Historical wetlands of Michigan's coastal zone and southeastern lakeplain

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

HISTORICAL WETLANDS OF MICEIGAM'S COASTAL ZONE
AND SOUTHEASTERN LAKEPLAIN

prepared by

Michigan Natural Features Inventory
Natural Heritage Program
Sth Floor Mason Building
Box 30028 Lansing MI 48909

Patrick Comer, Associate Ecologist
Dennis Albert, Program Ecologist
Lyn Scringer, Information Manager
Teresa Leibfried, Assistant Information Manager
David Schuen, Ecology Assistant
Heather Jones, Ecology Assistant

for

Land and Water Management Division
(CZM Project 309-5)

Submitted March, 1993

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page
LIST OF TABLES .............................................. ii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................ iii

ABSTRACT .................................................... iv

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................... 1

METHODS ..................................................... 6

MAP PRODUCTION .............................................. 6
MAP DIGITIZING .............................................. 13

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......I ................................ 16

SAMPLE MAP PRODUCTS AND SELECTED RESTORATION PROJECTS ....... 18

SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP, MONROE COUNTY ......................... 19
RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES ................................... 23
MONROE COUNTY ............................................... 24
WETLAND INVENTORY APPLICATIONS .............................. 28
OTHER ANALYSES ............................................. 30
RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES ................................... 32

OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL WETLANDS IN
MICHIGAN'S COASTAL ZONE ..................................... 35

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................ 101

LITERATURE CITED ........................................... 101-

APPENDIX 1: INDEX TO MICHIGAN 7.5 MINUTE
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS WHERE HISTORICAL WETLAND
MAPS ARE AVAILABLE IN DIGITAL FORMAT ....................... 106

MONROE COUNTY, SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP,
PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION
(SCALE 1:24,000 OVERLAY) ................. (pocket in back panel)
V9-

LIST OF TABLES

page
1. Tree species abbreviation, alias, comments,
and scientific name .................................... 8

2. Expanded MIRIS and wetland grade codes
for historical wetland maps ............................ 12

3. Layer information for historical wetlands
files in MIRIS ......................................... 16

4. Summary of Presettlement Cover Types of
Summerfield Township; and acreages of each
grade for current condition of wetland types ........... 22

5. Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS)
for Summerfield Township ............................... 22

6. Summary of Presettlement Cover Types
of Monroe County, and acreages of each
grade for current condition of each
wetland type ........................................... 27

7. Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS)
for Monroe County ...................................... 27

8. Summary of Presettlement Vegetation along
Saginaw Bay in portions of Bay and Tuscola
counties, and acreages by current grade
for wetland types ...... ............................... 32

9. Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan,
Regions I and II ....................................... 37

10.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan,
Regions III and IV ..................................... 39

LIST OF FIGURES

page
1. Township sketch map of the General Land Office surveys
in Keweenaw County, Michigan .......................... 3

2. Sample page of transcribed GLO field notes from
Southwestern Michigan ................................. 7

3. Summerfield Township, Presettlement Vegetation .......... 20

4. Summerfield Township, Present Land Cover ................ 21

5. Private tracts associated with Petersburg
State Game Area with potential
for prairie restoration ............................... 25

6. Monroe County, Presettlement Vegetation ................. 26

7. Monroe County, Historical Prairies ...................... 29

8. Saginaw Bay Shoreline (Bay and Tuscola counties)
Presettlement Vegetation .......o .............o ........ 31

9. 1992 Plat: map for tracts surrounding the
Quanicassee Wildlife Area, Bay County, Michigan ....... 34

10.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan,
Regions I and II ............. o..................... o..36

11.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan,
Regions III and IV .......................... o......... 38

ABSTRACT

In 1992, a one year project to map the historical wetlands of Michigan's

coastal townships was initiated by the Michigan Natural Features Inventory

(MNFI) and funded through a Michigan Coastal Zone Management grant. The

southeast Michigan lakeplain, extending up to 35 miles inland (in St. Clair,

Macomb, Wayne, Monroe, Washtenaw, and Lenawee counties) was also included.

Information from the transcribed field notes and township plat maps of the

General Land office surveys conducted between 1816 and 1856 was used to locate

and identify historical wetlands and surrounding upland vegetation types along

section lines as they existed prior to wide-spread European settlement. This

information was placed on mylar overlays of USGS topographic maps. Great

Lakes shoreline boundaries, natural disturbances, and cultural features were

also noted on the mylars. Wetland/vegetation type boundaries were

interpolated between section lines using elevation lines, surface geology

maps, soil type maps, MNFI field survey maps, and other vegetation maps where

available. All mapped information was coded using an expanded version of the

Michigan Resource Inventory System (MIRIS) cover type code system currently

Used by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Interpreted maps were

then digitized for inclusion in the MIRIS database. This report will detail

the methods Used in map production, focus on the potential uses of this

information in Monroe County, and along the Saginaw Bay shoreline, then

provide an overview of Michigan's coastal wetlands from a regional

perspective.

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

With the loss of an estimated 50% of the state's wetlands, and

ever increasing pressure on those that remain, the need for

identifying strategies for wetland protection and restoration is

greater than ever. Nowhere in Michigan is this more urgent than in

the Great Lakes coastal zone and southeastern lakeplain, where both

historical wetland losses and current land use pressures reach some

of their highest levels. The resulting wildlife habitat

degradation and implications for Great Lakes water quality demand

investment.in wetland protection and restoration.

An understanding of the type, location, and ecological context

of Michigan's historical wetlands is critical to the development of

ecologically meaningful wetland mitigation and restoration.

Estimates of the loss of different wetland types in different

ecological regions of the state may be determined by comparing

historical and current data. And very importantly, an historical

database could be used as a reference point for addressing the

immediate problem of cumulative impacts to wetlands due to

fragmentation, degradation, and conversion. Patterns we see today

in wetland hydrology, biodiversity, and ecosystem function will

undoubtedly be more meaningful when placed in a historical context.

The only state-wide attempt at mapping Michigan's

presettlement vegetation was completed by J.0. Veatch (1959).

Veatch utilized soils maps as a primary reference for determining

presettlement vegetation. He utilized various other sources - as

well, including local histories, botanical publications, and
1

writings from the early explorers. These maps (scale 1:500,000) do

not identify specific wetlands, but provides an overall sense of

tree species expected within a given township. Comparison of these

maps with General Land Office surveys have indicated high levels of

inaccuracy in portions of the state.

the township sketch maps and transcribed f ield notes of the

original land surveys conducted between 1816 and 1855 by the

General Land Office provide the best available record on the pre-

European-settlement landscape of Michigan (Bourdo 1956). This

square mile grid of the state surveyed during the establishment of

36 square mile townships provides a framework for this database.

The township sketch maps vary considerably in their quality. They

were produced at the time of the surveys without the benefit of a

topographic map. Maps produced in early years of the surveys

(southern, Lower Michigan) contain little information, often

limited to lakes and streams. As the surveys progressed,

increasingly more information was included. Those produced in the

upper peninsula (Figure 1) include much information on wetland

location and dominant tree species. Trygg (1964) produced

composite maps for the Upper Midwest using these township sketch

maps. His maps differentiate between prairie, marsh, bottom lands,

and swamp. But, they do not indicate the dominant tree species of

the swamps. He completed no maps for southern, Lower Michigan, due

to the lack of information included.

Although survey methods saw minor modifications during the

course of the Michigan surveys, the transcribed surveyors notes are

Figure 1: Tovnship sketch map of the General Land Office surveys in
Keveenav County, Michigan.

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much more consistent in quality throughout the state. Surveyors

were instructed to note the occurrence of wetlands, comment on the

agricultural. potential of soils, and note the quantity and quality

of timber resources as they were encountered along each section

line (Caldwell 1990). Surveyors used trees at each section corner

and half-mile post as "witness trees". Wherever trees were noted,

their species and diameters were included. Tree species and

diameters were also noted when they occurred along the section

lines. At corner and half-mile posts, witness trees were selected

from the closest tree to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and

southwest quadrants. Often just two trees were marked and noted at

each section corner. The exact bearing and distance between each

witness tree at the corner and half-mile posts were also recorded.

Natural disturbances, such as recent fires, windthrows, and beaver

floodings were also recorded along the section lines, as were

various cultural features, either of Native American origin, or

early European settlers.

These detailed records formed the basis for the development of

these historical wetland maps. The maps were compiled by plant

ecologists familiar with the tree species, surface geology, and

soils of Michigan's natural communities.

This report will discuss the methods used in map production

and explore ways they can be utilized as tools for wetland

protection and restoration. The final section will provide a

regional overview of presettlement vegetation types and related

natural processes in Michigan's coastal zone.

METHODS

MAP PRODUCTION

The transcribed field notes of the General Land Office (GLO)

surveys were made available to our mapping team by the State

Archives of Michigan. Township sketch maps produced by surveyors

were copied from microfilm available from the MDNR Real Estate

Division. Matte mylar (1811x 2411) was attached to 7.5 minute USGS

topographic maps, which for Michigan, are available in 1:24,000

and 1:25,000 scales. A scale indicating chains (1 chain = 20

meters; 80 chains per mile) was used for precise measurements

along each section line.

All information extracted from the GLO survey notes and maps

appear on the mylar overlays and map borders. Information in the

GLO notes are organized in a systematic pattern reflecting the

measurement of each section line in the township (Figure 2).

From a given corner point, comments are made along the next mile

as it is measured out. Usually, wherever a feature is mentioned,

the distance (in chains) along the line is noted as well.

Common names of tree species were abbreviated to 3-4 letter

combinations (Table 1). Several species were noted more

generically than others. For example "elm" I "ashil, and "maple"

were commonly used without distinguishing the two or three native

species that could have been encountered. Published floras and

several other sources (Hutchinson 1988) were reviewed to

determine which old common names referred to which tree species;

(e.g. "spruce pine" = jack pine, "yellow pine" = red pine). Tree

FIGURE 2: Sample page of transcribed GLO field notes from
Southwest Michigan.

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TABLE 1: TREE SPECIES ABBREVIATION, ALIAS, COMMENTS, AND SCIENTIFIC NAME

ABBREV SPECIES ALIAS COMMENTS SCIENTIFIC NAME

ALD SPECKLED ALDER Alnus rugosa
APPLE APPLE Malus spp.
ASH ASH WHITE, BLACK, OR RED Fraxinus spp.
ASP ASPEN QUAKING OR BIG TOOTH Populus spp.
B ASH BLACK ASH Fraxinus nigra
B POP BALSAM POPLAR BALM OF GILEAD Populus batsamifera
B WALN BLACK WALNUT Juglans nigra
BCH BEECH Fagus grandifolia
BL ASH BLUE ASH Fraxinus quadrangulata
BL BCH BLUE BEECH MUSCLE WOOD Carpinus caroliniana
BO BLACK OAK SOMETIMES YELLOW OAK PROB. INCLUDES Quercus velutina
PIN OAK ON LAKEPLAIN
BRCH BIRCH Betula spp.
CED CEDAR Thuja occidentalis
CHER CHERRY Prunus serotina
COTN COTTONWOOD Populus deltoides
ELM ELM AMERICAN OR Ulmus spp.
SLIPPERY
FIR BALSAM FIR Abies baqlsamea
G HEM CANADA YEW GROUND HEMLOCK Taxus canadensis
GRAPE GRAPEVINE Vitis spp.
GUM BLACK GUM PEPPERIDGE Nyssa sylvatica
HACK HACKBERRY Celtis occidentalis
HAZL WITCH HAZEL Hamamelis virginiana
HCK HICKORY Carya spp.
HEM HEMLOCK Tsuga canadensis
IRON IRONWOOD HORNBEAM Ostrya virginiana
LYN BASSWOOD Tilia americans
PIN PIN OAK JACK OAK CONSISTANT USE Quercus patustris
UNCERTAIN
POPL BIG TOOTH ASPEN POPLAR Populus grandidentata
PR ASH PRICKLY ASH Zanthoxylurn americanum
Q ASP QUAKING ASPEN Populus tremuloides
R BUD RED BUD Cercis canadensis
RO RED OAK N.PIN OAK ALSO Quercus rubra
IN U.P.
S MAPL SOFT MAPLE RED MAPLE OR Acer spp.
SILVER MAPLE
SAS SASSAFRAS Sassafras albidum
SM SUGAR MAPLE SUGAR, HARD MAPLE Acer saccharum
SP JACK PINE SPRUCE PINE Pinus banksiana
SPICE SPICEBUSH Lindera benzoin
SPR SPRUCE Picea spp.
SWO SWAMP WHITE OAK SWAMP OAK Quercus bicolor
SYC SYCAMORE Platanus occidentalis
TAN TAMARACK TAMARACH Larix Laricina
THORN HAWTHORN THORN Zrayaegus spp.
WEIRCH WHITE BIRCH Betula papyrifera
WMAPL SILVER MAPLE USE NOT Acer saccharinum
CONSISTANT
WSPR WHITE SPRUCE Picea glauca
WIL WILLOW Salix spp.
WO WHITE OAK Quercus alba
WP WHITE PINE PINE Pinus strobus
WTWD TULIP TREE WHITEWOOD, Liriodendron tulipifera
BUTTONWOOD (?)
W WALN BUTTERNUT WHITE WALNUT Juglans cinerea
Y BRCH YELLOW BIRCH Betula alleghaniensis
YO CHINQUAPIN OAK YELLOW OAK POSSIBLY Quercus muehlenbergii
BLACK OAK
YP RED PINE YELLOW PINE Pinus resinosa

abbreviations reflect the common name used by the surveyors.

Ilk
Tree abbreviations and diameter at breast height (DBH), were

located along each section line at the approximate distance (in

chains) where they were mentioned in the notes. At each section

corner, tree abbreviations, DBH, bearing, and distances were

noted. Surveyor's comments were added at the end of each section

line. They often included a ranked list of tree species,
31 impressions of soil character, and drainage characteristics.

These comments, where they added significant ecological

information, were copied to the mylars in quotes along the

section line. Wetland boundaries were located along each section

line with the township sketch maps and/or at the chain distance

mentioned in the notes. The township sketch maps were found to

compare accurately with the chain distances mentioned in the

field notes. The same was true for the locations of natural

disturbances such as windthrows and recent fires. The exception

to this was where topography was very steep, as along sand dunes,

steep ravines, and in some drumlin fields.

The wetland boundaries were interpolated between section

lines primarily by using elevation lines on the topographic maps.

Soil Survey maps (USDA, various dates) and Soil and Lay of the

Land maps (Michigan Land Economic Survey 1925) were found to be

helpful in some circumstances where wetland soils could be

clearly distinguished and wetlands appeared to cross elevation

lines. The presettlement vegetation map of Brewer et.al. (1984)

was utilized in the interpretation of vegetation types along the

southwestern. Michigan shoreline. There were cases where

surveyors did not note their entrance and exit from a forested

wetland, but instead noted in their comments that the 11 ... last

mile, wet". These situations were most common on flat topography

where the land was likely a mosaic of uplands and wetlands. When

this occurred, the forested wetland boundary was interpreted more

generally, using the comments and noted tree species that were

encountered along the section line. Likewise, boundaries of

upland cover types were established using the dominant tree

species and associated landform and soil types. Boundaries in

several complex wetland areas of the Upper Peninsula were

established using 1986 aerial photography. MNFI data from field

surveys of Great Lakes Marshes and Wooded Dune and Swale

Complexes were used to clarify wetland boundaries in sampled

areas. Great Lakes shoreline boundaries were interpreted from

points of intersection with section lines and the prevailing

orientation of current shorelines (where not obviously

manipulated artificially). Surveyor's notes on meanders along

the shoreline were not used, since normal water level

fluctuations resulted in inconsistencies along the shoreline,

depending on the year of the survey. Boundaries for natural

disturbances were interpolated between section lines taking

topography and likely fire breaks into account. Cultural

features, both Native American and early European, were placed on

the mylars as mentioned in the notes.

Because of the amount of information provided on the

township maps for the Upper Peninsula townships, these maps were

utilized as the primary information source in those areas. These

township maps were enlarged to a scale of 1:48,000 (half the

scale of the 7.5 minute topographic maps). The points where

wetland boundaries intersected section lines were then easily and

accurately transferred to the mylars. The notes on vegetation

composition present on the township maps was used to code uplands

and wetlands. Additional information on these maps was obtained
MW
by recording surveyor's section line information along only the

township boundaries and selected wetland areas. Vegetation type

boundaries were interpolated between section lines in the same

manner as described for Lower Peninsula townships.

The cover type codes used in the Michigan Resource

Inventory System (MIRIS) were utilized, in an expanded form, to

identify the various cover types, natural disturbances, and

cultural features, as they could be distinguished from the GLO

notes. MIRIS codes at the four digit level identify the dominant

species and not necessarily the only species present. The

MIRIS code system was expanded to capture the complexity of

upland and wetland communities known to occur in the pre-

settlement landscape that were distinguishable in the survey

notes (Table 2).

Mapped wetlands were graded according to the level of

degradation apparent from the topographic maps (Table 2).

original project plans included the analysis of aerial photos to

establish this grade. But, given that these maps were last

Table 2s EXPANDED MIRIS AND WETLAND GRADE CODES FOR HISTORICAL WETLANDS MAPS

PALUSTRINE TERRESTRIAL

62 NON-FORESTED WETLAND 3 NONFORESTED (grassland - savanna)

622 EMERGENT MARSH/MEADOW/PRAIRIE 31 HERBACEOUS - UPLAND GRASSLAND
32 SHRUB - SHRUB SAVANNA
6221 EMERGENT MARSH 33 TREE SAVANNA
6222 GREAT LAKES MARSH 331 LAKEPLAIN OAK OPENING
6223 INTERDUNAL WETLAND 332 OAK BARRENS
6224 WET MEADOW 333 PINE BARRENS
6225 INLAND SALT MARSH 334 OAK/PINE BARRENS
6226 LAKEPLAIN PRAIRIE 335 SUR OAK SAVANNA
6227 INLAND WET PRAIRIE 4 FORESTED
411 NORTHERN HARDWOODS
623 MUD FLATS 4111 S.MAPLE, BEECH
6231 KARL FLATS 4119 BEECH, HEMLOCK
412 CENTRAL HARDWOODS
612 SHRUB-DOMINATED WETLAND 4121 BEECH, S. MAPLE,
6121 BOG BASSWOOD, R.OAK
6122 ALDER/WILLOW/BOG BIRCH THICKET 4122 WHITE OAK, HICKORY
6123 BUTTONBUSH/DOGWOOD/WILLOW SWAMP BLACK OAK
6124 PATTERNED PEATLAND 4123 BLACK OAK, W. OAK,
4124 PIN/BLACK OAK
91 LANDSCAPE COMPLEX 413 ASPEN/WHITE BIRCH
911 WOODED DUNE/SWALE COMPLEX 414 LOWLAND HARDWOODS
421 PINE
4211 WHITE PINE
4212 RED PINE
4 FORESTED WETLAW 4213 JACK PINE
4215 RED PINE/JACK PINE
41 HARDWOOD/CONIFER - HARDWOODS PREDOMINATING 4216 RED PINE/WHITE PINE
4217 WHITE PINE/WHITE OAK
414 LOWLAND HARDWOOD (BROADLEAF) 422 OTHER UPLAND CONIFER
4141 ASH 4221 WHITE SPRUCE
4142 ELM 4223 BALSAM FIR/SPRUCE/
4143 SILVER/RED MAPLE CEDAR (BOREAL)
41" COTTONWOOD 4226 HEMLOCK
4145 BALSAM POPLAR 4227 HEMLOCK/WHITE PINE
4146 ASPEN 4228 HEMLOCK/S.MAPLE
4147 WHITE BIRCH
4148 BLACK WILLOW OPEN, LITTLE/NO VEGETATION

42 HARDWOOD/CONIFER - CONIFERS PREDOMINATING 72 BEACH, RIVERBANK
73 OPEN SAND DUNE
423 LOWLAND CONIFER 74 EXPOSED BEDROCK
4231 CEDAR 741 ALVAR
4232 BLACK SPRUCE 742 BEDROCK GLADE
4233 TAMARACK 743 SINKHOLE
4234 BALSAM FIR/WHITE SPRUCE 744 LIMESTONE LEDGE/OUTCROP
4235 BALSAM FIR 745 SANDSTONE LEDGE/OUTCROP
4236 JACK PINE
4237 HEMLOCK

LACUSTRINE
NATU1RAL DISTURBANCE CULTURAL FEATURES
51 14AJOR RIVER
52 LAKE OR POND 92 WILDFIRE
54 GREAT LAKES 93 WINDTHROW
94 BEAVER FLOODING
WETLAND GRADE: 95 IMPACTS OF GREAT LAKES WATER
LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
I = INTACT; well buffered, no manipulations. 96 CULTURAL FEATURES (both Native
D = DEGRADED; tacking complete buffer. American and early European)
N = MANIPULATED; any activity effecting hydrology.
E = ELIMINATED; all or most of area gone.

updated with the 1978 aerial photographs, the vast majority of

wetland manipulations are visible from the maps alone. More

recent photo imagery was used in Oceana and Grand Traverse

counties, where recent development has been most dramatic, and in

the analysis, of specific restoration projects. The wetland grade

codes include:

I for intact; signifying a well buffered (>100 meters),
undisturbed wetland;
D for degraded; signifying an incomplete buffer;

M for manipulated; signifying some man-made alteration that
could effect the hydrology of the wetland, e.g. roads,
drains, upstream impoundments etc.
E for eliminated; signifying the apparent complete (or
nearly complete) destruction of the wetland, also
applied to drained marshes that are now apparently
upland forest.

The original, project plans also included a code to distinguish

the source of degradation, i.e. agriculture, impoundments, urban

development, etc. This was found to be extremely difficult in

that many very large wetlands were degraded by many different

activities. The coding system established summarizes the most

important information necessary for regional planning purposes.

MAP DIGITIZING

Once cover type boundaries had been interpreted and codes were

assigned to all cover types, the maps were proofed and then

digitized using MicroStation software. Cover type boundaries and

associated codes were digitized. To avoid cluttering the final

digitized maps, surveyors comments were included (in quotes) only

where they added significant information to the final map product.

For example,, if the surveyors commented on a wet prairie f our times

in the course of traversing it, one comment, or a composite of the

various comments was included in the digitized map. For most

broadly defined upland cover types (such as Northern Hardwoods), a

ranked species list was included on each topographic map in order

to reflect the relative composition of tree species for that local

area. Where wetlands clearly including a mixture of a number of

tree species with no clear dominant, a short, ranked list of

species was included. An example in this case would be a swamp

dominated by three conifer species. This area would be given a

three digit code 324 (indicating Lowland Conifer), and a ranked

list of those species would appear as text.

During the digitizing process, current MIRIS cover types were

brought up on the screen for direct comparisons with the historical

interpretations. For wetlands that were traversed by surveyors

(those intersecting section lines), if there was disagreement

between historical interpretation and current cover type, the

historical interpretation was maintained. For apparently intact

wetlands occurring entirely within the interior portions of a

section, the MIRIS code was adopted for the historical map. In

these cases, below the code a (MIRIS) notation will appear,

indicating the source of that information. The same is true for

other portions of the state where sources other than the GLO notes

were used to determine the historical vegetation type. The name

and date of that source appears in parentheses.

Digitized maps are stored in the MIRIS system in files

organized by, county. Table 3 indicates the layers in MIRIS where

digitized information is stored. Any combination of these layers

may be turned "on" or "off" depending on the type of information

desired by the user.

GIS processing was completed for maps included in this report

with Modular GIS Environment (MGE PC-1). Calculated acreages for

historical cover types were then comparable with those of current

cover types on file with MIRIS for Michigan counties and townships.

