690,698,702,703 mammals of marine open water, 434 sorrel, sheep, 107 sparrow: chipping, 85 marine open water birds, 426-427 fox, 102,182,615 plants and animals associated house, 84 with seagrass, 519 savannah, 84,85,87,109,497, plants of bogs, 457 498,615 plants of freshwater marshes, 468 song, 75,84,113,497,615 plants of swamp on Oakland Bay, 454 vesper, 85,85,87,498 representative fish of lakes and white-crowned, 84,100,109, ponds, 352-353 113 riparian herbs & shrubs, 116 spatterdock, 338 salt marsh wildlife. 490-492 sphagnum, 457,465 shrubs to plant for wildlife, 97 Spirontocaris, 613 whales of Washington, 438 splitwhip wrack, 612 wildlife having streams sponge, 614 as primary habitat, 305 spring-gold, 83 springbeauty, western, 146 wildlife impacted by spruce: .100 reservoirs, 370 Sitka, 116,127,227,249,245, amphibians and reptiles of coastal 250,452 counties, 290-291 squawfish, 342 animal in weedlots, 84 squid, 422,622 animals in beach grasslands, 75,76 squirrel: Douglas, 146,188,262 animals in natural grasslands,84,85 northern flying, 146,203 animals on log rafts, 31 western gray, 262 birds and mammals of star: mottled, 611,674 beaches, 578-582 ochre, 611,613 birds and mammals of Thorndyke, 403 vermillion, 697 884 SUBJECT SPECIES birds in parks, 40 starfish: 613,683 birds of Leadbetter Point, 804 ochre star, 30 birds of prey of grasslands, 89 six-rayed, 651 coastal shrubs, 107 starling, 23,84,239 endemic'dune plants, 798 starwort, spreading, 482 estuarine organisms and economic steelhead, 306,389 stickleback: 342,715 value, 387 three-spine, 314,394, examples of fish in estuaries, 388 408,731 fish in rock jetties, 35 stonecrop: 755 fish of Bi 'g Beef Lagoon, 402 lanceleaved. 753.756 freshwater birds in coastal zone, stonefly, 302 286-'287 stonewort, 339 January observations at sturgeon, 383 Cranberry Lake, 343 sturgeon poacher, 679 mammals associated with freshwater suckers, 342 ' habitats in coastal zone, sugar wrack, 30,598,613,674 289 surfbird, 596,601 marine plants as herring spawning surfgrass: 511-533,595,612 substr'ate, 561 description of species, 519 observation at Shannon Point Pond, swallow: barn, 85 343 cliff, 786 planting for wildlif.@, 15 tree, 356 plants and animals oi spits, violet-green, 85 817-020. swamp sandwort, 454 plants in beach grasslands, 74 swan: trumpeter, 347 plants in natural grasslands, 83,84 whistling, 347 plants in weedlots, 82,83 sweet gale, 452 plants to rehabilitate swift: black, 786-787 *streamban-ks, 131 Vaux's, 208 residential, 10 tanager, western, 188,203 San Juan birds, 777-778 tanaids, 612,678,690 San Juan mammals, 773 tansy, northern dune, 798 San Juan rabbit predators, 86 tattler, wandering, 681 stream fish. 329-330 teal: blue-winged, 799 spit formation creating lagoon, 379 cinnamon, 799 spits, 815-827 green-winged, 743,744 splash zone, 576 Tealia, 613 sport fisheries; salmon, 442 tern: arctic, 426 spray zone, 576 Caspian, 427,528,678,792-793 Stalmaster, Mark, 134 thimbleberry, 235 stratification; of lakes, 335 thistle, 82,91,107 stratification, estuary, 381 thrush: hermit, 240 stream channelization, 327 Swainson's, 103,236 stream ecology, 117- varied, 188,240,264 885 SUBJECT SPECIES stream invertebrates, 305-306 touch-me-not, 408 stream pollution, 296 towhee, rufous-sided, 100,102,240 stream temperature, control by trillium, western, 146 riparian