fish and wildlife resource inventory of the Cook Inlet-Kodiak areas

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

A FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCE INVENTORY

OF THE COOK INLET-KODIAK AREAS

VOLUME 1 WILDLIFE

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1976

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VOLUME 1 WILDLIFE

US Department of Commerce
NOAA Coastal Services Center Library
2234 South Hobson Avenue
Charleston, SC 29405-2413

COMPILED BY THE ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME UNDER
CONTRACT TO THE ALASKA COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM DIVISION OF
POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

VOLUME I STUDY TEAM
EDwAm G. KLINKHART WILLIAM B. DRisKELL

CARTOGRAPHIC STAFF
SUSIE M. ELSNER PAMELA D. JOSEPH
VIRGINIA A. FOSTER MARY Lu LARSON

KAREN RuSSEH

1976

THIS PROJECT WAS SUPPORTED, IN PARTj BY @E FEDERAL COASTAL
ZONE MWGEIIENT PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT FUNDS L. -583 , SEC-
TION 306), GRANTED TO THE STATE OF ALASKA BY THE OFFICE OF
COASTAL ZONE MAAAGEMENT, NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATmosPHERIC
/bMINISTRATION, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF C"ERCE.

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KODIAK

ALASKA

LOCATION t.,',AP COOK INLET-KODIAK AREA

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GAME ,.iAr,.AGE-f.',ENT UINITS AND SUBUNITS

VOLUME 1 - WILDLIFE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................. 1

Black Bear ................................................... 3

Unit 9 .................................................. 7
Unit 14 ................................................. 8
Harvest, Unit 14 ........................................ 10
Unit 15 ................................................. 11
Harvest, Unit 15 .......................................... 13
Unit 16 ................................................. 14
Harvest, Unit 16 ........................................ 18
Selected References ..................................... 19

Brown-Grizzly Bear ........................................... 20

Unit 8 .................................................. 25
Harvest, Unit 8 ......................................... 29
Unit 9 .................................................. 31
Harvest, Unit 9 ......................................... 33
Unit 14 ................................................. 36
Harvest, Unit 14 ........................................ 38
Unit 15 .................................................. 39
Harvest, Unit 15 ........................................ 41
Unit 16 ................................................. 42
Harvest, Unit 16 ........................................ 44
Selected References ..................................... 46

Caribou ...................................................... 49

Unit 9 .................................................. 52
Unit 15 ................................................. 53
Harvest, Units 7 and 15 ................................. 55
Selected References ..................................... 57

Reindeer ..................................................... 58

Sitka Black-tailed Deer ...................................... 60

Unit 8 .................................................. 64
Harvest, Unit 8, 1966-74 ................................ 69
Harvest, Unit 8, 1974 ................................... 70
Distribution of 1974 Unit 8 Harvest ..................... 71
Harvest, Unit 8 Subunits ................................ 72
Map, Unit 8 Subunits .................................... 73
Selected References ..................................... 74

Elk ............................................................. 76

Unit 8 ..................................................... 79
Harvest, Unit 8, 1974 ...................................... 82
Afognak Elk Harvest, 1950-75 ............................... 83
Selected References ........................................ 84

Mountain Goat ................................................... 85

Unit 8 ...... 88
Harvest, Unit 8, 1968-74 ................................... 91
Harvest Statistics, Unit 8, 1974 ........................... 92
Sex and Age Composition, Unit 8 ............................ 93
Unit 15 .................................................... 94
Harvest, Unit 15, 1969-74 .................................. 95
Selected References ........................................ 96

Moose ........................................................... 98

Unit 9 ..................................................... 102
Harvest, Unit 9, 1964-74 ................................... 104
Hunter Success, Unit 9 ..................................... 105
Unit 14 ........ 106
Harvest, Subuni@**1'4*A*,*'1*9*7*0*-*7*5'.*******.*''*.**** ...
Harvest, Subunit 14C, 1965-75 .............................. 112
Unit 15 .................................................... 113
Harvest, Unit 15, 1965-75 .................................. 117
Harvest, Subunit 15B ....................................... 118
Harvest, Subunit 15C, 1961-75 .............................. 119
unit 16 ..................................................... 120
Harvest, Unit 16, 1969-75 .................................. 124
Selected References ........................................ 125

Dall Sheep, Unit 8 .............................................. 127

Furbearers and Small Game ........................................ 128

Beaver ..................................................... 130
Harvest, Beaver ............................................ 133
Coyote ..................................................... 134
Land Otter ................................................. 135
Lynx ....................................................... 138
Marten ..................................................... 139
Mink ........................................................ 141
Muskrat .................................................... 142
Porcupine .................................................. 144
Ptarmigan .................................................. 146
Red Fox .................................................... 148
Red Squirrel ............................................... 150
Snowshoe Hare .............................................. 151