Table 3: LAYER INFORMATION FOR HISTORICAL WETLANDS FILES IN MIRIS.

LAYER DESCRIPTION

1 linework (land cover)

2 code (MIRIS/MNFI land cover)

3 text (select GLO comments)

4 Source (MIRIS), (Anderson, 1817), (MNFI, 1987),
5 text (More GLO, comments for Lenawee, Monroe, Waynef
and Macomb counties.)

6 wetland grade (E,M,D,or I)

7 wildfire lines 119211

8 windthrow lines 119311

9 beaver flooding lines 119411

10 shoreline fluctuation 119511

11 Cultural Features (Native American or early
European 119611
12 Native American/early European trails
13 landscape complex 1191111

14 county border
15 label for 92, wildfire
16 label for 93, windthrow
17 label for 94, beaver flooding
18 label for 95, Great Lakes fluctuation

19 label for 96, cultural features
20 label for 911 landscape complex
21 grade for 911 landscape complex
38 quad tics
39 quad lines
40 quad names

63 section lines

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There are limitations associated with the use of the General

Land Off ice surveys that should be clear to all users of

interpreted maps. Given that these surveys were not undertaken as

a scientif ic sample of vegetation, they should clearly not be

considered as such. They do, however, provide a wealth of

information available nowhere else.

We used records from the original surveys where they had been

found to be adequate by the Surveyor General. There were a large

number of townships re-surveyed because the original surveys were

found to be either very inaccurate or completely fraudulent. In

these cases, we used the records from the re-surveys completed

during the 1840's and 1850's. These survey records were found"to

be quite reliable, in that they corresponded quite well with

features on current topographic maps. Portions of the state where

private claims had already become established by 1816 were the most

difficult areas to map. Surveys records related to these private

claims are often incomplete and quite difficult to utilize. Survey

maps from several early roads were found to include useful

vegetation information for the private claims portions of Monroe

County (Anderson 1817; Risdon 1828).

Historical wetland boundaries are most reliable where they

intersect with the section line. The interpolated boundary line

between each section line should be considered an approximation

that could vary on the ground, based on local variation not

apparent with available topographic and soil maps.

All wetlands explicitly identified along each section line

were graded based on current condition (I=intact, D=degraded,

M=manipulated, E=eliminated). Wetlands with boundaries not

explicitly mentioned by the surveyors were not given a wetland

grade. Boundaries f or these areas, mainly classed as "Lowland

Hardwoods" and "Lowland Conifer" types were interpreted using tree

species along each section line, along with surveyors comments,

such as "part wet", and "swampy, last half mile". These areas

tended to occur in a mosaic of upland and wetland, too complex f or

surveyors to map and distinguish clear boundaries.

In southern Lower Michigan, the establishment of wetland

boundaries associated with Lakeplain Oak Openings was also

problematic. These areas were clearly noted by the surveyors, but

it is dif f icult to determine the extent of these areas that was

wetland in character. Lakeplain Oak Openings typically include a

dry and dry-mesic portion associated with beach ridges on the

lakeplain (MNFI 1990). However, since they typically graded into

wet-mesic and wet prairies, a portion would also be considered

wetland. This should be taken into account when viewing statistics

related to historical area coverage f or these cover types. Because

of extensive agricultural drainage over many years, soils maps

usually do not delineate these areas very well. Accurate

calculations of wetland/upland percentages in these areas would

require detailed on-ground work in locations where they are still

intact.

A limited number of trees were noted along each mile-long

section line, so interpretation of boundaries f or these more

generally defined wetlands and most upland types should be

recognized in this context. Historical cover type maps will

sometimes appear more generalized when overlain with current MIRIS

cover types. Current MIRIS cover type maps were developed using

aerial photographs of what is often a highly fragmented modern

landscape. We have no equivalent imagery for 1816-1855 cover

types. MIRIS cover type maps often demonstrate vegetation changes

that have resulted from historical land management, such as

drainage, logging, and post-agricultural land use.

The MIRIS cover type code system was found to be useful when

expanded to encompass the range of plant communities recognizable

from the survey record. The primary weakness of the MIRIS code

system is that many types were established with forest industry in

mind. As a result many single species forest types are described,

when in reality, natural forests are seldom comprised of only one

species. The cover type codes on historical wetland maps, when

taken to the fourth digit, should be interpreted by the user to

indicate the dominant tree species of the area, not the only tree

species present. Users should consult with published reports,

consultants, etc. for expanded plant and animal species lists which

would likely be associated with the specific cover type.

SAMPLE MAP PRODUCTS AND SELECTED RESTORATION PROJECTS

Presettlement cover type maps can be utilized as a base map

for understanding historical wetland locations, dominant species

composition, and drainage patterns. This information is vital for

efficient planning of wetland restoration projects. Once

digitized, these maps can be processed in a Geographic Information

System (GIS) environment. This processing generates a database f or

information portrayed on the maps, allowing us to query that

database fox, information useful to our purposes. In this section,

we will present and discuss various map products and analyses that

can be completed using this digital database by focusing on

Summerf ield Township within Monroe County, Monroe County as a

whole, and a two-county portion of the Saginaw Bay shoreline.

SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP, MONROE COUNTY

Summerfield Township, in western Monroe County, provides a

typical comparison between presettlement and current conditions for

the southeastern Michigan lakeplain. Today, land use in this

township is concentrated in intensive agriculture. The Petersburg

State Game Area is also included within this township (Figures 3

and 4). Tables can be derived from analyses of the of

presettlement vegetation and current MIRIS cover type maps (Tables

4 and 5). These tables indicate that agriculture has clearly been

the dominant. land use and is responsible for the vast majority of

wetland losses in the township. Excluding historical Oak Openings

from our calculations, and assuming all current acreages of Lowland

Hardwoods are in fact wetlands, 15.6% of the 9376 acres of

presettlement wetlands of Summerfield Township remain in some form.

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TABLE 4: Summary of Presettlement Cover Types of Summerf ield Township, and
acreages of each grade for current condition of wetland types.

Cover Type Code Total Acreage % I D M E

Central Hardwoods
(Red Oak, Sugar Maple) 4121 4147 17.8
Central Hardwoods
(Pin/Black Oak) 4124 362 1.5
Lakeplain Oak Opening 331 9278 39.9
Lowland Hardwoods 414 2847 12.2 (no grade given)
Black Ash Swamp 4141 123 0.5 123
Balsam Poplar Swamp 4145 174 0.7 174
Lakeplain Prairie 6226 6232 26.8 1890 4341
Major River 51 76 0.3

T3-,241 99.7

TABLE 5: Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS) for Summerf ield Township.

Cover Type Code Total Acreage

Urban, Resideiit-ial- 11 952
Commercial, Industrial, etc. 12,13 96
Transportation, Communication, etc. 14 286
Extractive, open pit 17 8
Open Land, Cemeteries 194 5
Agriculture 2 18,234
Non-Forested, Herbaceous 31 123
Non-Forested, Shrub 32 222
Central Hardwoods 412 1845
Lowland Hardwoods 414 1360
Wetland, Shrub, Scrub 612 38
Wetland, Emergent 622 70
Lake 52 35

TY, 2-7 4

Most accurate area comparisons between presettlement and

current wetlands are derived by comparing presettlement acreages

with current MIRIS acreages. Utilizing the wetland grade

categories of the presettlement maps may over-estimate current

wetland acreages because portions of wetlands graded as Degraded

and/or Manipulated are often now completely eliminated.

The remaining wetland acreages as noted by MIRIS are, for the

most part, remnants of manipulated Lakeplain Prairie located in and

around the Petersburg State Game Area. Most of the Lakeplain

Prairies were eliminated by widespread ditching and draining, which

disrupted the characteristic water table fluctuations responsible

for their establishment and persistence. When extensive areas are

drained, and all wildfires are suppressed, adjacent prairies tend

to close in, becoming Lowland Hardwood forests. Portions of the

current Non-Forested Shrub, Scrub and Non-Forested Herbaceous areas

are probably also remnants of Lakeplain Prairie identified in

presettlement vegetation maps.

In upland forest categories, acreages of Central Hardwoods

appear to have decreased by only 19%. This reflects the amount of

forest land remaining in small farm woodlots, which was derived

from historical Lakeplain Oak openings that became closed-canopy

oak forests as a result of wildfire suppression, and Lakeplain

Prairie that has been completely drained, and converted to oak-

dominated lowland forest (interpreted for MIRIS as uplands).

RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES

Several tracts in and around the Petersburg State Game Area

present excellent opportunities for restoring the Lakeplain

Prairies which once characterized the majority of the local

landscape. The presettlement vegetation map (attached) plotted at

1:24,000 scale can overlay a 7.5 minute topographic map and help to

clarify historical drainage patterns where agricultural drainage

has caused significant alterations (also see Figures 3 and 4).

Several private tracts immediately adjacent to the south

boundaries of the Game Area (Figure 5), although mostly old fields

and closed canopy Lowland Hardwoods, contain pockets of prairie

vegetation that may be restored through fire management and re-

establishing historical water table fluctuations. The southeast

corner of section 14 appears to be drained though the Williams

Drain and the Denzel Drain. The southeast corner of section 15

appears to be drained by the Stacy Drain, which runs southwest to

northeast through the Game Area.

Investigation into the extent of drain tiling along the Stacy

Drain, Denzel Drain, and Williams Drain may suggest some practical

alternatives for restoring these prairies if these private tracts

were acquired and included within the Game Area.

MONROE COUNTY

Similar to the analysis of Summerfield Township, we can

generate maps and tables for individual counties. The

presettlement vegetation map of Monroe County indicates the

location and extent of the various upland and wetland types. These

maps may enhance our understanding of the relative position of

certain wetland types within a given watershed, or in relation-to

other factors, such as soils and major landforms (Figure 6).

Tables 6 and 7 indicate presettlement and current conditions for

Monroe County.

Land use trends in Monroe County reflect those found in

Summerfield Township,. with significant acreages of'wetlands

FIGURE 5: Private tracts associated with Petersburg State Game Area
with potential for prairie restoration.
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converted f or agricultural purposes since European settlement in

the early 1800's. The extent and diversity of wetlands in Monroe

TABLE 6*. Sumary of Presettlement Cover Types for Monroe County, and acreages of
each grade for current condition of each wetland type.

Cover type Code Total Acreage % I D M E

Central Hardwoods
(Beech, Sugar Maple) 4121 161,152 44.61
Central Hardwoods
(Pin/Black Oak) 4124 14,759 4.10
Lakeplain Oak Openings 331 47,767 13.22
Lowland Hardwoods 414 59,796 16.55 (not graded)
Black Ash Swamp 4141 6,608 1.82 137 597 0 5873
Elm Swamp 4142 205 0.06 109 28 68
Silver/Red Maple Swamp 4143 30 0.01 30
Balsam Poplar Swamp 4145 442 0.12 172 269
Other Lowland Hardwood 4149 125 0.03 125
Shrub Swamp 612 35 0.01 35
Bog 6121 41 0.01 32 9
Emergent marsh 6221 454 0.12 33 421
Great Lakes Marsh 6222 11,433 3.16 3854 7579
Wet Meadow 6224 388 0.11 388
Lakeplain Prairie 6226 56,158 15.55 1159 9421 45578
Beach, Riverbank 72 49 0.01
Major River 51 985 0.27
Lake, Pond 52 781 0.22

361,2U8 99.98

Table 7s Summary of Present Cover/Land Use Types (MIRIS) for Monroe County.

Cover type Code Total Acreage %
Residential, Commercial 11,12 27,917 7.90
Industrial, Communications 13,14 4,579 1.30
Extractive, open pit, gravel 17 1,490 0.42
Open Land, Cemeteries 19 3,405 0.97
Agriculture 2 264,476 75.19
Non-Forested Herbaceous 31 4,888 1.39
Non-Forested Shrub 32 5,693 1.62
Central Hardwoods 412 18,095 5.14
Aspen/Birch and associated 413 41 0.01
Lowland Hardwoods 414 13,713 3.89
Lowland Conifer 423 25 0.01
Shrub Swamp 612 1,444 0.41
Aquatic Bed Wetland 621 9 <0.01
Emergent Wetland 622 1,812 0.51
Flats 623 8 <0.01
Barren Land 70 542 0.15
Riverbanks 72 39 0.01

351,74i 98.92

County has decreased quite dramatically since that time. Again, by

excluding Oak openings from calculations, and assuming all areas

currently typed as Lowland Hardwoods are indeed wetlands, Monroe

County today contains 12.5% of the 163,954 acres of wetlands that

were present in 1817. Trends in forest and prairie cover as

mentioned for Summerfield township are all reflected in statistics

for Monroe County as a whole. Areas currently typed as Emergent

Wetland and Shrub Swamp are found along the Lake Erie shoreline in

what was historically Great Lakes Marsh and Lakeplain Prairie. The

prairies further inland have, for the most part, converted to

Lowland Hardwoods after extensive drainage and wildfire

suppression. only 8% of the 223,678 acres of upland forests and

savannas of Monroe County remain today.

WETLAND INVENTORY APPLICATIONS

Developing a digital database for presettlement, wetland

types allows us to quickly and accurately locate potential

restoration projects targeted to specific types of wetlands. For

example, there is increasing interest in locating and restoring

Lakeplain prairies due to their global rarity and because they

provide habitat for many rare plant species. one may query our

database for Monroe County and plot a map of all prairie remnants -

that is, all prairies graded as Intact, Degraded, and Manipulated,

in one color, with all other historical prairies in another color

(Figure 7). These maps clearly indicate where clusters of prairie

remnants occur. By combining a number of counties, the

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full range of a particular wetland type could be plotted f or range-

wide inventories and analyses.

OTHER ANALYSES

Because acreages for current MIRIS cover types are available

on a whole-county basis, it is not possible to generate statistics

for areas smaller than a county without GIS processing. However,

we can generate maps and acreage statistics from presettlement

cover type maps for any portion of the coastal zone, regardless of

political boundaries.

We can also overlay any other layer currently in MIRIS with

these presettlement maps that will enhance the analysis of a given

area. For example, the Saginaw Bay shoreline is receiving

increasing attention given it's value for wildlife and concern over

water quality in the bay. By taking a given portion of this

shoreline, we can overlay known occurrences of rare plant and

animal species, and high quality natural community occurrences

(Figure 8) to identify areas where wetland restoration may enhance

habitat for rare species.

Surveyors described the southern portions of the Saginaw Bay

shoreline as being "unexcelled habitat for ducks, geeseP

shorebirds, and fur bearers". Table 8 summarizes the acreages of

each presettlement vegetation type included in this area.

Although, as noted earlier, comparisons between presettlement and current

wetland acreages may be inaccurate when only using the wetland

grades of the presettlement maps, they can give a general

comparison when no other current statistics are easily available.

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In this case, of the 67,817 acres of presettlement wetlands in the

southern Saginaw Bay area, about 15,700, or 23% remain in some

form. The majority of these remaining wetlands are located within

the Tobico Marsh State Game Area, the Crow Island State Game Area,

and the Quanicassee Wildlife Area.

Table 8: Summary of Presettlement Vegetation along Saginaw Bay in portions of
Bay and Tuscola, and Saginaw counties; and acreages by current grade
for wetland type.

Cover Type Code Acreage I D M E

Central Hardwoods 412 45,301 36.21
Hemlock (uplands) 4226 9,218 7.36
Northern Hardwoods 4111 20 0.01
ABpen/White Birch 413 4 <0.01
Lakeplain Oak openings 331 605 0.48
Lowland Hardwoods 414 17,339 13.86
Black Ash Swamp 4141 9,532 7.61 361 780 8391
Elm Swamp 4142 1,095 0.87 190 905
Silver/Red Maple Swamp 4143 1,053 0.84 1053
White Birch Swamp 4147 153 0.12 153
Hemlock Swamp 4237 44 0.03 44
Tamarack Swamp 4233 5,301 4.23 2353 2947
Shrub Swamp 612 175 0.14 175
Bog 6121 26 0.02 26
Alder/Willow Swamp 6122 108 0.09 108
Emergent Marsh 6221 9,707 7.76 124 8091 1492
Great Lakes Marsh 6222 10,177 8.13 3712 6465
Lakeplain Prairie 6226 13,107 10.48 80 13,027
Major River 51 2,135 1.71

125,106

RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES

Significant opportunities exist for the restoration of Great

Lakes Marsh and Lakeplain Prairie all around the Quanicassee River

mouth. Historically, the marsh and prairie extended inland up to
four miles along the Saginaw Bay shoreline. All of this area,
surrounding several State Game Areas, which are located along a

narrow strip of shoreline, has been extensively drained for

agriculture.

Study of the presettldment vegetation along this stretch of

shoreline has indicated the extent of movement of the marsh/prairie

border, depending on the stage of fluctuation in the Great Lakes'

water-level. The dynamics of this Great Lakes Marsh system should

be utilized for cost-effective wetland restoration. Analysis of

the network of agricultural drains in place throughout this

shoreline area is one step toward development of a long-term plan

for wetland restoration. state acquisition of private holdings

immediately adjacent to these state wildlife areas would be

necessary (Figure 9). The gradual removal of drains and drain

tiles, from the shoreline extending inland, could slowly re-

establish the unexcelled wildlife habitat described by surveyors.

FIGURE 9: 1992 Plat map for tracts surrounding the Quanicassee
Wildlife Area, Bay County, Michigan.

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OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL WETLANDS IN MICHIGAN'S COASTAL ZONE

Wetlands, as they occurred across the presettlement landscape,

are best understood within the context of surrounding plant

communities and broader landscape ecosystems. The following

discussion of Michigan's historical wetlands will therefore be

framed within the context of Michigan's Regional Landscape

Ecosystems as defined by Albert et al. (1986). These landscape

units were derived by integrating climatic, landform, soil, and

vegetative factors. They provide a useful framework for

classifying plant communities and understanding the variation in

landscape processes as they occur throughout the state. Using this

approach, landscape ecosystems are defined in a hierarchy of three

levels in a nested series, from broad landscape regions down to

district and subdistrict levels (Figures 10 and 11; Tables 9 and

10).

Climatic factors for each of the four landscape regions will

be briefly discussed prior to more detailed descriptions of

climate, landform and soils, presettlement vegetation, natural

disturbances, and post-settlement human impacts for each district

and/or subdistrict(s) which comprises the coastal zone in that

portion of the state. Much of the following discussion was taken

from Albert et al. (1986). Discussions of presettlement vegetation

were taken from these previous works, and from data collected while

compiling these presettlement vegetation maps.

12.3 FIGURE 10: Regional Landscape Ecosystems
I \ of Lower Michigan, Regions I and 11.
12.3

(from Albert et.al. 1986)
12.2

12.1
11.2
11.2 -

11.1
.8.2

9
10 8.1 .2 7.1

5.1

6
3.2 4.2 ))14.2 5.2

3.3 4.1
1.2

3.2
Lft .......
3.1
2.1 1.4
2.1

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1.3 1.2

0 10 20 30 40 50
36 MILES
I F==EE1 KILOMETERS
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SCALE 1:2,000,000

TABLE 9: Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan, Regions I and II.
(from Albert et.al 1986)
No. District Subdistrict Site condition Area
Sq Mi (km2)

Region I: Southern Lower Michigan
1. 1 Washtcnaw Detroit Heat island
1.2 Maumec Lake plain 2300(5960)
1.3 Ann Arbor Fine and medium-textured moraine 1635 (4235)
1.4 Jackson Interlobate coarse-textured 2060(5335)
end moraine, outwash. and
ice-contact typography
2.1 Kaqlarnazoo Battle Creek Oulwash and ground moraine 2770 (7175)
2.2 Cassopolis Coarsc-textured and end moraine 720 (1865)
and ice-contact terrain
3.1 Allegan Berrien Springs End anqd ground moraine 760(1970)
3.2 Benton Harbor Lake plain 1355 (3510)
3.3 Jamestown Fine-textured end and 490(1270)
ground moraine
4.1 Ionia Lansing Mediurn-textured ground 4810(12460)
moraine

4.2 Greenville Coarsc-textured end 760(1970)
and ground moraine
5.1 Huron Sandusky Lake plain 3210(8319)
5.2 Lum Medium and coarse-textured 480 (1245)
end-moraine ridges and outwash

6. 1 Saginaw Lake plain 2390(6190)

Region II: Northern Lower Michigan
7.1 Arenac Standish Lake plain 1295 (3355)
7.2 Wiggins Lake
Fine-textured end and 110 (285)
ground niorainc
8.1 Highplains Cadillac Coarse-textured end moraine 2860 (7405)
9.2 Grayling Outwash 4085 (10580)
8.3 Vanderbilt Steep end- and ground- 1505 (3900)
moraine ridges
9 Newaygo Outwash 1920(4975)
10 Manistee End moraine and sand 1480(3835)
lake plain
11.1 Leclanau Williamsburg Coarse-textured end-moraine 1000(260)
ridges
11.2 Traverse City Coarse-textured drumlin 7504(19406)
Fields on ground moraine
12.1 Presque Isle Onaway Drumlin fields on coarse- 1845 (4780)
textured ground moraine
12.2 Stutsmanville Steep and ridges 270(720200)
12.3 Cheboygan Lake plain 835 (2165)

20.3

0.2

19.1 0.

19.2 8.3
18.1 .18.2 16 14.2
15.4
17.2
17.1 5.3 14.1 13.1

15.2
15.1 13.3
IV III

0
13.3

0 10
6;@ @203

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sc

TABLE 10: Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan, Regions III and IV.

No. District Subdistrict Site Condition Area 2)
Sq Mi (kin

Region III: Eastern Upper Michigan
13.1 Mackinac St. Ignace Limestone bedrock and 1580(4090)
sand lake plain
13.2 Rudyard Clay lake plain 600(1555)
13.3 Escanaba Limestone bedrock and 780(2020)
sand lake plain
14.1 Luce Seney Poorly drained sand 1515 (3925)
lake plain
14.2 Grand Marais Sandy end moraine, 1905 (4935)
shoreline. and outwash
plains
Region IV: Western Upper Michigan
15.1 Dickinson Hermansville Drumlins and ground moraine 1855 (4805)
15.2 Norway Granitic bedrock and end 595 (1540)
moraine
15.3 Gwinn Poorly drained sandy outwash 265 (685)
15.4 Deer(oll Sandstone bedrock and high, 225 (580)
sandy ridges
16 Michigarnme Granitic bedrock 1160(3005)
17.1 Iron Iron River Drunilinized ground moraine 465 (1205)
17.2 Crystal Falls Kettle-karne topography, 2390(6190)
Outwash, and sandy ground
moraine
18.1 Bergland Bessemer Large, high, coarse-textured 745(1930)
ridges and inetarnorphic bedrock
knobs
18.2 Ewen Dissected clay lake plain 450(1165)
18.3 Baraga Broad ridges of coarse-textured 575(1490)
rocky till
19.1 Ontonagon Rockland Narrow, steep bedrock ridge 135 (350)
19.2 White Pine Clay lake plain 655 (1695)
20.1 Keweenaw Gay Coarse-textured broad ridges 275 (710)
and swamps
20.2 Calumet Fligh igneous and sedimentary 285 (740)
bedrock ridges and knobs
20.3 Isle Royale Island of igneous bedrock 230(595)
ridges and swamps

INDEX TO REGIONAL CHARACTERIZATIONS
page
Region I .......................................... 40
District 1 ........................................ :::::::::41
District 3..' 45
District
District 6.... ... ooo..0*000 .. *woo ..... 0000 ... 0000.000000:58

Region ...... ooo ....... o..oooo ....... ooo..o.oo.o63
District ooo.o ... oo..o..oo ...... oo..o..ooo63
District 10 ..... oo..o ... o.o ... ooooo ... ooooo ... 66
District ooo.oo.oooo.ooooo ...... ooo69
District oo.o.o ... ooooo.oooo.o ... oo..oooo ... 71

Region III... ... oo.ooo..ooo-o, ... oo.oooooo-oo-ooo .. 78
District 13 ....... o ... o.o ... ooooo ... oooooooooo ... ooo.78
District 14 .... oooo ..... oo-oooooS7

Region IV .... oo .... oooo ... o.- ... o.-.oo ... ooooo ... 900.0-90
District 1S. ...- ... oo.o.-oo ...... oo ... oooo .... ooo ... o.o9l
District 16.... .... oooo..oo .......
District ooo.-o.oo..ooo ..... o..-oooo ... 94
District ooo .... ooo ... oo96
District o.oo.o.o .... ooo..oo-o.o ... -.-98

REGION I. Southern Lover Michigan.

