Hawaii coastal zone fisheries management study

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

HAWAII COASTAL ZONE

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT STUDY

. . . . . . . . .........

............ ....

via

CC%

SH
319
H3, DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES
H33
1980

HAWA I I MASTA- ZONE

FISHERIES MANAGUM STUDY

9 5

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME
DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES
MARCH 1980

PREFACE

This report is a summary description of the fisheries component

of the Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Program. It outlines the issues

concerned with fishing in Hawaii including key fish species, biological

distribution of fish, major areas of fishing pre ssure, individual

island problems, coastal zone related issues, nearshore environmental

destruction, competing user groups, and boatin g issues.

The primary goal of this report is to pull together the variety

of circumstances that have led the fishing community of Hawaii to a

point where good fishing is thought of nostalgically, conficts are

frequent, and the people of Hawaii regret not having more and cheaper

local seafood on their tables. This report sets the framework for

the development of an advanced fisheries data collection and evaluation

program under the auspices of the State's Division of Fish and Game

in order to improve the technical basis for natural resource management.

The fisheries of Hawaii represent coastal-dependent development

which contribute not only to the State's economy but to the health

and well-being of a major sec-@@.,or of the population which engages in

thi� activity. An over-vieta of.the issues dealing with fishing in

Hawaii is presented in hopes of achieving a balanced view of the

situation and suggestions for improvement.

rF.Al
I
@, I'mik

14(

Ao
im
mw-- m No

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ................. ...................................

LIST OF TABLES .............................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................ vi

CHAPT ER I INTRODUCTION - Fisheries Management:
an ageless issue ......... 1

CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENT ............................. 9
lava rock shorelines ............... 13
sand beaches ....................... 15
solution benches ................... 17
tide pools ......................... @18
artificial basins .................. 19
nearshore reef flats ............... 21
offshore reef flats ................ 24
wave exposed reef communities ...... 29
protected coral communities ........ 32
deep benthos ....................... 35

CHAPTER III COMPETING USER GROUPS ................... 47
commercidl fishprmen..., ......... - 4/
charter sport fishermer-..... ...... 50
subsistence fishemen........-,,..... 54
recreational fishermen .. ........... 65

CHAPTER IV -HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF FISHING, ........... 62

CHAPTER V FISHING FLEET PROFILE ................... 73

CHAPTER VI FISHERIES BY ISLAND ..................... 84
Oahu ............................... 89
Hawaii ............................. 107
Maui ............................... 120
Kauai .............................. 125
Molokai ............................ 129
Lanai ............................... 137

CHAPTER VII COASTAL ZONE ISSUES ..................... 144
Fisheries as a component of CZM..... 147

CHAPTER VIII RECOMMENDATIONS ......................... 1,57

REFERENCES ................................................. 166

APPENDIX ............... ................................ 168

LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Major competing fishery user groups ....... 48

3.2 Licensed commercial fishermen by island 51
and gear type .............................

3.3 Preferred commercial fishing activities
between 1977 and 1979 based on commercial
license applications ...................... 58

4.1 Summary of data required by Hawaii Fish
and Game monthly report forms ............. 64
4.2 Comparative fish pond catches .............. 70

5.1 Projected demand for small boat berths dnd
launching facilities in the year 2000 ..... 74

5.2 Small boat harbors in the State with exist-
ing and potential number of berths ........ 75

5.3 Hawaii Department of Transportation undoc-
umented fishing vessels ..................... 80

5.4 U.S. Coast Guard documented fishing
vessels - 1979 ................ .......... 81

6.1 Top ranking species by total pounds caught
in 1977 - OAHU ........................ .... 101

6.2 Top ranking species by total pounds caught
in 1977 - HAWAII .......................... ill

6.3 Top ranking species by total pounds caught
in 1977 - MAUI, MOLOKAI, AND LANAI ........ 123

6.4 Top ranking species by total pounds caught
in 1977 @-KAUAI ........................... 126

6.5 Distribution of bottomfish catches in the
State by island areas (after Ralston, 1979) 131

7.1 Land use planning by islands .............. 155

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Hawaiian archipelago .................. 10

2.2 Key to maps of shoreline and offshore
physical characteristics.... .......... 37

2.3 Physical shoreline characteristics of
OAHU ................ o ................. 38

2.4 Physical shoreline characteristics of
HAWAII ....................... o ........ 39

2.5 Physical shoreline characteristics of
MAUI ................................... 40

2.6 Physical shoreline characteristics of
KAUAI ................................. 41

2.7 Physical shoreline characteristics of
MOLOKAI ........ ....................... 42

2.8 Physical shoreline characteristics of
LANAI.... ............................. 43

2.9 Physical shoreline characteristics of
KAHOOLAWE ............................ 44

2.10 Physical shoreline characteristics of
NIIHAU ........................... o .... 45

3.1 Licensed commercial fishermenAn the
State of Hawaii 1928-1978 ............. 49

3.2 Total catch in pounds and value for the
years 1928-1978 ........................ 52

3.3 Souridings in fathoms around the Hawaii-
an islands ........................ o .... 53

4.1 Commercial fishing license application
form .................................. 63

4.2 Fish catch report form ................ 65

4.3 Fisheries chart -.area blocks ............ . 66

5.1 Undocumented fishing vessels -PROPULSION
TYPES ............ ......................... 77

5.2 Undocumented fishing vessels- HULL TYPES 78

5.3 Undocumented fishing vessels - LENGTHS ... 79

6.1 Average annual offshore and inshore catch
1973-1977; TOP TEN FISHING AREAS ........ 88.

6.2 Average annual catch of skipjack tuna
from 1973-1977 ........................... . 91-93

6.3 Average annual catch excluding skipjack
tuna from 197.3-1977 ...................... 94-96

6.4 Oahu fish landings from 1959-1978 ........ 97

6.5 Oahu offshore fish catches (total and
non-tuna ) ............................... 98

6.6 Oahu inshore fish cdtches (total and
no.n-tuna ) ........... :........... 9.9

6.7 Catches and catch. rates (CPUE) for mahi..
mahi in Area 423 ........................... 102

6.8 Catches and-catch rates (CPUE) for striped
marlin in Area 423 ....................... 103

6.9 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for aku in
Area 423 ................................. 104

6.10 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for blue
marlin in Area 423 ....................... 105

6.11 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for omilu
in Area 402 .............................. 106

6.12 Average annual catch of major bottom fishes
from 1973-1978 -.HAWAII .................. 109

.6.13 Island of Hawaii inshore fish catches
(total and non-tuna) ..................... 112

vii

6.14 Island of Hawaii offshore fish catches
(total and non-tuna) ....................... .113

6.15 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for ahi (YF)
in Area 121 ................................ 114

6.16 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for blue
marlin in Area 121 ......................... 115

6.17 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for ono in
Area 121 ................................... 116

6.18 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for striped
marlin in Area 121 ....... * .................. 117

6.19 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for blue
marlin in Area 122 ......................... 118

6.20 Catches and catch rates,(CPUE) for ono in
Area 126, ... I ...................... ........ 119

6.21 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for opaka-
paka in Area 320 ........................... 124

6.22 Catches and catch rates,(CPUE) for hapuu-,
puu in Area 523 ............................ '127

6.23 -Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for uku in
Area 527 ................................... 128

6.24 Bottomfish cluster analysis (after Ralston,
1979) ...................................... 132

6.25 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for kalikali
in Area 331 ................................ '133

6.26 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for ehu in
Area 331 .................................... 134

6.27 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for-mahimahi
in Area 331 ................................ 135-

6.28 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for opaka-
paka in Area 331 ........................... 136

Vill

6.29 Catches and catch rates (CPUE) for ahi (BE)
in Area 328 ................................ 139

6.30 Catches and-catch rates (CPUE) for hapuupuu
in Area 328 ................................ 140

6.31 Catches and catch rates of kalikali in Area
328 ........................................ 141

6.32 Catches and c atch rates of ehu in Area 328. 142

7.1 OAHU red water 'runoff areas ........... .... 143

7.2 HAWA Il red water runoff areas .............. 150

7.3 MAUI red water runoff areas ................ 151

7.4 KAUAI red water runoff areas ............... 152

7.5 MOLOKAI red water runoff areas ............. 153

7.6 LANAI red water runoff areas ........ ...... 154

INTRODUCTION

MIR P-110

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT: AN AGELESS'

ISSUE

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Fisheries Management: An Ageless Issue

The people of Hawaii have an historical identification with the

sea and an affinity for its fish. They consume more than twice the

national average of seafood on a per capita basis. Yet Hawaii has his-

torically ranked near the bottom among coastal states in. terms of commer-

cial fish landings. Commercial fish landings here have ranged from 9

to 17 million pounds dnnually. Consequently, Hawaii imports most of

its seafood products. Even mahimahi (dolphin fish), so famously asso,

ciated with Hawaiian waters and recipes, is primarily importPd from

Taiwan and Ecuador. A number of elements have shaped the peculiarities

of Hawaii's fisheries.

The ancient Hawaiians had a respect and admiration for the sea

and its resources. Fish and shellfish were staples in the Hawaiian

diet and of central interest to the community. Certain fish became

objects of affection and respect, in some cases being afforded regal

status, worthy of being eaten only by the aliis (chiefs). Great

mythological legends evolved about the sea and the fish with manage--

ment programs eventually developing in the form of kapus (bans). These

kapus forbadeor restricted fishing activities and were accompanied

by heavy penalties for the ir disregard. Conserving resources was

strictly adhered to both through kapus and through other religious

associations with the native gods protecting the sea and its

inhabitants.

The kapus resulted in effective conservation programs which

included seasonal fishing management by species and by area.

Kamehameha 111 (1839) established the first-set of written laws in

which he divided the fishing grounds into three sections: one for

commoners, one for the landholders, and one for the government.

Fishes were associated with ownership rights. In the document creating

the Territory of Hawaii, private ownership rights were abolished and

areas opened to common use. "Fishery rights" were condemned and with

them the greater part of the laws governing fisheries regulation and

management. Although highly democratic, this common ownership of

fishery resources has probablydone more to jeopardizp the status of

Hawaiian fisheries by causing greater fishing pressure than any other

single issue. From that moment on, the voices concerned with over-

harvesting have never ceased.

The following are exerpts which describe the historical

relevance of fishing pressure in Hawaiian waters.

Pre-Captain Cook

A knowledge of the abundance of fish an d the supply
procured for consumption in pre-European days can only be
partially arrived at, as well as whether the supply decreased
after discovery of the islands and the great changes
which occurred in ways of living for the Hawaiian. With
at least 10,000 devoted to procuring enough food to eat,
it is likely that the amounts of fish obtained and needed
were Very large indeed, especially as land animals were
not counted on as a steady part of the diet.

To conserve the supply of all resources was constantly
in the Hawaiian mind. Fishing grounds were never depleted,
for the fishermen knew that should all the fish be taken
from a special feeding spot other fish would not move in
to replenish the area...Not only draining it completely
was avoided, but also taking so many that the rest of
the fish would be alarmed. At the base of this action
to conserve was the belief that the gods would have been
displeased by greediness or waste.1

1900-1901

The fisheries of Honolulu are rapidly falling off in
amount, with corresponding rise in the price for fish,
which are now perhaps higher than in any other seaport
town in the world. One cause of the falling off is to.
be found in overfishing within a limited area.
At the pres ent time very fine-meshed seines are used
especially around Honolulu (Oahu) and Hilo (Hawaii), and
immense numbers of very small young fish, such as the
mullet, utua, and akuZe, from 2 inches in length up, are
caught and sold, although it is against the law to sell
young mullet under 4 inches in length. Unless this great
drain on the young is stopped the fisheries are bound,to
quffer severely-2

The most noticeable feature in this (Honolulu) market is
the excessively high prices charged for fishery products.
As compared with other retail markets of the United States,
and possibly the world, Honolulu ranks first as.regards high
prices .... There are a number of reasons given to account
for this condition of affairs (among which is)...the
indiscriminate use of fine-meshed seines (which) has
undoubtedly caused a falling off in the catch, although
to what extent is a rather difficult problem to solve,
owing to the lack of statistical data for previous years.3

1927
One feature of the local fauna may be especially noticed....
The chief fisherf-es are now carried out by the Japanese,
who venture out to sea much farther than ever did the
Hawaiians who seldom went beyond the coral reefs, where reefs

'Titcomb, Margaret. Native Use of Fish in Hawaii. UH Press, 1972.
2Jordan, D.S. and B.W. Evermann. Preliminary Report on the Investi-
gation of the Fishes and Fisheries of the Hawaiian Islands. US Fish
Comm. Rep., 1900-01.
3Cobb, J.N. The Commercial Fishe ries of the Hawaiian Islands.
US Fish Comm. Rep., 1900-01.

exist. Thefauna of the reefs is much less abundant
than in the period of the first extensive explorations,
those of Oliver P. Jenkins in 1899, and of Jordan and
Evermann in 1901. Probably no species has been actually
exterminated by ver-fishing, but many once common have
now become rarO

1950

Although the game of the deep sea is as good as it ever was,
the best reef fishes are declining.... The herbivorous fish
are still plentiful. But these are not man's first choice
for food .... In Hawaii there has been such selective
fishing for the oio and.the uZua that those predators have
waned in number.

Another group of fishes which have declined from overfishing
are those which feed on little crabs, shrimps.and shellfish.
They include the moano, kum , weke (goatfishes), ahotehoZe
(silver perch) and uku (grey snapper), once abundant and the
delight of spearmen and anglers. As they are easily accessible
in the shallow shore waters, they are the game of almost
anyone ... and because Hawaii's population has increased,..mare
people than ever before are going reef fishing, not only for
@the sport of it but to reduce their grocery bills..

Today the oldtimers are hurt to see the way everything
possible is taken from the sea. The fishing continues, day
and night without rest and fish have no chance to grow and
reproduce.... Perhaps some of the sorties of the 'good old
days' are a trifle enlarged by nostalgia, but many of the
ideas of the old-timers have merit. One day an old fisher-
man ... was complaining in general about the way' times have
changed: 'This young generation,' he grumbled, 'they don't
care what they do when they fish. They go out with crowbars
and break up the reef so the fish got no more homes to live
in. That's not nice. When they go spearing, they shoot
at anything that moves. They say if they don't get it,
someone else will. But the old folks laugh at the tiny 5
things they-bring-home. Next they'll be eating fleas.'

4Jordan, D.S. and B.W. Evermann and S. Tanaka. Notes on New
or Rare Fishes from Hawaii. Cal. Acad. Sci. Proc., Ser. 4, Vol. 16:
649-680. 1927.
5MacKellar, J.S. Paradise Lost: The Shore Fisherman's Plight.
Hawaii Goes Fishing. 1 gr68.

1972
'Especially among shoreline fishermen, the often
expressed statement was to the effect-that, on the
one hand, there are too few fish in the areas where
open and free access to the coastline existed and, on
the other hand, in areas where fish were more plentiful,
closed or limited accessibility prevented participation
from reaching the otherwise desired levels. The historic
roots of this problem stems, of course, from the basic land
tenure changes under Hawaii's mid-19th century 'Mahele'
(land reforms) and from the transition in Hawaii's form
of government from early monarchy to present statehood
status. The land-use patterns which developed around these
over time have placed considerable stretches of
coastline frontages.under the control and restricted use
.of the military, large private estates, and agricultural
plantations, and also contiguous series of small beach
properties under several property owners. This problem
has, in recent years, been compounded by the so-called further
'taking over' of coastline areas by resort developments,
on the one hand, and squatter type settlements on the other.
The problem here extends far beyond simple fishery resourcp
m;@nagement and involves more complex ins@itutional issues
@-F easements, regulations, compensation. etc, , which 'is
.another and perhaps most important area of encern for
the public con'(-,rol of re,,;reational fishir'1Q.

1,911

TO: ALL SHORELINE FISHERMEN

.1.4e, members of Maui Pine Fishing Club, talk of the 'good old
days' after several frustrating weekend shoreline fishing trips.

Twenty years ago it was not too uncommon to land a one pound
papio with a small casting pole on the (close to home) beaches
of Maalaea-Kihei or Kahului-Paia. 0ios (bone fish) were
plentiful and an occasional moi made fishing enjoyable. Few
over-night uZua fishing trips would normally produce a strike
(-although we di-d-not land all of them).

Our catches declfned steadily in the ensuing years, we believe,
because of,increased shoreline net fishing. Recently, there

6Hoffman, R.G. and H. Yamauchi. Recreational Fishing: Its impact
On State Local Economies.. UH Ag. Exp. Station, Departmental Paper 3.
T9_72.

has been a sudden and sharp decline.

This can be attributed to the advent of fibre-glass boats
and monofilament nets. We have watched two men carry a
12 foot boat, which can be towed to almost anywhere on our
beaches. It carries about 300 yards of monofilament net and
four men. They quietly set many of these 300 yard nets
starting from shore out along a 5-10 foot depth path parallel
to the shore. The fish are trapped. they race their outboard
motor within the encirclement to flush the fish into the
nets. (Modern Pai Pai)

Recently we saw in a fish market a tub full of papib weighing
less than 3.oz. each. Seven or eight of these may make a
pound. Papio being blunt headed, would get caught in our
regulation 3/4" mesh or 1;i" stretched-out netting. Sadly,
this is the species, that grows to become an uZua, a
primary shoreline game fish in Hawaii. The largest caught
by one of our members. in the 'good old days' weighing 86
pounds.

We hate to talk anymore of the 'good old days'. It is
disheartening to watch many of our youngsters casting for
hours, hoping, yet catching nothing. It is time to take
action before near depletion. Even the netters are catching
less fish each time. To compensate, their nets are getting
longer.

Unlike our over-built Waikiki or the mushrooming hotels and
condominiums choking our beaches we can, in a relatively
short time, -restore the fish population within our waters.
This will require appropriate laws and enforcement.

We, the members of the Maui Pine Fishing Club, (would like to)
join the other fishing clubs and all sport fishermen in our.
State in asking the next legislature to more effectively
control fishing, not 200 miles off shore but within 200 yards
of our beaches.

Respectfully submitted:
Members of Maui Pine Fishing Club7

7Hawaii Fishing News. October 1977.

Most of the fishing grounds are within easy reach of population

centers and have consequently bee n under heavy fishing pressure for

a long time by all fishing groups. The fish in such areas are

relatively scarce and wary as a result. As resources dwindle,

fishermen become more competitive, gear becomes more efficient,

and everyone becomes more and more disenchanted with the fishing

situation. Conflicts are becoming more frequent with flagrant

disregard for and ignorance of regulations. Recreational fishermen

blame commercial fishermen, commercial fishermen blame recr eational

fishermen, and everyone blames pollution and habitat destruction

for poorer fishing. The probable reasons, numerous and confusing,

will be explored further.

120

ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER II

ENVIRONMENT

The islands of Hawaii are situated in the North Central

Pacific Ocean. The island chain runs approximately 1500 miles,

starting at one end with the island of Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe,
Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau, and ending in the

Northwest Hawaiian Islands with Hancock Bank (Fig. 2.1). The linear

arrangement of the islands reduces the amount of protected inter-

island waters, most of these waters in the area bordered by Molokai,

Maui, Lanai and Kahoolawe.

Most fishing effort appears strongly associated with operating

conditions reflective of calm weather and protective inter island

waters. The northeast, trade winds blowing across the island chain

generally create preferable oceanic conditions on the leeward coasts.

A distinction is commonly drawn between the "main islands", that

is, the high islands from Hawaii to Kauai and Niihau, and, the leeward

islands, or as they are now officially designated, the Northwestern

Hawaiian Islands, from Nihoa to Kure Island. This distinction is based

not so much on natural factors of significance to fisheries as on the

remoteness of the leeward islands from the main population centers, their lack of

160*E
+ 400H
JAPAN

0 R. T H P A C 0 C E A

1400
KURE 1. +3
MIOWAY W.AWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO

AWAII
JOHNST01,''.'

U.S. 200 MILE FISHERIES CONSERVATIO

1800
+100-4

X -PALMYRA 0.
......... . ... .

.......................

EQUATOR
............. ................... ............
REPUBL @'C OF K I R 1 8 A'T I
........... . ......................