Spruce Grouse .............................................. 154
Weasel ..................................................... 155
wolf ....................................................... 157
Wolverine .................................................. 160
Wolverine Harvest, Unit 15 ................................. 163

Marine Mammals .................................................. 164

Harbor Seals ............................................... 168
Cook Inlet Seal Bounty ..................................... 173
Seal Pup Harvest, Tugidak Island ........................... 175
Tugidak Island Seal Surveys ................................ 176

Sea Lion ................................................... 177
Summary of Sea Lion Rookery and Hauling Ground Counts ...... 187

Sea Otter .................................................. 189
Sea Otter Surveys, Kenai Peninsula ......................... 194

Whales ..................................................... 198
Pelagic Whale Catch in the Gulf of Alaska .................. 207

Selected References ........................................ 208

Waterfowl ....................................................... 210

Waterfowl Sport Hunting .................................... 210
Sport Hunting Statistics ................................... 212
Nonconsumptive Recreational Use ............................ 213
Sport Hunting Statistics by Location ....................... 214

Waterfowl Production ....................................... 217
Cook Inlet Coastal Marshes ................................. 217
Breeding Bird Populations .................................. 219
Breeding Ducks Per Square Mile of Habitat .................. 221
Duck Production on Cook Inlet Uplands ...................... 222
Other Production Areas ..................................... 223
Goose Production Areas ..................................... 223
Swans ...................................................... 224

General Waterfowl Distribution ............................. 226
Winter ..................................................... 226
Spring and Fall ............................................ 227
Winter Surveys, Lower Cook Inlet ........................... 228
Ducks and Geese in Lower Cook Inlet ........................ 237
Winter Surveys, Kachemak Bay ............................... 238

Ducks and Geese on South Side of Alaska Peninsula ........... 240
Ducks and Geese on Kodiak Island ............................ 241
Marine Bird Surveys, Kodiak Island .......................... 242

Rare and Endangered Species ................................. 244

Critical Habitat ................ ........................... 245
Specific Critical Habitats .................................. 248
Other Important Habitats .................................... 250

Map 1, Palmer Hayflats, Jim-Swan Lake, Goose Bay ............ 252
Map 2, Susitna Flats ........................................ 253
Map 3, Chickaloon Flats ..................................... 254
Map 4, Portage .............................................. 255
Map 5, Trading and Redoubt Bays ............................. 256
Map 6, Fox River Flats ...................................... 257

Seabird Colonies ............................................ 258

INTRODUCTION

The Cook Inlet-Kodiak area contains some of the most diverse geography,

weather patterns and wildlife to be found anywhere in Alaska.

The storm-swept Kodiak Archipelago (Game Management Unit 8) is known

world wide as the home of the "Kodiak" brown bear. Roosevelt Elk have

been introduced and occur only on Raspberry and Afognak Islands. Abundant

marine mammal populations can be found along the extensive coastline. The

habitat on these islands varies from rolling, windswept treeless tundra to

solid stands of mature Sitka spruce. Some of the mountains reach up over

4,000 feet.

In contrast to the Kodiak Island group, which is an entity unto its

own, the Cook Inlet area (Game Management Units 9, 14, 15, 16) is comprised

of many physiographic features. Abundant wildlife populations occur

throughout the area. The Kenai and Aleutian Mountain Ranges give way to

flatlands that surround the waters cf Cook Inlet. The coastal area is

diverse. The northern shoreline is not particularly productive because

of glacial siltation, but the southern shores are fertile habitat for sea

birds and marine mammals. The western side of Cook Inlet and the Pacific

side of the Aleutian Range consists of rugged mountains that end abruptly

at the sea, leaving a rugged coastline.

The Kodiak-Cook Inlet area contains several large human population

centers, and on the Kenai Peninsula, an extensive road system that intersects

some prime winter moose range. Several hundred moose-vehicle collisions

occur along this road system annually. The highway system does, however,

allow access to the area for recreational use. Some major conflicts have

occurred between cattle grazing and brown bears on Kodiak. Oil and gas

exploration and petrochemical developments have taken place on the Kenai

Peninsula and in Cook Inlet, but most wildlife conflicts appear to be

minimal. Proposed mining and logging activities in the Susitna Valley

and along the western side of Cook Inlet pose potential wildlife problems.

The maps with the report identify seasonal distribution and

movements, high density areas, critical habitat zones and areas of

particular concern, map coverage includes the costal waters, beach

fringes and uplands which have a direct or significant impact on the

wildlife resources of the area.

The accompanying wildlife narrative section provides information

relative to the big game, furbearers, small game, waterfowl, seabirds and

marine mammals shown on the maps. Narrative accounts of life histories

are restricted to information specific to area and species. Recreational

and subsistence information by area and type of user, and distribution

and abundance as related to habitat zones is presented for each species.