REGIONAL CLIMATE: The climate of the region is strongly influenced
by Gulf air mass, with some lake-ef f ect snows and moderation of
temperature from Lake Michigan (Albert et al. 1986, Denton 1985,
Eichenlaub 1979, Eichenlaub et al. 1990). The southern Lower
Peninsula of Michigan experiences a greater frequency of warm humid
air masses originating in the Gulf of Mexico and a lower frequency
of cold dry air masses of continental origin than the remainder of
the state. Winter precipitation is high, 180-260 mm (23-26 percent
of annual precipitation) . Annual precipitation is 32 to 38 inches
(Eichenlaub et al. 1990) Annual average snowfall is 36 inches
inland to 100 inches along the Lake Michigan shoreline. The

growing season length is 130 to 170 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990),
similar to that of Regions II. Extreme minimum temperatures are
relatively warm, from -16 to -340F, as a result of buffering by the
Great Lakes.

DISTRICT 1. Washtenaw.
SUBDISTRICTS 1.1 and 1.2 Detroit and Maumee: Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: Climate is somewhat moderated by Lake St. Clair, and Lake
Erie. The growing season is generally long, ranging from 160 to
170 days at the southern edge of the district and from 140 to 160
days at the northern edge; growing season is longer near the
shorelines of the Great Lakes and shorter inland. The average
annual minimum temperature is -20*F in the south and -240F in the
north. Snowfall is relatively low throughout the district, ranging
from 30 inches in the south to 80 inches in the north. Average
annual precipitation ranges from 28 to 34 inches.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistricts
are part of a relatively flat plain of glacial lacustrine origin.
The lacustrine deposits extend into Ohio along the western end of
Lake Erie. The lacustrine deposits, which consist of sands and
clays, are thickest along the farthest inland edge of the lake
plain and thinnest along the present shorelines of Lakes Huron, St.
Clair, and Erie. Along Lake Erie, inland thicknesses of lacustrine
deposits are greater than 100 ft, whereas thicknesses of less than
5 ft are common near the Lake Erie shoreline.
Within the broad clay lake plain, there are several broad sand
channels, created when sand was deposited into the shallow pro-
glacial lakes by glacial meltwater streams. These sand channels
can be several miles wide, but the sand in them is generally only
5 to 10 feet thick. Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the
clay plain. The sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action
during higher levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes
and spits and intervening depressions. The soils of the dunes and
spits is often excessively well drained, whereas that in the swales
is poorly or very poorly drained.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The presettlement vegetation of the clay
lakeplain and sand lakeplain were very different. The majority of

the clay lakeplain supported forest, either upland or wetland. In
contrast, the sand lakeplain supported oak barrens (savanna) on the
uplands and wet prairies or marshes in the lowlands.
Clay Lakeplain. The forests of the clay lakeplain responded
to differences in slope class and drainage. On the flatter
portions (10 feet/mile slope or less) of the lakeplain or in
shallow basins or depressions, Lowland Hardwoods (414) were
prevalent. In the closed depressions, black ash (4141) was the
common dominant. Where the topography was flat or gradually
sloping, black ash was still the dominant species, but American elm
and basswood were also common co-dominants. As slope increased
slightly and drainage conditions improved, beech, white oak, white
ash, and hickory became more common, but were generally less common
than black ash and elm. Cottonwood, sycamore, (trembling] aspen,
and (red or silver] maple were other common wetland species of the
clay lakeplain.
Central Hardwood forest (4121) occurred on those portions of
the clay lakeplain where drainage conditions were best, generally
in those areas where streams had improved drainage conditions.
These mesic forests were dominated by American beech, sugar maple,
white oak, [American] elm, and hickory, but black ash (Lowland
Hardwoods, ash=4141) was also relatively common, probably occupying
small depressions or vernal pools on the flat plain.
Sand Lakeplain. The beach ridges and low dunes of the sand
lakeplain supported open "barrens" or savannas of white and black
oak (Lakeplain Oak Opening=331). Small areas of dry prairie also
occurred on the ridges, but were much less prevalent than savannas.
Depressions and flat portions of the sand lakeplain were often
poorly drained, supporting wet prairies (Lakeplain Prairie=6226).
'Within the wet prairies there were small beach ridges that
supported scattered trees and also areas of swamp. White oak was
the commonest upland species within the wet prairies, but there
'were references to black oak, red oak, ash, popple (cottonwood].
Elm was second to white oak, probably on the moist edges of the
nd within the swamps. Pin oak, presently a common species
prairie a
'within the swamps of the sand lakeplain, was seldom referenced in
'the GLO notes. Black oak, a relatively common species on the
uplands, was also referenced by the surveyors within the wet
Perhaps some of the black oak within the wet prairies
prairies.
were pin oak, but it is also possible that pin oak was much less
revalent prior to drainage of the wet prairies and f ire exclusion.
Pin oak appears to be extremely sensitive to fire (based on its
response to fire management at Windsor Prairie in Ontario).
Extensive marshes (Great Lakes Marsh=6222) occurred along the
entire coast of Lakes Erie and St. Clair. The marshes, which
extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2 miles wide in places, and
extended for miles up major rivers such as the Huron and Saginaw.
'Upland of the marshes there was typically a broad zones of swamp
forest, but locally along Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie, 1-3 mi wide
expanses of wet prairie occurred.
Central Hardwoods Forest (4121). Central Hardwoods dominated
by beech and sugar maple, have often been called Mesic or Wet-Mesic

Southern Forest or sometimes Mixed Mesophytic Forest. These mesic
forests were restricted primarily to the f ine-textured soils of the
lake plain, that is, the loamy and clayey soils. The micro-relief
of the clay plain was very subtle; 1-2 foot differences in
elevation caused changes in drainage condition that resulted in
corresponding differences in forest condition. Beech, sugar maple,
basswood, red oak, and white oak were common in better drained
areas, whereas swamp white oak, red elm, American elm, blue beech,
red ash, and black ash were more common in slightly moister micro-
sites.
Lowland Hardwood Forest (414). Swamp forests occurred on both
the clay plain and the sand plain. On the clay plain, black ash,
red ash, American elm, and basswood were among the more common
species. On the sand lake plain, [American] elm, (red] ash, and
silver maple were among the most common species.
Laker)lain Oak Openings (331). Oak openings or barrens
dominated by white and black oaks dominated the broad beach ridges
and low sand dunes of the lake plain. Sassafras was also
relatively common on the ridges. Occasionally the oak barrens or
savannas were open enough to be described as dry prairie.
Lakeplain Prairie (6226). Wet prairie (lakeplain prairie)
occupied the depression and poorly drained flats of the sand lake
plain. Within the wet prairie there were scattered groves'of
trees, both wetland species such as cottonwood, swamp white oak,
and pin oak, and upland white and black oaks. The wet prairies
probably persisted as a result of both water level fluctuation and
fire, with both seasonal and annual water level changes probably
being more important than fire for the persistence of the prairies.
Great Lakes Marsh (6222). Great Lakes Marshes persisted along
the shoreline, both on sandy and clayey soils. organic soils
developed beneath the grasses and sedges of the wet meadow. Near
the shoreline organic deposits were thin or absent as the result of
wave activity. In shallow water, the clay soils were often mixed
with organic material, creating highly unstable muds. At least one
rare species, Sagittaria montevidensis (Montevidens' arrowhead)
occupies this organic-rich habitat.
In shallow water sand soils were much more stable and supported
different vegetation than the clays.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: There were few references to natural
disturbances such as fires or windthrows on this portion of the
glacial lake plain. The only area of extensive windthrown trees
was at the extreme north edge of the subdistrict in portions of St.
Clair and Macomb Counties. The windthrows were most extensive on
the flat, clay lakeplain, which supported swamp forest.
Water level fluctuation of the Great Lakes, important for
maintaining swamp forest, wet prairie, and marsh vegetation, was
not well documented in the GLO notes of these subdistricts, but is
well documented further north in Subdistrict 5.1 and District 6
along Saginaw Bay of Lake Huron.

HUMAN LAND USE: There is a long history of human land use on the

lake plain, beginning with Native Americans, who settled along the
shorelines of the Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. They
farmed the floodplains of some of the major rivers, including the
Huron River. They may have been responsible for fires that
maintained the open conditions of the oak barrens and drier
portions of the prairies.
The clay soils of the lake plain were among the first areas in
the state farmed by European settlers. Most clay lands have been
ditched and tiled and are among the most valued agricultural lands
in the state. Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for
agriculture, but the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest,
wet prairie, or marsh. Diking and pumping has allowed vast
expanses of wet prairie and some areas of marsh to be farmed,
especially along Saginaw Bay.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Almost all of the Central
Hardwood Forests (4121) have been cut and drained for agriculture.
The only remaining tracts are small, usually only 40-80 acres in
size.
The major areas of Lowland Forest (swamps) (414) that remain
are on either the sandy lake plain or near the Great Lakes
shorelines, where drainage was not effective. Some of the Lowland
Forests presently found on the sand lake plain were originally wet
prairies that have become drier as a result of drainage.
Many of the areas of Oak opening (savanna or barrens) (331),
which included some dry prairie, remain unfarmed, but fire
suppression has resulted in conversion to oak-dominated forest
(Central Hardwood Forest, white and black oak dominated: 4122).
Some Oak Openings have been grazed; areas that were cleared for
agriculture were often abandoned due to low productivity and
unstable, blowing, sandy soils.
Drier portions of the Lakeplain Prairies (6226) became
available for agricultural use following drainage. Some of the
largest, wettest areas of Lakeplain Prairie persist, but edges of
these large wetlands are now farmed and portions of the prairie
have become swamp forest as a result of drainage. Some of the
Lakeplain Prairies persist as portions of State Game Areas,
including St. John's Marsh, Harsens Island Wildlife Refuge,
Petersburg, and Pointe Mouillee State Game Areas. Algonac State
Park also supports wet prairie. At present, most of the wet
prairie of the sand lakeplain has converted to swamp forest, with
pin oak, silver maple, and swamp white oak being common dominants.
Tupelo (Nvssa sylvatica) and bur oak are also relatively common
within these swamps.
Large expanses of Great Lakes Marsh (6226) were destroyed as
the ports of Detroit and Monroe were developed. Wave activity from
shipping has degraded still more of the coastal marsh. Great Lakes
Marsh persists in several areas, but the upland edge, which was
originally wet meadow, wet prairie, or swamp forest, has been
developed for agriculture.

DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
INN
CLIMATE: The climate is warm due to its southerly location and is
also highly moderated by Lake Michigan. This combination gives the
Allegan District a long, warm growing season. Compared to areas' at
the same latitude farther east, the last freezing temperatures
occur earlier in the spring and maximum daytime temperatures are
reduced.
Winters are mild. The annual average extreme minimum
temperature is 180F. Considerable lake-effect precipitation falls
during the fall and winter months.

DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
SUBDISTRICT 3.1. Berrien springs: End and Ground Moraine.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The district
consists of narrow bands of ice-contact and end-moraine ridges 5-20
miles wide. There are numerous kettle lakes within portions of the
ice-contact topography. The ridges, which rise abruptly from a.
surrounding outwash plain, begin in Indiana and continue north
through Cassopolis and north into Barry County. The band of ridges
is broken in four places by narrow outwash channels.
Height of the ridges varies considerably, from less than 50 ft
to greater than 100 ft. The highest ridges, near Three Rivers, are
nearly 200 ft, but most are 100-150 ft. Elevations range from 850
to 1150 ft. Glacial drift is approximately 250-350 ft thick in the
subdistrict.,
T@

a
I @Ir5

Uplands are well drained to excessively drained. Many of the

kettles contain thick organic-soil deposits.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The upland ridges were dominated by
Central Hardwoods Forests (4121) of beech, sugar maple, and white
oak or Central Hardwoods Forest (4122) dominated primarily by white
oak. There were no wetlands noted within 6 miles of shore within
the subdistrict, but further inland kettle depressions support
Lowland Hardwoods (414), Lowland Conifers dominated by tamarack
(4233), Shrub Dominated Wetlands (612), and Bogs (6121).
Fine-textured (silt- or clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine.
The majority of these moraines supported Central Hardwoods Forests
dominated by American beech and sugar maple (4121). Small
depressions within the end moraines supported Lowland Hardwoods
(414). The ground moraine includes some extensive areas of
Emergent Marsh (6221) and Lakeplain Prairie (6226), which are
located in broad, flat depressions between the end moraines. These
marshes and prairies contained willow, alder, and scattered ash,
[American] elm, and (red] maple.
Medium-textured (loam and sandy loam) Ground moraine. Loamy
moraines occupy only a small part of the district. Most of these
ridges were dominated by either Central Hardwoods Forests dominated
by either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and
black oak (4122). Small depressions within the end moraines
supported Lowland Hardwoods (414) or shrubby depressions (612).
The shrubby depressions sometimes contained inclusions of marsh.
Coarse-textured (sandy) End and Ground Moraine. The broad,
sandy ridges supported Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by
either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and black
oak (4122). Oak Barrens (332), dominated by white oak and yellow
oak, were locally noted on the steep ridges above the Paw Paw
River.
Outwash Channels (sand). The St. Joseph River, which flows
through the subdistrict, has a 1/4 to 1 mile wide border of sandy
outwash along its margins. This outwash supported a broad Lowland
Hardwood Forest (414) dominated by a diversity of species,
including sycamore, black ash, (silver] maple, beech, elm,
hackberry, and basswood.

14ATURAL DISTURBANCE: No natural disturbances were noted in the GLO
notes. The Oak Barrens above the Paw Paw River may have been the
result of Native American use of fire for management.

HUMAN LAND USE: Central Hardwoods Forests, beech-sugar maple
dominated (4121), have been converted to orchards and vineyards.
Central Hardwoods Forests, white oak dominated (4122), have been
converted to orchards and vineyards.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Most of the more gently-
sloping ridges and even some of the steeper ridges have been
converted to orchards and vineyards. The remaining forested areas
are generally the more steep ly-s loping, irregular ridges; these are
presently dominated by closed-canopy oak-hickory forests. Black

walnut and sassafras are both common.
The white oak-black oak [or yellow oak] barrens (332) have
been converted almost entirely to orchards. Conversion to orchard
indicates relatively rich soils. This may indicate that the
forests were not growing on low-productivity soils, but rather that
Native-American fire management had maintained the forest in an
open, savanna condition.
Most the Central Hardwood forest type (4121) has been
converted to agricultural land use, with orchards being quite
extensive. There is also some localized urban development. only
the steepest slopes remain forested.
The white oak-black oak-dominated Central Hardwood forest
(4122) has been almost completely converted to orchards, with the
exception of a few steeply sloping sites.
The depressions that contained Lowland Hardwoods (414) were
quite small, typically located within moderately sloping ridges.
Most of the swamp forests within these small depressions have not
been developed, but agricultural land use continues right to their
boundaries.
The depressions that contained Shrub-dominated wetlands (612)
are small, typically surrounded by moderately to steeply sloping
ridges. Many of the shrub swamps persist, but the adjacent uplands
have been farmed up to their edges.
Emergent Marshes (6221) have been almost completely drained
and farmed. The Lakeplain Prairies (6226) have been almost
completely drained and farmed.

DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
SUBDISTRICT 3.2. Benton Harbor: Lake Plain.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMSj, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict
consists primarily of lake plain, but includes small areas of
relatively flat ground and end moraine topography. Although most
of the lake plain is flat to gently sloping, coastal sand dunes are
steeply sloping. Elevations increase gradually from the Lake
Michigan shoreline; highest elevations are in the dunes and on the
f ine-textured end moraine at the southeastern edge of the district.
Elevations range from 580-820 ft.
Sand dunes, up to 200 ft high, and with slopes as steep as 30
degrees, form a narrow discontinuous band, 1-5 mi wide, along the
shore of Lake Michigan. Most of the dune formation occurred in

Nipissing Great Lakes time, approximately 4,500 years ago, but the
smaller f oredunes formed during more recent low-water levels of
Lake Michigan (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
Small inland dunes occur east of the coastal dunes. These
small dunes developed earlier than those on the coast, when
proglacial predecessors of the Great Lakes stood at higher water
levels than that of today (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
The underlying bedrock is of Mississippian age, consisting of
Marshall Formation sandstones and dolomites and Coldwater shales
(Deutsch et al. 1959). Drift is generally thick, ranging from 50
to 400 ft (Akers 1938; Anonymous).
Soil textures range from sand to clay. At the southern edge
of the subdistrict, the texture of most of the lacustrine soils is
clay loam or silt loam. To the north, the majority of the surface
lacustrine deposits are sands. Some lacustrine soils are underlain
by finer textured subsoils, causing poorly drained surface and
cemented subsurface soils. The soils of the moraines are generally
loams or clays.
Soil drainage classes on the sandy lacustrine deposits tend to
be excessively drained or poorly drained. The fine-textured soils
on moraines tend to be moderately well drained or well drained on
uplands and poorly drained in depressions.
on moraines, slopes of 6-12% are common. Soils on upper and
middle slopes are well drained. Poorly drained soils are
restricted to drainageways and depressions.
Along the Muskegon River at the north edge of the subdistrict,
the lacustrine sands are generally excessively drained. A large
part of these sands is outwash containing few lenses of
fine-textured material to restrict drainage. Low dunes are locally
common.
Poorly drained sands characterize a large area of Muskegon and
Ottawa Counties. Cemented B horizons are common. Small beach
ridges and sand dunes on the poorly drained plain are excessively
drained.
In Allegan County, near the towns of Pullman, Bravo, and
Pearl, is an area of droughty sand soils. The lake plain is flat,
but locally contains small depressions that were shallow embayments
on the lake bed. The soils immediately adjacent to the kettles are
strongly cemented sands.
.oo

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The presettlement vegetation will be
discussed first generally, then in detail by landform and
substrate. The majority of the subdistrict is dominated by upland
forest. In the southern part of the subdistrict, including
Berrien, Van Buren, and Allegan counties, Central Hardwoods Forest,
dominated by American beech and sugar maple (4121) is most common
on both fine-textured moraines and sandy lacustrine deposits.
Within this same three county area, Central Hardwoods Forest
dominated by white oak and black oak (4122), is common along the
bluffs and broad ridges above major rivers, including the Galien,
St. Joseph, and Paw Paw. This oak dominance is probably the result
of Native American land management with fire.

Farther north, in northern Allegan, Ottawa, and Muskegon
counties, forests dominated by eastern hemlock and American beech
(4119) occupied most of the sand lake plain and f ine-textured
moraines. Hemlock-beech f orest also occupied the dunes as far
south as Benton Harbor. Upland Conifer Forest dominated by white
pine (4211), along with white oak and some black oak, occupied the
bluffs and broad ridges above major rivers, including the Grand,
Muskegon, and Kalamazoo, and also on the sandy plains adjacent to
White and Muskegon lakes. Again, Native American fire management
probably maintained the white pine and oaks. White pine also
dominated the dunes near Bridgeman.
The largest wetlands were located along the rivers, where both
Great Lakes Marsh (6222) and Lowland Hardwoods (414) formed broad
bands for several miles inland from Lake Michigan. Both tamarack
swamp (4233) and lowland hardwoods swamp (414) were located in
bowl-shaped depressions behind the dunes.
Further inland, small kettle depressions with areas of end
moraine supported small marshes (6221) and both Lowland Hardwoods
(414) and Lowland Conifers (423). Broad depressions on both the
flat sand lakeplain and the ground moraine contained emergent
marshes (6221), lakeplain prairie (6226), and both Lowland
Hardwoods (414) and Lowland Conifers (423).
Sand Dunes. The dunes supported Northern Hardwood Forest
dominated by eastern hemlock and American beech (4119). Hemlock-
beech forest was the dominant forest type along the dunes of the
entire shoreline as far south as Benton Harbor, in central Berrien
County. Although hemlock and beech were the dominant species,
white pine, red oak, white oak, and sugar maple were also present.
At the northern edge of the subdistrict white pine became
increasingly dominant, often with hemlock or white oak as co-
dominants; these forests were coded as White Pine Forest (4211).
White pine was also dominant in the dunes near Bridgeman in central
Berrien County.
Several large areas of open, blowing sand (blowouts) were
noted in the GLO surveys. These areas, generally less than a half
mile wide, extended as much as a mile inland from the shoreline.
In some areas, especially where hemlock and white pine were the
dominants, present blowouts may be the result of historic logging.
Sand Lake Plain. Sand lake plain ranged from very poorly
drained to excessively drained. The greater part of the sand
lakeplain of the subdistrict was dominated by upland forests.
Broad expanses of sand lake plain in Allegan County and further
south supported Central Hardwood Forests dominated by American
beech and sugar maple (4121).
In northern Allegan, all of Ottawa County, and southern
Muskegon County, the major forest was Northern Forest dominated by
eastern hemlock and American beech (4119). At the northern edge of
the subdistrict, especially on the flat sand plains near Muskegon
and White lakes, white-pine dominated forests (4211) were
extensive; white oak was a common co-dominant. White pine, along
with white oak, were also common on bluffs above major rivers.
Upland white spruce (4221), growing along with white pine, occurred

locally at the northern edge of the subdistrict south of Whitehall.
Upland Conifer Forests dominated by eastern hemlock (4226)
occurred in small stream valleys, probably as a result of moist to
wet conditions. Some of the moister drainages might be better
treated as Lowland Hemlocks (4237). These streams were generally
surrounded by flat to rolling sand lake plain dominated by American
beech, sugar maple, and other upland hardwoods, including basswood,
American elm, and white oaks.
Wetlands included marshes, lakeplain prairies, and a diversity
of swamp forest types. Broad marshes, coded as Great Lakes Marshes
(6222), extended several miles up the major rivers, including the
Galien, St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, and White. These
marshes were as broad as 1/2 mile. At the mouths of the river
there was typically a small lake that was separated from Lake
Michigan by coastal dunes. Portions of the margins of these lakes
also supported marsh vegetation.
Lowland hardwoods (414) occurred along the Paw Paw, Black And
rivers. The Lowland Hardwoods were further differentiated as ash
swamp (4141) along the Black River, and as maple swamp (4143) along
the Kalamazoo River. Along the Black River there were also
stretches of floodplain, where the Black River meandered
considerably; this floodplain was not differentiated from adjacent
Central Hardwood Forest on the uplands, which were dominated by
beech and sugar maple (4121).
Some broad, flat, inland portions of the lakeplain also
supported Emergent Marsh (6221). One such area was near Baroda, in
Berrien County, where the marsh was in a broad depression between
moraine ridges. This and other such marshes were typically drained
and f armed. Marshes also occurred in depressions behind the
coastal sand dunes; some of these marshes were along the edges of
small lakes or ponds.
Tamarack swamps (4233) also occurred in depressions behind the
dunes, as did Black ash swamp (4141).
Several lowland forest types occurred in depressions on the
sand lake plain, including Lowland Conifer Forests of hemlock
(4237) or tamarack (4233) and Lowland Hardwood Forests of ash
(4141) or elm (4142). Some of the Lowland Conifer Forests
contained several different conifers, including combinations of
white pine, hemlock, tamarack, and occasionally northern white-
cedar; these were classified as 423.
Fine-textured (silt- or clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine. In
Berrien, Van Buren, and Allegan counties, the moraines supported
Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by American beech and sugar
maple (4121). Further north, in northern Allegan County and in
Ottawa County, Northern Forests of American beech and eastern
hemlock (4119) occupy the ground moraine. Small depressions within
the end moraines supported Lowland Hardwoods (414). The ground
moraine includes some extensive areas of Emergent Marsh (6221),
which are located in broad, flat depressions between the end
moraines. These marshes contained willow, alder, and scattered
ash, [American) elm, and (red) maple.
Coarse-textured (sandy) End and Ground Moraine. The broad,

sandy ridges supported Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by
either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and black
oak (4122). Coarse-textured moraines are not extensive; they are
found only at the southern edge of the district.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Blowouts, areas of destabilized sand that are
moved landward by the wind, were noted in the GLO notes. Although
blowouts are sometimes caused by human manipulation, the GLO notes
recorded the presence of large blowouts in the same areas where
most of the present blowouts are located today, suggesting that
natural disturbances regularly caused blowouts to form. Locally
there were references of burnt land and windthrown trees along the
Galien River. There were also references to Indian fields near the
mouth of the Kalamazoo River, and Indian trails along the Grand
River and near Lakeplain Prairies in Berrien County. Several
Barrens were noted along the Paw Paw River; these may have been the
product of Indian agricultural or game management with fire.
Indian trails were also noted in the white pine-white oak forests
near Muskegon Lake.