L .. . ... . ......... ...... . .. ....... . . .......... . ...
NEW
GUINEA

. ...................
A
H

c4gure

human inhabitants, except.for a small Coast Guard contingent on K ure,

the consequently under-exploited condition of their resources, and the

fact that most of the islands are included in a Federal wildlife refuge.

The Northwest Hawaiian Islands are the eroded remains of older high
islands and at present are either flat coral and sand platforms only

a few feet above sea level or small, isolated rock pinnacles and islets

with, in some cases, fairly extensive associated banks and shoal areas.

Hawaii lacks extensive protective bays and estuaries. This

provides us with very few natural harbors prevalent in continental

regions. In addition, the island inshore waters are relatively free

of fertile (nutrient rich) and protective nursery grounds also.

prevalent in continental waters. This lack of protected-, nutrient
rich areas is responsiUle For the s(arciLy of invertr'Aratp@@ Of

edible quality Cal ifornia r4orts jb ol' (ru'@.'Lacednb and

mollusks of commercial significance. Hawaii lists only eigh,'@. Hawaii

is looking to aquaculture to provide invertebrates for the marketplace

such as oysters, clams and prawns (see Aquacu ture Development for

Hawaii, 1978). These invertebrates are not native to Hawaii and must

be imported from other places in the world.

Yhe introduction of exotic species (non-native) has arisen to

deliberately enrich the relatively impoverished aquatic food web in

Hawaiian waters. Inshore genera of groupers (Serranidae) and snappers

(Lutjanidae) are,missing or only poorly represented. These fishes are

highly prized for both their fishing and eating qualities. In fr esh-

water, we lack large lakes and perennial streams with the primary sport

fishes so prevalent elsewhere. The native freshwater fishes of Hawaii.

are gobies which have edible qualities despite their small size.

At least 70 different species of aquatic animals have been

released either accidentally or purposefully into Hawaiian waters.

At least 38 have become established, approxi mately 20 have failed,

and the success of the remainder is uncertain at this time. Many

of the introductions are viewed both favorably and unfavorably.

The taape (blue-lined snapper) has become a highly successful

introduction. Many fishermen, however, claim its success*has been

at the expense of other, more favored species.

The islands of Hawaii offer a variety of year-round fishing.

With such an abundance of oceanic water resulting from the uniqueness

of being an island state, we have a great variety of conspicuously

beautiful fish species. 1he coral reefs provide a substantial boost

to the productivity of the waters and harbor a great diversity of

fishLbs.

The primary characteristic of the Hawaiian aquatic environment

is the narrowness -of the major ecological zones. Tides have a

negligible effect on the coasts of the Hawaiian islands - the impact

of the one meter tidal range is minor compared to that of the surge

and splash associated with wave activity.

There are a number of beaches and rocky points along the coasts

of our islands which offer excellent surfcasting or sportfishing

opportunities. Depending on the physical characteristics of the

shoreline, one can fish for selected species associated with that

shoreline habitat. Figures 2.2 through 2.10 depict the physical

characteristics of our shoreline and nearshore environments.

The following pages detail these areas and identify.the major

species of plants and animals associated with the habitats. The

illustrations were prepared by Mr. Robert Hill, under contract with

the University of Hawaii Pacific.Urban Studies and Planning Program,

an d have appeared in va rious issues of the Seagrant Hawaii Coastal

Zone Newsletter. The text'is from a report submitted to the State

of Hawaii Department of Health's 208 Water Quality Program (Stahl

et. al, 1977).

LAVA ROCK SHORELINES. The.islands of Hawaii,are of volcanic

origin, built up from the sea floor by extrusions of basaltic lava.

Where these lava flows meet the sea, like-so many basalt coasts

throughout the world, steep sea cliffs, horizontal benches or cobbles

and boulder beaches may develop. Windward basal-L shorelinns are

usually shaped and dominated by heavy surf and wave action. Striking

differences are found in spect6tion asSOCidted with wave-exposed vs.

wave sheltered, lava rock shorelines.

shores. Rocky vertical shorelines, sometimes projecting

high above sea level and with portions reached only by spray, are

inhabited by relatively few species, which are often dull gray or

black in color and which can withstand long periods without water.

These species include the littorines (pupu koZea), among the mollusks

and the black grapsid crab, a ama. Seaward of the littorines and

the crab but still above the reach of the tide are the black nerite

(pipipi), and the pulmonate limpet.

@Eii

ljnz

................ .......

061%

LAVA ROCK SHORELINE

ME It I I il I i) '%I

Seaward of the spray zone, at mean tide level, much of the lava

coast is colored pink by a coralline alga, and studded by a dome-like
9

shingle urchin, and the opihi.

At zero tide level, surf-swept shorelines are inhabited by other

rather dark colored and heavy shelled animals on the substrate and

brown and white cowriesin-crevices. Tishes in these areas are

strong swimmers and may be dark in color such as the Achilles tang.

Other fishes associated with this area include: the damsel fish, the

wrasse.,,, and the :bl'enny.

Basalt benches. Irregular continuous benches of basalt may

form horizontal platforms along the shore. Waves play a dominant role

in determining the pattern of biotic zonation on these benches with

'.@triking differences between windward and leeward coasts.

On w1ridward shores, the highest level ol: wave action is mhrked

by a red alga, below which there is a variety of frondose algae. Sea-

ward of the algal mat, the substrate is principally the growth form of

the encrusting calcareous algae.

Dominant mollusks are the black foot opihi and several smaller

gastropods. Algae-encrusted areas are dominated by the yellow foot

op-b*hi and the shingle urchin. The frontal slope of basalt benches may

be riddled by the borings of the sea urchin. Hobson (1974) reported

54 total species of fishes in this habitat off the Kona coast of Hawaii.

Some of these include the surgeonfishes, the wrasses, and the

damselfishes.

Examples of basalt benches occur from Napali to Kapaa and Poipu to

Waimea on Kauai; Lanikai to Makapuu and Kaena Point on Oahu; the Hana

coast and Cape Kinau on Maui; the north coast of Nolokai and along most

of the shoreline of the Big Island.

Boulder beaches. Boulder beaches are formed of large, worn

boulders or cobbles of basalt composition. The cobbles and boulders

are shaped by marine processes, such as wave scour, currents and other

erosive factors, transported and then deposited on beaches by waves

and du ring storms. Example coasts include Kona and Kealakekua on

Hawaii, Hana on Maui and Napali on Kauai.

Because of the in'stability of the substrata and the continual

scouring, few organisms inhabit these beaches with the exception of

grapsid crabs and sparse interstitial and under-rock fauna. Hobson

(1974) reported 77 species of fish off Kona boulder beaches. The

majority of these are herbivorous fish which inhabit these areas

grazing on benthic algal turf. They include the surgcvnfishes, the

yellow tang, and the"a6hilles tang.-..

SAND BEACHES. Hawaiian beach sand is one of the most valuable

mineral and recreational resources in the State covering 185 miles of

Hawaii's 934 mile shoreline (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10 for maps

of sandy beaches on each of the islands). Three types of sand comprise

individual beaches in Hawaii: green (olivine), bl.ack basalt (lava)

and white (calcium carbonate). Most of Hawaii's beaches are composed

of calcareous beach sand which contains the remains of foraminiferans,

mollusks, echinoderms, co ralline algae and reef corals. Black sand

beaches occur on,the Big Island and on Maui. Olivine beaches are

found on the Big Island and on Oahu.

The calcareous beach sand reservoir varies tremendously from

island to island. Kauai, with 1.4 x 10 cubic yards, has the greatest

A 4,44tT-..19

.. ............. . .....
. . . . . . . . . .. ...... ..
. ... . ....... .... ..
..... ......
'31
IK
T.

W'o.

24
%@V .4.
C @A Wj
.k. A

7i:R .77
WIN, .0.

SANDY BEACHES

16
amount, while Hawaii, with 1.7 x 106 cubic yards, has the least.

The largest individual beach sand reservoirs exist at Papahako on

Molokai, Polihale on Kauai and Polihua on Lanai (Moberly-and

Chamberlain, 1964)

The beach community is divisible into three zones: 1) an upper

zone with terrestrial vegetation and possible dune formation; 2) a

mid-beach between the high tide line and the vegetation line; and,

3) the lower beach w hich is continually awash by waves.

The benthic animal life found on sand beaches is determined by

particle grain size, slope of the beach and color of the sand. The

upper beach is characterized by amphipods, i sopods, and males of the

ghost crab. Female ghost crabs and males of another ghost crab

burrow in mid-beach areas. lhe mole crab, polychaetes and the

mollusk Terebra spp. occur in low beach areas. The coloration of these

animals usually blends cryptically into that of their environment.

Fishes which generally associate with sandy beach areas include

the moi, the goatfishes, the bonefish, the trichonotid, and the

burrowing eel.

__ Beaches continually change; at one time eroding, at other times

accreting. Much of this variation is directly associated with the amount
of wave-energy that affects the beaches on a seasonal b,asis. Beaches

with a western exposure, for example, begin to erode during winter months

due to high Kona waves. During the summer, these western beaches accrete

becau se of northeasterly winds and waves (Moberly and Chamberlain, 1-964).

Beaches on'the windward sides of the Hawaiian Islands, however, accrete

when the northeast trades diminish and erode during heavy northeast trade

swells or North Pacific swells.

Ndn-climatic factors may also yield changes in beach size.

For example, the construction of man-made breakwaters, jetties and

groins results in modification of circulation and current patterns

potentially causing the erosion and accretion of sand beaches, the

deposition of silt in harbor basins and the resultant reduction and/or

elimination of certain biota and their replacement by-.forms-.,more_._.

tolerant of the changed environment.

SOLUTION BENCHES. The prime requisite for the appearance of a

solution bench is a consolidated limestone coast. Fifty-two miles,

or about 31 percentof Oahu's coastline are comprised of this type
(see Figures 2.2 through 2.10 for maps identifying solution benches).

In Hawaii, the two main types include those from limestone composed
chiefly of reef coral and calcareous algae-a,nd those -formed from
detrital limestone, composed of sand and gravel containing calcareous

skeletons of various organisms. The solution bench is more typically

and extensively developed on the reef limestone or carbonate. These

solution benches, or sea level platforms, may extend from 1 to 30

meters seaward from the shoreline.

On Oahu, nearly continuous stretches of solution bench occur

on the Waianae coast, east of Kaena Point on the north coast, near

Waimea Bay, around Kahuku Point and on parts of the Mokapu Peninsula.

Both windward and leeward coasts may contain solution benches which are

developed from the exposure of limestone to both continual wash by

sea water and periodic solution by rain water.

Two major characteristics of the solution bench are the bench

and the nip. The bench commences at the seaward margin and rises

fairly steeply from the ocean. Its inland margin is characterized

by a pitted zone. The nip is a marked notch which undercuts the

limestone shore at one to three feet above sea level.

Solution benches are distinguished by a cover of thick algal

turf and by conspicuous zonation of flora and fauna. Calcareous algae

are concentrated at the sloping outer edge, where corals are sometimes

present. Most information on biota is confined to the mollusks.

Various assemblages of grazing herbivorous mollusks are found within

the algal growth as well as mats of filter feeding mollusks and active

carnivorous snails. The dominant micromo-llusks are the herbivores,

which are associated with the algae on the beaches. The pools of the

pitted zone contain a small littorine snail. On the bench appear the

cone snails, with Conus abbreviatus nearest shore and Conus chaldaeus

nearest the seaward edge.

Fishes occurring here are usually similar to those found in rocky

tidepool areas and include young damselfish and blennies.

TIDE POOLS.. Marine tidepools can be formed by depressions in

sea level basalt outcrops or solution benches or by massive boulders

fronting the sea (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10 for maps identifying

marine pools throughout the islands). They_can be extremely shallow

or quite deep. Physical conditions of temperature, salinity and pH

vary with exposure and with distance from the sea. Sub-surface

connections to the sea are common, subjecting the pools to tidal

fluctuations. The biota includes small mollusks, worms, occasional

grapsid crabs, the blenniid fish es, and the gobiid fishes.

Some marine pools exposed to freshwater runoff or rain develop

a type of thermocline below which the temperature may rise considerably.

'wpm Pow"""

TIDE POOLS

.There may be great seasonal differences in biota, both above and below

such thermotlines. On Rabbit Island and the south shore of Moku Manu,

some pools are densely inhabited by algae at their bottoms only.

The larger the pools, the more uniform are the conditions,

especially with a large volume in relation to the surface area. In

some of these larger pools and in the smaller ones at high tide,

they become hydrologically quitesimilar to the sea. These pools,

particularly if they are large, provide suitable habitat for a variety

of reef corals and tend to become havens for displaced deeper forms

or for juvenile fish such as manini and ahoZehole.. Some examples

of these larger tidepool systems include Wailua Bay, Kiholo, Hilo,

Honaunau, Kapoho and King's Landing on Hawaii, Hanamaulu oi-, Kauai and

the north. coast of Molokai.

ARlIFICIAL BASINS. !he influence of dredging, man-made structures

and other human activities will have profound effects on the natural

ecosystems of an area (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10 for maps depicting

artificial basins. for each of the islands). A common example of this

is an altered community following the transformation of a natural

embayment, coastline or estuary into a boat harbor. Honolulu Harbor

is by far the largest commercial deepwater facility in Hawaii. Known

originally as Kapalama-estuary, it is fed by Nuuanu Stream, including

its major tributary Pauoa Stream, as well as from Kapalama Canal.

Originally, a natural channel in the reef, resulting from this

freshwater input, restricted the growth of corals and allowed for the

enlarging of the size of the harbor in the mid-1800's. Now, much reef

has been destroyed and nearby lowland areas have been filled with

dredged materials and sediment from natural runoff.

Other commercial deepwater harbors include Hilo and Kawaihae

on the Big Island, Kahului on Maui and Nawiliwili and Port Allen on

Kauai. Their shelter makes. these waters desirable for a number of

recreational as well as commercial uses. Consequently, conflict has

arisen regarding optimum use of these waters.

Small boat harbors are found on all the islands and have only

some characteristics in common with the larger harbors. Flushing action

within the smaller harbors i-Is generally better with resultant coarser

bottom sediments. They are not as deep and light can generally penetrate

to these bottom sediments. Small boat harbors have been built along and

sometimes out beyond natural coastline features. Some representative

small boat harbors include Maalaea and Laha'ina on Maui, Honokohau on,

the Big Island, Nawiliwili on Kauai, Kaunakakai on Molokai, Man(Ace on

Lanai and Pokai Bay, Ala Wai, Kewalo and '--laleiwa on Oahu.

Both the quantity and quality of the freshwater input to many

artificial basins and harbors vary . considerably. Perennial streams

may drain through agricultural lands as well as through highly urbanized

areas near the harbors. Groundwater seepage and artesian wells also

contribute to this freshwater input. Although the "natural pollution"

carried by this freshwater supply is long standing, it does not compare

to pollution resulting from urban and industrial sewage disposal,

accelerated sedimentation, sugar mill waste-water discharges, ship

discharges, cesspool seepage and thermal effluent which cumulatively

act in fouling the harbor waters and altering the original ecosystem.

Water depths vary among harbors and within the same harbor from

2 to 15 m. Those harbors projecting out from the natural shoreline are

characterized by moles, revetments, breakwaters, rip rap and other

protective structures. Quarried harbors show a greater preponderance

of vertical rocky walls. Most harbors contain wharves, docks, piles,

piers, buoys, s1ips and other facilities and structures. The abundance

and diversity of these structures can provide a variety of substrate

habitats for algae, fouling organisms, rock crabs, the Hawaiian oyster,

barnacles and several reef corals. In addition, several schooling
fishes such as iao, nehu, omaka, ahotehoZe., .'hahaZatu, and m.ullet,-migrate VP
from surrounding.envisronments.

NEARSHORE REEF FLATS. Hawaiian nearshore reef flats are shallow

platforms which hug the shorelines of high islands at water depths of

0 to 3 m. (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10for maps depicting nearshore

reef flats for each of the islands). They are composed of reef rock,

derived from the skeletons of a variety of reef dwelling marine organisms.

Crustose coralline algae and reef corals contribute the bulk of material

to the reef framework but the skeletons or fragments of mollusks

(primarily gastropods), foraminiferans, echinoderms (sea urchins,

seacucumbers, sea stars) and sand producing algae may. also contribute

mass to the reef, principally as sediment. Coralline algae are the

principal agents cementing all of the components together forming

consolidated reef rock. Prominent geological surface features on reef

flats include reef blocks, coral rubble and sand patches.

Nearshore reef flats include both apron.and fringing reef types.

The former represents an earlier stage in reef growth leading to the

latter. Apron reefs are smaller and project out from the shoreline as

,semi-circular aprons while fringing reefs are more extensive and form

wide continuous flats parallel to the coastline for long distances.

mom Holm, nowwwomal woulmnow"

---"7777-7-

. .... . .

:.so
a mom
-*-mom
sooffo."r's
FL 0so**
OM

NEARSHORE REEF FLATS

A great variety of marine life occurs on nearsho're reef flats.

Benthic algae usually dominate surface coverage on flats. Several

forms of reef coral also are common components, particularly near the

outer edges of flats.

The number of fish species is generally lower than in other

reef areas and the following is a list of fishes which frequent

nearshore reef flats.

Scie ntific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits
Acanthurus nigrofuscus surgeonfish maiko herbivore,
ThaZassoma duperreyi wrasse hinalea diurnal predator

PZectrogZyphidodon damselfish diurnal predator
imparipennis

Chromis vanderbiZti damselfish diurnal planktivore

ThaZassoma fuscus wrasse awela, hou diurnal predator

Apogon menesemus cardinal fish upapalu nocturnal predator

A variety-of invertebrates also inhabit reef flats. Beneath the

reef flat surface are found a myriad of mollusks, echinoderms.,.

polychaetes, sipunculids, other worms, crustaceans and boring algae

within the cavernous framework of solid reef, while infaunal mollusks

and annelid worms live buried in sand deposits.

The growth and maintenance of reef flats is in uneasy balance

.between biologically constructive forces (carbonate secreting organisms)

and physically destructive forces (scour, wave action and currents).

Organisms occupying shallow reef flats normally cannot tolerate the

extreme conditions associated with tidal, salinity, wave and temperature

fluctuations occur at.the sea surface and, as.a cGnsequence, few

reef flats grow to sea level and emerge at low tide. Thus growth

of the reef and extension of the reef flat occurs primarily in a

horizontal direction, away from the shore, once the upward limit of

growth is attained. The water depth or level of a reef flat in any

particular location depends partially up on the severity of'growth-
inhibiting factors. For example, flats on the windward sides ,of islands

subjected to heavy wave action, freshwater runoff and natural

sedimentation are unlikely to grow as vigorously because reef-building
organisms may find these environments suboptimal. Conversely, reef

flats may grow at very shallow water depths where conditions are more

favorable. The activities of man onshore may upset the balance of the

constructive and destructive forces changing the composition and

structure of reef flat habitats; sedimentation from soil erosion,

excessive flooding, sewage discharge and thermal pollution have

been identified as adverse impacts.

Nearshore reef flats are common on Kauai's northeast coast

and also*present on the south and southeast coasts. Oahu's shorelines

harbor exten sive fringing reef flats along the windward (NE) and

southern coasts with scattered apron reef fl ats along the north shore.

Prehistoric uplifted reefs also form much of the existing land along

the southern Honolulu plain and Kahuku. Virtually, the entire south

coast of Molokai is fringed by a wide -Aeteribriattng '@eef,-* erhap-s the
p
best developed among the high islands of the sta-k'-.e and a small apron

reef is located on the leeward (W) side of Kalaupapa peninsula. A wide

and well developed fringing reef is found along the entire northeast

coast of Lanai. In contrast, Maui has only a few apron reef flats which

24
are confined to Lahaina, Kahului, Kihei and Makena regions. Only a F
single small apron reef is reported from the island of Hawaii near

Kawaihae-Puako. The lack of reefs and reef flats on Maui and Hawaii

may be attributed to the geological instability and young age of the

islands.