vegetation, 124 trout: 120,123,338,394 stream, channelization of, 24 cutthroat, 302,314,389,405, streambank rehabilitation, 130 675,686 streambank vegetation, 320,325,328 steelhead, 61 streams: as primary habitat for wild- turbellarian flatworms, 420 life, 305 turkish towel, 612 fish habitat use in, 302, 306-316 turnstones: black, 596,616,681 submergent plants, lake, 339 ruddy, 596 substrate types, defined, 572 twinberry: 116 subtidal zone, 576 black, 239 surfgrass, 511-533 urchins, sea, 538 swamps, 451-465 verbena: pink sand, 798 Tacoma praries, 255,262 yellow sand, 798 talus, 758 vireo, Hutton's, 240 temperature: levels in stream, vole (meadow mice), 71,76,84 298, 304 vole, Townsend, 318,497,461 optimal range for salmon, 298,304 vulture turkey, 272 salt marsh moderating, 503 warbler: MacGillivray's, 229 territory size requirements, 9 orange-crowned, 85,221,240 .thermal stratification; in reser- Townsend's, 202 voirs, 369 Wilson's, 229 thermal waste, impacts on seagrass, yellow, 85,238,247 532 water fern, 338 thermocline, marine, 414 water fleas, 340 threatened species, 24,82,208,209 water lentil, 338 tidegates: 474 water parsley, 338 impacts on sloughs, 409 water shield, 338 tides, 413,415,576 water strider, 132 toxicity of major pollutants to water-lily, 338 aquatic animals, 391 water-starwort, 338 trappers, 123 waterweed, 339 trapping, 358,409 wavy water-nymph, 339 trophic relations, salt marsh, waxmyrtle, 107 489-497 waxwing, cedar, 120,182 trophic relations, stream, 299 weasel, long-tailed, 685 trophic relationships: algae, 559-560 western blue flag, 269. kelp, 538 western dock, 452 seagrass, 512- 514 whale: gray, 412,629,690,692,701,703 turbidity, impact on seagrass, 532 humpback, 412,445 killer, 435,528,629,630,658, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 208 685,690,744 unique habitat, natural grasslands minke, 412 as, 86 886 SUBJECT SPECIES University of Washington, 66 whelk, 612 upwelling, 413 whimbr6l, 740 urban development; impacts on lakes, whitefish, 338 351 wigeon: 34,41,386,512,524,559,562 urbanization, 6,14 American, 664,681,744 Vancouver, Captain George, 90 European, 681 Vashon glaciation, 259 wildrye: blue, 83 Washington Department of Fisheries, dune, 74 35 willet, 386,740 Washington Game Department, 347 willow: 116,231,338,355 water level fluctuations; impacts Scouler, 244,247 of, 368-369 wood borers, long-horned, 101 water quality: relation with ripar- wood duck, 348,356,459 ian, 120,127 wood groundsel, 247 salt marsh affecting, 503 woodpecker: downy, 190,238 waterfowl management, 46 hairy, 190 waterfowl: algae as food for, 559 pileated, 124,166,202, dependence on seagrasses, 512 208,459 watershed, 115,120 wrack, sugar, 541 weedlots, 80,82,84 wren: Bewick's, 85,182 wetland definitions: bog, marsh and rock, 756 swamp comparison, 455 winter, 155,197,236,615 salt marsh, miadow and brackish yellowlegs: greater, 386,681,701,715 marsh compared,, 484 zigadenus, deadly, 269 wetland filling, 33 wetland filling; ponds, 350 wetland losses, salt marsh, 480 whale hotline, 437 Wheeler, Bill Ed, 23 Wiens, John, 245 wilderness areas, islands as, 88 wildlife enhancement, in channels, 411 wildlife, esthetic values of, 442 Williams, Christopher, 5 wind pruned plants, 107 zonation: algae, 558 dune, 795 intertidal, 573-577 887 DATE DUE GAYLORD No, 2333 PRINIEDINU,Sk 3 6668 14107 4015