HUMAN LAND USE: Almost all of the sand lakeplain, which
characterizes most of the subdistrict, has been farmed. Where
drainage of the sand lake plain is generally poor, as between
Hoffmaster State Park and Fruitport, most of the land is ditched.
Ditches are typically 6-8 feet deep. Blueberries are a common crop
on the poorly drained acid sands. Large areas support nurseries
and fields of asparagus. Some of the more mesic lakeplain supports
orchards and vineyards. The coastal sand dunes have not been
exploited for agriculture, but they are popular for residential
development. Large portions of the dunes remain forested.- Sand
mining has been conducted in the coastal dunes, but is now
restricted to one site near Bridgeman. Oil wells tap petroleum
reservoirs in the underlying Devonian-age marine deposits (Dorr and
Eschman 1984).
Clay lakeplain is relatively limited in the subdistrict, where
it is concentrated in southern Berrien County, and all but the most
poorly drained sites have been drained for agriculture.
Most of the fine-textured end moraine and ground moraine is
also farmed. Most of the ground moraine requires ditching. All
but the steepest end moraine are farmed, and some of the steep
sites have been converted to pasture and hay production.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Farming of the droughtier
sand soils of the lakeplain resulted in severe wind erosion. Most
of these lands have been abandoned, and the fields have regenerated
to black cherry, bigtooth aspen, and trembling aspen. Signs of
wind erosion are abundant.
Drainage of some organic soils on the sand plain also resulted
in severe wind erosion and eventual abandonment
The original white pine-white oak foreste@ were logged for
white pine; fires followed, destroying white pine regeneration and

'51

resulted in the creation of white oak-black oak forests. White
pine regeneration is locally good; most white pine is presently
either understory or small overstory in size.
The areas of f ine-textured end moraine and ground moraine
within the subdistrict have been intensively farmed. Orchards and
vineyards are generally restricted to better drained, rolling areas
of end moraine.
Most of the large expanses of inland Emergent Marsh (6221)
were drained and farmed. Most of the Great Lakes Marsh (6222) is
located along major rivers, forming 1/4-1/2 mile wide zones. These
marshes remain, although some have been modified by boat channels.
Near larger cities, these marshes have been partially filled for
development of either industrial facilities or recreational
facilities, such as marinas.
Lowland Hardwoods (414) occupying broad depressions in either
lake plain or ground moraine have generally been drained and
converted to agriculture. Those occupying smaller, steeper
depressions within the dunes or end moraines persist, as drainage
was impractical.
At the northern edge of the subdistrict, in portions of Ottawa
and Muskegon counties, greater areas of Lowland Conifers (423)
persist than farther south. Tamarack (4233) occurred both broad
depressions on the sand lake plain and along some small streams,
and as more steeply sloped depressions behind the dunes and within
end moraine. The steeper depressions generally remain forested, as
do some of the stream-side swamps. Large portions of the broad
depressions have been converted to agriculture, but greater
portions remain forested than for almost all other forest types.
Hemlock swamps (4237) occurred in broad, flat depressions on
ground moraine and sand lakeplain. Most of the hemlock-dominated
wetlands have been farmed, but along some of the small streams in
Van Buren County, forests remain in areas originally dominated by
hemlock.
Most of the hemlock-beech forest (4119) has been - farmed,
either for row crops or orchard. The majority of this forest type
is on sand lakeplain, but it also occurs on ground moraine. The
portion of this forest type located on sand dune still remains.
Almost all areas of beech-sugar maple-dominated forest (4121)
have been farmed, either for row crops or orchard. This includes
broad expanses of both sand lakeplain and f ine-textured end and
ground moraines. Beech-sugar maple forest persists on portions of
the sand dunes.
While the white pine-dominated forests (4211) on the sand
lakeplain have all been logged, second-growth oaks persist on many
of these original oak-pine sites. Residential development has
occurred in most of these forested areas.
white pine, along with hemlock and American beech, dominated
portions of the coastal sand dunes. The pines have been logged
from most coastal dunes, but locally pockets of white pine remain.
Most of the upland hemlock stands (4226) on lakeplain were
cleared for agriculture. Orchards are not common on these lands,
possibly due to poorer drainage conditions.

Hemlock, along with lesser amounts of American beech and white
pine, dominated the greater part of the coastal sand dunes.
Although much of the hemlock was harvested, pockets of mature
hemlock persist.
White spruce-dominated forest (4221) occurred only locally in
Muskegon County. It was logged, but a large part of it remains as
second-growth forest.

DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
SUBDISTRICT 3.3. Jamestown: Fine-textured End and Ground moraine.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Steep topography
primarily distinguishes this subdistrict. Glacial drift is
generally thick, from 50 to 400 ft (Akers 1938), over the
Mississipian age sandstones and dolomites of the Marshall Formation
and shales of the Coldwater Formation (Deutsch et al. 1959). The
soils are generally well drained. The deeply eroded channel of the
Grand River adds to the dissected nature of the topography. Soils
are loamy, except for the outwash deposits along the Grand River.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Only a small portion of this subdistrict
is near the shoreline. Vegetation characteristic of areas of the
subdistrict further inland will not be discussed here. The
presettlement vegetation will be described by landform. and soil
texture.
Fine-textured (silt- and clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine.
The majority of the subdistrict near to the Lake Michigan shoreline
is f lat ground moraine that supported a forest of almost equal
parts hemlock (43%) and American beech (41%), with some sugar
maple, basswood, paper birch, and [red or silver] maple. This
forest type was classified as hemlock-beech dominated Northern
Forest (4119) On the steeper end-moraine ridges, American beech-
sugar maple dominated Northern Hardwoods (4111) were present.
A small area of about 300 acres supported Lowland Conifer,
hemlock dominated (4237). This was in a relatively broad, flat
depression. Small areas of Lowland Hardwoods, ash-dominated (4141)
were also located in small depressions in the end moraine and
ground moraine.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: There was no mention of natural disturbances
for the subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: Most of the land is presently used for
agriculture, but some steeper areas remain forested. Very little
of the ground moraine is used for orchards.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Most of the land is
presently under agriculture. on moraines too steep for
agricultural management, forests persist.
The majority of these upland forests have been farmed, but
steeper areas remain forested. This large, relatively flat
depression has been partially drained for agriculture.
Of the small depressions dominated by Lowland Hardwoods (414),
the more steeply sloping depressions appear to remain forested,
while those on flatter topography have been drained and farmed.

DISTRICT 5. Huron.
SUBDISTRICT 5.1. Sandusky: Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: This district is cooler than most of the rest of southern
Lower Michigan. It has a 151-day growing season. Most air flows
entering this district are from a westerly direction, so this
district experiences less lake moderation than districts on the
west side of the state. During spring and summer, showers caused
by air-mass instability are common.
Average extreme minimum winter temperature is 160F. Snowfall
is generally light. Lake-effect precipitation may occur when winds
are from the north and east.

SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict is
a relatively flat plain of glacial lacustrine origin. The
lacustrine deposits, which consist of sands and clays, are thickest
along the farthest inland edge of the lake plain and thinnest along
the present shorelines of Lakes Huron. The lake clays are 100-300
ft thick near the inland margin and 50 f t or less along Saginaw
Bay, where they are locally exposed.
Within the broad clay lake plain, there are several broad sand
channels, created when sand was deposited into the shallow pro-
glacial lakes by glacial meltwater streams. These sand channels

can be several miles wide, but the sand in them is generally only
5 to 10 feet thick. Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the
clay plain. The sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action
during higher levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes
and spits and intervening depressions. The soils of the dunes and
spits is often excessively drained, whereas those in the swales is
poorly or very poorly drained.
Broad end-moraine and ground-moraine ridges of fine-textured
(clay-rich) and medium-textured (loamy) till occupy portions of the
subdistrict. Along the eastern edge of the subdistrict, these
ridges are only 3-4 inland from the St. Clair River and the Lake
Huron shoreline. To the north, these moraines are generally
further inland from the Saginaw Bay shoreline. Slopes are
generally steeper on these moraines than on the clay lake plain (2-
6% vs. 0-2%).
The lake plain is underlain by Paleozoic bedrock; shale,
marine limestone and dolomite. Bedrock is exposed along the
shoreline at Pointe Aux Barques, and locally inland.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The presettlement vegetation of the clay
lake plain and sand lake plain were often very different. There
were also substantial differences in vegetation from the south end
of the district to the north end; hemlock and white pine became
increasingly dominant on upland sites further to the north. There
were also areas of f ine-textured and medium-textured ground moraine
and end moraine that supported different forest types.
Clay Lakeplain. Almost the entire clay plain was forested.
The forests responded to differences in slope class and drainage.
On the flatter portions (5-10 feet/mile slope or less) of the
lakeplain at the southern edge of the subdistrict, Lowland
Hardwoods (414) were prevalent; the common dominants were black ash
and American elm. In closed depressions, Lowland Hardwoods
dominated by black ash (4141) were common.
The majority of the clay lakeplain of the subdistrict was
dominated by Upland Conifer Forests of eastern hemlock (4226).
Topography was flat, with slopes of less than 2%. These forests
were not generally considered swamps, but the soils were probably
wet, with many vernal pools. Hemlock often comprised 40% or more
of the overstory; other common species were American beech, eastern
white-cedar, sugar maple, [American] elm, balsam fir, paper birch,
white pine, white ash, black ash, basswood, (red] maple, and
(trembling] aspen.
On the steeper portions of the clay plain, where slopes were
generally greater than 2%, Northern Hardwoods Forests of American
beech-sugar maple (4111) were numerous, sometimes comprising
greater than 50% of the overstory. Hemlock was a much less common
species on these better drained sites.
Sand Lakeplain. Sand lakeplain was not prevalent along the
shoreline within the subdistrict except near Port Huron, St. Clair
County, and in Tuscola County. The low dunes and relatively flat
sand plain supported Upland Conifer Forests of Hemlock-white pine
(4227). Small areas of Central Hardwoods, dominated by white oak

and black oak (4122) were also common near the shoreline, both on
low beach ridges and sand dunes.
Wetlands within the forested sand plain contained abundant
black ash (4141). Along the border with clay lakeplain, Lowland
Conifers dominated by tamarack (4233), and occasionally northern
white-cedar (4231), were dominant, often forming a dense linear
band.
There were also extensive Emergent Marshes (6221) inland from
the present Saginaw Bay shoreline. South of Bayport, a large 1/4
to 1/2 mile wide marsh was several miles long. Old beach ridges
from a much higher historic lake level (several thousand years ago)
form the upland boundaries of this large marsh.
Shoreline of Lake Huron and Saginaw Bay. Extensive Great
Lakes Marshes (6222) occurred along the entire coast of Saginaw
Bay, and locally along the shore of Lake Huron southeast of Saginaw
Bay. The marshes, which extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2
miles wide in places, and extended for miles up major rivers such
as the Quanicassee. Upland of the marshes there was typically a
broad zones of swamp forest (414 or 423), but on large expanses of
Saginaw Bay, 1-3 mi wide expanses of Lakeplain Prairie (6226)
occurred
Lak;plain (wet) Prairie was concentrated at the far
northwestern edge of the subdistrict along Saginaw Bay, in Tuscola
and Huron Counties. The wet prairie changed along with the water
level of Lake Huron; during periods of low lake levels, prairie
grasses and forbs dominated the broad swales, whereas marsh
grasses, sedges, rushes, and cattails expanded into the prairies
during high water periods. within the coastal marshes and wet
prairies were low beach ridges and sand spits that supported
Lakeplain Oak Openings of white oak and black oak (331).
Cottonwood and trembling aspen also occurred within the wet
prairie. The GLO surveyors commented on the importance of the wet
prairies for waterfowl.
Expansive bands of parallel beach ridges and swales, called
Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911), occupy some of the
embayments along Saginaw Bay. White pine dominated the beach
ridges, along with some white oak and black oak, which were most
common near the shoreline. Trembling aspen and paper birch were
also common on the ridges of the complex. The wettest swales were
dominated by floating and emergent aquatic plants, and were often
noted as ponds by the surveyors. Ponds were typically found in the
swales near to the shoreline, whereas further inland swales
typically supported swamp forests of cedar, tamarack, and
occasionally black ash.
Medium-textured and Fine-textured End Moraine and Ground
Moraine. Central Hardwood Forest, American beech-sugar maple
dominated (4121) grows on much of the moraines, which generally
have better drainage conditions than the clay lakeplain. The
central hardwood forests of the moraines also supports lesser
quantities of hemlock, basswood, white ash, and (red] maple.
Wetlands are either in depressions within the moraines, on
flat ground moraine, or at the base of slopes where moraines meet

lakeplain. Lowland Hardwoods, black ash dominated (4141) is found
in many of the wetland depressions within the moraines. Lowland
Conifers, dominated by northern white-cedar (4231), occupies broad
wetlands in footslope positions. These cedar swamps also contain
tamarack, balsam f ir, hemlock, and some white pine, along with
birch, [trembling) aspen and other hardwoods.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Extensive areas of windthrown f orest were
recorded in the GLO notes. These extensive windthrows are the
result of a combination of strong winds off Lake Huron and poorly
drained soils. Windthrow appears to have been more common within
the wetlands and on the flattest parts of the lakeplain.
Water level fluctuations of 2-3 f t are common along the Great
Lakes shorelines, causing tree mortality, shoreline erosion, major
alteration in species composition of marshes and wet prairies.

HUMAN LAND USE: Most clay lands have been ditched and tiled and
are among the most valued agricultural lands in the state.
Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for agriculture, but
the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest, wet prairie, or
marsh. Diking and pumping has allowed vast expanses of wet prairie
and some areas of marsh to be farmed, especially along Saginaw Bay.
organic soils were burned to improve their suitability for
agriculture. References to this practice are found in the Bay
County (Wonser 1934), Tuscola County (Deeter and Matthews 1931),
Saginaw County (Moon 1938), and St. Clair County (Deeter 1934) Soil
Surveys. One to four percent of the land surface of these counties
had burned-over organic soils on clay. Burnt muck soils overlying
sand occupied less than 1% of the land surface and those on marl
usually less than 0.1%. The muck soils over sand were of less
value for farming and were therefore seldom purposefully burned.
Following burning, most of the clay soils required further drainage
to be suitable for agriculture.
Native American settlements were common along the shorelines
of the Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. Indian fires were
probably responsible for maintaining oak savannas on the beach
ridges near Saginaw Bay.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
Residential construction has caused the destruction of large
portions of Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911). It is common to
see numerous drives built across swales, severely impacting natural
hydrologic processes. Portions of these complexes remain intact in
and around Sleeper State Park, and at Pointe Aux Barques.
Almost all of the Hemlock forest (4226) has been converted to
agricultural lands. Extensive drainage systems have impacted the
hydrology of the clay lands that originally supported hemlock.
On portions of the clay plain American beech and eastern
hemlock are the co-dominants, with very little sugar maple. White
birch, white pine, and very locally balsam fir are present. This
list of species consists primarily of species normally considered
Northern Hardwoods Forest. This f orest type is found on the

f latter ground moraine and on clay lakeplain. Most lands which
contained this forest type have been farmed.
Most of the clay lands in the northwestern part of the
subdistrict that originally supported Aspen/birch forest (413) have
been drained and converted to agriculture. Young aspen/birch
forests are encountered occasionally, generally following logging
of the clay plain.
Most of! the clay plain and moraine that supported Central
Hardwood forest (4121) has been converted to agriculture.
Occasionally small woodlots (20-40 acres) are encountered. These
woodlots have generally been selectively logged at least once.
Black ash depressions (4141) persist throughout the
subdistrict. Many are too poorly drained to easily convert to
agriculture.
Some cedar-dominated wetlands (4231) persist, but most have
been converted to agriculture.
There were only small areas of inland Emergent marsh (6221)
noted in the original surveys. Portions of these marshes were
drained and converted to agriculture, but portions also persist. as
marsh, although these are probably shrubbier than originally due to
adjacent alterations of drainage conditions.
Large portions of the Great Lakes marshes (6222) persist,
although boat slip and dock construction have altered large areas
of marsh.
Most of the Lakeplain prairie (6226) is wet prairies that has
been converted to agriculture. Maintenance of these lands f or
agriculture of ten requires both ditching and pumping. only the
wettest portions of the wet prairie, typically within a mile of the
shoreline, persist.

DISTRICT 6. Saginaw: Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: The growing season of this district is as long (153 days)
as in districts at the southern boundary od the state. Average
annual extreme minimum temperature is 140F. Toward the northern
end of the district, there is a sharp climatic gradient due to
characteristic positions of air masses. The Arenac District to the
north is separated from the Saginaw District on the basis of this
gradient, with the Saginaw District being notably warmer.

SOILS,r GLACIAL LANDFORMS# AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The district is a
relatively f lat plain of glacial lacustrine origin. The lacustrine
deposits, which consist of sands and clays, are thickest along the
farthest inland edge of the lake plain (up to 300 ft thick) and
thinnest along the present shorelines of Lakes Huron, where they
are generally 50 ft or less thick along Saginaw Bay.
Clay sediments are generally quite thick on the lake plain,
but several broad sand channels were created by glacial meltwater
streams that. deposited sand into the shallow pro-glacial lakes.
Many of these sand channels are several miles wide in this
district, but the sand in them is generally only 5 to 10 f eet
thick.
Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the clay plain. The
sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action during higher
levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes and spits and
intervening depressions. The resulting features are typically
higher and have steeper slopes than any found on the clay lake
plain. The soils of the dunes and spits is often excessively well
drained, whereas that in the swales is poorly or very poorly
drained. Several major streams flow across the sandy lake plain,
including the Saginaw, Pine, Chippewa, and Tittabawassee Rivers.
The subdistrict is underlain by Paleozoic bedrock; shale,
marine limestone and dolomite. Bedrock is only locally exposed.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:
Shoreline dunes and sand lakeplain. Extensive Great Lakes
Marshes (6222) occurred along Saginaw Bay. The marshes, which
extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2 miles wide in places, and
extended for miles up major rivers such as the Quanicassee and
Saginaw. Along the western shore of Saginaw Bay, the marshes were
generally 1/8 to 1/2 mile wide, much narrower than along the
southern edge of the bay.
Shoreward of the marshes were extensive zones of Lakeplain
Prairie (6226). These wet prairies extended several miles inland
along the Quanicassee and Saginaw rivers, and occurred as far to
the northwest as the Kawkawlin River (Bay County). The wet
prairies are probably quite variable in plant composition, ranging
from true prairie grasses, such as big blue stem, indian grass, and
cord grass, to blue joint grass and sedges closer to the marsh
edges and in wetter depressions. They also contain a diversity of
other aquatics, including rushes, bulrushes, cattails, reed grass,
and willow or other shrubs.
Within the coastal marshes and wet prairies were low beach
ridges and sand spits that supported Lakeplain Oak Openings of
white oak and black oak (331). There was also (trembling] aspen
and other lowland hardwoods locally within the wet prairies.
Inland of the coastal marshes and lakeplain prairies there was
typically a broad band of lowland forest. Lowland Hardwood (414)
was prevalent, with black ash, (American] elm, and [red] maple as
common dominants. There was often a component of tamarack and
eastern hemlock within the swamps, and alder become common further
to the north.

Lowland Conifer Swamps, dominated by tamarack (4233) often
occurred broad depressions within the sand lakeplain, especially
where these were located 1 or more miles inland from the present
shoreline. Examples of such large tamarack swamps were near the
Quanicassee River and inland from Tobico Marsh.
Wooded Dune and Swale Complex (911) occurred inland of Tobico
Marsh in Bay County. The vegetation of this complex was diverse.
Many of the swales contained emergent marsh or shallow ponds, but
lowland conifers and hardwoods occupied less wet swales. Upland
beach ridges within the complex supported scattered white and red
pine, along with white and black oak.
Inland sand lakeplain. Flat, inland expanses of sand
lakeplain supported Upland Conifer Forest, dominated by eastern
hemlock (4226), with some white pine and also black ash, elm, and
other hardwoods. There were also hemlock-dominated Lowland Conifer
Swamps (4237); these forests contained most of the same species
described from the hemlock uplands, but they were described by the
GLO surveyors as swamp. on the f lat topography of the sand
lakeplain, a. f ew inches of elevation can often result in changes of
drainage class, making it difficult to determine whether an area
should be called upland or wetland. Seasonally, drainage
conditions can also change; flooding is common in both spring and
autumn. It probably requires f airly intensive soil sampling to
determine whether an area should be called upland or wetland on
parts of the lakeplain.
Clay lakeplain. Central Hardwoods, dominated by American
beech and sugar maple (4121), dominate the better drained portions
of the clay plain at the southern end of Saginaw Bay. Drainage
conditions were locally better along the Saginaw River, resulting
in upland forests, with increased levels of white oak near the
river. Many of the upland forests on clay plain were probably
fairly moist, as indicated by the abundance of (American] elm,
basswood, and black ash.
Lowland Hardwoods (414) dominated large expanses of the clay
plain. Black ash, basswood, and (American] elm were common
dominants, but tamarack and northern white-cedar were also present.
The flat conditions of the clay lakeplain resulted in 'an
intergrading of upland and wetland hardwoods on the landscape,
making detailed mapping difficult.
At the northern edge of the district, Upland Conifer Forest,
dominated by Hemlock (4226), becomes common on the clay lakeplain.
These forests also contained hardwood species; American beech was
often the most common hardwood species, but black ash and
(American] elm were sometimes equally common. Northern Hardwood
Forest dominated by American beech-sugar maple (4111) replaced
Central Hardwoods dominated by the same species (4121) north of the
Saginaw River. North of the Saginaw River several species common
in Northern Hardwoods Forest became common, including eastern
hemlock, balsam fir, and white birch.
Lowland Conifer Forest, dominated by tamarack (4233) occurred
on the flat, poorly drained clay plain near the boundary with sand
lakeplain. This was probably most common near the Quanicassee

River, but occurred elsewhere in the district.
Fine-textured ground moraine. Fine-textured ground moraine is
often very flat and can be difficult to distinguish from clay
lakeplain. For this reason, the plant communities found on clay
lakeplain are also found on ground moraine. These include Upland
Conifer Forest dominated by hemlock (4226), Northern Hardwoods
Forest (4111) and Upland Central Hardwoods (4121) dominated by
American beech and sugar maple, Lowland Hardwoods (414) dominated
by black ash, basswood, and elm, and Lowland Conifers (423)
dominated by tamarack (4233) or occasionally northern white-cedar
(4231).
Fine-textured end moraine. Fine-textured end moraines
generally have slopes greater than 2%, resulting in better drainage
conditions than typically found on clay lakeplain. As a result,
Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) or Central Hardwoods (4121)
dominated by American beech and sugar maple are common. Associated
trees include white oak, [American) elm, basswood, and birch.
Hemlock and black ash are generally much less common than on the
upland clay lakeplain. At the northern edge of the district,
hemlock becomes increasingly common, even on these well-drained
forests.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Although extensive areas of windthrown forest
are generally common near the Great Lakes shorelines, this district
had no areas of windthrow noted in the GLO notes. It may be that
the district's location, at the southern and western edge of
Saginaw Bay, provided protection from the prevailing winds, thus
greatly reducing the amount of windthrow.
Water level fluctuations of 2-3 ft are common along Saginaw
Bay shorelines, causing tree mortality, shoreline erosion, and
major alteration in species composition of marshes and wet
prairies. The surveyors noted such water-level fluctuations just
a few miles east of the district at Fish Point.