Nearshore reef flats serve many important functions and uses

including: habitat for many subsistence and recreational fishery

resources (including octopus, shellfish, lobster, crabs, limu and

finfish); ideal conditions for surfing and boating; natural breakwaters

protecting life and property from storm waves and tsunamis; sources

of sand to replenish all white sand beaches; ideal swimming, diving

and snorkeling conditions; aesthetics; and opportunities for scicntific

and medicinal research. Nearshore reef flat@@ are also s!J1`Ierte('-' in a

number of consumptive uses including: mining for sand and aggregate

materials for the construction industry; the sites for harbor basins

and channels; the collection or harvesting of fishes, corals and shells

for consumptive and commercial purposes and receiving waters for waste

water discharge.

OFFSHORE REEF FLATS. Offshore reef flats are shallow submerged

platforms, or shoals, of reef carbonate occurring at water depths of 0

to 3 m and separated from the shoreline of high islands by wide deep
lagoons or ocean expanses (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10'for maps
depicting offshore reef flat areas). Coralline algae, scoured reef

rock, and live encrusting corals predominate on the outer or seaward

facing sections of offshore reef flats; while sand and gravel deposits,

scattered microatolls (pancake shaped corals), mollusk communities and

..................
.................
...........
..............
.........
.................
. .......
.... ......
......... . . ....
. ..........

. . .. ... ......

OFFSHORE REEF FLATS

extensive patches of benthic algae are conspicuous on the inner and

usually shallower portions of these flats. Sand keys and low coral

islands may be found on some offshore flats.

Normally, heavy wave action on the seaward side of the reef

flat drives uni-directional water currents across the reef, contributing

much to the biological and geological zonation characterizing offshore

reef flats.

The presence of heavier wave action, water of more oceanic character

and the absence of terrigenous influences (i.e., sediment, rainfall,

runoff) from high islands distinguish the offshore reef flats from

nearshore flats for water quality management purposes.

In Hawaii, there are three types of offshore i,eef flats - patch,

barrier and atoll reef flats. Although quite differeit from one

another structurally, they all share the common significant factor of

being separated from populous and stressed high island marine environ-

ments. As a consequence, the offshore reef flats are subjected to fewer

perturbations by man.

Patch reefs are reported only from the lagoon of Kaneohe Bay,

Oahu, among the high islands of the Hawaiian chain but are common within

the lagoons of some of the atolls at the northwest end of the

archipelago. The-Kaneohe patch reefs structurally consist of the remains

of reef corals, principally finger coral. They assume the shape of

truncated cones with the shallow reef flats exhibiting a circular outline.

The reefs are up to 20 m in height and 1000 m wide, although they are

e covered
usually of smaller dimensions. The tops of the reef flats ar

with gravel and sand deposits, calcareous algae, and isolated scattered

coral heads. Live coral coverage becomes more predominant along outer

edges of the reef flats; fingercoral, tree coral, plate coral and mush

room coral 'are most conspicuous.

A tremendous variety of reef fish inhabit patch reef flats,

particularly near the outer edge. The work of Gerald Key (1973)

identifies common fish species of Kaneohe Bay. The most common species

observed in patch reef areas, in decreasing order of sighting were:

Scientific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits

Scarus spp. parrotfish uhu diurnal herbivore

Pranesus insuZar= silverside iao nocturnal
planktivore

ThalZasoma dupperreyi saddleback hinalea Murnal p-re dator
wrasse

DascyZZus albiselZa damselfish diurnal
planktivore

Zebrasoma flavescens yellow tang pala herbivore

Gomphosus varius bird wrasse diurnal predator

Chaetodon miliaris lemon butter- diurnal
fly fish planktivore

Stegastes damselfish diurnal omnivore
fasciolatus

Ctenochaetus surgeonfish kole herbivore
strigosus

Labroides cleaner wrasse cleans ect-o-
phthirophagus parasites

StethojuZis baZteata wrasse diurnal predator

Abudefduf damselfish maomao diurnal
abdominaZis planktivore

Larval fish species found in the lee of Kaneohe Bay reefs

are those with demersal eggs, usually attached to hard substrate.

Species whose larvae are taken from tidal channels between reefs

typically.have pelagic-eggs - the adults@ also being found primarily

in open ocewpelagi-c environments.

Th-- second type of offshore reef flat is the barrier reef

and the only example from the Hawaiian Islands occurs offshore from

Kaneohe Bay. The reef is large, measuring 2 km by 5 km and is 2 km

from the shoreline of Oahu. Large sand channels are found at each

end of the reef. 1he reef is structurally complex and is composed

of lithified dune rock, beach rock, r-Fef rock iind fl.;-1'rk sand depo5-115.

The ocean edge exhibits greater abundance of -re(-,f-building organisms

and the zone of maximum wave exposure is heavily scoured. Unique

sand mollusk communities and sea cucumber populations are found near

the lagoon edge.

The most commonly observed fishes in the Kaneohe barrier reef

area, in decreasing order of sighting were:

Scientific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits

Scarus spp. parrotfish uhu diurnal herbivore
Acanthurus triostegus convict tang manini diurnal herbivore

Stethojulis balteata wrasse diurnal predator

MuUbidichthys goatfish weke predator on sand-
flavolineatus dwelling inverts,

Thallosoma duperreyi saddleback hinalea diurnal predator
wrasse

DascyZlus aZbiseUa damselfish diurnal planktivore

Abudefduf damselfish maomao diurnal planktivore
abdominalis

.@ParWeneus porphyreus goatfish kumu diurnal predator

Atoll reefs represent the third t,Ype of offshore, rcef Iflatc clnd

are confined to the nort,iwe3t end of the Hawaiian island 6tain,

removed from population centers. Only Midway, Kure and Pearl and Hermes

Reef have been studied and information about Hawaiian atoll reefs in

general is sketchy. Typically, atoll reefs are raised "rings" which

partially or wholly enclose a lagoon of 3 m or more in depth. Shallow

to deep sand channels and rocky passes bisect the reef rim and coral

islands may be situated atop the reef flats, formed during tropical

storms when large waves cast reef debris onto the flats. Little is

known of the biological composition of Hawaiian atoll reef flats. Atoll

reefs represent the most advanced stage of reef development and it is

generally thought that most atoll reefs have evolved from earlier fringing

and barrier reef stages.

Generally, offshore reef flats are important habitats for migratory

birds and sea birds, some of which are rare and are feeding and nesting

grounds for sea turtles including some which are proposed threatened

species. Offshore reefs are valuable to man in providing education,

recreation and scientific research opportunities. Consumptive uses

also include establishing island installations for navigation and

weather facilities and commercial fishin g operations.

WAVE EXPOSED REEF COMMUNITIES. Wave exposed reef communities

are the most extensive shallow marine habitats in Hawaii and are

subjected to heavy or continuous coastal wave action. These communities

begin beyond the shoreline, if shallow reef flats are absent or beyond

the outer edge of nearshore or offshore reef flats. The communities

span depths of 0 to 40 m and overlie irregular solid substrata, the
M
latter sometimes sloping gradually to dpeper water often with sevcral.

ledges and terraces, ihe hard substrai.i.,m is (omposed of bAralt cr

carbonate rock but sand channels and deprcssions are also conspicuous

features.

Wave exposed reef communities can be separated into shallower

(0 to 10m) and deeper zones (10 to 40 m) on the basis of biological

differences and changes in the intensity of controlling forces such

as wave action, surge, light penetration, sediment transport and other

factors. The severity of the wave action usually dictates the degree

of community development. Where wave action is low, coral and algal

cover is higher and the communities flourish, sometimes approaching.

protected coral communities in ecological complexity. Where wave action

is excessive, scour, mechanical stress and shifting sand inhibit

.biological development and the habitat appears generally barren but with

extensive crustose coralline algal growth.

. . . . . . ....
POLAq-

.. ... ...
sommoss

Irk
imv. @,K

!74
od
lt

WAVE-EXPOSED REEF COMMUNITIES
low-
Lp@pp"

The substratum of the shallow zone is dominated by coralline

algae, turf algae and filamentous algae of many varieties. The

coralline forms cement.rock fragments together to maintain the rigid

substratum, while the other algae serve as food for many invertebrates

and fishes.

Reef corals are invariably present and are most important in
maintaining relief and habitat for the community and contributing OM

to the accretion of the substratum but corals are not the dominant

bottom organisms in terms of surface coverage. The rose coral and

encrustations or small heads of the coral Porites Lobata collectively

account for more live coral cover than all other coral species combined.

Other conspicuous invertebrates inrlude the spa ur(,hins and the Fec,

cucumbers. A variety of mollu!*s also occupy shallower aw@2,is, ir.i -013

habitat.

Hsh species on the shallow reef include.

Scientific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits

Chromis vanderbiZti damselfish diurnal planktivore

Ctenochaetus strigasus SUrgeonfish kole herbivore

Zebrasoma fZavescens yellow tang pala herbivore

Acanthurus surgeonfish maikoiko herbivore
teucopareius

Acanthurus nigrofuscus surgeonfish maiko herbivore

The deep zone is also dominated by benthic algae, but sand

deposits and channels may be more conspicuous and coral coverage

slightly higher. Common invertebrates include the green sea star,

the crown-of-thorns starfish, the wana or black sea urchin, the heart

urchin and the sea cucumber. Fish species include:

Scientific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits

Naso hexacanthus surgeonfish opelu kala diurnal planktivore

Chromis Zeucurus damselfish diurnal planktivore

Xanthichthys triggerfish diurnal planktivore
auromarginatus
Thalassoma duperreyi wrasse hinalea diurnal predator

Zebrasoma fLavescens yellow tang pala herbivore

The wave exposed reef community habitat represents the zone

where much of the active growth of shallow reefs is supposed to be

taking place, counteracting the destructive forces of wave action and

abrasion. However, some scientists do not believe that Hawaiian reefs

in wave exposed environments are growing or even maintaining equilibrium.

It is difficult to believe that many of the wide fringing reefs, partic-

ularly along windward coasts, could be growing under present conditions,

as evidenced by the lack of development of the reef communities reported

on many outer reef slopes. Present rigorous climatic conditions and

perhaps water quality degradation may explain the apparent eroding

or poor condition of some reef communities. There is, however, no

question that the survival and growth of wave exposed reef communities

is in uncertain balance with destructive natural forces. Additional

disruptive environmental impacts, whether man induced or natural, can

easily shift the dynamics of the systems to a more adverse posture.

Studies of the growth of reefs on submarine lava flows which

have entered the ocean off the coast of the island of Hawaii during

known historical times indicate the wave exposed communities may take

15 to 40 years to develop and reach maturity. Thus, it is assumed

that damage or destroyed reef habitats would also take a protracted

and comparable time to recover if adverse environmental factors are

first eliminated. This is all the more reason to manage and protect

these resources in a responsible manner.

Wave exposed coral communities are extremely important in offering
V/ I------------------
food and shelter to a variety of recreational and commercial fishery

resources. These systems also contribute significantly to replenishment

of white sand heache- in the state. High underwatev- visibility 1*11ders

Lhese reef habitats excellLnt for diving.. sw-'6mmino ;;i.(' snorkeliny

Many fishes for the aquarium trade arc@. collected hLre.

ihe excellent water fluFh'Ing and current characteristics in

many locations where wave exposed reef communities exist provide some

opportunities for disposal of moderate or small quantities of treated

waste.water and other pollutants without significant adverse en@i-ronmehtafl

effects. This is not possible in shallow coastal environments where

flushing and circulation conditions are not as favorable.

PROTECTED CORAL COMMUNITIES. Protected coral communities are

found at water depths between 0 and 40 m but are best developed at depths

of 10 to 30 m along favorable open coast environments or in shallower

water in sheltered embaym ents (see Figures 2.2 through 2.10for maps

of these areas). Along open coasts, these communities are removed from

heavy or continuous wave actfon by being confined to deeper water below

AA&A

PROTECTED CORAL COMMUNITIES

the wave base (at approximately 10 m depth). They are,found particularly

along leeward coasts where tradewind wave energy is reduced. Elsewhere,

protected coral communities are confined to lagoon environments behind

atoll or barrier reefs or within the calm reaches of bays or coves.

The bottom surface is dominated by live coral which covers up

to 50% or more of the bottom. Sand channels and patches are also

occasionally scattered in depressions or valleys between coral thickets,

mounds or platforms. Thick extensive sand deposits usually form the deep

offshore boundaries of the habitat.

The sand within this habitat is produced from the breakdown of

coral and skeletons of other carbonate secreting organisms. Protected

coral communities can perpetuate themselveF only where sand prf'&'(-'@-Ion

and ac(umulation. does not cxcecd the capacity of thr (.%'@rals to g,@@ovl.'

and avoid burial. Moderate to gentle slopes offer ideal condition@

for these communities because sand, which is constantly produced, can

be transported downslope away from the habitat.

The fingercoral, is usually among the most dominant ofthe corals

in this habitat, particularly in its most protected portions. Fingercoral

forms continuous platforms or thickets up to many meters across and provides

a micro-habitat for a variety of invertebrates and small fishes. Almost

pure stands of fingercoral grow in Kaneohe Bay and deeper ocean slopes

off the Kona coast of Hawaii island.

Porites Zobata is also a common coral in the community and Torms

large mounds or pinnacles scattered among the fingercoral. Larger fishes

tend to associate with it because of the greater relief and larger shelters

it can provide. Almost pure stands of P. ,Labata are found in shallower

waters off L.ahaina, Makena (Maui) and the Kona coast of Hawaii, and

the coral-becomes more common where wave energy increases. Excellent

examples of mixed Porites communities occur at intermediate depths

off the Kona coast and Kahe, Oahu.

Occasionally, a third coral Montiporaverrucosa becomes common

(such as in Kaneohe Bay) or dominant (such as off-south Molokai) in

prot ected coral communities and appears to favor waters slightly

diluted by freshwater intrusions or runoff from land.

Other common.invertebrates include the slate pencil urchins,

the heart urchin and mollusks of many varieties including the cowries.

The soft coral occasionally is reported growing on dead coral, while

filamentous al gae, crustose coralline algae, bryozoans and sponges

are seen.on rocky surfaces.
Protected coral communities also harbor the greatest dbundance

and diversity of reef fishes including:

Scientific Name Common Name Hawaiian Name Feeding Habits

Ctenochaetus strigosus surgeonfish kole herbivore

Chromis Zeucurzia damselfish diurnal planktivore

Zebrasoma fZavescens yellow tang pala herbivore

Stegastes - wrasse hinalea diurnal predator
fasciolatus

Chaetodon.muZticinctus pebbled kikakapu diurnal predator
butterfly

Acanthums n.i graris surgeonfish maiko herbivore

Ajj@ripristis arqyromus menpachi Ulu nocturnal predator

The best developed coral communities are normally associated. OF
with the clearest of ocean waters with underwater visibility approaching

50 m or more and are extremely sensitive to waste water discharges,

sedimentation and severe freshwater flooding.

Where these communities occur in shallow water, they commonly

form the actively growing faces of flourishing reefs, such as reported

in northern Kaneohe.Bay and off some of the southern coast of Molokai..

The communities require 30 or more years to reach maturity based upon

coral colonization studies on lava flows off Hawaii island.

Aside from areas already mentioned, protected coral communities

are also found along the entire Kona coast of Hawaii; Honolua, Fleming,

Ahihi, Puu Olae, Maala-ea and La Petousp Bay on Maui, flolokini lsl;;r.d;.

Manele Bay on lanai and. Kahana, W&ikiki and 00'.u'.

information is sketchy for the islands of Niihau, Kauai, Kahoulawo- and

most of Lanai.

Protected coral communities offer the best recreational diving

sites in Hawaii, where aesthetics, fish, shells, underwater photography

and scientific research are avidly pursued. However, they are much

less commonly distributed than wave exposed reef communities and

require greater protection and more comprehensive management.

DEEP BENTHOS. The deep benthos refers to a relatively poorly

described but extensive area below approximately 100 meters. The Hawaiian

islands lack a true transitional shelf and great depths are reached at

relatively short distances from the shoreline. At these depths, coral

reef communities are no longer capable of flourishing, water movement

is greatly reduced and the deeper forms of animal life begin to appear.

was @.Mw m w

4
:Vk'
4'
R

S
.At?

. .. ..........
& g
p"i

..... .....

...................

...........
mmX.: X..
mm
Mr.

....... . ......... .

DEEP BENTHOS

Much information on the deep benthic biota is confined to

commercial or recreational species. Precious corals such as black

coral, gold coral and pink coral are found here. These precious

corals, a variety of non-reef building corals and the bivalve Pinna

feed on falling detrital material. Crustacea, such as the Kona

crab, adult haole crabs, and the shrimps Penaeus marginatus and

Heterocarpus ensifer,, and demersal fish species, including the

grouper (Hapuupuu), the pink snapper (opakapaka), the red snapper

(onaga), and the amberjack RahaZa)., are commercially fished.

Figure 2.2

Key to Maps of

Shoreline and Offshore Physical Characteristics

SHORELINE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Sand

Lava Rock

Artificial Structures

OFFSHORE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Protected Coral Communities

Nearshore Reef Flat

Offshore Reef Flat

Tide Pools

Solution Benches

Wave Exposed Reef Communities

lisp 111M 1.01 1111w

Kahuku

Figure 2.3
@41 6
..1! alt. 0 2
All,

OAHU

-*Waianae

Waipahu Kaneohe 0

v lip
r

Ewa
/A Honolulu

fill

Kawaihae

Pepeee-keo
Hiloo!

..'D K"Iua
HAWAII

Pahoao

'0 Honaunau

F.igur'e 2.4
Na ehu .-i.
0 1 2 3 4 miles

0 2 4 6 kilometers

it
fit %
U

Wailuku9
eKahului

!*Kihei
MAUI

Figure 2.5
01 2345 miles

0 2 4 6 kilometers

*Keoneoio

Mae "OOMWIM

kill

Hanalei

KAUAI

Lihu

Ito *Waimea

A
Figure 2.6
012 345 miles anapepe GKoloa

0 2 6 kilometers
0

1180 tJ1111 41111RI IMP

x I-
p

Hoolehua
Mauntloa MOLOKAI
00,
P, ff I Kaunakakai
film

jib,

Figure 2. 7
01 234 Smiles

6 kilometers

Mae M was M MM a

Lanai *City
Figure 2. 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 miles
LANAI

2 4 6 kilometers

lilt

@ I I 'M I

F igure 2.9
0 2 3 5 niles
r --T
0 2 3 4 5 kilosetlers

KAHOOLAWE

Puuwai NIIH
AU

Kiekic

Figure 2. 10
2 3 4 5 miles
_j

1 2 3 4 5 kilometers

-es

COMPETING USER GROUPS

CHAPTER III

COMPETING USER GROUPS

One of the more difficult problems with which fisheries managers

will have to contend is the problem of meeting the needs of competing

users of the fishery. Competing users can be fishermen, who fish for

different types of fish as well as for different purposes (Table 3.1)

Harvest by one type of fisherman may directly or indirectly affect

the harvest by other types of fishermen. In a complex fishery consist-

ing of-many_fishermen types, who have a variety of motives in fishing,

unique management decisions must be employed.

COMMERCIAL FISHERMEN

There are approximately 2,500-commercial fishermen presently

licensed with the State Division of Fish and Game. Only licensed

commercial fishermen are legally allowed to sell their catch. There

are untold numbers of others who sell without purchasing the $10.00

license.

The commercial fishermen of Hawaii can be characterized based

on their fishing license applications. Most of the commercial fisher-

men (69%) filling out the forms consider themselves boat captains.

Very few call themselves shore fishermen (7%). For FY 1978-79,

2,447 commercial fishermen registered with the State of Hawaii Fish

and Game.Division. This is down from the previous years total of
2,574 but higher than-any other year since 1952 (Fig. 3.1).

Table 3.1 Competing User Groups

Type of Fishing Purpose End Result

Commercial livelihood

Traditional subsistence, self- food, a way of life
sufficiency (techniques
and gear have remained.
virtually unchanged

Recreational diversion/amusement mostly fun, bein g
outdoors, catch a
fish

Charter to catch a big fish a photograph, catch
(many tourists) i, large fish

must obtain a fishing license

an unknown quantity of fishermen in this group purchase commercial
fishing licenses

LICENSED COMMERCIAL FISHERMEN IN THE STATE OF HAWAII

0
7

z
Uj
2
cc 2
w

cn
LL

LL
0

cc
Uj
co

0
1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982

Figure 3. 1

According to these license forms the median age of our commer-

cial fishermen is 40 years old. Most of them have lived in Hawaii most of

their lives. Eighty-four percent have lived here all their lives.

tn-citizens account for only 4% of the data. Approximately 5%

of our commercial fishermen (fishers) are female.