HUXAN LAND USE: Most clay lands have been ditched and tiled and
are among the most valued agricultural lands in the state.
Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for agriculture, but
the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest, wet prairie, or
marsh. Diking and pumping has allowed vast expanses of wet prairie
and some areas of marsh to be farmed, especially along Saginaw Bay.
organic soils were burned to improve their suitability for
agriculture. References to this practice are found in the Bay
County (Wonser 1934), Tuscola County (Deeter and Matthews 1931),
Saginaw County (Moon 1938), and St. Clair County (Deeter 1934) Soil
Surveys. One to four percent of the land surface of these counties
had burned-over organic soils on clay. Burnt muck soils overlying
sand occupied less than 1% of the land surface and those on marl
usually less than 0.1%. The muck soils over sand were of less
value for farming and were therefore seldom purposefully burned.
Following burning, most of the clay soils required further drainage
to be suitable for agriculture.
Indian settlements were common along the shorelines of the

Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. Oak savannas (Lakeplain
Oak Openings) were probably maintained on beach ridges near the
shoreline of Saginaw Bay by Indian land management with fire.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
Much of the Great Lakes Marsh (6222) persists, as it is too
poorly drained to be converted to agricultural use. In some of the
broadest areas of marsh ' near the Quanicassee River, diking and
pumping has allowed portions of the marsh to be farmed. A much
greater portion of the marsh has been.altered, either by diking and
ponding for waterfowl management, by boat slip or marina
development, of filling for urban industrial uses. During surveys
of Great Lakes Marshes during the summer of 1988 (MNFI 1988), major
alteration in the marshes were noted at Coryeon Point, Tobico
Marsh, Nayanquing Point, and Pinconning.
The majority of the Lakeplain (wet] prairie has been ditched
and tiled for agriculture. Some areas of wet prairie require
pumping of fields to maintain conditions dry enough for farming.
Small areas of prairie persist along the upland edges of Great
Lakes Marsh, but this accounts for relatively small acreage.
Extensive areas of prairie were altered or destroyed along the
Saginaw and Quanicassee rivers.
Most of the Lakeplain Oak Openings (331) occurred on small
beach ridges within either Great Lakes Marsh or Lakeplain Prairie.
Many of these openings have become closed-canopy oak forests; they
may have required fires to maintain open conditions. Near the
shoreline, and to some degree further inland, the beach ridges that
support oak openings were popular residential sites.
Most of the acreage originally covered by Lowland hardwoods
(414) has been converted to agriculture, facilitated by
construction of drainage ditches and tiling. Occasionally Lowland
Hardwoods persist where they occupied depressions in the landscape
that were difficult to drain. They also persist immediately
adjacent to the Saginaw Bay shoreline, where drainage conditions
were too poor for conversion to agriculture.
Most of the acreage originally covered by Tamarack swamp
(4233) has been converted to agriculture, facilitated by
construction of drainage ditches and tiling. occasionally tamarack
swamps persist where they occupied depressions in the landscape
that were difficult to drain.
Almost all areas of lowland hemlock (4237) has been converted
to agriculture. Drainage ditches and tiles have facilitated this
conversion.
Almost all beech-sugar maple-basswood forests (4121) have been
converted to agriculture. Drainage and tiling was required to
allow most of these fine-textured lacustrine soils to be farmed :
Almost all beech-sugar maple-yellow birch forests (4111) in
the northern portion of the district have been converted to
agriculture. Drainage and tiling was required to allow most of
these fine-textured lacustrine soils to be farmed.
Almost all hemlock-dominated uplands (4226) have been farmed;
most of the sandy or clayey lacustrine soils that supported this

community were somewhat poorly drained and required drainage.

REGION II: Northern Lower Michigan.

REGIONAL CLIMATE: Most air masses cross the Great Lakes before
entering this region, resulting in reduced continentality.
Compared to areas of equivalent latitude in Wisconsin and
Minnesota, the region is warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
Lake effect snow and rain characterizes portions of the region
within 20-30 miles of the Great Lakes shorelines.
The growing season ranges from 70 days inland to 150 days
along the shoreline of Lake Michigan (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
Annual precipitation ranges from 28 to 34 inches. Average annual
snowfall ranges from 40 inches inland to 140 inches along Lake
Michigan (lake-effect snows). Extreme minimum temperatures are
-28OF along Lakes Michigan and Huron, and -50OF inland.

DISTRICT 7. Arenac.
SUBDISTRICT 7.1. Standish: Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: Located along the northwest shore of Saginaw Bay, this
district has a growing season length is 130 to 150 days (Eichenlaub
1990), which is significantly shorter than the adjacent Saginaw
District to the south. The extreme minimum temperature is -26 to -
300F. Precipitation is relatively uniform throughout the growing
season. Average annual precipitation is 28 to 30 inches and
average annual snowfall is 40 to 50 inches.

SOILSo GLACIAL LANDFORKS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The district is a
flat clay and sand lake plain, part of the Saginaw lakeplain to the
south. The northern third of the district is a large glacial delta
that has thick, droughty sand soils. The Au Sable and Rifle rivers
have created a deep, steeply eroded gorges through the thick sands
(Dorr and Eschman 1984; Burgis 1977). Within the lake plain, there
are large, poorly drained embayments several miles in area; most of
which are located several miles inland from the present Great lakes
shoreline. Within these embayments there are often numerous small,
steeply sided, transverse dune ridges.
The soils of the lake plain are very poorly, poorly, and
excessively drained sands or well, moderately well, and poorly
drained clay loams and clays. The soils on the small areas of
ground and end' moraine are primarily moderately well drained or
well drained loams and clays.
Glacial drift is 100-200 feet thick. Underlying bedrock
consists of Jurassic sandstone, shale, and clay with minor
limestone and gypsum, Pennsylvanian sand, silt, clay, shale,
limestone, and coal, and Mississippian limestone and gypsum,
sandstone, and shale (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The flat clay plain supported forests
of hemlock (4226) and American beech, sugar maple, and basswood
(4111) on well drained sites, with greater amounts of hemlock, and
white pine on more poorly drained sites. On poorly drained sites,
there were also extensive tamarack (4233), cedar (4231), black ash
(4141), and maple (4143) swamps. Alder/willow (6122) swamps were
also found on the clay lakeplain.
Sandy lakeplain contained extensive cedar (4231), tamarack
(4233) and black ash-dominated (4141) swamps. Hemlock, white pine,
and maple dominated swamps were also found here.
Great Lakes Marsh (6222) and Lakeplain Prairies (6226) were
also located on sandy lakeplain along the Saginaw Bay shoreline in
Arenac County. The higher beach ridges on the lakeplain were
dominated by white pine and red oak.
Loamy or clayey soils on the flat ground or end moraines
supported forests of hemlock (4226) and Northern Hardwoods (4111)
with sugar maple, American beech, white pine, and hemlock. The
f ine-textured end moraine located just west of Tawas contains sandy
soils on it's surface. It supported jack pine barrens (333) and
open, burnt-over grasslands (31).
The large embayments supported bogs (6121) or shrub swamps
(6122) with stunted trembling aspen or jack pine. The transverse
dune ridges supported open oak-pine (334) woodlands.
At the northern edge of the subdistrict, the delta of the Au
Sable River supported jack pine-dominated Barrens (333), with white
pine, red pine, and some black oak and white oak on fire-protected
sites.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrow was common in the forests near the
Great Lakes shoreline, resulting from a combination of strong winds
off Lake Huron, flat topography, and poor drainage conditions.

Water level fluctuations along the Great Lakes shoreline resulted
in cyclical floristic variation within the coastal marshes and
extensive mortality within the coastal swamp forests.
Fire was noted as common on the jack pine-dominated Barrens
(333) of the Au Sable River delta.

HUMAN LAND USE: Agricultural land use is less intensive on this
portion of the lake plain than in subdistricts further south, due
to both colder climatic conditions and a prevalence of sandy soils.
Drainage has occurred on both the clay lake plain and on the flat
portions of the loamy or clayey ground and end moraines. Clay
soils on the lake plain are used as pasture. Moraines are farmed
f or both row crops and pasture. Sandy soils have been less
intensively converted to agriculture than on other portions of lake
plain further south.
Much of the poorly or excessively drained lake plain is
managed for either timber or recreational use. The delta of the Au
Sable is managed largely by the Huron National Forest for timber.
Both jack pine and red pine plantations cover much of the delta.
A large strip mine is located just north of Huron Heights.
Urban development in this subdistrict is most intensive around
Tawas, Standish, and Au Gres.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The moraines and clay lake
plain have generally been converted to agricultural use and no
longer support the presettlement forest.
Natural vegetation remains on much of the droughty or poorly
drained sand lake plain, but white pine and red pine regeneration
has generally been poor, and either aspen or oak regeneration are
now characteristic.
The jack pine-dominated Barrens (333) of the Au Sable River
delta have been converted to closed-canopy plantations of jack pine
or red pine.
Some of the swamps along the Lake Huron shoreline have been
converted to agriculture, but those which persist appear to have
forest compositions relatively similar to those recorded in the GLO
notes.
Many of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222) along Lake Huron have
been manipulated for waterfowl management with dikes being
constructed on many of the marshes for water control. Small areas
of marsh remain intact. Small remnants of Lakeplain Prairie may
also exist here. Surveys of some prairie remnants in 1988,
immediately following 1986-87 high lake-water levels, indicated
possible prairie flora with less diversity than typical of prairies
to the south. Further surveys are needed in this area.
Boat slips and channels have also been constructed along many
sections of shoreline, resulting in varying degrees of marsh
destruction..

DISTRICT 10 Manistee: End Moraine,, Dune Sand,, and Sand Lake
Plain.

CLIMATE: A strong lake modified climate results in a long growing
season of 140 to 150 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990). Annual average
extreme minimum temperature is 160F. The extreme minimum
temperature is -320F. Retarded spring warming coupled with a long
growing season make the climate suitable for commercial fruit
production. Lake-effect snowfalls are heavy, averaging 100 to 140
inches. The average annual precipitation is 32 to 34 inches. -

SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCZ GEOLOGY: The district is
characterized by diverse topography, including sand dunes, sand
lake plain, ground and end moraines, and outwash.
Glacial. drift is 400-800 feet thick; bedrock is not exposed.
Underlying bedrock consists of Mississippian limestone, sandstone,
and shale, and Devonian sandstone, shale, dolomite, limestone, and
evaporates (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984). Morainal
bluffs and sand dunes rise abruptly along the shoreline of Lake
Michigan. Near Manisteet a broad, flat area of lake plain and
ground moraine separates the more steeply sloping moraines into
northern and southern parts. Elevations range from 580 ft on the
Lake Michigan shore to 1150 ft on a large end-moraine ridge in
Benzie County. The shoreline is noted for large, high sand dunes,
including those of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore,
Ludington State Park, and the Huron-Manistee National Forest.
Glacial drift thickness averages between 400 and 700 ft for the
entire district (Anonymous).
Along the west edge of most of the district, steep morainic
bluffs and sand dunes rise rapidly from 580 ft, at the shoreline,
to 800-900 ft. Large, high sand dunes, up to 600 ft, are found near
Ludington and at other coastal locations. These high dunes date
from high Lake Nipissing water levels (Kelley 1962). Large
Nipissing-age dunes are also found on North and South Manitou
islands and on South Fox Island. Most of the high dunes, both on
the mainland. and on the islands, are perched on underlying till.
The till, varying in texture from gravelly sand to clay, is exposed
on the steep lake bluf f . The dune soils are excessively well
drained sands containing no fine silts or clays.
Many large lakes along the shoreline, including Crystal,

Betsie, Hamlin, White, Silver, and Muskegon lakes, are f ormer bays
of Lake Michigan or lower reaches of streams, that were separated
from Lake Michigan by the development of sandbars across the mouth
of the bay or stream (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
Coarse--textured end-moraine ridges are the predominant
landforms irk the south and also north of Manistee. In the south,
the end moraines, 3-5 mi wide and 100-300 ft high, are separated by
1-3 mi wide outwash channels. North of Manistee, the end-moraine
ridges are much steeper and without broad outwash channels between
them as compared to ridges in the south. Most of the soils on the
end moraines are well drained sands.
Between Manistee and Frankfort, resistant bluffs of
medium-textured till rise steeply from the lake, forming moderately
to steeply sloping end-moraine ridges. To the east of these ridges
are steep ridges of sandy soil.
In the southern half of the district, there are small areas of
more gently sloping, fine-textured ground and end moraines. Most
of the soils are well drained.
Between Ludington and Manistee is a broad expanse of f lat sand
lake plain and f ine-textured ground moraine. Much of the lake
plain consists of wet depressions and small, droughty beach ridges.
Most of the ground moraine is poorly drained.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Most concentrated at Sleeping Bear Dunes
National Lakeshore, Big Sable Point, and Little Sable Point, the
dunes were noted as "loose sands" and undoubtedly, in places,
vegetated with dune grasses and shrubs. But farther inland, they
support a variety of forests, including upland hemlock (4226),
hemlock/white pine (4227), white pine/red pine (4216), and red
pine/jack pine (4215) dominated forests. Northern Hardwood Forests
(4111), often with a significant component of hemlock and/or black
oak, were also common. Poorly drained interdunal areas, such as
those at Point Betsie, often supported cedar (4231) and/or hemlock
(4237) dominated swamps and shrub swamps (612).
Forests with Hemlock and beech were co-dominant (4119) on
sandy lakeplain and sandy moraines. This forest type was found
north of Pentwater, and south of Manistee. Other upland portions
of the sandy lake plain included White Pine Forests (4211), which
included significant amounts of white oak, beech, hemlock, black
oak, and white ash. Several large Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes
(911), supporting a variety of upland/wetland plant communities,
are found on the sandy lakeplain in and around the Sleeping Bear
Dunes National Lakeshore (The current vegetation of these complexes
is described in detail in the 1993 CZM report [MNFI 1993]). Poorly
drained portions of the sandy lakeplain supported black ash (4141),
elm (4142), aspen (4146), tamarack (4233), cedar (4231), and
hemlock-dominated (4227) swamps. Willow/Alder/Bog Birch Thickets
(6122), Emergent Marshes (6221), and Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
were also found on the sandy lakeplain. As with further south
along the Lake Michigan shoreline, Great Lakes Marshes were
associated with inland lakes which formed at the mouths of major
rivers, such as the Manistee and Big Sable.

Northern Hardwood forests (4111) dominated most of the
morainic soils, regardless of their soil texture. Their dominance
was a result of the increased precipitation and reduced
transpiration along Lake Michigan (Denton and Barnes 1987;
Eichenlaub 1.979), allowing beech and sugar maple to dominate sandy
soils where oaks and pines would otherwise be expected. For this
reason, even the droughty sands of the dunes support moisture
demanding species such as beech, sugar maple, and basswood.
Hemlock dominated forest was also found on ground moraine with
finer textured soils. Poorly drained areas with finer textured
soils supported black ash (4141), black spruce (4232), and cedar-
dominated (4231) swamps.
Sandy outwash deposits supported White pine/red pine (4216)
forests and Red pine-dominated (4212) forests which included white
oak and jack pine, and locally, Northern Hardwoods (4111).

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Although many of the Nipissing dunes have
been stabilized by forest vegetation, large blowouts are common on
the dunes immediately adjacent to Lake Michigan. Some of these
blowouts are the product of human disturbance, but many, noted in
the GLO, notes, are probably naturally caused. The blowouts are
large features. South Fox Island blowouts are in areas where timber
was not harvested, probably indicating natural origin. Some of
these blowouts continue to move landward, burying and killing
northern white-cedar trees that are 100-200 years old.
Signs of recent wildfires were noted several times by
surveyors on sandy outwash deposits. Occasional, relatively small
windthrows were encountered on the moraine ridges of the district.

HUMAN LAND USE: Native American Is f ields were noted south of Stony
Lake, and northwest of Bear Lake at the time of the surveys. Early
European settlements were already established at Manistee and both
Manitou islands.
Many of the end and ground moraines are used for orchards or
vineyards. The protection from late spring frosts afforded by Lake
Michigan is responsible for the utilization of the district f or
extensive orchards of apples, cherries, and peaches (Olmsted 1951) .
Sand mining occurred on the dunes within the district and oil
f ields tap the underlying Devonian petroleum reservoirs in the
south.
Urban development in this subdistrict has been concentrated
along the shoreline, in the town of Manistee, and several other
smaller towns.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Many wetlands, where they
occurred on f iner textured soils, were drained for agriculture.
Probably due to man-made manipulations and some changes in dune
configuration at the Big Sable dunes, the boundaries of Hamlin Lake
have changed significantly since the time of the surveys.
Today, the pine dominated forests, for the most part, include
only scattered white/red pine, and more white/black oak and aspen
than the presettlement condition. Although Northern Hardwood

Forests (4111) in this subdistrict have been logged, species
composition remains similar to presettlement conditions.

DISTRICT 11: Leelanau and Grand Traverse Peninsula.
SUBDISTRICT 11.1. Williamsburg: Coarse-textured End-moraine
Ridges.
SUBDISTRICT 11.2. Traverse City: Coarse-textured Drumlin Fields on
Ground moraine.

CLIMATE: The climate is strongly influenced by Lake Michigan;
spring and early summer are cooler than the Highplains District to
the east (Albert et al. 1986). The growing season is 110 to 150
days, longest along the shoreline of Lake Michigan (Eichenlaub et
al. 1990). A combination of early date of last freeze in spring,
cool spring temperatures, and reduced thunderstorm severity result
in creating an important area for commercial fruit production,
primarily apples, cherries, and grapes. The lake-effect snowfall
is heavy, averaging 100 to 140 inches annually. Average annual
precipitation is 30 to 34 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures are
-320F along Lake Michigan and -400F inland.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: This district of
drumlin f ields, coarse textured ground and end moraines, dunes, and
sandy lakeplain, is located around Grand Traverse Bay and Lake
Michigan. Bays of the lake and several long, narrow inland lakes
divide the district into narrow peninsulas. Two of the long,
narrow lakes of the district, Torch and Elk lakes, were bays of
Lake Michigan until they were cut off by sand deposition during
Nipissing time (Dorr and Eschman 1984). Elevation ranges from 580
ft along the Lake Michigan shoreline to 1095 ft inland. Underlying
limestone bedrock is exposed in several places, and the glacial
drift is less than 50 f t thick over much of the district (Akers
1938; Anonymous). The thickest drift, approximately 350 ft, is
located just east of Lake Charlevoix. The glacial drift contains
abundant limestone fragments derived from nearby bedrock. Most of
the district is occupied by drumlin fields. The drumlins are long,
narrow ridges, usually about 1/4 mi wide, 1 mi long, and less than
100 ft high. Slopes are moderate to steep, and the soils are
gravelly sand and gravelly sandy loam, mostly well drained. Swamps
and small lakes are found in depressions between many of the
drumlins, but some depressions are relatively well drained. In

western Charlevoix County, where the drumlin ridges are closely
spaced, narrow deposits of thick organic soils, less than 1000 ft
wide, separate adjacent drumlins. A narrow band of sandy lakeplain
occurs along most large inland lake margins, and along Grand
Traverse Bay, at the northeast end of the Leelanau Peninsula and at
the south extreme of the bay. Coarse texture end moraine and
outwash deposits lie along the south end of the district.
Throughout the district, most of the poorly drained soils were
shallow or deep organic deposits rather than poorly drained mineral
soils. Narrow, somewhat low sand dunes border the western
shorelines of the Leelanau Peninsula, Mission Peninsula, and of
Charlevoix and Antrim counties. This dune border is typically less
than a mile wide, accounting for a only a small percentage of the
district's surface area.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Northern Hardwood Forests (4111) of
American beech, sugar maple, basswood, yellow birch, and hemlock
characterized the upland portions of the drumlin fields, while
eastern white-cedar (4231) dominated most of the wetlands between
the drumlins.
Northern white-cedar is common in the wetlands due to the
calcareous soils. It was dominant also on the sandy lakeplain
bordering many inland lakes and Grand Traverse Bay. Small Wooded
Dune and Swale Complexes (911) are located on sandy lakeplain at
the south end of the east arm of Grand Traverse Bay, and on the
west side of the Mission Peninsula at Bowers Harbor. Shrub swamps
(612) also were found on the sandy lakeplain. Other wetland
species present include balsam fir, hemlock, white pine, white
spruce, red maple, American elm, and trembling aspen.
On the dunes, Northern Hardwoods Forests (4111) of beech,
sugar maple, red maple, red oak, hemlock, white pine, and
hop-hornbeam were found.
A small portion of medium textured ground moraine located
northwest of Elk Lake supported Black Ash Swamp (4141).
The vegetation on the well drained soils of the end-moraine
ridge at the southern edge of the district was Northern Hardwood
Forest (4111) dominated by sugar maple, beech, and hemlock. More
xeric sandy moraines supported white and red pines (4216) inter-
mixed with white and red oaks.
The excessively drained outwash sands, restricted to the
southern boundary of the district, supported forests of red pines
(4212), and occasionally whitd pine (4211). Poorly drained
portions of the outwash supported cedar-dominated (4231) swamps.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted in several of the black
ash and cedar/hemlock dominated swamps close to the shoreline.
Windthrows were also recorded in cedar swamps on poorly drained
outwash deposits at the south end of the district.
Recent wildfires were noted by surveyors near the shore along
the eastern Leelanau Peninsula, and behind sand dunes along the
east shore of Grand Traverse Bay.

HUMAN LAND USE: Surveyors noted Native American land uses
including small fields and maintained sugar bushes.
Today, the district contains numerous orchards and vineyards.
The lake-moderated climate and the rich, calcareous soils both add
to the district's agricultural value. The steeper drumlins are
used for pasture. Most of the excessively drained outwash deposits
are in state forest lands.
Urban development in this district is most concentrated around
Traverse City. A number of smaller towns, highways, and shoreline
development also characterize land use in this area.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Agriculture has replaced
much of the upland forests which characterized this district.
Most of the wetlands which occupied the poorly drained soils
between drumlin and morainic ridges have been altered; often for
use as pasture. others are completely surrounded by intensive
agriculture.
Urban development around Traverse City has eliminated most of
the pine/oak forest that once occupied the sandy lakeplain there.

DISTRICT 12. Presque Isle.