Table 3.2 depicts the types of preferred commercial fish-ing

activities separated by island. The patterns of commercial fishing

f6r each of the islands are relatively consistent. In 1978, over

$12 million worth (13 million pounds) of fish were reported sold in
/the State of Hawaii (Fig. 3.2). However, most will agree that as
V much as 2 to 3 times that reported amount were actually sold. Al-
though ovcr 100 species are Cold], the top dollar value fi@ihes, aku
(skip,jack tuna), ahi (yellow-fin tuna), ono (wa.hoo), q@ule (hi g.-Eyed
scad), opelu (mackerel scad), and opakapaka (pink snapper). make up

80% of the catch.

CHARrER SPORT FISHERMEN
M
Becauselof the steepness with which the bottom drops off to
great oceanic depths,(Fig. 3-3), sport fishermen can readily reach

the highly oceanic and migratory fish species, such as marlin and

tuna. Trolling.for these and other pelagic migratory species results

in world famous trophy fishing and year-round charter boat opera-

tions. These boats fish over waters between one and two thousand

fathoms deep for alu (blue, black and striped marlin), ahi (yellow-
fin tuna), mahimahi (dolphin fish), and ono (wahoo).

Table 3.2-- Licensed - Commercial fishermen
by Island and Gear Type

Type of Fishing Oahu Hawaii Maui Kauai Molokai Lanai

aquarium 83 21 1 1 1

fish pond 2 1 1

hand 3 22 15 6 8 2

handline 510 547 139 139 26 13

longline 65 30 4 4 2 1

pole & line 140 28 22 6 1

net
gill 153 8 9 27 ?6 5
throw 4 15 5 5 6
purse 6 1 1 3
surround 33 6 4 4
hukilau 1
cross 9
fence 5
ay 21 1
akule 27 1 3 1
Vopel u 15 5 2
crab 7 10 6
lobster 1 2
unspecified 14 21 14 6 2 2
Total net 269 87 50 50 68 13

trap 88 9 4 3 4 1

trolling 510 458 77 159 28 15

other
diving 69 2 10 12 1
spearing 16 4 2 1
squiding I 1 1
coral 19 1 3
shoreline 2 1 4 1
bottom 5 10 8

i
Hawaii Fish and Game Data, FY 1978-79. These numbers represent gear
preferences not actual numbers of fishermen. Total number of licensed com-
mercial fishermen = 2,447.

TOTAL CA@01@ (MIL@-IONS OF POUNDS)

0) CD ro ro

100..

a*,* %3
..::IC3

LIM
OD

............
0 .......

. ....... ......
0) .... . .............................0

K3 CD

VALUE (MI'-*-:OVS OF DOLLARS)
..................

I will full I I I I I I I I

.: .......... . .....

22@

100

500

OLOKAI
21*- 100 loo

. . . . . . . . . . .
NAI

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .

Soo

2d'-

SOUNDINGS IN FATHOMS

160* 159, 158' 15 7' 156'

Figure 3.3

The charter sportfishing fleet consists of close to 200 vessels,

most of which are moored on the Kona coast of the Big Island and at
,lz
moored at Lahaina and
Kewalo Basin and Pier 7 on Oahu. Others are

@Maalaea on,Maui, Pokai Bay and Haleiwa on Oahu and Nawiliwili
Harbor on Kauai. When charter business is slow, some charter boats

twitch to the deepsea handline fishery for various species of bot-

tomfish. Unlike California, marlin catches may be legally sold com-

mercially in Hawaii. It is estimated that 74% of the charter boat

,catches are sold on the market and that over one million pounds of
.4-'pelagic fish are caught annually by' our charter fishing flee
-A- Charter boat customers in Hawaii spent an estimated $2.5 million

in charter fees during 1977. The number of charter boat customers

is related to the tourist activity in Hawaii. It is not yet known

whether charter boat fishing is an__Lmp-or-ta@n-t-f-a-c-tEw-in-drAwing char-

ter boat customers to the State.

SUBSISTENCE FISHERMEN

Although the challenge and excitement of trophy fishing draws

many to the Hawaiian offshore fishing grounds, most of the recrea-

tional/subsistence fishing in the State has been directed toward

the variety of smaller tropical fishes inhabiting inshore reefs and

rocky, sandy shores. Many of the preferred eating fishes are not

necessarily the larger ones. The people of Hawaii have a variety

of other criteria by which to jud@e their fishes, not the least of

which are strong traditions associated with catching and preparing

them.

Traditional or subsistence fishing is ingrained in the very fabric
@),@of the Hawaiian lifestyle. The techniques and gear have remained virtu-
ally the same except for the use of monofilament line. Fishing has be-
come an art form 'as well as a way to feed the family. This artisanal

fishing is a way of life. Unfortunately, descriptive and quantitative

information about this group is limited since most of these fishermen

are neither licensed nor required to report information concerning their

fishing activities. Many of the subsistence fishermen are reluctant to

discuss their activities and object to programs which might in any way

hinder their traditional fishing lifestyle.

RECREATIONAL FISHERMEN

The last major competing fisheries participant is the recreation-

al fisherman. This is a poorly studied, but substantial group of

people. It is estimated that there are 93,000 recreational fisher-

men as well as 20,000 scuba divers (Sea Grant, Marine Advisory

Program). They enjoy the beautiful climate of Hawaii by partici-

pating in water related activities including fishing. Their major

interest is in having fun, being outdoors, and; if possible, to

catch or spear a fish. They spend substan tial sums of money, are

growing significantly in numbers, and should be considered a major

contender in the fisheries arena.

.Shoreline fishing is apparently the most common recreational
fishing activity. It is estimated that 68%--of -all sports fishermen
claim to be shoreline fishermen. The gear type most commonly used

is pole and line. A variety of nets are also used by shoreline

fishermen as well as diving gear. Divers set gill nets and use spears

to collect tako-, menpachi, manini, kumu, uhu, etc. and fine mesh hand

nets (permit required) to collect aquarium fish. Lobsters must be.

taken by hand or net only, although flagrant violations of the law

occur.

Many boating recreational fishermen help comprise the "mosquito

fleet" which actually is a combination of recreational, subsistence,

and commercial activities. Their appearance on the water as tiny dots

in large numbers helped create the term mosquito fleet. Many of them

,@-fish for recreational/subsistence reasons but sell a portion of their

catch to help defray the costs of their activities. Consequently,

many hold a commercial fishing license.

Much of the confusion could be eli,minated by improved licensing

procedures which more clearly identify the user groups. A substan-

tial increase in commercial license fees would likely separate the

full-time commercial fisherman from the part-time commercial/recrea-

tional fisherman. Other criteria for identifying the true commercial

fisherman could be that used by DPED in their rules and regulations

for vessel loan applications. According to their criteria, a commer-

cial fisherman.must earn 51% of his income from commercial fishing

activities.

The recreational aspects, however clearly dominate the small

[boat fishermen. Tro lling is the primary gear type used. The species

caught are similar to the charter boat catches,but with fewer bill-

fish. The number of fishermen identifying trolling as a primary gear

type has increased more rapidly than any other gear type (Table 3.3).

This suggests a substantial increase in the part-time recreational/

mo Very few of these fishermen would char-

acterize themselves as full-time commerci.al fishermen, although they

"
0
h Id licenses. Sales of these fish are made primarily to independent

fish dealers, small retail outlets and restaurants. Since most of

these boats are trailered, boat ramp usage has become more heavily
@burdened.

A few examples of conflict (real or imagined) between competing

user groups have begun to surface and may be expected to increase

with time. The most successful nearshore fishery may well be the

aquarium fish industry which collects reef fish for sale. This is

a primarily commercial fishery whose activitieb sinc@@, 1973 have been

reported to the State Division of Fish and Game. Growing concern

is being voiced over the numbers of fish being collected by this

user group. Glass bottom tour boats require large quantities of

reef fish near shore for viewing purposes. Aquarium fishing in the

State is predominantly confined to Oahu and Hawaii. Over 300,000

aquarium fish were caught in a three year period primarily in a few

concentrated areas around-Oahu and Hawaii. The average catch per

unit of effort on a statewide basis is 8.5 fish caught per manhour

of effort. It has been feared by a number of groups that the commer-

cial aquarium fishery is applying significant enough pressure in a

few selected areas, in addition to pressures normally exerted by re-

creational fishing, to cause damage to those biological communities.

Table 3.3--- Preferred Commercial Fishing Activities

TYPE OF GEAR NUMBER OF FISHERMEN PARTICIPATING

1977 1979
Pole and line. 223 197

flagline (longiine) ill 106

handline 1143 1374

trolling/charter 832 1247

trap 81 109

hand 79 56

spear 13 23

diving 60

coral 15 23

ponds 2 4

aquarium 123 107

nets opelu .26 22
gill and lay 210 228
throw: 31 35
akule (bag) 17 32
TOTAL NETS 284 317

Totals do not reflect numbers of actual fishermen but the number of
times a fisherman checked this gear type. Fishermen frequently check
several gear types.

Other studies have suggested that habitat destruction is more dam-

aging than aquarium fish collecting to reef fish populations.

Akule are presently sought by commercial fishermen and by, re-,
creational interests as welt. Since a pole and line fisherman can-

not compete with a large akuZe net in catch efficiency, growing an-

tagonism is surfacing over the division of the akule resource and the

ability of the resource to withstand heavy commercial fishing pres-

sure. Fortunately, analysis of commercial akule catch data suggests

that these stocks remain in good condition.

Other problems associated with the use of nets are more preva-

lent. "Save the Ulua" campaigners are already quite vocal in insisting

that fin e mesh nets are depleting the stocks of small papio and other

fish before they can mature to sport fishing six,@,,_, In

charterboat fishermpn are growing more concerned over the anKunt of

mahimahi and marlin incidentally captured by foreign longline fisher,

men targeting for tunas. If tourism continues to remain Hawaii's

major source of income, charter fishing will continue to grow and

conflicts with commercial interests (both domestic and foreign) will

increase.

There are many more examples of conflicting opinions concerning

the proper use of Hawaii's fisheries resources. Airplane spotters

searching for schools of fish are angering fishermen lacking sophis-

ticated fishing techniques. Full-time commercial fishermen resent

the impact that part-time fishermen have on the market. Prices can

fluctuate dramatically as a result making it difficult for the
.@he@l

full-time commercial fisherman to predict his future. Native Hawaiians

are beginning to voice demands for "rights" to fish anywhere for food

use. The Maui chapter of the Sierra Club has gone on record opposing

the return of inter-island hydrofoil boats near Maui for fear it

would impact adversely on the endangered humpback whale populations.

There are many more examples of conflicting opinions concerning the

proper use of Hawaii's coastal zone and its resources.

According to a recent University of Rhode Island study of com-

mercial fishermen, management plans, if not considered carefully,

can alter the characteristics of fishing which fishermen value most

highly. According to the study, the three most important needs of

the fishermen were self-fulfillment and the creation of a meaningful

life, economic security,, end time, for family and social life. 1hose

involved in inshore fisheries did not find their work as financially

i rewarding but were compensated by a way of life allowing them time

with their families. On the other hand, offshore fishermen felt

their work was economically satisfying but that it strained family

relationships.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS

OF FISHING

CHAPTER IV

HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF FISHING

Hawaiian fisheries statistics were first compiled in 1900. The

U.S. Fish Commission sent John Cobb to Hawaii to assess the commercial

fisheries. His highly detailed and descriptive report outlines indivi-

dual island fisheries (Cobb, 1903). Surprisingly, most of the types of or

fishing that Cobb reported are still carried on today. One notable

3xception is the malolo (flying fish) fishery which at one time accounted

for over 573,082 pounds of fish landed, but, is no lo-nger of any commer-

dal significance..

The Division ot Fish aid Game ol Ific Hawai'l Dr-@pa6mpn! o-, Land

afid Natural RPSOUYLPS i'; th;1- fisheriEs data collection'. body fo! the

S'Late. lhe Division first implemcnted a permanent data collection

program, focusing almost exclusively on commercial fishing activities,

in the late 1940's. All commercial fishermen were then and are still

required to purchase an annual license in order to sell their catch

(Fig. 4,1). In addition, they are required to submit one of a variety

of catch reports depending on the type of commercial fishing activity

(Table 4.0.

Major emphasis is placed on the monthly catch reports which are

key punched onto cards for data processing (Fig. 4.2). The area codes

which provide identification of fishing grounds can be seen in Figure

4.3. This cha(rt aids the fisherman in filling out his catch report

Figure 4.1

State of Hawaii
FG-1 (Rev 7/78) DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES LICENSE NO. 79
DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME Effective: Date of Inue to June 30, 1979
1 0 NEW COMMERCIAL FISHING LICENSE LICENSE FEE
2 0 RENEWAL 1978-1979 1 0 RESIDENT- $10.00
3 C3 MAIL 2 11 NON-RESIDENT $20.00
Name ILAST. vensv, "IDOLS INITIAL) Sax Birth Date Weight Height Color of Hair Color of Eyes
MO F
Mailing Address city ICOU zip

-9 as I -de n cii Streei -No. X'-Name oUnty/Staie zip
C

Birth Place Length of ResidenceIU.S. Citizen? one Home
in Hawaii
1 10 Yes. 2 El No P@_O@T
CHECK ONE: PRIMARY TYPE OF FISHING
Name of Boat (Check 00 more than 2)x
20CREW S.GMATURN OW LICSNSKK
MEMBER A
8 Fish Pond If Minor
Name of Boat C Hand (L.JIAU, OPINI. KTC.) below age 18 FARS"T OR GUARDIAN
Aquarium

0 Handline (camp swA. smo"ona)
E Longline (AHI SCATS. PLACLINU
2 [:1 BOAT HA No.. SmT LINZ. KAKA LINK)' VALIDATION (FISH AND GAME USE ONLY)
CAPTAIN Documented No.: 0 Nets -L
Number of Crew; SPIECIFY (*ILL. THROW Tlt^VWL.
PURVIS, ISURROUNC, "U;CMAU, 97C.)
j_Port of Anchorage: F Pole & Line J^KU *OATS, SHORSLINRI
H Traps(PoTs) AQKMT
3 0 SHORELINE FISHERMAN I Trolling
Other
Monthly Fish Catch Report Required?IYes 2 0 No IOAT.- ISLANO
*ANY PERSON WHO HAS RESIDED IN THE STATE FOR ONE YEAR OR LONGER 'HAWAII REV' SED STATUTES 189,2)
"ORIGINAL TO LICENSEE"

TABLE 4.1

SUMMARY OF DATA REQUIRED
BY HAWAII FISH AND GAME
MONTHLY REPORT FORMS

Aquarium
Fish Flagline Aku Fish, Pond
Catch Catch Catch Catch Operators

Catch

Pounds by Species x x x x
Number by Species x x x x x
Area x x x X*

Effort

Gear Used x x x
Days Fished** x
Total Days Fished x
Total Hours Fished x
Day of Landing x
Number Days at Sea x
Number of Baskets x
Number Crew x
Depth Caught x

Economic

Pounds Sold By Species x x
Number Fish Sold
by Species x
Total Value Sold x x x x x
by Species
Port of Landing x x x

*Zone Fished
**Resd1ts must be detailed for each day

Figure 4.2
DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME
NATURAL RESOURCES i STATE OF HAWAII
FISH CATCH REPORT

cense No..... 8
1. Name of Licensee ............................................................................. 2. Commercial Fishing Li
Name of Boat ....................................................... 4. H A N o'. FHTA I I IT]

Mo th Fishe d 7. Year F ished - 19
......................

Day 9. Area 10. Type of Fishing 11. Species Caught 12. No. 13. Lbs. t 14. Lbs. 15. Valueof 16. Port of
Fished Fished Gear Used Caugh 11 Caugh Sold Lbs. Sold Landing

The above report is true, correct, and complete to the best of my
Instructions an Inside of Cover knowledge and belief.

C-3 (Rev. 4-76) 17. Signature ................................ ............................ .............
Licensee 0 Authorized Agent
SEND THIS IN

IDS IDS 597 598 list 640 641 Illot

194 5113 0111 591 $too 500 114141 Sol 569 470 009 406

Got $63

M ITS 679. 580 list 594 sea 463 464 465 -69 447 373

5113
set

DID 5?6 574 111`11 OU 4611 491 440 4059 456 372 9 364
IRS ..usI 524

621 464
us "It IF M *26 457 its, 342 ass 364 $65 364 347
424 416
11111o
10 all 4*7 540 set
667 He 11all $64 563 $62 465 IDS 357 35S 355 354 252
IDS 428 sit 333 at@
a
as* $55 DID $51 $as 559 DID Sol 404 455 422 421 429 Motoma Sol 353 940 ISO
490
331 328 323
033 $32 111 Sao 549 940 54? 440 449 450 1151 452 3DI 329 Soo IlAut 248 247 244
32? 324
$40 541 642 B43 544 645 549 447 *46 445 444 443 350 197 It* IDS
349 Its
324 326

346 347
114-
440 441 44t 345 194 IDS

tat Its

FISHERIES CHART NO. 2 344 R43 3-@ I., lee
7116 C60 Or few In -kin son fh celwh report.. Indlosit, the at
rumoriums be Fill, aught by writing on the blink Ise immud.=d.; a Or A I I
"Areue of Cah" the -= or - mumb- .. al- - this hwt.
W Tbe Where evott extend Ion beyond t1u, reelf., roughly 2 miles from the comilles. 340 3fl 6, 1-5 164
The ffb- ..kad from the set. bmirelinies of the Inhore evers 1. 20 .4.
f- the cousettlim.
TW block. o. the dust m, , the mkf@ some which com ftnotty minutes of
Wit twirty I oflonkude.Sb*Wdmid@om"bcfW"whkbmwI I
.h.rmvos;W
the closer , Imitate " the such report Iht hithude ond lo4tude of the arch 1 178 OR?
a well . dor comne of the Mine trip: eg.. 14' N. 139' ON, from Chtbom. Idand is
Honolulu.
Should Ishoul; be flubed which - of given - thi. chm. initial. no Ch. quiet. the
.- or -Mr, of the Ishod. fldnd: .,a., Part *.it Hveoc. Itself or Christ- it
,,,in hhoodi. I?S IF,! ITS 172 ISO Its ITI ITO
L Additional criples of this clourt my be obtelmel from the Division of Flob used Quirs.
THIS CHART IS NOT INTENDED FOR USE IN NAVIGATION.

IDS ISO lea lei lot

MV1=?i OF FISH APM GAME FIGURE 4.3

is- Ise 154 loll lot $91 ISO

M M M - sion onim loll I M I III I

regarding area of catch. The majority of commercial fishing is confined

to within 20 miles of the coastline.
.." ............ ............................. ................
These commercial catch reports represent the only fisheries data

available for analysis. Consequently, they form the basis for fishery

management programs. The data, however, is frequently open to question

in terms of accuracy and reliability. Fishermen are notorious every-

where for protecting the privacy of their fishing activities as well

as not seeing the benefits to data collection. Hawaii is no exception.

tbt surprisingly, the island of Oahu always leads.,in the number

of commercial fishermen, fishing vessels, and total landings. In 1903,

Oahu led in fishermen (1,478) followed by Hawaii (827), Kauai (314),

Molokai (300), Maui (279), Lanai (22), Niihau (827), and Kahoolawe (9).

In 1978, Oahu once again led in numbers of licensed fishermen (1,235),

followed by Hawaii (712), Maui (217), Kauai (215), Molokai (44), and

Lanai (24).

In 1903, akule was the most abundant species landed. 'Amal=a

had the greater dollar value. Aku was second in quantity and sixth

in value of catch. Other important species were ulua, awa, opelu,

oio, kawakawa, ahi, kwm, rwi., awaawa-, hapuupuu. weke, opihi, he'e.,

papai, and ula.

Hawaiians predominated in the fisheries of Hawaii in 1900. Only

one-fourth of the fishermen were Japanese. In 1903, the situation

reversed itself, and the Japanese became the dominant ethnic group

fishing in Hawaii. Other ethnic groups occupy insignificant proportions

of the total. At the same time, the Japanese became dominant in the

fishery market place, maintaining this position to the present day-
The Japanese influence on fishing has become so great that
Japanese names for fish are, in some cases, more frequently used than
the Hawaiian names. There are frequently four different names for
our Hawaiian fish. For example, albacore tuna (common name) is called
ahipaZaha (Hawaiian name), tonbo (Japanese name), and Thunnus alalunga
(scientific name). Squirrel fish (common name) is called ulu (Hawaiian
name), menpachi (Japenese name) and 4ripristis argyromus (scientific
name). A list of fish names is appended to this report. In general
the local name of the fish will be used in this report. The reader is
requested to refer to the appendix for additional names.

A more detailed comparison of the 1903 stai.istics with those of

the present day (lq78) reveals some iniF-rest'inq al@ld fl!CUqhl-provoking

contrasts and similarities. The several islands tpnded to speciali7e

in different kinds of fisheries, with only a few taken commercially
at TF1--o f theislands mo i, 1=a6a, @=Za, oio, uku, ul=Za, and

uZua Kauai, Molokai, and Lanai played much larger roles in Hawaii's

fisheries than they do today. Maui and Hawaii were close rivals in

total landings, and each produced nearly half as much fish as Oahu.

Some species, many of which have always been prized as table

fish in Hawaii, were landed in much greater quantities in 1903 tha n

they are at present (1978): ulua (461,760 versus 121,530 lb), flying fish
(36,000 vs. 0 lb), mullet(714,705 vs. 17,848 lb),, moano (151,970 vs.
@
7,658 lb), moi (109,719 vs. 1,934 lb), oio (210,212 vs. 10,878 lb), moray
eels (66,279 vs. 5, .087 lb), lobster(81,414 vs. 33,719 lb) and koZe,
i@l
@reputed to,have been a "royal fish" (28,282 vs. 2,613 lb). Besides the

malolo (flying fish) many more categories were listed in 1903 that have

ceased to be taken in commercial quantities. In total, Cobb listed

130 categories (species or products) in his catch statistics, compared'

with the presently reported 87 categories.

A dramatic change in the pond catch is obvious from the data.

The Chinese were the major ethnic group engaged in operating fish ponds.

This unique form of fisheries and aquaculture has been almost abandoned

(672,953 vs. 23,293 lb). See Table 4.2 for a comparison.

Landings of most offshore pelagic species, such as mahimahi, aku

and other tunas, were very small compared with the present, but kawakawa,

the most coastal in occurrence of the tunas in this region,:was caught

in greater quantity than it is now (165,714 vs. 18,506 lb). Aku7e

landings were much higher in 1903 than they are ol. preG(@ni (I :190,22s,

vs. 367,324 lb). Among deepsea 6ottomfish., the present opokapaka

landings are more than 30 times those of 1903, and hapu upuu landings

have increased by 10 times. Uku, ulauZa (onaga) and kahaZa catches have@

not changed greatly in three-quarters of a century. Oth er categories

which have remained much the same are Lim (edible seaweeds), sharks,

U u (menpachi)., weke_, kaZa and opeZu.

Some of the large decreases in production over the past three-

quarters of a century'probably reflect real reductions of inshore resources
b3@=`fishi`ngpr`es-sure, -whii'eothers a-redu@eto -Zhanges in@@consumer tastes,

reduced effort in catching low-priced fish or data reporting methods.

The 1978 data is from commercial fish catch data only. We are as yet

unable to determine the extent of fish catch by the recreational/subsis-

tence or charter fishing users unless they sell and report their catches

Table 4.2--Comparative Pond Catches

19031 1978'
Island Pounds Value Pounds Value

Hawaii 218 $ 54 4,00 $ 6,497

Maui 38,982 5,400

Lanai 2,400 600

Molokai 43,361 10,279

Oahu 578,292 93,568 19,290 26,241

Kauai 9,700 1,420 - -

101AI (--0,953 $111,321 ?3,?93 $ 3?,738

Cobb, 1903

@Hawaii Fish and Game Data, 1978

as commercial fishermen. Consequently, it is difficult to make strict

comparisons between catches at the turn of the century with more recent

catch data without some qualifications. The big increases in the catches

of offshore pelagic species and the deeper bottomfish doubtless have

been brought about by larger, faster boats and more efficient equipment

and methods.

Catch statistics for the 1927-28 fiscal ear are presented in
y

a manuscript report apparently based on articles which were published

about that time in a local Japanese language newspaper. During that

period,approximately 50 years ago, a total annual catch of about 11

million pounds was reported, which is not very different from some

recent years. The aku catch was less than half the recent lovel, but

ahi (large tuna) landings were only !lightly lower thdn thpy are now,,

According to the manuscript, there were many more-flagline boats in

the tuna fishery than,there are now., The akute an-d opeZu catches were

about the same as in fiscal year 1977-78. Among bottomfishes, opakapaka
and ulaula.(onagc'@) were about half the current levels, but utua, uku and

kahaZa production was roughly twice what it is now. Mahimahi was

produced in quantities comparable to the present, which is rather sur-

prising in view of the great increase in trolling in recent years.
Ono (wahoo) landings, on the other hand, were much less than at present,

and may have been less esteemed by the earlier consumers than it is now.

As in John Cobb's time., inshore specieslof mullet, moi, and oio.were

produced.in much greater quantities than they are today.

r
V. /V

I
I
11
--------- ====== . I
I
n I
",-@ v I
----? I
I
FISHING FLEET PROFILE I
@:--A I
L--

'I
I

CHAPTER V V

FISHING FLEET PROFILE
.

The subject of boating in Hawaii generally stimulates great public

interest. The interest reflects the great diversity of boaters and

their boats - with a wide variety in types and sizes and individual

requirements.

Hawaii's coastline is not very hospitable to most boating. This

is due in part to the lack of protected waters and inland waterway s.

Consequently, berthing and mooring facilities for boats are at a

premium and waitin'g lists of up to 4 years are not uncommon forpublic

berthing facilities. Perhaps as a result, Hawaii ranks last among

coastal states in registered boats. Hawaii is not alone in its

struggle to moor its boats. Nationally, a place to moor one's boat

is a scarce commodity and about 85% of all boating in America is

consequently by trailered power boats.

With an expanding population and as le isure time increases, the

boating population will also increase. The major curtailing influence

on boating has been and will potentially again be fuel shortages. The

Hawaii Water Resources Regional Study of 1979,.projects estimates of

berthing and launching requirements barring major fuel shortages
(Table.5.1). The small boat harbors in the State are detailed with

respect to existing and potential berths in Table 5.2. The State's

Table 5.1--Projected Demand for Small Boat Berths
Year 20001

.Existing Projected Wet
Island Harbor .,@Stored Requirements
Capacities

Hawaii 241 440

Maui 156 457.

Lanai 21 70

Molokai 31 ill

Oahu 2,130 5,197

Kauai 88 831.

TOTAL 2,476 106

.Projected Demand for Boat Launching Ramps
Year 2000

Existing Projected
Island Ramp Lines Demand 2000

Hawaii 17 28

Maui 8 17

Lanai 1 3

Molokai 1 5

Oahu 32 156

Kauai 12 18

TOTAL 71 227

lHcaoaii Water Resources PZan, 1979

Table 5.2--Small Boat Harbors

Number of Berths
Location Existing Potential

Hawaii
Radio Bay 12 12
Wailoa Harbor 35
Reeds Bay 27 270
Keahou Harbor 13
Kailua-Kona Harbor 49
Honokohau Harbor 57
Kawaihae Harbor 48 300

Maui
Lahaina Area 268
Lahaina Harbor 93
Maalaea Harbor 63 198
Kahului Harbor (anchorage)

Lanai
Makaiwa n/a
Manele Harbor 21 97

Molokai
Kalaupapa Harbor (anchorage)
Kaunakakai Harbor 31

Oahu
Kaneohe Bay Area n/a
Heeia Kea Harbor 75 300
Kaneohe Bay Marina 90
Kaneohe Marine Corps Air Station 25
Kaneohe Yacht Club 200
Kailua Area 300
Waimanalo Area n/a
Hawaii Kai Marina 40
Maunalua Bay 250
Ala Wai Harbor 705 30+
Wai ki ki , Yacht Cl ub 135
Kewalo Basin n/a
Keehi Harbor 342 n/a
La Mariana 50
Pearl Harbor 100
Barbers Point 300
Waianae Area (Pokai Bay) 89
Waianae Harbor n/a 300
Haleiwa Harbor 88 200

Kauai
Hanalei Bay 180
Nawiliwili Harbor 28 166
Kukuiula Harbor 9
Port Allen Harbor 43
Kiliaola Harbor 8 130

Hawaii Water Resources PZan, 1979

most crowded and desirable harbors are the Ala Wai and Kewalo on Oahu,

Lahaina on Maui, and Honokohau on Hawaii.

Of the 13,695 vessels (including sail) registered with the

State of Hawaii Department of Transportation (undocumented), 1,100 are
identified as principally commercial or charter fishing vessels. The
vast majority (12,192) of boat owners identify pleasure as the princi-
pal use. Fishing, undoubtedly, is a substantial component of this

pleasure.

The undocumented vessels are primarily outboard (Fig. 5.1), fiber-
glass-hulled (Fig. 5.2) vessels, although wood hulls and other propul-
sion types are well represented. Most of the undocumented fishing ves-
!@els are between 16 and 25 feet in length (Fig. 5.3) and are consequently
of the trailerable si@e. A much smaller percentagF of IhL'I.F@ arc moored
on water. lable 5.3 gives a break down by island of the storage of
undocumented fishing vessels.

Twenty percent of the fishing vessels in Hawaii are documented with

the U.S. Coast Guard. Commercial fishing or charter passenger fishing

is identified as a primary activity for 277 of the 1,015 documented

vessels (Table 5.4). All commerci al vessels over 5 net tons must be

documented and must conform to both state and federal laws. They

consequently receive a number of benefits not afforded undocumented

These include public health benefits to crew and preference
vessels.

in mortgage loan approvals.

There are a number of additional boat ing needs that should be

addressed, including the problems of sail boats and outrigger canoes.

There are over 40 canoe clubs in Hawaii and, although not considered
J

Figure 5.1

Undocumented Fishing Vessels- PROPULSION

............................. -4

OUTBOARD
52%

o rHEr
----- -- 0.3%
MANUAt.
0.7%
SAIL
INBOARD OUT/IN-BOARD 2%
19% 26%

Source: State of Hawaii. DOT,1979

Figure 5.2
Undocumented Fishing Vessels' HULL TYPES

WOOD
35%

-01'HER
3%
ALLIMINUMI
FIBER GLASS 1%
61%

Source: State of Hawaii, DOT, 1979

Figure 5.3

Undocumented Fishing Vessels- LENGTHS

<161
8.b%

:16'- 2 5'
72.3%

26'- 39'
18.1%

Source: State of Hawaii,DOT,1979

Table 5. 3
HAWAII DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
UNDOCUMENTED FISHING VESSELS

Oahu Maui Kauai Hawaii Molokai Lanai 'Total

Stored on land 292 77 174 239 16 2 800

Moore d on water 141 49 39 55 13 3 300

TOTALS 433 126 213 294 29 5 1100

Table 5.4

U.S. COAST GUARD
DOCUMENTED FISHING VESSELS
@1979

Fishing Charter Passenger

< Tor- > 401 < 40' 401 TOTAL

Oahu 28 54 33 40 155

Maui 7 3 15 9 34

Hawaii 14 8 47 6 75

Kauai 2 1 4 2 9

Molokai 0 0 1 1

Lanai 0 0 2 0 2

TOTALS 51 66
102 b, 8 277

of relevance to the fishing vessel question, their growing numbers

@j vie for space and compete successfully for funds and support facilities

with the larger commercial vessels.

V-1

NIIHAO CKAUAI
I HU
KAULA MOLOKAI
HONOLULU qXMAUI
M
LANAID

FISHERIES BY ISLAND

CHAPTER VI

FISHERIES BY ISLAND

There are enough similarities between individual islands regarding

the problems of fisheries that one could lump most situations into

statewide issues. All islands suffer from a lack of good safe har-

bors, launching ramps and trailer parking, inadequate fuel, ice and

storage facilities, competition between fishermen, scarcity of Fish

and Game enforcement officers, dwindling nearshore resources, and

poorly understood marketing procedures.

Nevertheless, there are apparent individual island differences

which justify examining the fisheries of Hawaii from an island to island

basis as well. There exists a sense of island pride which results in

a desire to "do our own thing" with regard to fisheries, though there

are still more similarities than dissimilarities betwq3cn islands with

regard to fishing.

The following list represents the fisheries problem areas for

the Hawaiian Islands, as outlined by the University of Hawaii Sea

Grant Marine Advisory agents. These agents, stationed on the islands,

work with a variety of marine related issues including fishing. Al-

though the list is extensive, it is by no means comprehensive or prior-

itized. It does show a variety of issues and impediments of concern

to the fishing community which should be addressed.

FISHERIES PROBLEM AREAS
AS PERCEIVED BY MAP AGENTS

East Hawaii

Local fishermen waste time and fuel in locating schools of
migratory and bofto-mfi@�@-"

Fish quality, especially ahi burn, is still a problem.

Small boaters need better dock facilities, such as fuel pumps,,
ice machines, reef s, etc.

Need for better and more stabl
;t _--new markets for
commerical catches and uncFerutilized species, especially squid.

Need for information on new fishing techniques, equipment, safety
devices.

Need for legislation to allow fishermen to send their catches
more cheaply (via lower air f-rei3ht tes) to mainland, foreign
jr @ai
countries.

Protection agdinst oth
prices. @rs loodi ng 'the market and undercutting

Regulation of fishing around buoys --- conflicts-amo-ng gear
type users.

West Hawaii

Availability of fish to local consumers at reasonable prices.

Vessel/equipment/maintenance cost
Need for south Kona launch ramps.S/
Commercial/recreational fishermen conflict.

Marlin utilization/marketing.

Management/enforcement - more visibility needed for Fish and Game.

Maui

Lack of support facilities - dockside fuel and ice.

Effects of taape on older fisheries.

Ignorance of financial assistance availability.

Effects of "Honolulu Style" fisheries on Maui.
Baitfish of aku. - minnow culture, improvement of nehu stocks'.
illegal harvesting of iao.

Launching ramps:
� Maui has the leatt?
� Most lack shower/toilet facilities.

Artifical reefs why not make more?

Kauai

Marketing - prices being cut by casual "commerical" fisherman.

Gas - inadequate allocations for fishermen.
Ice/refrigeration/freezing - need ice facilities in Hanalei, V//
Lihue, West Side; need flash freezer capability.

Taape - will wipe out bottom fishery in near future if uncontrolled.

Reef conservation - all reef areas drastically overfished; massive V`
kapuku plan needed immediately.
Boat loan money is needed withless red tape.V/

Sharks - high populat-ion is resulting in major losses to
fishermen, especially in the Niihau, Kauai area.
Net fishing in bays - controversy is high over the multiple-V/
use of bays and harbors between recreational and commercial
fishermen, recent regulations are not enough.

Aggregation buoys - more are needed in plan for Kauai area,
es ecia flyHinalei area.

Enforcement - inadequate number of officers, too lax a court
system.

Oahu

Conflicts between netters and other fishermen.

Illegal practices (e.g., clorox, chlorine, F&G violations, and
weak court action).

Underuti 1 ization of sel ected species (e. g. , taape)

Not enough fish to go around - need stock enhancement/management.

'Oahu continued

Need data for better management.

Need money for improving F&G management/enforcement.

Financial assistance and business management education.
Shore-based facilities (harbors, ramps, storage, etc.).V/

Developing seafood market (home consumption, restaurants).

Figure 6.1 depicts the top ten fishing areas in the State 'based

on average pounds of fish reported. Interestingly, not all the top

areas are offshore areas (area 102 is ranked second in the state).

This suggests that inshore (0-2 miles) fishing pressure is considerable,

despite the presence of offshore tuna grounds. Figures 6.2 and 6.3

show the relationship of the skipjack tuna catches (a highly migratory

species) for all the islands as compared with the other species reported

in these same areas. The separation of the aku catch from the rest ot

the catch provides a-better indication of consistent patterns of fish-

ing pressure around the Hawaiian Islands.

.:K

5 NIP,

Figure 6.1
AVERAGE ANNUAL OFFSHORE
AND INSHORE CATCH, 1973 - 1977

SEGMENT CATCH
RANKING (POUNDS)
2
1 1,401,345

2 1,128,261
..........

3 1,046,475
4 1,003,490 8
5 638,372

6 451,298

7 411,051

8 372,857

9 365,581

10 356,274

me a* at

Figure 6.2
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH OF SKIPJACK TUNA

FROM 1973 TO 1977 P0

500.000

250,000

100,000

75,000

50,000

25,000

10,000

He 0
an El
eamoomm..6
H
me
E.n a .8:::::*
am 0 memo &
....... Nam New
ME ...... a
man:: W.m
son m

mom*

OAHU

w::m

:Wam, .........
0:06:n
a memo MOLOK 11111 HHH"I'l
a S181:88 I I I I U&
.:Boom
NEEMB:
Me oomm::::::

moommoveRMB,

LANAI
MAU I

Figure 6.2
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH OF SKIPJACK TUNA

FROM 1973 TO 1977

POUNDS

600,000 - ABOVE

250,000 - 499,999

100,000 - 249,999

75,000 - 99,999

50.000 - 74,999

25,000 - 49,999

o 10,.000 - 24,999
0 - 9,999

H A W A I I

Figure 6.2
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH OF SKIPJACK TUNA
POUNDS
FROM 1973 TO 1977 500,000 - ABOVE

250,000 - 499,999
lo.0,000 - 249,999
75,000 - 99,999
EB 50,000 - 74,999
25,000 - 49,999

10,000 - 24,999

0 9,999

slew KAUAI

Is"

Figure 6.3
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH EXCLUDING SKIPJACK TUNA
FROM 1973 TO 1977 POUNDS

500.000 - ABOVE

250,000 - 499,999

100,000 - 249,999
F8 0 75,000 - 99,999

50,000 - 74,999

25,000 - 49,999

10,000 24,999

0 9,999

Mom 2:2-m""Nom OAHU

:W Mae

Room: a

MOLOKAI

MAU I
RN

lot an out, am, plot rw tilm, 1161

Fi gu re 6. 3
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH EXCLUDING SKIPJACK TUNA

FROM 1973 TO 1977

POUNDS

600,000 - ABOVE

250,000 - 499,999

100,000 - 249,999

75,000 - 99,999

50,000 - 74,999

25,000 - 49,999
F @j 10,000 - 24.999

0 - 9.999

H A W A I I

Figure 6.3
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH EXCLUDING SKIPJACK TUNA
FROM 1973 TO 1977 POUNDS

500,000 ABOVE

250,000 4%.9"

10.0,000 249,999

75,000 '39,999

50,000 74,999

25.000 49,999

10.000 24,999
ED 0 qgqq

KAUAI

Fisheries of Oahu

Oahu stands alone in many respects from a fishing perspective.

With over 80 percent of the state's population residing here, it is

clear that greater fishing pressure and demand for facilities exists.

This fishing pressure is evidenced by the many shoreline recreation

spots, within easy access, along the highway that circles the island.

The majority (70-75%) of._the,commerc caughtJish are landed on

Oahu.,This is due more to the abundance of Oahu fishermen, location

of markets, harbors, and other infrastructure than to resource avail-

ability around the island; though Oahu has the two best baiting grounds

for the aku fishery, Pearl Harbor and Kaneohe Bay.

Kewalo Basin is the center of commercial fishing activitiy th

Honolulu. Hawaiian Tuna Packers (a subsidiary of Bumble Be,3) is lo--

cated on the west side of Kewalo Basin. The cannery also owns and op-

erates the ice plant and provides temporary cold storage. A marine

railway with excellent repair facilities, the Honolulu fish auction, and

a frozen fish processing facility are also located in Kewalo Basin.

No'fueling facility is available at present. Kewalo Basin provides

berths for 122 commercial fishing vessels. There are also 28 charter

fishing boats and a number of pleasure craft in Kewalo Basin making

it one of the most desireable and crowded of the state's harbors.