CLIMATE: The climate of much of the district is moderated by Lake
Michigan and Lake Huron (Albert et al. 1986). The growing season
is 140 days long near the Lake Huron shoreline, but at the inland
margin of the district (Atlanta, a town near this inland border)
the growing season is only 110 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
There is a greater chance of late spring and early fall freezes
farther inland. Winter snowfall is high throughout the district,
ranging from 70 to 140 inches, but lake-effect snowfall is greatest
in the west, near Lake Michigan. Average annual precipitation is
28 to 32 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures are as cold as -400F
inland, but only -280F along the Great Lakes shorelines.

DISTRICT 12. PreSqUG IS16-
SUBDISTRICT 12. 1. Onaway: DrUMlin Fields on Coarse-textured Ground
moraine.
SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORNSi, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict has
rolling to moderately sloping ground-moraine topography. Drumlins
are common on the ground moraine of the eastern three-quarters of
the subdistrict. 'In the drumlin f ields, individual ridges are
typically separated by poorly drained outwash. The western quarter
of the subdistrict contains several large lakes and large areas of
lake plain interspersed with small ground-moraine deposits. The
lacustrine deposits are from early Algonquin time, when the small
ground-moraine deposits remained as "islands" above the level of
glacial Lake Algonquin (Burgis and Eschman 1981; Dorr and Eschman
1984).
The elevation of the district ranges from 595 to 975 ft.
Elevations are generally lower to the northeast near Lake Huron and
higher to the southwest along the boundary with the Vanderbilt
Subdistrict. Small areas of exposed limestone bedrock are common
in the ground moraine. The glacial drift thickness increases to
several hundred feet at the southern and western edges of the
subdistrict (Haag 1976).
The rolling hills and drumlins of the eastern section of
ground moraine, characterized by slopes in the 0-12% slope class,
have highly variable drainage and soil texture. Gravelly sandy
loams are common. The gravel and angular rock fragments are
predominantly limestone, derived from bedrock at the northern edge
of the drumlin fields (Burgis and Eschman 1981). The glacial
deposits within the drumlin fields are primarily brown, sandy
tills, but locally these are overlain by red, sandy till or
lacustrine deposits. Readvancing glaciers sculpted the
southeastward-trending drumlin fields. Most of the drumlins are
less than 60 ft high, 1/8-1/4 mi wide, and about 1 mi long. Yarst
topography is also present on the ground moraine of the
subdistrict.
Moderately well to well drained sands and sandy loams typify
the drumlins. The depressions between the drumlins, that are
generally poorly drained, constitute a greater portion of the
landscape than the drumlin ridges.
The ground moraine is also broken by a broad outwash channel
west of the town of Hawks. Soils of the channel vary from sand to

gravel and drainage conditions vary from excessively well drained
to very poorly drained. The outwash contains several kettle lakes.
Glacial. drift is as thick as 500 feet at the inland margin of
the district, and discontinuous within 30 miles the shorelines of
Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. The underlying bedrock consists of
Mississippian and Devonian marine and near-shore sedimentary
deposits (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984). Limestone,
dolomite, and gypsum are locally exposed and mined. Devonian
bedrock in the district is a source for salt, brine, and major
petroleum reservoirs (Dorr and Eschman 1984).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Most of the drumlins of the district
supported northern hardwood forest (4111), dominated by sugar
maple, beech, basswood, hop-hornbeam, white ash, and hemlock. In
the southeast and near Black Lake, some sandy drumlins surrounded
by droughty outwash supported red pine forest (4212), with red oak,
and bigtooth aspen. Some of the smaller, low drumlin ridges were
dominated by hemlock (4226) or a mix of hemlock and white pine
(4227); similar upland conifer stands were found on the smaller
drumlin ridges in Menominee County (Subdistrict 15.1).
The poorly drained outwash and ground moraine surrounding the
drumlins typically supported forested wetlands of northern white-
cedar (4231). Cedar was commonly the dominant at the upland
margins of wetlands, but increasing amounts of tamarack and black
spruce occurred in the center of the wetlands. Other species
observed in these forested wetlands included trembling aspen,
balsam poplar, paper birch, black ash, white pine, hemlock, willow,
and speckled alder.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted along the boundary with
Subdistrict 12.3 (Cheboygan Lakeplain), but most of these
windthrows occurred on the lakeplain, not on the moraines of this
subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: Most of the drumlin ridges were cleared for
agriculture, primarily for pasture, but also for some row crops and
potatoes. The soils are very rocky, and the rocks form huge mounds
on the landscape; many have also been built into fieldstone houses.
Some of the wetlands have also been drained for pasture, but most
remain intact.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The northern hardwood
forests (4111) have almost all been cleared for agriculture, but
some remain as woodlots. Most of the cedar swamps remain intact.

SUBDISTRICT 12.2. Stutsmanville: Steep Sand Ridges.

SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: This small
subdistrict is characterized by large, broad ridges of sandy ground
moraines, some nearly 500 ft high. Glacial drift thickness is
generally several hundred feet thick.
The soils are primarily well drained sands and sandy loams.
The moderate to steep slopes of the subdistrict account for the
well drained soils. The narrow, often steep valleys between the
ridges are poorly or very poorly drained, but they account for only
a small part of the subdistrict's surface area.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The predominant vegetation of the
subdistrict is Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) dominated by beech,
sugar maple, hemlock, basswood, hop-hornbeam, and yellow birch.
Lowlandsl restricted to relatively narrow valleys between the
ridges, are dominated by northern white-cedar (4231), or
occasionally tamarack (4233) or mixed conifers (423). The largest
wetland noted was approximately 1.5 square miles in area.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: No natural disturbances were noted by
surveyors in this subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: Several Native American fields were noted with one
to two miles of the shoreline on the sloping ridges of this
subdistrict. Following European settlement, most of the forests
were logged, but little agricultural development has occurred on
the large, steep ridges.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Most of the wetlands
persist, although all have undoubtedly been logged. The upland
forests probably contain less white pine and hemlock today than the
presettlement, condition.

SUBDISTRICT 12.3. Cheboygan: Lake Plain.

SOILS# GLACIAL LANDFORNSp AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict
forms a narrow band of sandy lake plain, 2-10 mi wide, along the
shoreline of Lake Huron in northeastern Lower Michigan. Although
a veneer of sand covers a large part of the subdistrict's surface,
limestone bedrock is near the surface of almost the entire
subdistrict, and exposed bedrock and cobble beaches are common.
Similar to other sand lake plains in the state, much of the
topography is a series of beach ridges and adjacent wet
depressions, locally extending several miles inland. These dune
and swale complexes are well developed in Sturgeon Bay of Lake
Michigan and east of Cheboygan and along Hammond Bay of Lake Huron.
Sand dunes, low foredunes, sand spits, and beach ridges line much
of the shoreline. The Original Swamp Map of Michigan (Lane 1907)
shows most of the subdistrict as swamp. The elevation ranges from
580 ft along Lake Huron to 750 ft inland.
West of Rogers City, the surface soil is primarily sand. Sand
depth and the surface features are quite variable. The Ocqueoc
River, in northwestern Presque Isle County, cuts through thick sand
deposits that extend landward for greater than a mile. These
deposits are relatively flat, and their origin is unclear. Large
Nipissing age dunes are located near Sturgeon Bay, on Lake Michigan
(Dorr and Eschman 1984). Most of the dunes on Lake Huron are much
smaller; the largest of these are 30-40 ft high near 40 Mile Beach.
Series of low beach ridges and depressions are very common in
embayments, commonly extending three-quarters of a mile or more
inland. Near present lake level, the depressions are typically
poorly drained and sometimes ponded. Farther inland depressions
become better drained; in some places they are excessively drained,
as are adjacent beach ridges.
Inland from the beach ridges and depressions are extensive
flat, featureless areas of sand lake plain that are usually poorly
drained. Within these broad tracts occur low sandy rises with
slightly better drainage.
Exposed limestone bedrock and thick deposits of cobbles are
common southeast of Rogers City. Waves have eroded the limestone
bedrock into steep bluffs. organic soils cover the cobbles, but
fire, which was widespread throughout this portion of the lake
plain at the time of the GLO surveys, has destroyed much of the

organic cover, leaving bare cobbles.
Karst depressions occur locally around Long Lake. Long,
Grand, and Grass lakes have long and linear basins formed by
glacial erosion of the underlying bedrock; the orientation of these
lakes is similar to that of the drumlins in adjacent Subdistrict
12.1.
Glacial. drift is discontinuous near the shorelines of Lake
Michigan and Lake Huron. The underlying bedrock consists of
Mississippian and Devonian marine and near-shore sedimentary
deposits (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984). Limestone,
dolomite, and gypsum are locally exposed and mined. Devonian
bedrock in the district is a source f or salt, brine, and major
petroleum reservoirs (Dorr and Eschman 1984).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Large areas of f lat, poorly drained sand
lakeplain were dominated by Lowland Conifer Forests (423). The
conifer species most common dominant on the lakeplain was northern
white-cedar (4231). Northern white-cedar dominated in areas where
there was some lateral water movement and formed dense stands.at
the seepy, calcareous margins of the adjacent subdistrict (12.1).
Tamarack (4233) was also a common dominant, and often was found
growing with cedar; it was more common where drainage conditions
were more impeded. Numerous other species were common in the
extensive wetlands of the subdistrict, including balsam fir, black
spruce, eastern hemlock, white pine, balsam poplar, trembling
aspen, paper birch, speckled alder, and shrub willows.
White pine and red pine (4216) were common co-dominants on the
well drained, low sandy ridges of the lakeplain, especially near
the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron shorelines. These pines also grew
together on gravelly or rocky sites near the Lake Huron shoreline.
Hemlock and white pine (4227) were also common co-dominants,
often where -the drainage conditions were slightly poorer than where
white pine and red pine grew together. Birch/ (trembling] aspen
(413) and aspen (4146) also occurred locally on f lat to rolling
portions of the sand lakeplain.
Near the Ocqueoc River, where droughty outwash sands extended
f or several miles inland from the shore, there were extensive
stands of jack pine (4213) and red pine/jack pine (4215). These
stands also contained red oak and some white pine.
The areas of Wooded Dune and Swale complex (911) near Sturgeon
Bay and Cheboygan contained ridges of white pine and red pine and
swales dominated by either northern white-cedar and other conifers,
or if they were flooded, by emergent marsh. The Wooded Dune and
Swale Complex at Hammond Bay was drier; the ridges were dominated
by white pine and red pine near the shoreline, with jack pine and
northern pin oak becoming more common further inland. The swales
were typically narrow; the drier ones supported balsam fir, aspen,
and other upland species, and the wetter swales supported cedar,
tamarack, and other lowland conifers or hardwoods. Along the
shoreline, Great Lakes Marsh (6222) occurred within the Wooded Dune
and Swale Complexes.
-of Calcareous ponds (52) occurred near the shoreline; these ponds

were sometimes dominated by Emergent Marsh (6221) or small diameter
tamarack cedar, and occasional black spruce.
AltLugh Northern Hardwoods (4111) were not generally
extensive in the subdistrict, some large tracts were located around
Long and Grand Lakes, along the Cheboygan and Black Rivers, and
locally along the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron shorelines.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Several windthrows were noted; the largest of
these were less than 2 square miles in area. The windthrows were
concentrated near the boundary of the lakeplain with the drumlins
of Subdistrict 13.1. Windthrows were also recorded on Hog, Garden,
and High islands.
There were also two large areas of burnt timber. These burns
were not noted in the f irst survey (of the township lines) , and may
have been the result of early logging operations near Cheboygan,
where log mills were already noted in the first survey. Several
square miles of timber were burned near Cheboygan and several more
were burned near Thompson I s Harbor and Grand Lake. Mixed stands of
white pine and red pine (4216) appeared to be the f orest type most
impacted by the fires. Wildfires were also noted on Garden and Hog
islands.

HUMAN LAND USE: Early European activity was apparent at Cheboygan
at the time of the surveys. Limestone in this subdistrict has been
quarried at several locations, including near Alpena, Grand Lake,
Adams Point, and Rogers city. Residential development has also
been concentrated along the shoreline.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Logging has greatly
altered the forest composition of many upland forest types,
especially those dominated by white pine, red pine, or hemlock.
Most of the wetlands have also been logged. No major changes of
wetland f orest composition have been noted; northern white-cedar
has generally regenerated well on the calcareous soils of the
lakeplain.

REGION III. Eastern Upper Michigan.

REGIONAL CLIMATE: Due to northern latitude and the close proximity
of Lake Michigan, Lake Superior, and Lake Huron, the region has a
cool lacustrine climate. most air masses cross the Great Lakes

before entering this region, resulting in reduced continentality.
Compared to areas of equivalent latitude in Wisconsin and
Minnesota, the region is warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
The lakes also reduce the severity of thunderstorms. Lake effect
snow and rain characterizes portions of the region near the Great
Lakes shorelines. Much more snowfall occurs in the northeastern
part of the region than in the southwestern parts. Much of the
region is relatively low in elevation, and most physiographic
features do not appreciably influence climate.
The growing season length is less than 100 days inland and up
to 150 days along the Great Lakes shorelines (Eichenlaub et al.
1990). Annual precipitation ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Annual
snowfall ranges from 180 inches of lake-effect snow along Lake
Superior to 60 inches inland. Extreme minimum temperatures range
from -28OF along the Lakes Superior and Michigan to -460F inland.

DISTRICT 13. Mackinac.

CLIMATE: The district is moderated by the Great Lakes and as a
result, is the warmest district in Upper Michigan. The growing
season for the district as a whole is 125 days (Eichenlaub et al.
1990). Extreme minimum temperatures is -290F. Lake-effect
snowfall occurs throughout the district, most commonly in the
Rudyard Subdistrict. The St. Ignace and Escanaba subdistricts are
also warmer than the Rudyard Subdistrict. Average annual
precipitation ranges from 30 to 34 inches.

DISTRICT 13 Mackinac.
SUBDISTRICT 13.1. St. Ignace: Limestone Bedrock and Sand Lake
Plain.

SOILSr GLACIAL LANDFORKS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The entire
subdistrict is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician age sedimentary
bedrock, principally limestone and dolomite, but also including
less resistant shale and gypsum (Dorr and Eschman 1984). The
resistant Niagaran series dolomite and limestone of Silurian age
form the Niagaran Escarpment, which is locally exposed as cliffs
and limestone pavement (alvar) along the Lake Michigan shoreline
from the Stonington Peninsula in the west to Drummond Island at the
far eastern edge of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and eastward
to Cockburn Island, Manitoulan Island, and the Bruce Peninsula of
Ontario. The underlying bedrock is typically less than 50 ft below
the surface of the glacial drift (Vanlier and Deutsch 1958;
Sinclair 1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963). Limestone is mined in several
places within the subdistrict.
A wide variety of landforms of glacial lacustrine origin
characterize the subdistrict; including f lat lake bed, deltaic
deposits of sand, parabolic dune f ields, and shallow embayments
containing transverse dunes.
Large areas consist of lacustrine sand deposits that have f lat
to gently undulating surfaces. On this topography, only a few
inches of elevation change can greatly alter drainage conditions.
Drainage conditions also depend on depth to underlying bedrock or
fine-textured substrate.
Ground moraine is locally present. Exposed limestone and
dolomite bedrock form flat, pavement-like areas and breccia
chimneys are locally exposed.
Soils within the district are diverse. Lacustrine soils were
primarily sands, but there are small, local areas of lacustrine
clays. The clays are primarily poorly drained. The sands were
generally either excessively drained or poorly drained.
Excessively drained sands are on beach ridges or dunes. Poorly
drained sands are more common, occupying much of the f lat lake
plain or depressions between dunes and beach ridges. The soils of
the ground moraine within the district range from loamy sands to
loams; they are often stony. Where bedrock is near the surface,
soils are often calcareous and poorly drained. The most common
soil orders within the subdistrict are Alfisols (Boralfs),
Histosols, and Entisols (Aquepts), with some Orthods and Aquods
(Soil Conservation Service 1967).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Drummond Island, for the most part
described by surveyors as "rolling and stony", was dominated by
forests of white spruce, northern-white cedar and tamarack (4223)
mixed with Aspen/paper birch forests (413) on thin soils over
bedrock. Small portions at the south of the island supported
Northern Hardwoods (4111) intermixed with spruce/f ir and birch
dominated forests. The southwest extreme of the island had
experienced many windthrows from storms off of the lake. This area
was described as predominantly aspen/birch thicket (413).
Some of the more resistant dolomites and shales, when exposed
at the surf ace, proved to be too droughty f or successful f orest
establishment, and formed communities called Alvar (741). Good

examples of these sites are f ound today on the northern Maxton
Plains of Drummond Island and 5 mi southeast of Gulliver Lake in
Schoolcraft County. As a result of severe drought, these areas
today support only grasses, herbs, and occasional shrubs on thin
soil. A dense mat of roots and rhizomes is exposed on the surface
of the bedrock, especially in cracks were there is increased
moisture availability. Small wet depressions and lower slopes
support an herbaceous and shrub community composed of species
tolerant of saturated soil. Thin organic deposits have developed,
but they also appear to be subject to destruction by fire in
drought years. Trembling aspen forms stunted clones on the
droughty uplands and also grows in the depressions.
Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was noted by surveyors along the
shoreline of Drummond Island in small, protected coves and
embayments. Organic soils in shallow depressions on the eastern
and southern side of the island supported Hardwood-Conifer Swamps
(42) dominated by cedar, spruce, tamarack, black ash, and aspen.
Much of the coastal zone along northern Lake Huron, where thin
soils overlay bedrock, were dominated by Balsam fir/ spruce/ cedar
forests (4223) and Northern Hardwoods (4111). Limestone ledges
(744) were encountered by surveyors throughout the forests inland
from Pochartrain Shorest and west of St. Martins Bay. The Les
Cheneaux Islands are predominantly ground moraine, and also
supported cedar/spruce/fir (4223), and aspen/birch forests (413).
Sandy lakeplain along northern Lake Huron supported a number
of Great Lakes Marshes (6222) in a number of protected coves in and
around the Les Cheneaux Islands. The substrate in these marshes
was often clay or marl (MNFI 1988). A Wooded Dune and Swale
Complex (911) at St. Vital Bay supported balsam fir, white pine and
red oak on the ridges, with Shrub swamps (6122) and Emergent
Marshes (6221) in the open swales. Extensive Cedar swamps (4231)
grew on the poorly drained soils of the lake plain. An example- of
this type of wetland occurs just east of Ponchartrain Shores.
Further west on St Martins Bay, Great Lakes Marshes (6222) and
Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) are f ound in the protected
west side of' the bay. The low dune ridges and narrow swales of
this complex, as well as that found to the south in Horseshoe Bay,
supported cedar, spruce, and paper birch. Marly pools were
mentioned by the surveyors in this area. Stunted cedar, tamarack,
and white pine grew along the edges of these pools.
The sandy lakeplain portions of Bois Blanc Island supported
extensive Cedar swamps (4231), Tamarack swamps (4233) and
Cedar/spruce/fir upland (4223). Hemlock (4226) and Northern
Hardwood (4111) forest also dominated many uplands on sandy
lakeplain and bedrock on Bois Blanc Island.
The thin soils over bedrock which characterize Mackinac Island
and the area around St. Ignace supported several forest types.
These included Northern Hardwoods (4111) an better drained sites,
and both Balsam fir/cedar/spruce (4223), and Aspen/birch (413) on
poorly drained sites. Vast areas of organic soils located on
lacustrine deposits just north of St. Ignace supported Cedar (4231)
and Tamarack swamps (4233), with scattered dune ridges. High

bedrock ridges west of the straits area, and lower morainal ridges
northeast of Brevoort Lake supported Northern Hardwood f orests
(4111).
The vast dune/swale complex at Point Aux Chenes supported
tamarack, aspen, birch, and spruce in the narrower swales, with
Emergent Marsh (6221) and Shrub swamps (612) in the wider swales.
Pines dominated the dune ridges.
On the low parabolic dunes along the sandy lakeplain of Lake
Michigan, the moist air and presumably higher precipitation and
soil moisture caused most of the dunes to be dominated by Northern
Hardwood (43.11) forests of sugar maple, beech, hemlock, red oak,
yellow birch, paper birch, and basswood. The Brevoort Lake dunes,
located near the Lake Michigan shore, were dominated by Northern
Hardwoods. In contrast, the dunes located near Round Lake, several
miles inland from Lake Michigan, support forests dominated by Red
and jack pines (4215), possibly indicating the lack of local
micro-climatic influence bringing moisture from Lake Michigan.
The protected embayment at Epoufette supported Great Lakes
Marsh (6222), and swamps of cedar, tamarack, cedar, and spruce.
From Epoufette to the western end of the subdistrict, the sandy
lakeplain along the shoreline was dominated by a chain of Wooded
Dune and Swale Complexes (911). Within the complexes, the ridges
were dominated by forests of white pine, red pine, white spruce,
balsam fir, and hardwoods; the wetter swales were dominated by
grasses, sedges, and other aquatic plants, whereas the drier swales
supported northern white-cedar swamps and, occasionally, upland
forest.
Further, inland, the organic soils supported vast swamps
dominated by cedar, spruce, and tamarack, while adjacent ground
moraine ridges were dominated by Northern Hardwoods (4111),
Hemlock/beech (4119), and Hemlock/white pine (4227) forests.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The surveyors recorded numerous occurrences of
fire in upland and swamp forests on both sand and bedrock. There
were wildfires and windthrows on Little St. Martin Island. Many
windthrows were noted by surveyors in the cedar and tamarack
dominated swamps north of Hughes Point. Beach ridges near the Crow
River mouth were burnt off at the time of the surveys.

HUMAN LAND USE: European settlements were well established at St.
Ignace, Bois Blanc Island, and at Gros Cap at the time of the
surveys in the 1840's. The 1829 survey of Mackinac Island showed
only small second growth timber over the entire island, probably as
a result of firewood cutting. A British military outpost was
established at the southwest end of Drummond Island. Fishing
establishments were based at various locations along the shoreline
from Epoufette west to Seul Choix Point. Native American
settlements were also located on Bois Blanc Island and St. Martins
Island. Their sugar camps were also located throughout the area
where Northern Hardwoods (4111) dominated. Limestone has been
quarries at a number of locations within this subdistrict, Drummond
Island, inland areas northeast of Hessel, Millecoquins Lake, and at

seul Choix Bay. Upland areas dominated by pines and Northern
Hardwood were cut, and often burned, by the early 20th century.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Limestone quarries have
had obvious permanent impacts in several locations of this
subdistrict. Roads and highways have probably had the most
enduring negative impact on coastal wetlands, by disrupting wetland
hydrology and facilitating shoreline development. A number of
Great Lakes Marshes (6222) along northern Lake Huron were impacted
by the construction of M-134 along that shoreline. Urban
development is increasing around St. Ignace. Residential
development is quite dense on many of the Les Cheneaux Islands
which have been connected tot eh mainland by roads. Many of the
Northern Hardwood forests (4111) located on ground moraine in this
subdistrict have been cleared for agriculture and pasture use. The
Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) west of Naubenway remain, for
the most part, similar to their presettlement character, with
changes limited to upland forest dominants.

DISTRICT 13 Mackinac.
SUBDISTRICT 13.2. Rudyard: Clay Lake Plain.

SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The entire district
is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician age sedimentary bedrock,
principally limestone and dolomite, but relatively thick lacustrine
clays cover almost all of the subdistrict. The underlying bedrock
is typically less than 50 ft below the surface of the glacial drift
for much of -the district, but the drift is 100-200 ft thick where
preglacial valleys dissected the bedrock surface; such valleys
underlie the present valleys of the Pine and Carp Rivers (Vanlier
and Deutsch 1958; Sinclair 1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963).
Almost -the entire subdistrict is a broad clay lakeplain. A
small area of sand lake plain is present in the center of the
subdistrict. Within this small area of sand plain there is a
series of ancient beach ridges and swales, many miles from the
present Great Lakes shorelines.
Sandy ground moraine is encountered on Sugar and Neebish
islands, and on the mainland at the north end of Munuscong Bay.
Soils are generally well drained in the ground moraine.
The clay soils were somewhat poorly drained to poorly drained.
The localized sands were generally either excessively drained or

poorly drained.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The poorly drained clay plain, common
within 3-4 miles of the Great Lakes shoreline in much of the
subdistrict, supported Hardwood-Conifer Swamps (42) with balsam
fir, balsam poplar, hemlock, northern white-cedar, tamarack,
trembling aspen, white pine, black spruce, and white spruce. The
poorly drained shorelines of the St. Marys River, at the east edge
of the subdistrict, today support some of the most extensive Great
Lakes Marshes (6222) of Michigan. These marshes, for the most
part, were documented by the surveyors as being narrower than they
are today. The may have only described portions of the marsh we
recognize as the wet meadow zone, stopping at the water line.
Today, the emergent marsh zone can be a mile wide, and the wet
meadow zone along the shoreline is often another quarter to half
mile wide. The sandy lakeplain along Waiska Bay supported Cedar
swamp (4231).and Lowland Hemlock (4227).
Hemlock/sugar maple forests (4228), which also included
American elm, basswood, and yellow birch, and Aspen/birch forests
(413), were locally common well drained ground moraine of Sugar and
Neebish islands. Poorly drained portions of these ground moraines
supported Alder/willow swamps (6122).
A large Balsam fir-dominated swamp was located on poorly
drained sand lakeplain at the south end of Neebish Island.
Large peatlands on sand lakeplain supported "open swamp" dominated
by spruce, cedar, and tamarack (423) east of Izaak Walton Bay.
Hemlock forests (4226) dominated beach ridges along that shoreline.
Peatlands to the northwest and south of Munuscong Bay were also
dominated by cedar (4231), spruce (4232), and tamarack (4233).

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Poor drainage conditions cause widespread
windthrow. Large windthrows were noted by surveyors south and west
of Sault St. Marie, and on the south side of Sugar Island, in 1845.

HUMAN LAND USE: European settlement had already taken place at
Sault St. Marie when the area was surveyed in 1845. Forests had
been cleared for several miles around the settlement. Also Native
American settlements and trails were noted there by surveyors.
Subsequent development of this subdistrict has seen the
extensive forest clearing and swamp drainage for agricultural
production. Swamps near the Great Lakes shoreline have been less
modified than those elsewhere in the subdistrict. Many Great Lakes
Marshes were hayed for marsh hay by creating shallow ditches in the
marsh. All of these ditches have now been abandoned.
Railroads and highways extend south from the urban development
around Sault St. Marie.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Much of the clay plain has
been converted to pasture or other agricultural use, following
widespread construction of 6-8 ft-deep ditches. However, drainage
remains a limiting factor. Where pasture land is abandoned, it
quickly returns to shrub willows, speckled alder, tamarack, black

ash, and other species indicative of poor drainage.
The wakes produced by large ships passing through the St.
Marys River has degraded many of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
there.
Many of the Lowland Conifer swamps (423) along Izaak Walton
Bay remain, with several roads and railroads bisecting.
On Sugar and Neebish islands, the majority of Hemlock/sugar
maple (4228), Aspen/birch (413), and Balsam fir/spruce (4223)
forests remain in some form, although probably degraded by past
logging. Several large Alder/willow swamps (6122) on these islands
remain.
Most of the large peatlands northwest and south of Munuscong
Lake remain.

DISTRICT 13. Mackinac.
SUBDISTRICT 13.3. Escanaba: Limestone Bedrock and Sand Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: Climatic differences are used to separate Subdistrict
13.3 from Subdistrict 13.1. The climate of this subdistrict (13.3)
is milder (Albert et al. 1986). This subdistrict also receives
less snowfall than most of Subdistrict 13.1. Average precipitation
is slightly lower.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The soils, glacial
landforms, and bedrock geology of this subdistrict are similar to
those of Subdistrict 13.1. The primary difference between the two
subdistricts is a milder climate in this subdistrict, which results
in a greater presence of more southern tree species.
The entire subdistrict is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician
age sedimentary bedrock, principally limestone and dolomite, but
also including less resistant shale and gypsum (Dorr and Eschman
1984). The resistant Niagaran series dolomite and limestone of
Silurian age form the Niagaran Escarpment, which is locally exposed
as cliffs and flat limestone pavement (alvar) along the Lake
Michigan shoreline of the Stonington and Garden peninsulas. Little
Bay de Noc and Big Bay de Noc occupy depressions where soft gypsum
and shales were eroded, probably both by glacial and lacustrine
processes (Sinclair 1960). Devonian limestone, dolomite, and
breccia are locally exposed at the southern edge of the district.
The underlying bedrock is typically less than 50 ft below the
surface of the glacial drift (Vanlier and Deutsch 1958; Sinclair

1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963). Limestone is mined in several places
within -the subdistrict.
A wide variety of landf orms of glacial lacustrine origin
characterize the subdistrict; including f lat lake bed, deltaic
deposits of sand, parabolic dune f ields, and shallow embayments
containing transverse dunes. Beach-ridge and swale topography,
consisting of dozens of low, linear beach ridges alternating with
shallow depressions (swales), commonly forms a narrow 1-2 mi wide
band along the shorelines of protected embayments of Lake Michigan.
Large areas consist of lacustrine sand deposits that have flat
to gently undulating surfaces. Regional slope is typically only 8
to 10 feet/mile. On this topography, only a few inches of
elevation change can greatly alter drainage conditions. Drainage
conditions also depend on depth to underlying bedrock or f ine-
textured substrate. Ground moraine is locally present south of
Escanaba and north of the Garden Peninsula.
Outwash deposits were located near the Lake Michigan shore
north of Escanaba near Rapid River. Small barchan dunes (crescent
shaped) are scattered on the outwash plain.
Soils within the district are diverse. Lacustrine soils were
primarily sands, but the sands are often underlain by lake clays or
bedrock within only a f ew f eet of the surf ace. The sands were
generally either excessively drained or poorly drained.
Excessively drained sands are on beach ridges or dunes. Poorly
drained sands are more common, occupying much of the f lat lake
plain or depressions between dunes and beach ridges. The soils of
the ground moraine within the district range from loamy sands to
loams; they are often stony. Where bedrock is near the surface,
soils are often calcareous and poorly drained. The most common
soil orders within the subdistrict are Alfisols (Boralfs),
Histosols, and Entisols (Aquepts) , with some Orthods and Aquods
(SCS 1967).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Extensive Cedar swamps (4231) grew on
the poorly drained soils of the lake plain, extending inland
several miles from the present shoreline. These cedar swamps were
interrupted by narrow, low beach ridges. The smaller ridges often
supported Upland Conifer Forests of hemlock (4226), white pine
(4211), or a mixture of the two (4227). All of these upland
conifer types occurred locally on narrow beach ridges along the
Lake Michigan shoreline. Low broad upland areas of lacustrine
sands supported the same Upland Conifer Forests or occasionally,
Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) dominated by American beech and
sugar maple. Although cedar was the tree species most commonly
referenced by the surveyors, other common wetland species included
tamarack, balsam fir, [red] maple, [paper] birch, black ash,
[black] spruce, hemlock, [trembling] aspen, and balsam poplar.
Depressions within the extensive wetlands of the lakeplain were
often dominated by low productivity Tamarack swamps (4233) or Black
spruce swamps (4232).
Along embayments of Lake Michigan there were extensive Wooded
Dune and Swales Complexes (911). Within the dune and swale

complexes, the drier ridges were dominated by f orests of white pine
or red pine (421), along with white spruce, balsam fir, and
hardwoods. Lower ridges were often dominated by'northern white-
cedar, as were some of the drier swales (4231). The wetter swales
supported Emergent Marsh (6221).
Along the sandy shoreline of Lake Michigan, Great Lakes
Marshes (6222) were generally narrow due to severe wave action.
The only extensive marshes within the subdistrict were near
Escanaba, at Portage Bay, and in Little Bay de Noc, at the mouth of
the White River.
Extensive f loodplain occurred along the Sturgeon River. These
floodplain forests were dominated by silver maple (4143), and also
contained abundant butternut; both of these species are rare in the
Upper Peninsula.
Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) of American beech and sugar
maple grew on ground moraine and on thin soils over limestone
bedrock. Where bedrock was exposed at the surface, as on portions
of the Garden and Stonington peninsulas, grasslands called alvar
(741) were found.
Pine Barrens (333) occurred on the outwash sands near Rapid
River. Large portions of the pine barrens were noted as burned
over at the time of the original surveys. Jack pine was the
predominant species on the pine barrens, but red pine was also
common.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The most common type of disturbance within
the subdistrict is windthrow. In the stretch of Lake Michigan
shoreline between Menominee and Escanaba, 18 windthrows, mostly
under a square mile in area, were noted within 1 or 2 miles of the
shore. Winds off Lake Michigan were responsible for most of these
windthrow areas. Occasionally the windthrows burned later, as
noted by the surveyors. Windthrows destroyed both upland and
wetland forests.
Fires were also noted by the surveyors, primarily on pine
plains near Native American settlements. Such fires were noted
near Menominee, Escanaba, and Rapid River.

HUMAN LAND USE: The surveyors noted Native American settlements
near Menominee, Escanaba, Rapid River, and on both the Stonington
and Garden peninsulas. Both sugar bushes and gardens were noted
near most of these sites. Indian trails were commonly noted,
especially along major rivers and the Lake Michigan shoreline.
Following European settlement, logging began, first for white
and red pines, then for northern white-cedar and hemlock, and
finally for hardwoods and pulp. Logging mills were located along
many of the rivers near the Lake Michigan shoreline. Railroads
bisect wetlands throughout this subdistrict.
Agricultural land use within the subdistrict has been limited
to pasturing of the ground moraine and occasionally small areas of
sand lakeplain. Few of the wetlands have been greatly altered for
agricultural purposes.
Major roads are located along much of this shoreline. Urban

development is concentrated at Menominee, Escanaba, Gladstone,
Rapid River, and Manistique.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
Some areas of Northern Hardwoods (4111) have been cut on both
sand lakeplain and ground moraine for conversion to pasture.
Most areas of hemlock forest (4226) persist as forest,
although the forest composition has generally changed; hemlock
regeneration is often poor.
Most areas of White pine (4211) and Red pine forest (4212)
persist as forest, although the forest composition has generally
changed; white pine regeneration is poor and the remaining forest
is characterized by trembling aspen, balsam fir, paper birch, and
other early successional species. Most of the Pine Barrens (333)
persist; dominance of jack pine remains.
Almost all of the Lowland Conifer (423) swamps persist,
although deer browse has resulted in the conversion of large areas
to hardwood swamp. Most areas of tamarack swamp (4233) persist.
Tamarack and often black spruce remain as common dominants.
Alder/willow swamps (6122) was generally limited to narrow
bands along streams, where it typically persists.
Emergent marsh (6221) was localized to the margins of a couple
of lakes, where it persists. All of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
within this subdistrict have been degraded. At Portage Bay,
manipulation of the marsh has resulted in the introduction of
Eurasian water milfoil, which is of little benefit to wildlife.
Along the Whitefish River mouth, docks have greatly altered
portions of the marsh; there appears to have been at least local
filling of the marsh.

DISTRICT 14 Luce
SUBDISTRICT 14.2. Grand Marais: Sandy End Moraine,, Shoreline# and
Outwash Plains.

CLIMATE: The climate of the entire district is strongly influenced
by Lakes Superior and Michigan, but these influences are greater at
the northern edge of the district in Subdistrict 14.2, the Grand
Marais Subdistrict, than in Subdistrict 14.1, the Seney
Subdistrict. The growing season ranges from less than 100 days in
the interior of the district, to 140 days along Lake Superior. The
extreme minimum temperature ranges from -300F. along Lake Superior,

to -460F. further inland in Subdistrict 14.1. Average annual
precipitation ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Annual snowfall is as
high as 180 inches near the Lake Superior shoreline; further inland
average snowfall is 80 to 100 inches.

SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMSj, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: An east-west
trending sandstone escarpment of Cambrian age is exposed in several
waterfalls, including Tahquamenon Falls, Au Train Falls, Miner's
Falls, and Laughing Whitefish Falls, and along the Lake Superior
shoreline at Pictured Rock National Lakeshore (Dorr and Eschman
1984). Farther inland, Ordovician sandstone and dolomite are the
underlying bedrock (Reed and Daniels 1987).
Sandy ridges of end moraine and pitted outwash are
characteristic of the northern edge of the subdistrict. There are
locally numerous kettle lakes in the pitted outwash. Recent
geomorphological interpretation is that many of the end moraines
(as originally interpreted by Leverett 1929) are actually heads of
outwash and related stagnation landforms (Blewett and Rieck 1987).
Lacustrine deposits of glacial and postglacial origin are also
located along the northeastern edge of the district. Lacustrine
deposits within the district consist primarily of droughty sand
dunes and beach ridge deposits, but also include some poorly and
very poorly drained glacial lacustrine deposits. An extensive
complex of sand-spits at Whitefish Point, in northwestern Chippewa
County, produced hundreds of alternating swales and sand-spits.
Most of the beach ridge and swale deposits along Lake Superior are
excessively drained, unlike along most shorelines of the Great
Lakes. The Grand Sable Dunes, west of the town of Grand Marais,
are large, steep dunes perched on till.
Outwash plains are concentrated along the southern edge of the
district. There is also a relatively small area of poorly drained
outwash at the extreme west edge of the district. Along the
shoreline, outwash is restricted to areas west of Munising, and
west of Grand Marais.
Most of the moraine ridges and pitted outwash have well
drained, sandy soils. Kettles within the pitted outwash and
moraines contains bogs with thick deposits of sphagnum peat. At
the far western edge of the district, where sandstone bedrock is
only thinly covered by till, soils are moderately well drained.
Along the Lake Superior shoreline, sand dunes, sand spits, and
beach ridges form a broad zone characterized by vast expanses of
excessively drained sand soils. The soils ar classified as
Histosols and Entisols (Aquepts), with some Orthods and Aquods
(Soil Conservation Service 1967).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Sandy lakeplain in this subdistrict
supported a number of wetland and upland communities. Emergent
marshes (6221), bogs (6121), and alder/willow swamps (6122) were
common in the swales associated with the shoreline and small lakes
immediately inland.
Vast peatlands, dominated by black spruce (4232), cedar
(4231), and tamarack (4233) were common throughout poorly drained

portions of the lakeplain. Several of these areas, mapped by
Farrand (1982) as organic deposits were spruce and tamarack swamps
which included narrow beach ridges dominated by white and red pine
(4216).
Upland portions of the lakeplain that were better protected
from wildfires were extensive along the shoreline. These areas
supported forests dominated by hemlock (4226), Northern Hardwoods
(4111), and Hemlock/white pine (4227). Excessively drained, fire-
prone portions included forests dominated by jack pine (4213) and
red pine/jack pine forests (4215). Jack pine-dominated forests
were extensive along the shoreline between Grand Marais and
Whitefish Point.
Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) occurred on the sandy
lakeplain. Most examples are excessively drained throughout.
However, the complex at Taquamenon Bay was mostly spruce/ tamarack-
dominated swamp (423), and the swales at Au Train and Whitefish
Point included Tamarack swamp (4233) and Shrub swamps (612).
The Grand Sable dunes are active, only locally supporting
forests. At their protected east end they supported a small area
of Northern Hardwood forest (4111) and a few, small pockets of jack
pine (4213) persist within the dunes.
Great Lakes Marshes (6222) were noted near the mouth of the Au
Train River and at the southeast end of Grand Island. The Au Train
marsh is best described as a fresh water estuary or drowned river
mouth created when dunes restricted the river's flow into Lake
Superior.
Clay lakeplain at Taquamenon Bay supported spruce and
tamarack-dominated swamps (423). Narrow strips of clay lakeplain
along the shore in Luce County supported Hemlock/white pine forests
(4227).
Coarse textured moraines, most common south of Taquamenon and
Pendills bays, supported northern hardwoods, often with significant
amounts of hemlock. Red pine/white pine forests (4216) and Red
pine "openings" (333) were also common. Small cedar/tamarack
/spruce-dominated swamps (423) were also found on these moraines.
On somewhat poorly drained tills, where bedrock is near the
surface, hemlock and white pine were dominant species. Small cedar
and tamarack-dominated swamps (423) also occurred on the end
moraines east of Munising.
Sandstone cliffs (745) were noted by surveyors at Pictured
Rocks National Seashore and west of Pendills Bay.
Poorly drained outwash was uncommon in this subdistrict.
Where it did occur, just west of Munising, there was cedar
dominated swamp (4231). Upland outwash supported Hemlock forests
(4226), dense Jack pine forests (4213) and Barrens (333) of jack
pine, red pine, and occasionally, white pine. Pitted outwash and
end moraines supported Northern Hardwoods (4111).

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The GLO surveyors recorded that forests on
much of the surface of T48N, R6W, at the mouth of the Tahquamenon
@iver, had been burned. There were also several mentions of fire
in pineries on the sand ridges between Whitefish Point and Grand

Marais. A large windthrow was noted in the cedar/tamarack swamps
east of Beaver Lake within Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.

HUMAN LAND USE: Surveyors noted several Native American trails,
fields, and sugar camps west of Taquamenon Bay, and near Munising.
Early European settlements were established on Grand Island and
west of Munising at the time of the surveys.
The dominant use of this subdistrict has been commercial
timber production. Urban development has been mainly limited to
the Munising area.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Although most of the
wetlands in this region persist, they were probably impacted by
logging and post-logging fires. Roads and small dams have had the
most significant impact on wetland hydrology in this subdistrict.
The upland forests have also been greatly impacted by logging-
era activities. On the droughty Raco Plains, jack pine dominance
expanded, whereas areas of white and red pine have had poor
regeneration. The Kingston Plains were dominated by forests of red
and white pine, and Northern Hardwoods with white pine. In the
most severely burned areas, the only existing vegetation, 80 years
after logging, consists of lichens, sedges, and scattered small
(1-3 in dbh) black cherries. Subsequently portions of both plains
have been planted to red pine or jack pine.

REGION IV. Western upper Michigan.

REGIONAL CLIMATE: The region has a strongly continental climate,
with only moderate influence from Lake Superior. Temperatures are
extremely cold in the winter. Snowfall and rainfall are high
adjacent to Lake Superior as a result of moisture laden air from
Lake Superior being forced to rise rapidly over the bedrock uplands
at the northern edge of the region (Eichenlaub et al. 1990,
Eichenlaub, 1979, Albert et al. 1986).
The growing season ranges from less than 100 days inland to
150 days along portions of the Lake Superior shoreline (Eichenlaub
et al 1990). Annual precipitation ranges from 32 to 36 inches.
Annual snowfall ranges from 46 inches inland to 200 inches of lake-
effect snow south of Lake Superior. Extreme minimum temperatures
range from -280F along Lake Superior to -500F inland.
<

DISTRICT 15. Dickinson.
SUBDISTRICT 15.4. Deerton: Sandstone Bedrock and High, Sandy
Ridges.
CLIMATE: Minimum temperatures are moderated along Lake Superior,
ranging from -28 to -320F., but are -380F at the inland edge of
this small subdistrict. The growing season ranges from 140 days
along Lake Superior to less than 100 days along the inland margin
of the subdistrict. Average precipitation is 32 to 34 days and
annual snowfall ranges from 120 to 140 inches.

SOILS, GLACIAL LANDPORMSj AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The eastern portion
of the district has large, rounded, sandstone knobs typically
covered with a mantle of sandy glacial drift. The western portion
has irregular, steep sand ridges. Elevations range from 602-1300
ft.
The bedrock knobs, 100-200 ft high, have steep sides and
relatively flat tops. Exposed at the surface or underlying the
glacial drift are Cambrian age Munising and Jacobsville sandstones
(Dorr and Eschman 1984; Hamblin 1958). Most of the bedrock is
covered with a veneer of sand or rocky till. However, bedrock is
occasionally exposed in roadcuts, or more dramatically, in steep
ravines, such as the one at Laughing Whitefish Falls. Where
glacial drift is thick, soils are well drained; where drift is
thin, drainage is poor, and large swampy areas occur. The drift is
very rocky. West of Munising, large boulders, several feet in
diameter, are common on the surface.
The high sand ridges (100-200 ft) in the west have been deeply
eroded by postglacial streams. Steep valleys, only 300-400 ft
wide, are up to 150 ft deep. The soils are well drained sands.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: CedarI spruce, and hemlock dominated
many of the small swamps (423) associated with these thin soils
over bedrock. Hemlock (4237) is especially common on many of the
poorly drained bedrock ridgetops and in the steeper ravines. Well
drained sand ridges were occupied by Northern Hardwoods forests
(4228) of sugar maple, hemlock, yellow birch, and white pine.
Beech is generally absent from the steep ridges.
The long, narrow Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) just
east of Marquette, for the most part, included dry swales dominated
by red pine and jack.pine. Inland from these complexes, however,
there were extensive swamps of black ash (4141), alder (6122), elm

(4142), and cedar (4231) along the Chocolay River.
The western extreme of this subdistrict includes an outwash
plain that supported forests of jack pine (4213) and red pine
(4212), mixed with aspen.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: No major natural disturbances were recorded
by surveyors along this portion of shoreline.

HUMAN LAND USE: The dominant land use in this subdistrict has
included logging and, more recently, recreation and intensive
residential development, especially along the shoreline.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The impact of logging-era
activities probably decreased the relative composition of hemlock
and white pine in upland forests. A number of small rivers were
dammed, impacting wetlands in their drainage. Urban development
and road construction along the shoreline has significantly altered
upland and wetland vegetation in the area.

DISTRICT 16. Michigamme: Granite Bedrock.

CLIMATE: The climate is continental, with lake effect limited to a
narrow zone along Lake Superior. The growing season is short,
ranging from 75 in the interior to 100 days along the Lake Superior
coast; most of the variation occurs within 10-15 miles of the coast
(Albert et al. 1986). Extreme minimum temperature varies from -
280F along the coast to -460F inland (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
Snowfall. is highest inland, averaging 200 inches, and least along
the coast, averaging 120-140 inches. The average annual
precipitation is 32 to 36 inches, with the most precipitation at
high elevations inland.

SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Precambrian age
bedrock consists of diverse types of metamorphic, igneous, and
sedimentary bedrock, including sandstone and shale, gneiss,
amphibole, slate, metagraywacke, quartzite, mafic volcanic rocks,
and iron formation (Morey et al. 1982). The iron formations were
once heavily mined in the Michigamme Range.
Exposed bedrock knobs characterize large parts of the
district. Elevations rise rapidly from Lake Superior at 602 ft to

a maximum of 1980 ft at Mount Curwood, the highest point in the
state (Albert et al. 1986). Although bedrock generally controls
topography, the character of the topography is variable. In some
areas the terrain is a mosaic of low rocky ridges less than 50 ft
high, with many small lakes and swamps (Albert et al. 1986). In
other areas, like the Huron Mountains, large, exposed ridges of
granite or sandstone can be 300-500 ft high. There are large areas
of sandy ground moraine. The Yellow Dog and the Mulligan plains,
two large outwash plains, separated by only a few miles, occur
within the district.
The soils are generally sands. Local silt caps of aeolian
origin covers some of the rock knobs (Pregitzer and Barnes 1984).
The tops of the bedrock knobs have little or no soil. All of the
soils are very acid. The soils on the two outwash plains are
excessively drained sands. Soils of the entire district are
classified as Spodosols, primarily Orthods (Soil Conservation
Service 1967).