Berthing is also available inside Honolulu Harbor at piers 15 and

17 for an additional 21 vessels. Three other marine railways are lo-

cated in Honolulu at the Dillingham yard in Honolulu Harbor, at Keehi

Lagoon, and at the Ala Wai Marina.

smaller scale commercial activities as well as recreational fish-

ing activities also take place out of the other smaller boat harbors

around the island, including Ala Wai, Heeia-Kea, Haleiwa, and Pokai

,,Bay small boat harbors. The need for additional moorage and launching
-------------
facilities for small boats around Oahu has prompted the Department of

!Transportation in cooperation with the U S. Army Corps of Engineers

"to hold public hearings regarding a number of proposed sites. The

public hearings are frequently arenas for open discussions concerning

coastal zone use conflicts between the variety of boating interests and.

the other competing recreational and private shoreline interests. These

conflicts will be discussed in greater detail in Coastal Zone Issues

(Chapter VII).

In 1903, Oahu landed 3,515,850 pounds of fish, primarily with the

use of lines. Gill nets were also a significant gear type. Since then,

Oahu's landings have ranged from a high of 15,591,527 pounds in 1965, to

a low of 6,408,569 pounds in 1975 (Figure 6.4). As it is today, aku

,was the leading species in the fishery with other important species

being aimama, akule and awa. Offshore and inshore catches from 1966-77

are shown in Figures 6.5 and 6.6. The migratory nature of the aku may

result in broad fluctuations in the catch from one year to the next.

The contributing influence of the tuna catch to the total offshore catch

is apparent by comparing the non-tuna catch in Figure 6.5. Conversely,

the tuna catch had little impact on the total inshore statistics (Figure

6.6).

ISLAND OF OAHU

0
CL 10
LL
0
U)
z
0 iA
-j
8

z
6

0
1959 1964 1969 1974 1979
7
I gj.-e -

Figure 6.5

ORHU FISH CRTCH
OFFSHORE AREAS 420-429

TOTRL

cm 4
cn

0
1960 1,965 1970 t5 1 9VLp

NON-TUNR

cl)
C3
:z
"Jim
M

U-
c:24
cn

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
TERRS

Figure 6.6
.@ORHU FISH CATCH
INSHOBE RREAS 400-40.9
1000

800 TOTAL

C)
0- 600

U_
C)

C= 400

200

0 1 f I I f I
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980

1000

800 NON-TUNA
Lo
C3
:z

a- 600
C!,
C3

C3
C@-r_ 400

c:)
T_

200

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
TEARS

100

In Table 6. 1, the top 5 species are listed for each of the 30

fishing areas surrounding Oahu. Refer to the map in Figure 4.3 for the

location of these areas. Area 423 off of the Waianae coast is the

highest ranking area by poundage in the entire state (Figure 6.1).

This is due mostly to the comfort of fishing in the calm lee of the

island and the promise of aku, ahi, or marlin catches. Aku_, ahi_, akule,

and blue marlin were the principal species of fish reported from

Area 423 in 1977 (Table 6.1). Reports also show that this area had

the greatest landings of striped marlin, albacore, aku, bigeye ahi,

broadbill swordfish, sailfish, and mahimahi in the entire state.

Figures 6.7 and 6.8 show the catches and catch rates, or, catch per unit

effort (CPUE), for mahimahi and striped marlin in this area for the

years 1966-78. CPUE, a statistic used.by fisheries managers to inidicate

the abundance of a particular fish stock, is determined by the pounds

of fish caught per fisherman trip. One can see, in the years 1969-75,

that when the absolute catch increased, the catch per unit of effort

similarily increased, and vice versa. This suggests that the effort

expended had remained fairly constant. Figures 6.9 through 6.11 present

the CPUE and catch curves for aku, blue marlin and omiZu in area 423

for the years 1966-78.

Table 6.1--Top Ranking Species by Total Pounds Caught in 1977
Oahu

Area* #1 #2 #3 #4 #5

400 limu hahalalu akule palani amaama

401 hahalalu akule uku ulua weke-ula

402 aku akule weke limu hahalalu

403 aku akule opelu weke-ula hahalalu

404 white crab akule hahalalu kala uku

405 akule weke palani hahalalu uhu

406 akule weke tako kona crab menpachi

407 Hmu amaama akule Iala wnke

408 wake palani akule limu uhu

409 weke palani ahi-yf akule manini

420 aku ahi-yf blue marlin mahimahi akule

421 aku ahi-yf blue marlin mahimahi hahalalu

422 aku ahi-yf blue marlin mahimahi kawakawa

423 aku ahi-yf ahi-be akule blue marlin

424 aku ahi-be ahi-yf blue marlin mahimahi

425 aku ahi-yf ahi-be mahimahi blue marlin

426 aku ahi-yf ahi-be blue marlin mahimahi

427 aku ahi-yf akule limu mahimahi

428 aku ahi-yf mahimahi blue marlin kala

429 aku akule weke ahi-yf palani

*See Figure 4.3 for location of areas.

Ffgur-e 6. 7

RREA 423 MAHIMAHI-
100 1 1 . .

LU 60

a-
40

'30 - -----

co
cm

C=
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS
jlv@

Figure 6.8

RREA 423 STBIPED MABLIN
1200

1000

800

Uj
600
Cl-

400

200

0 0
i

cm
CL- 150

loo
C=
co

cm
50

cm
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEABS

Figure 6.9

ABER 423 AKU
loooc

8000

6000
LU

0-
U
4000

2000

2000 r - v o -A6 1 i

E) 1600
Q-

CD
U-) 1200

C=
cn
-n 800
CD

400

C-T-
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Fi gu re 6. 10

AREA 423 -BLUE MARLIN
500

400

300

200

100

so
Cf)
cm

c:' 30 -
cm

C=
20
C=

cc
C-) 0
.1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

1 11 MI I= I @l 18 1 CAM !.m

CD CD C) CD CD (N
CD (D co
"NnOJ A SONUSnDHI) H
3ndJ

107

Fisheries of the Island of Hawaii

Hawaii is the largest island in the Hawaiian chain and the young-

est from a geological standpoint. Two of its volcanoes are still ac-
tive. In addition to having a population of almost 85,000 1 it is the

fastest growing island in the State. With this growth, fishing ac-

tivity on the Big Island has also been increasing dramatically in

recent years.

Unfortunately, the island is typically lacking in good harbors.

Hilo harbor, on the windward side, is rather open and only partially

protected by offshore coral reefs. Many fishermen, unable to moor their

boats safely must launch them from trailers at various points around

the island during calm weather.

Commercial fishing activV Jocated primarily 'in Hi"lo and Koria.

fhough Hilo has been the center for commercial fishing for many years,

Kona has grown very rapidly and now competes quite favorably for com-

mercial fishing activity. In addition, Kona is the site for the largest

sport fishery in the islands and has therefore attracted many fishing

support facilities as well as an internationally famous annual billfish

tournament.

Generally speaking, on the Hilo side, fuel must be trucked in since

there are no fueling docks. Fishermen must pick up their own ice,
dockage is 1 i nited,-in-dr@-pai _rfaci_1i':0`es-a-re -rare-. --The '-'-Bi -gI-sl a-n4'

is well known for its ahi catches and will be expected-to increase its

ahi landings with improved icing facilities.

1 State of Hawaii Data Book. 1978.

108

On the Kailua-Kona side, fishing vessels moor at the Honokohau

Harbor, the safest harbor on the coast and the most crowded. Other

moorage (on dolphins or on anchors) is available in Kailua and

Kealekekua Bay. These bays are safe for most of the year. Kealekekua

Bay is now a marine life conservation distri ct which restricts various

fishing and boating operations. Ice,,available in town at two suppliers, AME

must be picked up by the fishermen themselves.

Kawaihae on the northwest coast is a commercial deepwater port

but facilities are inferior to Hilo and Kailua-Kona. It contains a

small boat harbor lvdth 2 launching facilities but ice must be trucked

from Hilo or Kona and there is no fuel dock.

M
Tke co!7,@ination of rough weather and the lack of good harbors
is a serious drawback-to the fisheries of the "Big Jsland" and results,

very likely, in the lopsided area distribution of fish catches as

evidenced by the map depicting the bottomfish catches for Hawaii

(Fig. 6.12). Fishermen appear to concentrate their fishing activities

to a few areas close to safe harbors.

The total catch landed on the "Big Island" in 1903 was 1,404,794

pounds valued at $101,149. The hand-line gear type was responsible for-

4/5 of this amount. Gill nets, seines, cast nets, spears, dip nets,

hands, baskets, bag nets, and snares followed in that order. The akuZe

(big-eyed scad) was the main species taken by the Hawaii fisheries,

composing over 1/3 of the total catch. Other important species were
aku, uZua, iwano_, kawakawa, oio, opeZu, and puhi.

Figure 6.12
AVERAGE ANNUAL CATCH OF MAJOR
BOTTOM FISHES FROM 1973-1977

SEGMENT CATCH
RANKING (POUNDS)

1 24.398

2 12,631

3 7,629

4 6,994

5 5,320

...... . . . . . .

H A W A I I

0 5

NAUTICAL MILES

110

In 1977, the "Big Island" landed 2,591,467 pounds of fish (exclu-

ding pond catch) valuing $2,327,835, second only to the island of Oahu.

The major gear type remains the handline, followed by trolling. The

ahi were.the major species taken followed by opihi, ono., opelu, akuZe,

and blue marlin. See Table 6.2 for a listing of major species by area.

Skipjack tuna (aku) is a highly migratory tuna species of great

commercial importance to the State. The variability in the catches

of this tuna species can frequently mask the general trends in catches

of other less-migratory species of fish when the totals are lumped

together. Figures 6.13 and 6.14 consequently distinguish between the

skipjack and non-skipjack catches for inshore and offshore statistical

areas around the "Big Island".

Area 1?1 ieports the greatest cair-fie-, o-.-' ahi (YF), @Jue marl-*.r,.E,1d

ono in the State. Catch and catch rate (CPUF) curves for these species

are shown in Figures 6.15 through 6.17. Of note, CPUE curves have been

relatively flat in recent years in Area 121 while total catches have made

steep rises. This is indicative of a marked increase in fishing effort.

Catch and catch rate (CPUE) curves for some of the other major species

are shown by area in Figures 6.18 through 6.20.

Table 6.2--Top Ranking Spectes by Total Pounds Caught in 1977
Hawaii

Area* #2 #3 #4 #5

100 opelu ahi-yf menpachi aweoweo moana

101 opelu ahi-yf akule ono ulua

102 ahi-yf opelu ono menpachi uhu

103 ono mahimahi opihi miscellaneous opelu

104 opihi akule menpachi saba opelu

105 ahi-yf akule amaama kahala onaga

106 opihi taape moana aawa hage

107 ono menpachi taape ehu opihi

108 opihi ahi-yf menpachi opelu ono

120 ahi-yf blue marlin opakapaka opelu kahala

121 ahi-yf. blue marlin opelu ono ahi-be

122 ahi-yf blue marlin aku ono opakapaka

123 aku ono,, opelu opakapaka blue marlin

124 ahi-be broadbill striped marlin ahi-yf ono

125 ahi-yf aku albacore ahi-be ono

126 ahi-yf albacore ono ahi-be mahimahi

.127 ahi-yf ono ehu ulua opakapaka

128 ahi-yf ono opakapaka onaga kahala

*See Figure4 .3 for location of areas.

Figure 6.13

ISLAND OF HAHAII FISH CATCH
INSHORE AREAS 100-108
1200

1000 TOTAL

tn
C3
800
C3
0-

U-
C3 600

cr-
400
c:)

200

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980

1200

1000 NON-TUNR

800
C3

C) 600

cr-
400
c:)

200

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Figure 6.14'

ISLAND OF HAWAII FISH CATCH
OFFSHORE AREAS120-128
4000

TOTRL

3000
C3

LL-
C3
2000
cn
cm

1000

1960 1965 1970 1975 .1980

4000

NON-TUNR

3000
C3

c:)

U-
CD
2000
tn
C3

cr.
cn

C)
1000

0
1960 -1965 1970 1975 1980
TEARS

Figure 6.15

ABER 121 RHI
600

500

400

300

200

100

800 -n- r

CD
Cl- 600

LL-

cn
cm
400
C=

cm
200

cc
0
1960 1.965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Figure 6.16

AREA 1121 BLUE MARLIN
1200 . . . .

1000

LU
600
Li
400

200

I t
0

200 . . . . . . ..

CD
150

cn
cm
100

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

III limp 111111111 11111110 411111111111

LL.

v--4 r

CD CD CD CD CD C; CD CD CD CD CD
CD CD CD CD CD M M C\j
M M
@ndj (S.CNnod A SONUSnOHI) H

Figure-6.18

RBER 121 STRIPED MABLIN
500 1 1 1 . . . .

400

300
LU

200

100

0 . . . . . . . 1--L- 4..

too

60--

40
CD

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Fi gu re 6. 19

RBER 122 BLUE MAKIN
500 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9

400

300

200

1,00

loo

cm 80
Cl-

u-
cm
60
cm

C=
40
cm

C-1

Lj 0 .. . . . . 2
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
TEABS

Fi gure 6.20

RBER 12& -ONO
200 . . . . . .

150

Ld
100
CL_
Li

30 _r____T ----- T-1

C=
a_
u- 20
CD

C=
cn
C, 10

0 . . . . . . . . . .
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

120

Fisheries of &ui

Maui is the second largest of the Hawaiian islands with an area

of 728 square miles and a population of approximately 67,000. Maui is

identified as the fresh fish capital of the State. The heavy tourist

industry there provides a market for fresh fish which is unequalled

on the other islands. In fact, Maui cannot get enough fresh fish and

must import fresh fish from Kona,-w ch,h@@s X@t to develop an equiva-
Lxhi

lent demand. As a result, a highly successful fishermen's co-op has

evolved. The preferred fish on Maui are mahimahi, ono, and various

species of bottomfish. Aku is preferred over ahi on the island.

As is the case with the other islands, the fisheries of Maui are

greatly influenced by the lack of good harbors and berthing facilities

around the island. Many feel that Maui has the worst harbor problems

of any of the islands. The acute shortage of berthing facilities has

reached the point where a black market now exists for public harbor.

slips (Hollis, 1979). Although Kahului harbor is the major commercial

port of the-island, most of the fishing bQgat5@ moor at Maalaea and Lahaina,

both of which lack fuel -and igggfacilities.

Maalaea harbor is the home port of a relatively large charter sport-

fishing fleet and a small-commercial fishing fleet. South swells occasion-

ally damage boats within the harbor. This same swell which causes surge

in the harbor generates excellent waves for board surfing outside the en-

trance to the harbor. Maalaea is considered the best surfing site on

Maui's leeward coast. Efforts to reduce the surge for boaters 'are being

121

attempted without altering the wave pattern so desirable to surfers.

Boat launching facilities are extremely jlmjted-on@the-1-51and
?f Mayi. Maalaea has a boat ramp for trailerboat fishermen with a
.winch operated by the Maalaea Boat and Fishing Club and fishing ves-

sels can be hauled out for repairs by the fishermen. The Lahaina boat

harbor and launch ramp and the Mala ramp provide berths for numerous

charter boats and access for the trailerboat fishermen of West Maui.

Several sportfishing vessels Are also moored in the shallow waters out-

side the harbor which acts as a departure point formany fishing, sail-

ing, glass bottom, and diving charter boats. A boat launch ramp at the

west margin of Kahului harbor is rarely used by small boat fishermen

since the rough waters detract from pleasure boating. However, akule
and opetu are netted within the harbor as well as nehu and iao. These

same species, especially the akule@-and the hahaZaZu (young akule), are

taken by pole and line fishermen from the harbor pier and breakwaters.

Conflicts are growing between pole and line fishermen and net fishermen

over the fish resources in the.harbor.

There are a number of proposed :improvements to the harbors of

Maui, in particular to Maalaea and Kahului. Work is currently under-

way to improve the Kahului shoreline area between piers 1 and 2 for

foreign fishing boat usage. Construction of a new boat harbor between

Maalaea and Kihei has been proposed in the past. The protected nature

of this area makes it highly desirable as a harbor. It is presently

the site of a temporary aquaculture facility and a valuable habitat for

resident and migratory waterbirds. With the possible exception of the

122

wetlands of Niihau, more Hawaiian coots breed in Kealia Pond than in

any other single habitat in the State. As a result, the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service desires approximately 500 acres of Kealia Pond for a

National Wildlife Refuge. The shallow waters fronting Kealia Pond

provide the major supply of baitfish for Maui commercial tuna fishing

boats.

As a result of the relatively poor boat launching and mooring

conditions on the island, fishing is.largely confined to a few miles

in the vicinity of the two larger harbors. Table 6.3 outlines the top

ranking species by area in 1977 for the island waters surrounding'Maui,.

Molokai, and Lanai. In 1903, the island of Maui contributed 1,212,445

pounds of fish compared with 921,012 pounds in 3977. In 19,03-, as we'll

as 1.977, handlines were the most frequently useO gpar type. .1he py-in.,

ciple species taken in the 1903 fisheries were akule, opeZu, nehu, ulua,

oio, aku, canawna, kawakawa, and opakapaka. Area 320 yields the largest

catch of opakapaka in the State. See Figure 6.21 for the catches and

catch rates for this species in area 320.

Table 6.3--Top.R6nking Species by Total Pounds Caught in 1977
Maui, Molokai, Lanai

Area #1 #2 #3 #4 #5

300 akulo opelu moelua tako nabeta

301 ::hahalalu akule moelua lobster-sp nabeta

302 akule tako awa nenue lobster-sp

303 akule opihi nenue kole manini

304 akule opihi uku ulua moelua

3 05 akule oio moelua opihi menpachi

306 mahimahi ono kawakawa menpachi ahi-yf

307 moelua ono uku ulua mahimahi*

308 aku hahalalu akule ono kawakawa

309 uku opakapaka kalikali ulua miscellaneous

310 akule aku weke ulua amaama

311 ulua uku 'kaku kumu menpachi

312 menpachi hanui manini taape aawa

313 opihi uhu miscellaneous ono menpachi

314 kal a weke opihi man i n i weke-ula

320 opakapaka moelua aku ono uku

321 aku opae akule 6pakapaka ono

322 aku opakapaka ono weke tako

323 aku opihi opakapaka uku akule

324 aku uku opakapaka ahi-yf mahi & ono

325 blue marlin uku taape kawakawa ahi-yf

326 aku opakapaka blue marlin. ono onaga

327 aku opakapaka kawakawa blue marlin ono

328 aku onaga ahi-be @pakapaka albacore

331 aku, kona crab opakapaka mahimahi ehu

332 aku kawakawa opakapaka mahimahi ulua
1333 aku opakapaka blue marlin kahala ahi-yf
See Figure 4.3 for location of areas.

Figure 6.21

AREA 320 OPAKAPAKA
400 . . . . . . . . . .

300

LU
200
Lj

100

1@ 0 "1" T--

40
CL-

cm
co 30
rn

20
C=

-T- to-

0
1960 1965. 1970 1975 1980
TEARS

125

Fisheries Of Kauai

Kauai is the oldest of the main islands of'Haw'aii with a land

area of 547 square miles and a population of approximately 36,500.

The fisheries of Kauai are exploited primarily by part-time fisher-

men. The commercial.fishing activity is relatively small today

compared with the other islands.

Many of the fishermen use trailerable boats which are fueled

and iced on the way to the launching ramp. Nawiliwili harbor and

Port Allen are the major harbors on the island. A boat ramp for

haul out is available at the small boat harbors at both ports.

Repairs are made by the fishermen themselves and ice and fuel must
be trucked in. Although there have been efforts to locate 'an ice

facility on Kauai, this is yet to actually materialize.

In 1903, there were 314 people engaged in the Kauai fisheries.

In 1977, there were 192. The total catch was 377,946 pounds 1903)

compared with 421,752 in 1977, a remarkably stable production rate.

Interestingly, more than half of the catch was taken by seines and

nets in 1903 compared with trolling and handlines in 1977. The

principal species reported in 1903 were canamna, akuZe, oio, uZua'
and

moi. The principal species reported in 1977 were ahi, aku, akuZe,

menpachi, and ono. See Table 6.4 for a list of top-ranking species

by area.. Area's-523.and 527 yield the second largest.catches in the

state of hapuupuu and uku, respectively. Catch and CPUE curves for

these areas and fish are shown in Figures 6.22 and 6.23.

Table 6.4--Top.Ranking Species by Total Pounds Caught in 1977
Kauai

Area* #1 #2 #3 #4 #5

500 akule ahi-yf menpachi aku hahalalu

501 mehpadhi ahi-yf akule taape blue marlin

502 ahi-yf aku ono kala manini

503 opelu akule ono ahi-yf hahalalu

504 akule oio weke ulua aku

505 menpachi weke taape uhu opihi

506 menpachi kona crab opihi uku uhu/taape

508 menpachi kona crab opihi uku Uhu/taape

520 ahi-yf aku ahi-be Ilu(-,, marlin ono

521 akule aku ahi-be kawakawa ono

522 akd ahi-yf ono kawakawa mahimahi

523 ahi-yf akule akq kawakawa onaga

524 ahi-be aku ahi-yf broadbill ono

525 aku ahi-yf ono striped marl in ulua

526 aku ahi-yf ono kawakawa uku

527 ahi-yf aku ono uku onaga

528 aku ahi-yf. uku miscellaneous mahimahi

*See Figure 4 .3 for location of areas.

Figure 6.22

ABER 523 HAPU
800 . . . . . .

600

LU
400

200

0 1-- L -L I-A. s. A I

3. o

co
CL-
It 2. 0
CD

LO
1. 0

0. 0 . . .. . . . . . .
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEABS

Figure 6.23

ABER 527 UKU
500 . . . . . . . . . .

400

LU 300

200

100

L W.L -1 -1, 1 f I

10
LO

C= 8

6
C=

C-3

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEABS

129

Fisheries of Molokai

The island of Molokai lies midway between Oahu and Maui with an

area of 261 square miles and a population of approximately 6,000.

The windward side is quite precipitous and most of the population is

located on the leeward side of the island. Ninety percent of Molokai's

shoreline is undeveloped and privately owned. About 55% of Molokai's

shoreline is physically inaccessible by land which includes 14 miles

of sea cliffs which in some cases soar more than 1,000 feet. The

remaining 45% of the shoreline is accessible by lan d, about half from

sandy beaches which stretch along most of the western Molokai shores.

Molokai is quite renownpd for its fish ponds which dot the shores on
the south and eastern sides of the-island.
The demand for fish on Molokai is easily filled, supplying such

a small population and a minimal tourist industry. Many people catch

their own fish. F@J@ pg and hunting, are the
priRar.@@ e

activities of the local populace.

Kaunakakai harbor is the maj or port, capable of handling a variety

of craft. This harbor has poor protection from Kona storms but the value

of improving this harbor remains unclear. It is presently the site of a

large recreational and subsistence pole and line fishery which target

primarily for akule and hahalalu. Additional anchorages for small boats

are at Haleolono and Kolo on the southwest coast, Kalaupapa on the north,

Kamalo on the south, and Pukoo on the southeast coast.

130

Molokai is famous for its fishing banks which have sustained a

variety of fisheries from the earliest days. In 1903,, there were

300 commercial fishermen from Molokai, today there are less than 50.

Molokai landed 274,331 pounds of fish in 1903 compared with 26,810 pounds

in 1977 (equivalent to what the 30 Kalaupapa residents alone caught in

1902). In 1903, seines and nets were the primary gear type followed by

pole and line. The principle species taken were akule, amacana, aku, oio, and

uZua.

In 1977, handline, trolling, and gill nets were the primary gear

types. The primary species were akuZe., ulua, menpachi, opihi, kaZa, Kona

crab, aku, opakapaka, and onaga.

The Molokai-Penguin Banks area produces the gre atest bottomfish

catches in the State ('iable 6.b). 1he vast majov.-iLy of catcl'Ws
are reported from offshore waters (2-?0 miles) and are'taken primarily

with deepsea handline gear. Figure,6.24 graphically clusters the

various species of bottomfish according to the likelihood of catching

one species with another species. For instance, a fisherman is more

likely to catch a kahala while fishing for hapuupuu than he is kdlikali,
ehu., or onaga.

Area 331 is the fifth ranking area in the State with regard to total

pounds reported (Fig. 6.1). The highest landings of uku, kawakawa, and

kahala; and the second highest landings of kaUkali., ehu_, mahimahi_, opakapaka-,

and gindai are reported from area 331. Catch and CPUE curves are shown

for kaZikaZi_, ehu_, mahimahi., and opakapaka in Figures 6.25 through 6.28.

man mm m m m m m m m w

Table 6.5-- Distribution of'the bottomfish catches by island areas for the
years 1966-77. (after Ralston, 1979)

Maui, Lanai N..Molokai, Kauai,
Species Hawaii Kahoolawe Penguin Bank Oahu Niihau Necker

Opakapaka 20.2% 39.2%@ 25.8% 1.6% 5.2%

Kalikali 23.8% 6.6% 50.5% 3.6% 9.6% 5.0%

Onaga 12.6% 13.1% 64.9% 3.6% 4.7% 1.1%

Ehu 17.6% 8.6% 40.4% 4.6% 8.6% 19.3%

Uku 13.1% 11.0% 47.@% 12.0% 13.5% 2.4%

Lehi 45.7% 48.2% 4.4% 1.6% 0.1%

Gindai 24.4% 8.2% 24.7% 3.5% 15.4% 21.8%

Taape 42.1% 7.5% 11.3% 31.4% 7.7% -
Hapuupuu 10.4% 6.8% 12.5% 3.5% 12.7% 51.8%

Kahal.a .30.9% 5.9% 20.9% 13.4% 20.1% 8.7%

Ulua 20.4% 19.1% .8.9% 16.5% 8.4% 26.5%

Weke-uia 10.2% 1.5% 6.1% 68.3% 13.8% 0.1%

Moelua 99.4% 0.1% 0.5%

TOTAL 18.7% 19.9% 29.4% 10.6% 8.9% 12.1%

Figure 6.24

BOTTOMFISH CLUSTER ANALYSIS
Fish & Game Data
(Ralston 1980)
Approximate Depth Rangj
.(Fathoms)
Groups by Species* 0

.20

a'awa
.40
taape
uku kahala -

ulua hapuupuu 60

nohu
lehi -80

opakapaka
-100

gindai
kalikali -120

ehu -

-140,

onaga
*Species within blocks are not ranked
according to depth found.
1160

Figure 6.25

AREA 331 'KALIKALI
100

60.

.20

3a 0 9 0 4 0 a s --r- r-' -T-

C-)

2. 0

CD 1. 0

0.0 .. . . . . . .
1960 19 6 5 1970 1980
YEARS

Fi gure 6.26

ABER 331 EHU
100 . . . . 1 9

60
LU

C-A

cm
M:

cm 2

cc
0 . . . . . . . .
1960 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Figure 6.27

ARER 331 MAHIMAHI
100 . . . . . . .

Uj .60

0. . . . . . .

20
CD

CD 10

0L . . . . .. .
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Figure 6.28
ABER .331F I OPRKAPAKA
200 . . . . . .

150

Uj
n" 100

Cl
CE 40

CD
to 30

20
C=

cc
C-j 0
1960 1965 1970 1975 j 980
YEARS

137

@Fisheries of Lanai

The people of Lanai love fresh fish, but, as in the case of

Molokai, demand is quickly filled by the available supply. Lanai is

known as the pineapple island and much of the leisure time of the people

there corresponds to the pineapple schedule.

There are no peren nial streams which reach the coast and, although

there are some valleys, there are no bays at their mouths and, consequently,

little protection for boating operations. Stretches of sandy beach with

no fringing reefs provide beach landing for small craft. Kaumalapau Harbor,

on the west side of Lanai, is the best harbor available in all but westerly
and kona weather and is generally used for pineapple transport to- Oahu.,
Many of the local fishing craft moor to buoys in the harbor where fuel

is available. Small craft may be hoisted by derrick to a wharf for repairs.

Manele Bay houses a small-boat harbor which was the first joint

state-federally funded small-boat harbor to be constructed in Hawaii.

Launching facilities are available as well as berthing facilities for

about 20 boats. Many of the Lanai residents enjoy fishing for akule and

hahalaZu in this harbor. Manele-Hulopoe is a marine life conservation

district which restricts certain fishing activities.

In 1903, seines and lines were used exclusively by the commercial

fishermen of Lanai. The principal species were akule, ulua, c7naama, and

nehu. In 1977, trolling was the major gear type followed by nets and

handlines. The principal species taken were uku, akule, opakapaka, ono,

aku, onaga, and kawakawa. See Table 6.3 for a list of top-ranking species

by area in 1977.

138

Area 328 is the fourth ranking.area in the State with regard

to total pounds reported (Fig. 6.1). This area has the highest yields

of kalikaZi. ehu, onaga, hapuupuu, and gindai, and the second highest

yield of big-eye ahi. Most of the landings are by Oahu-based fisher-

men. Catch and CPUE curves for most of these species in this impor-

tant fishing area are found in Figures 6.29 through 6.32.

Figure 6.29

RBER 328 RHI
1000

800

600
LU

400

200

0 . ...... -A --A- @.L- A-.

500

CD 400

CD
300

200
CD

100

0 6- . . .. . . . . .
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Fi gure 6.30
200 a @v a A.R E A 1328 H.A P U

150

ui
100
CL-
u

I r il-

C= 7,

C=)
3

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEARS

Cl-

CME

CD CD CD CD CD CD co (0
CD co I(D -41
(SONAOd A SONUSAOHi) H
@njj

Figure .6.32

AREA 328 -EHU
200 . . . . . . . . . .

150

100

lo
CD

U-
cm 8

UI
6

0 .. .. .... . . . . . . . . . .
.1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
YEABS

Vil

. . . . . . . . . . .

11 A
MAP 1111111 11,111 1111,
...... . ........... MIN

-1111111@0141111

14 1

COASTAL ZONE ISSUES

CHAPTER VII

COASTAL ZONE ISSUES

Perhaps Hawaii's greatest physical attribute is the place where

the land meets the sea - the coastal zone. It is also at this interface

that the land and ocean worlds are most vulnerable. The shorelines

are a dynamic, ever-changing area and the sea, at this point, is most

susceptible to man's influence from the land. This unique environ-

ment has attracted the artists, poets, and musicians who have been

inspired by the beauty of this area; the tourists who associate

Hawaii with the Pacific beaches; the developers and builders who wish

to construct houses, condominiums or hotel on this land, the recre-

ational enthusiasts who enjoy surfing, fishing, picnicking, boating,

and swimming; the birds, crabs, fish and other shore life which make

their homes in this habitat; sewage disposal and urban and industrial

runoff which utilize this water to dilute their waste products; and the

commercial fishermen who make their livelihood from the sea.

It can easily be seen that the place where land meets sea is

fraught with a variety of competing coastal use demands, all vying

with each other for a foothold. Frequently, these competing uses are

unable to coexist peacefully since they either share too limited a

commodity, or one use alters or destroys the area needed by another.

For instance, there are a number of potential conflicts between

fishermen and endangered or protected species which may surface with

the possible designation of a marine sanctuary for humpback whales in

144

145

Hawaii. Other potential restrictions to fishermen may occur should a
critical habitat for monk seals be designated in the Northw estern Hawaiian

Islands.

Conflicts among the variety of interests in the nearshore environment

are growing significantly. The difficulties are frequently magnified on

Waikiki beach during unexpected fish runs. At that time, one might-see the

comical, and discordant sight of local fishermen with their nets and poles,

swimmers, surfers, putrigger canoe teams and moored sail boats framed against

the backdrop of strolling tourists and mammoth hotels and condominiums.
The contemplation of resolving all this elbowing of.one another on the

same territory seems overwhelming. In some cases, conflicts between fisher-

.men themselves have been resolved by the State by dividing off areas,around

piers to separate net from pole and*line fishermen.

In other parts of the island,:',coral harvesters, boat anchors, and

pollution all work together to destroy the coral reefs of Hawaii. Hawaii's_@
pollution stems.largely from sewage discharge and water runoff, with rela-

tively low levels of industry-related substances in the water. However,

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), heavy metals, pesticides and radioactivity

have been found in our marine sediments in such places as the Ala Wai Canal,

Kapalama Canal, Pearl Harbor, and in Hilo Bay but do not exceed federal limits.

There is no commercial production of oysters from our marine waters. The

oysters and clams found in the waters of Kaneohe Bay and Pearl Harbor are

prohibited from being taken due to high bacterial contamination.

Destruction of o.Ur nearshore environment a_1_sq_-_o_ccur-s=.through

dredging and filling operations which artificially alter the natural

shoreline. Sediments deposited in these areas reduce the amount of

146

light which normally penetrates into the sea and'can affect photosyn-

thesis. The water quality its thereby affected and can have an impact

on the species of fish (primarily juvenile) found there. See figures

7.1-7.6 for maps depicting red water runoff areas. Many fishermen

fear that any major alteration of the marine environment may shift

the ecological balance sufficiently to create conditions favorable

for toxic organisms which produce ciguatera in fish. Human interfer-
ence with the environment has been impficated, although not conclusively,

to ciguatera toxin production.

Other fishermen, meanwhile, have found certain benefits to habitat

alteration (sugar cane bagasse disposal) when their preferred fishes

are attracted to the altered sites. Unknown benefits or losses to

fishing activities may result from the proposed GIEC (offshore thermal

energy conversion) facilities presently scheduled for siting either

off the Kona coast (area 122) or off the Oahu coast (area 423). Present

indications are that the mini-OTEC facility attracts fish and is a boon

to fishermen. Whether or not this trend will persist with larger scale
operationsis presently unknown.

Coastal development in Hawaii holds the promise of high economical

gains. Recent shoreline setback laws and special shoreline management

area permit applications are acting to somewhat retard the rampant

shoreline transformation. Even destruction of coastal wetlands near,

but not on, the shoreline is known to degrade the marine environment

which, invariably, impact on our fisheries. At some point, it may even

become desireable to maintain the difficulties in accessing the shoreline

to help reduce the pressures on the nearshore environment.

147

Distinction, of course, shouldbe made between consumptive and

non-consumptive uses of the nearshore waters with prq-fe-r-en-ca@-eing

given to activities which-are least destructive to-the environment.

However, non-consumptive uses often require support facilities and even

recreational interests can create stresses on the environment when

heavily concentrated.

The development of Hawaii's Coastal Zone Management Program was

born of these conflicts and issues and has as its chief purpose to "lead

to an improved decision-making process for determining appropriate

coastal land and water uses in light of resource considerations."

Almost one-half of Hawaii's total land area is within five miles of the

shoreline with no point in the State more than 29 miles from the ocean.

Hawaii is uniquely an ocean state with ever increasing challenges to

protect and enhance its oceanic environment.

Fisheries as a component of Coastal Zone Management. Fishing is in

many respects the central thread weaving through all phases of coastal

zone issues. The need to protect Hawaii's valuable coastal ecosystem,

an objective of the CZM program, is paramount to the fisheries of the

State. These ecosystems,, outlined in a previous.section, serve as

essential natural environments for a variety of fish and other wildlife

providing the basis for the recreational and commercial fishing industries.

The commercial fishing industry grosses approximatel-y $11 million per

year with projections as high as $100 million. The value of the recre-

ational fishing i ndustry, estimated at over $16 mill ion in 1970, is

probably closer to 25 million today.

148

Attempts are being made to improve the marine environment for a

variety of fishermen by treating fis-h habitats in the form of artificial

reefs and aggregating devices. Many of these objects work to congregate

the more migratory species of fish which orient themselves to the arti-

ficial structures in an otherwise featureless environment. The fish

aggregating buoys should significantly reduce the amount of time spent

by fishermen in search of fish.

Each island shares common problems regarding shoreline ownership

and corresponding use needs. These similarities can be seen in Table

7.1 which outlines the shoreline characteristics of each island and

the relationship of fishing activities to other coastal land use features.

Figure 7.1-- Oahu red waters after a storm

KAHUKU
POINT

SUNSET KAHuKu
BEACH

LAIE

0
HAUULA
HALEIWA
KANE
POINT WAIALUA

KAAAWA

W.uTMORE
"Awl

W HIAWA KANEOHE
SAY
MAKAHA
MILILANI TOWN MOKAPU
POINT
WAIANAE
MAILI PEACL CITY KA OEONE KAfLUA
NANAKULI WAI H

MAKAKI E* WAIMANALO
00
MAKAPUU
POINT
EWA BEACH
BARBERS
POINT HONOLULU

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SCALE IN MILES

monmananvomm Oman on

Figure 7.2-- Hawaii red waters after m
a storm,

UPOLU
POINT
AW N
O@

KAPUSENAI
HONOKAA
KAWAIHAE PAAuILO.,*
XAWAIHAE OOKALA
8AY WAIMEA LAUPAHOEHOE

HONOMINA

HAKALAU
HONOMU

HILO
SAY
.HONOKOHAU% HILO
KAILUA HOLUALOA ;KXIAAUo
0
XURTIS 0WN
KEAUHOU % 00 @MOUNTAIN
KEALAXEKUA VIEW
* CAPTAIN COOK
NAPOOPOO 9 GLENWOOD 0 PANO
HONAUNAUO 0 00

0 KALAPANA

KAENA POINT

AHAL
MILOLII
PUNALUU

KAUNA NAALEmu 0
POINT

LEGEND

AREAS WITH RED WATZR
KA LAE AFTER sToRm

5 0 5 10 15 20

SCALE IN MILES

wo so 00 wp- a
red waters after
figure jAaul

%AKALELE P01141

0,40VA14UA
t4otlotAoWAI WXWEE PAUA IKU KAUpA ULO jEAtAAE
KAAHApA%.% VIAILUKU pJULU% AICAWA
LA14AI"A \VAIKAPU* pUKALA"

OLOqvALU tAAALAE Kj"El
WCULA

KEOKEA lopp"AULU
VIAILEA 0- 'AAUPO

POINT 1,014AKUEAEA
polt4T

0 1 Z 12
SCALE MILE

I in I tin I I I Nil I'm

Figure 7.4-- Kauai red waters after a storm

HAENA
K 11 LA UEA

HANALEI

Sep
MAKAM 0 *4j
POINT
ANAHOLA

KEALIA

KAPAA

IVA, I LUA
MA14A

KEKAHA
WAIMEA Ll

LA I
HANAPE KOLOA
LEE

0 1 2 41. POW
SCALE IN MILES

MM low

Figure 7'5-- M070kaj red waters a fte r
#LSO

Ate, t,
Posts T

A
KA A J
'"U"A

LAA(p
room Kot 0
Wif,4011F
_-KAUftAOtAP(Al

4
4
41
JW$cS

111 101 IM IMF wIn IMF Ins; IiiiiIii M

Figure 7.6-- Lanai red waters after a storm

-e.()HAKULQA

KAENA POINTr.--

LIE

AR
At

HONOP LANAI
DAY CITY

_@IKOA POINT
zzz,--

KAUMALAPA
"ARBOR

AIKI POINT

zr_,_

PALAOA
0 1 2 3 4 5

SCALE IN MILES

@mmmmmmm m"mmmmm man m m

Table 7.1

LAND USE-4 OF SHORELINE 2 LAND OWNERSHIP-Z OF SHORELINE
0=3 (D -.a W -0
TOTAL S a- @ @ 3 :3 C:0
of co mm
RECREATIONAL fishing 73
MILES OF NON-RECR(ATIONAL FEDERAL PUBLIC PRIVA E :3 0
,ISLAND POPULATION SHORELINE 0 LO 0 'a
Public Private DevelopeiUndevelp (non-Fed licenses

LANAI 2,000 52.3 1.3% 0 1.5% 97.2% .3% 99% 24 5 7
0

MOLOKAI 6,000 105.9 0.9% 0 7.4% 91.7% 2.17, 15.6% 82.3% 44 12 31

ill@ cy,
215 25 222 1., 'T
KAUAI 36,500 113.4 9.7% 0 19.9% 70.0% 9.0% 40.0% 51.0%
Cn

C:)
MAUI 67,000 158.8 5.1% 0 9.6% 85.3% 0.9% 38.2% 60.9% 217 27 160 C'
co

J C)
OAHU 685,933 198.5 16.2% 2.3% 55.7% 25.8% 30.7% 21.0% 48.3% 1,235 47 588
Ln

HAWAII 85,000 305.5 13.4% 0 15.3% 71.3% 10.3% 33.6% 56.1% 712 34 369
.t.
-J C:o
41 co

C CL
0
c+ CL 0
1State of Hawaii Data Book, 1978 (projection for 1980) Total. 0C 0 CW
- !@ =r n
2,247 -01 C
2 :3 _J
Hawaii Regional Inventory of the National Shoreline Study, 1971 (F & G c+ co
m
1+ 0.
1978/@9)
co (D

Vill

RECOMMENDAT IONS

RECOMMENDATIONS

It would be premature to establish a rigid set of recommendations

for managing our nearshore fisheries since a variety of evolving issues

are still shaping the fisheries of Hawaii. In addition, management

recommendations, if not considered carefully, could alter those character-

istics of fishing which people value most highly. These characteristics

differ among the various user groups and we are still woefully ignorant

of the impact each of the user groups has on the fisheries.- Some user

groups may feel that economic security is their greatest need while

others may feel that fishing for relaxation or subsistence living are

more important needs.