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Balsam fir, tamarack, and black spruce
were the most common species in the wetlands, which were often in
relatively small drainages located between the steep-sided bedrock
uplands.
The largest wetlands for this subdistrict were along the
shoreline on sandy lakeplain. Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was noted
along the Iron River near its mouth. Wooded Dune and Swale
Complexes (911) are located at Little Presque Isle, Big Bay, Iron
River, the mouth of the Salmon Trout River, and at the Pine River
mouth. The complex at Little Presque Isle, which is mostly upland
was dominated by Hemlock/white pine forest (4227). The complexes
at the Iron and Pine rivers were also mostly upland, with jack pine
and red pine (4215) most common. The complex at Big Bay was mostly
"open swamp" dominated by spruce and cedar (423). The complex at
the Salmon Trout River was dominated by cedar/white pine (4231)
inland, and Alder/willow swamps (6122) closer to the shoreline.
Hemlock (4226) and Hemlock/white pine (4227) forests dominated
the outwash deposits around Marquette. Northern Hardwoods (lacking
beech, except along the Lake Superior shoreline) (4228) were
dominant on tills and also on thin soils over bedrock. Scattered
white pine, red pine, and red oak were the dominant trees on
exposed bedrock ridges. Jack pine forests (4213) dominated the
droughty outwash sands of the Yellow Dog and Mulligan plains. The
sandy soils of the gullied ridges north of the Yellow Dog plain
supported Northern Hardwood forests (4111). On the sandy ground
moraine, Northern Hardwood forests dominated the well drained
soils. Red pine/white pine forests (4216) dominated the
excessively drained soils.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Extensive burned forests were reported by
surveyors around Marquette. No major windthrow areas were recorded
by surveyors in this subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: Native American encampments and trails were noted

by surveyors at Big Bay. By 1846, when this area was surveyed,
iron mining activities by European companies had already begun.
Furnaces and forges were already established in and around
Marquette. Roads were established leading west and southwest of
Marquette, and some rivers had already been diverted for use in
mining activities.
Logging and mining have represented a major portion of land
use activities in the subdistrict. Urban development around
Marquette and recreational uses along the shoreline and inland make
up the rest.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The diversion of creeks
and rivers have undoubtedly impacted associated wetlands, either by
flooding or removal of water sources. Some impoundments are highly
polluted by mine tailings and chemical products of mining.
Roads leading out of Marquette. have also impacted some
wetlands. Logging, as with elsewhere in the region, has changed
the relative composition of white pine and hemlock in upland
forests.

DISTRICT 18. Bergland.
SUBDISTRICT 18.3. Baraga: Broad Ridges of Coarse-textured
Rocky Till.
CLIMATEi: The growing season ranges from 110 to 130 days, and is
longest near Lake Superior (Eichenlaub et al. 1990). It has a
relatively cool growing season. Extreme minimum temperatures range
from -400 to -480F. Average annual precipitation ranges from 30 to
36 inches. Heavy lake-effect snowfalls, ranging from 160 to 200
inches, characterize the district.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The landforms of the
district are the basis for further dividing the district into three
subdistricts. Beginning at the south of the Keweenaw Peninsula,
the volcanic bedrock ridges form a narrow, 1-2 mi wide, 200-400 ft
high linear rock ridge, from Houghton in the northeast to Bergland
in the southwest. This ridge is broken in several places by
streams that have eroded through the bedrock. Broad ground-moraine
ridges with sandy and sandy loam soils. These ridges extend
northeast to Keweenaw.Bay of Lake Superior. Soils are often rocky,
sandy and sandy loam tills, which are well drained. Poorly drained

soils are generally restricted to the margins of streams.
The western portion of the district is noted for steep ridges
of Keweenawan (late Precambrian) basaltic lavas and conglomerates,
which rise several hundred feet above the adjacent lake and till
plains. The ridges extend f rom northern Wisconsin to the north end
of the subdistrict and on to the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula'of
Michigan and are part of the Lake Superior Syncline. Erosion-
resistant conglomerates f orm. the steep ridges, between which veins
of highly eroded lavas form lakes and wetlands.
South of Bergland and into Wisconsin, the Keweenawan bedrock
ridge is partially or completely covered with either f ine- or
coarse-textured till. Also included within this district is the
iron-rich Penokee-Gogebic Range, a narrow band of Huronian age
(middle Precambrian) bedrock.
Rocky, acid, red sandy loams and silt loams (Spodosols and
Inceptisols) characterize the bedrock controlled topography at the
western edge of the district. Poor drainage conditions
characterize some parts of the bedrock-controlled plain.
PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The large, sandy and loamy moraines east
of L'Anse and north of Baraga, for the most part, supported Hemlock
(4226) and Northern Hardwood (4228) forests. Beech was noted in
Northern Hardwoods forests northeast of L'Anse. A red pine-
dominated Barren (333) was noted immediately east of L'Anse. In
moderately drained soils, hemlock was in combination with cedar,
balsam fir, and spruce (white or possible, black) forests (4223).
Most wetlands on these moraines were located along river
drainages, with cedar, tamarack, spruce, and/or alder as dominants.
Large "open" swamps dominated by cedar (4231), spruce (4232), and
tamarack (4233) were located just north of Baraga. Southeast of
Keweenaw Bay, swamps of cedar (4231) and balsam fir (4235) were
located.
Sandy lakeplain at the southwest end of Keweenaw Bay was
dominated by swamps of spruce (4232), cedar (4231).
A Great Lakes Marsh (6222) apparently quite boggy in
character, ("covered with cranberry vines") was located at the
north end of Huron Bay. A similar Great Lakes Marsh was also
located at Sand Bay. Field surveys showed that this area was also
more characteristic of a Bog or Poor Fen than the Great Lakes
Marshes further south in the state (MNFI 1987). Tamarack (4233),
cedar (4231), and alder-dominated (6122) swamps were located south
of Otter Lake.
Swamps on the clay lakeplain, which was restricted to west of
Baraga and I'A'Anse, were dominated by black ash (4141) and cedar
(4231). Uplands were dominated by hemlock and balsam fir (4226).
Alluvial soils along the Sturgeon River supported extensive cedar
(4231) and black ash (4141) swamps among meandering sloughs. A
Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was located at the mouth of the river.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: A small windthrow was noted at the southern
end of Huron Bay, and just south of L'Anse. No major wildfires
were noted by surveyors in this area.

HUMAN LAND USE: Many roads, and several sawmills and missions,
were already established in this area at the time of the surveys in
1845. Land use since that time as involved mining, logging, urban
development, and recreation.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND UBE ON VEGETATION: As noted elsewhere in this
region, logging era activities probably have changed the relative
composition of white pine and hemlock in forests of this
subdistrict.
Many rivers and streams were diverted for use in mining and
logging activities, resulting in impacts to associated wetlands.
Roads have also altered wetland hydrology in places. For the most
part, the wetlands of this subdistrict persist in some form.

DISTRICT 19. Ontonagon.
SUBDISTRICT 19.2. White Pine: Clay Lake Plain.

CLIMATE: The growing season ranges from 110-140 days growing
season, with the shortest growing season at the western edge of the
district'. (Eichenlaub et al. 1990, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Univ. of Minn. 1977). Annual snowfall is heavy and lake-effect
snows ranges from 120 to 160 inches. Total annual precipitation is
30 to 34 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures range from -300 to -
400F.

BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND SOILS: Bedrock is not exposed at surface
except in localized outcrops along streams and at selected portions
of the shoreline. Bedrock consists of Precambrian (Middle
Proterozoic) sedimentary bedrock, primarily feldspathic to
quartzose sandstone and shale, and including lithic sandstone and
siltstone (Morey et al. 1982). The shale is locally copper-rich
(Dorr and Eschman 1984).
Lake plain from glacial Lake Duluth covers almost all of the
district in a band ranging from 1 to 24 miles wide. A narrow
exposed ridge of volcanic bedrock occurs at the southern edge
(Farrand, and Bell 1982). The soils are classified as Aquepts and
Boralfs (Soil Conservation Service 1967). Portions of this glacial
lake bed are relatively flat, as east of the Porcupine Mountains.
In these stretches the lake plain is dissected by numerous small
rivers with straight, shallow valleys. Between the Porcupine

Mountains and the Wisconsin border, the subdistrict is narrow and
steeply sloping, with deeply eroded streams, often with waterfalls.
soils consist of leached, calcareous red clays and pink sands
that are podsolized; peatlands are not extensive. The soils are
moderately well drained loam and clay, derived from local,
iron-rich volcanic bedrock. Most of the soils are red in color.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Both presettlement and present forests
are a mix of Northern Hardwoods (4111) on better drained sites, and
conifers (422) tolerant of poorer drainage conditions. These
include hemlock, northern white-cedar, balsam fir, white spruce,
black ash, basswood, American elm, balsam poplar, and trembling
aspen. Sugar maple is only locally dominant.
Emergent marshes (6221) and Alder/willow swamps (6122) were
located around the Lake of the Clouds in the Porcupine Mountains.
Narrow Wooded dune and swale complexes (911) were located along
Misery Bay, Sleeping Bay, and west of the Flintsteel River mouth.
Hemlock, cedar, spruce, fir, and alder dominated wet swales in
these complexes. Hemlock (4226) and White pine/red pine-dominated
forests (4216) were on the beach ridges. The complex at the Flint
steel River was on sandy lakeplain, and included Shrub swamps (612)
and bogs (6121). Cedar swamps (4231) were common on the sandy
lakeplain bordering the Salmon Trout River. Similarly, swamps
dominated by cedar, spruce, fir, hemlock, and red maple were
located upstream in the Graveraet River drainage.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: No major windthrows or wildfires were noted
by surveyors in this subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: A small percent of the land is used for
pasture. Most of the land remains forested. Logging-era
activities were intensive, providing fuel and timbers for the
mining industry and lumber for local construction. many rivers
were diverted for mining/logging purposes. Large tailings ponds
are located in Gogebic County.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: River diversions have
undoubtedly impacted associated wetlands. Roads have also impacted
wetland hydrology in places throughout the subdistrict. Species
composition in forests have changed since the logging era, with
white pine and hemlock becoming much less abundant. Urban
development around Ontonagon and along the shoreline have
eliminated or altered some coastal wetlands.

DISTRICT 20. Keveenav.

CLIMATE,, Climate is dominated by lacustrine influences. Except for
air f lows from the southwest, all air passes over Lake Superior
bef ore reaching this district. Due to combination of lake and
orographic effects, snowfalls are heavy, from 140 to 200
inches/year (Eichenlaub et al. 1990). Average annual precipitation
ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Growing season is relatively long,
over 130 days, but cool.' Winters are moderated by Lake Superior.

DISTRICT 20. Keveenav.
SUBDISTRICT 20.1. Gay: Coarse-textured Broad Ridges and Svamps.

SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict,
located along the eastern edge of the Keweenaw Peninsula, consists
of broad. ground-moraine ridges, up to 550 ft high, with gentle to
moderate slopes. Sandstone outcrops along the shoreline around
Little Traverse Bay. Soils are derived largely from the underlying
sandstone and shale. There are few lakes, but several extensive
wetlands occupy depressions between the ridges and the shoreline
near Keweenaw Bay, at the northeastern end of the district. One
such coastal wetland, 1-4 miles wide and 25 miles long, is on a
lacustrine sand plain.
Soils of the moraines are typically well drained, acid, loamy
sands and sandy loans derived largely from the underlying Cambrian
sandstones.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: on the sandy ground moraine of the
eastern Keweenaw Peninsula, Northern Hardwoods (4111) and conifers

covered most of the landscape. Sugar maple, basswood, and hop-
hornbeam are the most common species. Hemlock (4226) was more
common along the shorelines, where it often increased to greater
than 501% relative dominance in the overstory (Bourdo, 1954).
Poorly drained portions were dominated by cedar (4231), black
spruce (4232), and balsam fir (4235). Cedar swamps ringed by alder
thickets (6122) were common in narrow valleys between ridges. on
the sandy lake plain along Keweenaw Bay, Wooded dune and swale
complexes (911) were found with wide swales dominated by tamarack
and black spruce scattered across the bog mat. A Great Lakes marsh
(6222) and Wooded dune and swale complex (911) were noted at Lac La
Belle.
Hardwood-conifer swamps (42) Cedar/balsam fir/spruce (4223),
birch, and black ash, were also found on rocky, poorly drained
beach terraces far above the present lake level.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Many windthrows were noted by surveyors
throughout the poorly drained soils of this subdistrict.

HUMAN LAND USE: Native American encampments were noted by surveyors
around Little Traverse Bay in 1845. Logging, mining, and pasture
have been the historically dominant land uses in this subdistrict.
The deposition of mine tailings along the shoreline is most evident
at Gay. A number of areas, both wetland and upland throughout the
district have been targeted historically for depositing mine
tailings.
More recently, recreational/cottage development along the
shoreline and along inland lakes has intensified.

IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Logging and mining
activities impacted wetlands associated with rivers in this
subdistrict. Road construction and the deposition of mine tailings
has also impacted some wetlands.

DISTRICT 20. Keweenaw.
SUBDISTRICT 20.2. Calumet: High Igneous and Sedimentary
Bedrock Ridges and Knobs.

SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Erosion-resistant
conglomerates form the steep ridges of the subdistrict, between
which veins of highly eroded lavas are the sites f or lakes and

wetlands. The Lake Superior shoreline consists of rugged volcanic
bedrock. Copper-rich lava flows, common on the Keweenaw Peninsula,
were extensively mined. Precambrian bedrock, primarily Keweenawan
basalts and conglomerates, but also include iron-rich marine
sandstones and dolomites of Huronian age (the Gogebic Range), and
Archean bedrock.
The subdistrict is noted for steep ridges of Keweenawan (late
Precambrian) basaltic lavas and conglomerates, which rise several
hundred feet above the adjacent lake and till plains. The bedrock
ridges of the Keweenaw Peninsula and of Isle Royale are both part
of the Lake Superior Syncline, which extends from northern
Wisconsin to the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan. Isle
Royale is located at the northern end of the syncline, and is
treated as another subdistrict because of its climate, which is
strongly influenced by surrounding Lake Superior. It has similar
bedrock, physiography, and flora.
Soils formed on the volcanic and conglomerate ridges are
rocky, acid., red sandy loams and silt loams (Podsols and
Inceptisols). Soils tend to be rockier at the northern end of the
district.

PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Black spruce (4232), cedar (4231), and
tamarack-dominated (4233) swamps along the northern shoreline where
soils derived from are poorly drained till over bedrock. On higher
bedrock ridges, red pine, white pine, red oak, and paper birch grew
on the -thin soils. Cedar/balsam fir (4223), hemlock (4226), and
paper birch-dominated (413) forests were located in uplands on thin
till and ground moraine west of Ahmeek. In protected bedrock
valleys and on till, Northern Hardwood forests were dominated by
sugar maple and hemlock (4228). Cedar, hemlock, and balsam fir
also dominated poorly drained portions of the sand lakeplain west
of Eagle Harbor.

NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted in swamps along the
northern shoreline.

HUMAN LAND USE: European settlements, including Fort William, and
a number of mines roads were already established in this
subdistrict by 1845 when the area was surveyed.
Dominant land uses in this subdistrict have included mining,
logging, and more recently, recreational/ cottage development along
the shoreline and inland lakes.

IMPACT COP HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: As with elsewhere in this
district, rivers were impacted by historical mining and logging
activities. The deposition of mine tailings has impacted coastal
wetlands in several places. The large swamp/marsh complex at the
north end of Portage Lake was nearly eliminated in the construction
of the shipping channel linking that lake to Lake Superior.

100

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express our thanks to the Coastal Zone
Management Section of the Land and Water Management Division,
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, which provided funding
for this project. A sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Leroy Barnett
Dave Johnson, and staff of the State Archives of Michigan for thei@
ideas and energy in making historical records available to us in a
most accommodating fashion. Thanks also to Historical Consultant,
Dennis Au for his helpful comments on Monroe County historical
records.

LITERATURE CITED

Akers, J. 1938. Drift thickness map of Lower Michigan.
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Albert, D. A. 1990. A regional landscape ecosystem
classification of Michigan stressing physiographic,
geologic, and soil factors. Ph.D. dissertation,
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Albert, D.A., S.R. Denton and B.V. Barnes. 1986. Regional
Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan. School of Natural
Resources, University of Michigan 48109-115. 32 pp.

Anderson, Col. 1817. Michigan Road, Town of Monroe River Rasin to
Miami River. State Archives of Michigan. 1 map.

Blewett, W.L. and R.L. Rieck. 1987. Reinterpretation of a
portion of the Munising moraine in northern Michigan.
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Bourdo, E. A., Jr. 1954. A validation of methods used in
analyzing original forest cover. Ph.D. dissertation,
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 194 pp.

Brewer, L.G., T.W. Hodler, and H.A. Raup. 1984. Presettlement
Vegetation of Southwestern Michigan. Western Michigan
University. Kalamazoo, Mi. 1 map.

Burgis, W. A. 1977. Late Wisconsinan history of
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Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 396 pp.

Burgis, W.A. and D.F. Eschman. 1981. Late-Wisconsinan
History of Northeastern Lower Michigan. Dept. of
Geol. Sciences, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
110 pp.

Caldwell, N.C. (ed.) 1990. Special instructions to Deputy
Surveyors in Michigan. 1808-1854. Michigan Museum of
Surveying, Lansing, MI.

Deeter, E. B. 1934. soil survey of St. Clare County,
Michigan. USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1929,
No. 27. 28 pp. + 1 map.

Deeter, E.B. and A.E. Matthews. 1931. Soil survey of
Tuscola County, Michigan. Washington, D.C. USDA
Bur. Chem. and Soil Series 1926, No. 29. 40 pp. +
1 map.

Denton, S. R. 1985. Ecological Climatic Regions and Tree
Distributions in Michigan. Ph.D. Dissertation.,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 390 pp.

Denton, S.R. and B.V. Barnes. 1987. Tree species
distributions related to climatic patterns in
Michigan. Can. J. For. Res. 17:613-629.

Deutsch, M., E.M. Burt, and K.E. Vanlier. 1959. Summary of
ground-water investigations in the Holland area,
Michigan. Michigan Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv.
Div., Progress Report 20. 87 pp.

Dorr, J.A., Jr., and D.F. Eschman. 1984. Geology of Michigan.
Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 476 pp.

Eichenlaub, V. L. 1979. Weather and the climate of the Great
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Eichenlaub, V.L., J.R. Harman, F.V. Nurnberger, and H.J.
Stolle. 1990. The Climatic Atlas of Michigan.
University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana.
165 pp.

Farrand, W.R. and D.L. Bell. 1982. Quaternary geology of
Michigan. Univ. Mich., Dept. Geol. Sciences, Ann
Arbor, MI. 2 maps.

Hubbard, B. 1838. 2nd Annual report of the State Geologist,
Report number 5, Wayne and Monroe Counties. Michigan
Geological Survey. pp. 79-120.

Haag, R. D. Jr. 1976. Bedrock topography and glacial drift
thickness in Cheboygan County (NSF-RANN project GI-
34898). *(In) Kesling, R. V., A. M. Johnson, and H. D.
Sorenson (eds.), *(Devonian Strata of the Afton-Onaway
Area, Michigan), Mus. Paleontology, Univ. Mich.
Papers on Paleontology 17:110-120.

102

Hamblin, W. K. 1958. The Cambrian sandstones of northern
Michigan. Michigan Dept. of Conservation, Geol.
Surv. Div. Publication 51. 141 pp.

Hutchison, M. 1988. A Guide to Understanding, Interpreting, and
Using the Public Land Survey Field Notes in Illinois.
Natural. Areas Journal. Vol.8(4). pp. 245-255.

General Land Office. 1816-1856. Transcriptions of Surveyors Field
Notes for Michigan. State Archives of Michigan.

Lane, A. C. 1907. Original Swamp Areas of the Lower
Peninsula of Michigan. From Annual Report of the
State Board of Geological Survey of Michigan for the
Year 1906. 1 map (1:750,000).

Leverett, F. 1929. Moraines and shorelines of the Lake Superior
Basin. USGS Professional Paper 154-A. 72 pp.

Michigan Land Economic Survey. 1925. Soil and Lay of the Land Map
of Antrim County. Soil and Agricultural Report. I map.

Michigan Land Economic Survey. 1925. Soil and Lay of the Land Map
of Alpena County. Soil and Agricultural Report. 1 map.

Michigan Natural Features Inventory. 1987. A survey
of Great Lakes marshes in Michigan's Upper
Peninsula. 73 pp.

1988. A survey of Great Lakes marshes in the
southern half of Michigan's Lower Peninsula. 116
pp-

1989. A survey of Great Lakes marshes in the
northern half of Michigan's Lower Peninsula. 124
pp-

. 1990. Michigan Natural Community Types. Mason Building,
Lansing, MI

1991. A survey of Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes in
the Northern Lower and Eastern Upper Peninsulas of Michigan.
99 pp.

Millstein, R. L. 1987. Bedrock Geology of Southern Michigan.
State of Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
Geological Survey Division. I map (1:500,000).

Moon, J. W. 1938. Soil Survey of Saginaw County, Michigan.
USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1933, No. 19. 51
pp. + 1 map.

103

Morey, G7.B., P.K. Sims, W.R. Cannon, M.G. Mudrey, Jr., and D.
L. Southwick. 1982. Geological Map of the Lake
Superior Region; Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Northern
Michigan. Map s-13. Minnesota Geological Survey,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 1 map
(1:1,000,000).

Olmsted, C. W. 1951. The patterns of orchards in Michigan.
Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
359 pp.

Pregitzer, K.S., and B.V. Barnes. 1984. classification
and comparison of upland hardwood and conifer
ecosystems of the Cyrus H. McCormick Experimental
Forest, Upper Michigan. Can. J. For. Res. 14:362-
375.

Reed, R.C. and J.D. Daniels 1987. Bedrock Geology of
Northern Michigan. State of Michigan Department of Natural
Resources, Geological Survey Division. 1 map (1:500,000).

Risdon, ?. 1828. Survey From the Village of Monroe to the Village
of Dexter. (map). State Archives of Michigan.

Sinclair, W. C. 1959. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
Resources of Schoolcraft County, Michigan. Michigan
Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress
Report 22. 84 pp.

. 1960. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water Resources
of Delta County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress Report 24.
93 pp.

Sinclair, W. C. 1960. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
Resources of Delta County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress Report 24. 93
PP.

Soil Conservation Service. 1967. Distribution of Principal
Kinds of Soils: Orders, Suborders, and Great Groups.' 1 map
(1:7,500,000).

Trygg, J. W. 1964. Composite Map of the United States Land
Surveyor's Original Plats and Field Notes. I map.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. various dates. Soil Survey of
(coastal counties in Michigan).

Vanlier, K. E. 1963. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
Resources of Alger County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Water Investigation 1. 55 pp.

104

Vanlier, K.E., and M. Deutsch. 1958. Reconnaissance of the
Ground-water of Chippewa County, Michigan. Michigan
Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div.,
Progress Report 17. 85 pp.

Veatch, J. 0. 1959. Presettlement Forest in Michigan. Department
of Resource Development, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI.

Wonser, C. H. 1934. Soil Survey of Bay County, Michigan.
USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1931, No. 6. 30
pp. + 1 map.

105

APPENDIX I

INDEX TO MICHIGAN 7.5 MINUTE TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
WHERE HISTORICAL WETLAND MAPS ARE AVAILABLE IN DIGITAL FORMAT

106

Worthern Lower Xichigan

0 00
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cl

440

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MINE

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41
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107

Southern Lower Michigan

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Eastern Upper Michigan

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109

Western Upper Michigan

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110

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