The following recommendations.are appropriate to all user groups
anLtd@n_t if y
-rqblem areas of common interest to all.

PLANNING:

There is a greatneed for a unified approach to the management and

development of Hawaii's fisheries. This requires improved governmental

agency coordination. Long range planning can help predict potential

problems before they arise and promote the development of possible

solutions.. Conflicts can be avoided if there is input from all fisheries

user groups. A system of checks and balances would be useful whereby

the fisheries cannot be dominated by any particular user group without

general agreement. Should conflicts arise, a mechanism should exist

to settle them which is rapid and politically insulated. Enforcement

of the outcome must occur.

157

158

ACTION:

Frequently, action must be taken to protect resources and resolve

conflicts at early stages. Decisions may,need to be made before a

completely satisfactory level of confidence is reached. Severe declines

in the fishery should not be the "sufficient evidence" needed to support

regulations. No decision, in times of crisis, is, in ftself, a decision

by default. Appropriate management must be concerned with socio-economic
as well as environmental points of view. r,

ENFORCEMENT:

There exists a great need for an impM_yed_en.-forc_ement program.

This could include in-service officer training programs, emphasizing

training in conservation laws and regulations as well as training in

M
laiq enforcement. The.development of volunteer programs to supplement

existing enforcement activities should be extremely valuable.

PUBLIC INFORMATION AND EDUCATION:

Enforcement officers can never be present at all locations where

violations occur. Even with increased numbers of officers, violators

will persist. Consequently, enforcement activities will perpetually

lag in effectiveness without better public information and marine

education programs. Greater emphasis should be placed on programs in

public schools which deal with fisheries conservation, and teach concern

for protecting our natural resources.

159

DATA:

One of the most important aspects which lies at the very heart of

fisheries management, concerns the need for improved fisheries data

collection and processing. Part of this problem has evolved in the

fisheries community itself, which has failed to recognize the value of

statistical data. This is understandable, since all too often, the data
are collected with minimal explanation and/or feedback to the fishermen

and resentment has surfaced because of it. Aside from this issue, many

commercial fishermen, fearing the IRS, rebel by eit her not reporting

accurately or by not reporting at all.

Although the fish dealers are required to report their fish purchases,

the major emphasis is placed on the reporting system of the commercial

fishermen. Consideration should bi given to placing greater emphasis.on

the reports of fish dealers, as has the State of California. Special

logbooks, which simplify the reporting of information, should be developed.

.There are a variety of weaknesses in the existing fisheries data
reporting and collection process, not the least.of which concerns the
data accuracy question. Improvements in data collection and processing

are presently being planned and are the subjects of interest to both

state and federal fisheries managers. The existing data collection section

of the State Division of Fish and Game is understaffed and heavily bur-

dened with a variety of data responsibilities. Only with increased budget-

ing and staffing for programs concerning fisheries data, can advancements

be made in this important area. Maximum authority at the State level should

be maintained in the area of data collection and enforcement.

160

Initially, the need exists to determine how the present fisheries

data collection program can be improved to be more reflective of state,

federal, regional council, industry, and general, public concerns. These

needs would range from the desire to obtain an MSY.(maximum sustainable

yield) for each fishery, as outlined by the Fishery Conservation and

Management Act of 1976, to simplifying record-keeping procedures essen-

tial to enforcement activities of the State. Data should also be pro-

vided for research purposes which have historically lacked sufficien t

biological and environmental fisheries information.

There are a number of additional sound reasons for improving

the collection and evaluation of fisheries statistical data. These

include the desire to:

1. evaluate the extent of pressure placed upon our fisheries

resources by the multiple user groups, including the non-

commercial sector. Much of the confusion could be elimi-

nated by improved licensing procedures which more clearly

identify the user groups. A substantial increase in com-

mercial license fees would likely separate the full-time

commercialfisherman from the part-time commercial/recre-

ational fisherman. Consideration should also be given

to implementing a saltwater fishing license in Hawaii for

both commercial and recreational fishermen. By licensing

all marine fishermen, a better understanding of the amount

and type of pressure being placed on our nearshore resources

can be developed. Harvest guidelines could then be estab-

lished. Fees from this increased licensed population could

161

be used to furth er recreational and commercial fishing pro-

grams in the State.

2. design management plans to permit increased commercial and

recreational fishing ef ficiency and lower production costs.

3. understand the fundamental biology of a particular species.

a. size structure (age, length, weight)

b. growth characteristics

C. catch by area (reflective of carrying capacity)

4. continue assessment of the impact of fishing on stocks of fish.

a. catch per unit of effort (CPUE)

b. size and age structure changes of the stocks

5. predict and forecast.

a. prediction of available and future harvests

b. forecast changes of harvest regulations on fish catches

6. establish programs to enable the fishery to enlarge its share

of markets through increased productivity, lower costs, and

increased acceptability of fishing products to the consumer.

7. broaden stock assessment activities especially with presently

underutilized stocks.

8. serve economic purposes which enhance net economic yield and

maximize fleet efficiency:

a. quantity and value of catch

b. market values by area and season

c. improve distribution and marketing benefits to fishermen
and public alike

162

Of course, along with an improved data collection and evaluation pro-

gram, there exists the need for a faster feedback reporting system. Con-

siderable delays have always existed between the time data is received

and the ti-me use is made of it in a practical sense. Much of the problem

lies in outdated forms which require personal interpretations and

lengthy hand calculations. A more sophisticated catch data reporting

and processing system would be invaluable in improving data reliability

and processing efficiency.

Log books which aid the fishermen and fish dealers as much as pos-

sible in accurately depicting their catches and transactions would

minimize the all too prevalent rumors that reported information is not

representative. Certainly, the historical custom of protecting the

confidentiality of this information must be continued with greater em-

phasis on reducing the fears of fishermen.

Much of the need for accurate information and data is shared by a

number of state and federal agencies whose duties are to follow our

fisheries and recommend management schemes when appropriate. Efforts

are presently underway to outline the data needs of various agencies,

including State Fish and Game, National Marine Fisheries Service, Western

Pacific Regional Fisheries'Managemeht Council, Sea Grant, and the:Ufiiver-

sity of Hawaii, in order to accomplish appropriate data sharing with

minimal redundancy and in a spirit of cooperation

POSSIBLE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES:

As nearshore fish stocks continue to receive heavy pressure, a

number of strategies will need to be explored to further protect these

163

resources. Presently, there are a number of fishing laws and regulations

for managing our nearshore species. These include seasonal closures for

a number of crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes; minimum sizes; bag limits;

and a variety of other restrictions including a ban on spearing of lob-

ster, and use of small net sizes, poisons, explosives and firearms. A

number of marine life conservation districts have been established to

preserve marine resources in especially sensitive or unique habitats

in the State.

An innovative m anagement scheme called the Kapuku Pl,an'(Hawaiian

translation - "to restore life"), is in its trial phase for Hawaii.

There are- a number of difficulties associated with the conventional

management practices dealing with species by species regulation. A

pr atiops is si-If-deFeating
,gliferation of countless fishing laws ai,d regul

light of inadequate education and enforcement activities. *rhe Kapuku

solution being tried off Waikiki is based upon control of indiscriminate

and excessive fishing effort. Implementation of this program permitting

closing and opening of cenain areas to fishing on a rotating basis may
offer a simple control mechanism.,
There are additional management programs which may prove successful

to our commercial fishing industry, especially in light of potential

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands fisheries expansion. One of these progra,..ns

involves the concept of limited entry.

Economic viability is the primary motivating force for suggesting

a limited entry program into a fishery. The major issues deal with the

fact that the fishermen have no control over the entrance of other fish-

ermen into the same fishery, as well as their lack of ownership rights

164

over fish resources. Consequently, there are numerous examples of

economic declines and'impoverished resources associated with overcap-

italization and overfish ing.

The incentive for a commercial fisherman to enter the industry is

profit. The profit is available to all those who wish to fish, due to

the lack of exclusive property rights. Fishermen, as individuals, will

carefully manage their favorite fishing spots year after year until

others discover the grounds. At such time, the incentive to self-man-

agement is lost and fishing pressure increases immediately. As long as

everyone is free to enter the fishery, there is no incentive for any

individual or groups of individuals to control fishing intensity. That

would just leave larger catches and greater profit for someone else.

Fishermen tend to respond to other resource management regulations

with strategies designed to increase their personal share of the catch

by using faster boats or better gear. Much of this leads to overcapital-

ization and poorer prospects for fishermen to make a decent living.

The two types of fisheries which would profit most by utilizing

limited entry are: 1) the traditional high dollar value fishery; and,

2) a newly developing fishery in which considerable growth of fishing

effort is expected.

There are a number of reasons why limited entry may be appropriate

for some of the developing fisheries in the Northwestern Hawaiian

islands:

1. There is already some thought that the new lobster
fishery is overcapitalized with six large vessels
expected to fish lobster in the near future.

165

2. The NWHI contain a U.S. National Wildlife Refuge which
may result in conflicts over protection versus utili-
zation of fisheries resources.

3. The State of Hawaii has some,precedents to help it
establish such a program (special licensing permits
for seasonal freshwater fishing).

4. Bait fishing programs and tournament participation
may eventually become limited entry programs.

The issue of limited entry is fraught with difficulty and con-

stitutional uncertainty. Nevertheless, there may be a number of ways

to accomplish this goal with as much equity and fairness as possible.

The concept of limited entry has been presented here as food for thought.

166

REFERENCES

Clark, John. 1977. Coastal ecosystem management: a technical
manual for the conservationlof coastal zone resources. John
Wiley and Sons, New York. 928 pp.

Cobb, John N. 1905. The commercial fisheries of the Hawaiian
Islands in 1903. Bureau of Fisheries, Government Printing
Office. pp. 433-512.

Department of Health. 1977. An ecosystem approach to water quality
standards; report of the technical committee on water quality
standards - State of Hawaii.

Department of Planning and Economic Development. 1977. The
potential for mullet and milkfish culture in Hawaiian fish-
ponds. 54 pp.

Department of Planning and Economic Development.. 1*978. State of
Hawaii Data Book. 379 pp.

Department of Planning and Economic:Development. 1.978. Aqyaculture
Development for Hawaii.

Gosline, W. and V.E. Brock. 1965. Handbook of Hawaiian Fishes.
University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. 372 pp.

Hobson, E. S. 1974. Feeding relationships of teleostean fishes
on coral reefs in Kona, Hawaii. Fishery Bulletin 72(4):
915-1031.

Hoffman, R. and H. Yamauchi. 1973. Impact of Recreational Fishing
Expenditures on the State and Local Economies of-Hawaii.
UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR 72-02. 28 pp.

Hollis, Robert. 1979. Lack of space in state harbors creates
black market in berths. Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Sept. 30,
1979.-- @A-3.
Key, Gerald. 1973. Reef fishes of Kaneohe Bay. In: Atlas of
Kaneohe Bay. A reef ecosystem under stress. Univ. of Hawaii
Sea Grant Program. UNIHI-SG-TR-72-01. pp. 51-66.

Marine Atlas of Hawaii. 1974. Bays and Harbors. University of
Hawaii Press. 241 pp.

Maui Island Coral Reef Inventory - Part C. Prepared for U.S. Army
Engineer Division. Pacific Ocean.

167

Moberly, R. , Jr. , and TChamberlain. 1964. Hawaiian Beach Systems.
Univ. of Hawaii Inst. of Geophysics. .177 pp.

Ralston, Steve. 1979. A description of the bottomfish fisheries of
Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, and the northern Marianas. A
report submitted to the Western Pacific Regional Fisheries
Management Council. 102 pp.

Squire, James Jr. and Smith, Susan E. 1977. Anglers' Guide to the
Uni ted States Paci f i c Coast. U. S. Dept. of Commerce NOAA, NMFS.
139 pp.

Stahl, M., J. Maragos, E. Alison Kay,.and A. Cattell. 1977. Class-
ification of Hawaiian Marine Waters. In: Proceedings of the
208 Water Quality Management Seminar, ffew Standards for Hawaii,
State Department of Health. pp. 72-101.

Titcomb, Margaret. 1972., Native use of Fish in Hawaii. University
Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 175 pp.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. Hawaii Regional Inventory of
the National Shoreline Study. Honolulu, Hawaii. 110 pp.

168

APPENDIX

Local, Common and Scientific Names of Fishes 01
and Other Aquatic Animals Commonly taught in,Hawaiian Watersi

Local Name Common Name Scientific Name

alawa spot wrasse, table bass Bodianus bilunulatus

ahaaha needle fish Belonidae (3 species)

ahi (menpachi shibi) bigeye tuna, menpachi Thunnus obesus

ahi (maguro) bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus

ahi yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares

ahipalaha (tonbo) albacore tuna Thunnus alalunga

aholehole mountain bass Kuhlia sandvicensis

aku (katsuwo) skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis

akule (aji) bigeyed scad Trachurops crumenopthalmus

alaihi squirrel fish Holocentridae (15 species)

lamalama mullet Mugil cephalus

a'u (kajiki) Pacific blue marlin Makaira nigricans

alu (naraigi) striped marlin Tetrapterus audax

alu broadbill Xiphias gladius

alu (hebe) shortnosed spearfish Tetrapterus angustirostris

.alu black marlin Makaira indica

alu (misc.) unclassified Istiophoridae

a'u lepe sailfish Istiophorus platypterus

awa milkfish Chanos chanos

awalawa ten pounder, lady fish Elops hawaiiensis

aweoweo red bigeye Priacanthidae (4 species)

ela wrasse Labridae

hanui parrot fish Scaridae

hapu'upu'u sea bass Epinephelus quernus

169

Local Name Common Name .Scientific Name

hauliuli snake mackerel Gempylus serpens

hihimanu ray Dasyatidae

hflu wrasse Coris flavovittata

hinalea wrasse Labridae

humuhumu triggerfish Balistidae

'iao (togoro) silverside Pranesus insularum

'emir amphidae
iheihe halfbeak f.

kahala amberjack Seriola dumerilii

kaku barracuda Sphyraena barracuda

kala surgeon fish Naso unicornis

kalikali pink snapper Pristipomoides sieboldii

kamanu Hawaiian salmon Oagatis bipinnulatus

kawakawa little tuna. Euthynnus yaito

kawelea Japanese barracuda Sphyraena helleri

kihikihi Moorish idol Zanclus cornutus

kole surgeon fish Ctenochaetus strigos us

kumu red goat fish Parupeneus porphyreus

kupipi damsel fish Abudefduf sordidus

kupoupou mongoose fish Cheilio inermis

lae leatherback Scomberoides lysan

laenihi (nabeta) razor fish Hemipteronotus pavoninus

lauwiliwil i (Y. manini) long nose butterfly fish Forcipiger flavissimus

lehi snapper Aphareus rutilans.

mahimahi dolphin Coryphaena hippurus
mai'i surgeon fish Acanthurus nigrofuscus
maiko surgeon fish Acanthurus nigroris

170

Local Name Common Name Scientific Name

makoiko surgeon fish Acanthurus leucopareius

makiawa sardine Etrumeus micropus

malolo flying fish Exocoetidae

malu goat fish Parupeneus pleurostigma

manini convict tang Acanthurus triostegus

mano shark

mano kihikihi hammerhead shark. Sphyrna lewini (S. zygaena)
maomao (mamo) sargeant major Abudefduf abdominalis

mano (moana) goat fish Parupeneus multifasciatus
moano kali(kea) goat fish Parupeneus cyclostomus

moelua red goat fish Mull6idichthys pflugeri

mola mola ocean sunfish Molidae (Mola mola)

moi thread fin 'Polydactylus sexfilis

mu porgy Monotaxis grandoculis

munu goat--fish Parupeneus bifasciatus

nalenale orange spot *tang Acanthurus olivaceus

nehu anchovy Stolephorus purpureus

nenue rudder fish Kyphosus bigibbus
nohu (hogo) common scorpin sc.orpaenopsis cacopsis
and gibbosa

nunu stick or trumpet fish Aulostomus chinensis

oililepa file fish, broom tail Alutera scripta

oio bonefish Albula vulpes

omaka yellow tailed scad Caranx mate

ono wahoo Acanthocybium solandri

171

Local Name Common Name Scientific Name

'O'opuhue balloon fish Arothron hispidus & Diodontidae

opah ocean moonfish Lampris guttatus

opakapaka pink snapper Pristipomoides filamentosus

opelu Mackerel Scad Decapterus macarellus

opelu Mackerel Scad Decapterus maruadsi

opule spotted wrasse Anampses cuvieri

pakii flounder Bothus mancus, B. panterinus

pakuikui achilles tang Acanthurus achilles
la'ipala yellow tang Zebrasoma fla.vescens
palani surgeon fish Acanthurus dussumieri

panuhu nuhu parrot fish Scarus perspicillatus, (femzle)

paopao yellow ulua Cciranx speciosus

papio jack crevalle Carangidae

pau'u squirrel fish Myripristis chryseres

piha small round herring Spratelloides delicatulus

po'ou Cheilinus rhodochrous

pualu surgeon fish Acanthurus xanthopterus
and A. mata

puhi eel Muraenidae

puhi (tohe) white eel Conger cinereus

rol blue spotted grouper Cephalopholis argus

saba Japanese mackerel Scomber japonicus

taape blue-lined snapper Lutjanus kasmira

toau snapper Lutjanus fulvus

uhu parrot fish Scaridae

172

Local Name Common Name Scientific Name

ukikiki (Gindai) snapper Pristipomoides zonatus

uku gray snapper Aprion virescens

ulaula (ehu) red snapper Etelis marshi

ulaula koae (onaga) red snapper Etelis carbunculus,

ulua jack crevalle Carangidae

ulua kihikihi (kagami) thread crevalle Alectis ciliaris and A. indica

ulua omilu (hoshi) blue crevalle Caranx melampygus

uouoa false mullet Neomyxus leuciscus

upapalu cardinal fish Apogon kallopterus

U'u (menpachi) squirrel fish Myripristis amaenus, M. murdiam,
M. kuntee
U'ukanipo squirrel fish Holocentridae V
walu oil fish Ruvettus pretiosus

weke goat fish Mulloidichthys sp.

weke a'a spotted goat fish Mulloidichthys flavolineatus

weke-pueo (pahula) goat fish Upeneus arge

weke-ula red goat fish Mulloidichthys pflugeri, and
M. vanicolensis

State of Hawaii, Division of Fish and Game

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by Margo Stahl under the
direction of Stanley Swerdloff and with assistance from
Glenn Higashi, Anders Sweetland, Cynthia Baca,' Skippy Hau,
and Katharine Price. Many of the drawings are reproduced
from illustrations prepared by Robert Hill, under contract
with the University of Hawaii Pacific Urban Studies and
Planning Program, and have appeared in various issues of
the Sea Grant Hawaii Coastal Zone Newsletter.

The preparation of this report was financed in part
by the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended,
administered by the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United
States Department of Commerce. In the State of Hawaii,
the lead agency for the Coastal Zone Management Program
is the Department of Planning Eid Economic Development.

illiellillilliffill I
- 3 6668 14104 0743 1 1
I
t I
.I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I
I
I
-1
I
J
I
-- -1 1 @ I I