It is imperative that those who use this report recognize that wildlife

populations are a viable, ever-changing resource. The information contained

herein is as up to date as possible, but changing land tenure, human use

and development and a multitude of natural factors require that our data

be continuously gathered and updated.

Most of the wildlife information in this report was obtained from

Alaska Department of Fish and Game biologists who reside in the area.

Additional contributions were made by other staff members and from members

of other wildlife resource agencies. These contributions are greatfully

acknowledged.

BLACK BEAR

The black bear (Ursus americanuis), the smallest of the North

American bear, is bulky in build and is quite variable in size depending

on sex, age, and time of year. As adults, black bears stand about 26

inches at the shoulders and measure about 60 inches from nose to tail.

An average adult male in summer weighs 180-200 pounds, with few exceeding

300 pounds. Female average weight is somewhat lighter than males. Fall

specimens weigh 20 to 30 percent more than equivalent spring specimens.

The usual color of the black bear is jet black with a distinctive

brown muzzle and a small white chest patch.

In Alaska, black bears are distributed over about three-fourths of

the state with no consistent records of the species north of the Brooks

Range, on the Seward Peninsula, the Kuskokwim Delta, the Alaska Pen-

insula south of the Branch River, or on the islands in southeastern

Alaska north of Frederick Sound. They are also absent from some of the

large islands of the Gulf of Alaska, notably Kodiak, Montague, and

Hinchinbrook.

The black bear is a forest species, and in Alaska it's distribution

coincides closely with distribution of forests. It has a decided

preference for open forests rather than heavy timber and maximum pop-

ulations generally occur in areas of broken habitat types. Semi-open

forest areas composed primarily of fruit-bearing shrubs and herbs, lush

grasses and succulent forbs are particularly favored. Expansive open

areas are generally avoided by black bears.

Very little is known of the abundance of the black bear in Alaska.

Areas of high relative abundance are known to occur, such as Prince of

Wales Island in southeastern Alaska. Elsewhere in the state black bear

numbers are likely to be more sparse than in the southern climates where

foraging seasons are longer and richer food complexes (fish) will favor

greater densities.

Black bears have very poor eyesight but their senses of smell and

hearing are well-developed.

Both sexes attain sexual maturity at approximately 3-1/2 yearsl

though females may not breed until 5 or 6. Breeding takes place from

about mid-June through mid.-July (Rausch, 1961).

Gestation lasts approximately 7 months, however almost no active

embryonic growth occurs during the first half of pregnancy. This is due

to a delay in the implanting of the embryo (delayed implantation).

Implantation of the embryo occurs in early December (Winsatt, 1964).

Following first conception, breeding occurs during alternate years

unless the cubs are lost or separated from the mother prior to or during

the following breeding season (Erickson, 1964).

Young are born during late January or February while the mother is

winter denned. At birth the cubs weigh only 8 to 10 ounces, the eyes

are closed and they have little hair. The normal litter is 2, but a

litter of 3 or 4 is not uncommon. Litter sizes observed in late summer

and early fall suggest a low cub mortality. Upon emerging from the den

in May the cubs weigh about 5 pounds and are covered with fine woolly

hair. Cubs are very precocious. Black bear cubs as young as five

months have survived with no maternal care.

Cubs are normally weaned by September when they are 8 months old.

They apparently remain with their mother through the first hibernation

period following their birth.

The life expectancy of black bears in the wild is unknown, but is

probably much shorter than the 25 years attained by some captive bears.

The winter-denning period of the black bear is variable as to time

and duration depending upon location and the animal's physical con-

dition. Denning in Alaska will usually begin in October and extend

through April and into May. Females with cubs usually emerge from dens

later and den earlier than single bears. This is not considered true

hibernation as they do occasionally emerge from their dens. 'Warm

weather, particularly if flooding of the den results, is often associated

with bears leaving dens for a short period. A few black bears have been

seen moving about in deep snow.

The location selected for dens varies considerably. Most black

bears favor dens dug beneath logs, or in holes dug into hillsides,

although a few bears over-winter with little or no shelter at all. Some

bears will spend considerable amounts of time constructing elaborate

dens lined with leaves, ferns and other vegetable matter.

The diet of the black bear in Alaska is imprecisely known and is

variable depending on the portion of the state in which they live. Bears

are omnivorous and are opportunistic when it comes to food, and simple

food availability is one of the most important factors governing food

habits.

Upon emergence in the spring, grasses, sedges, and other early-

appearing herbaceous plants appear to constitute the bulk of the diet.

After mid-July and throughout the fall a variety of berries such as

blueberry, low bush cranberry, high bush cranberry, elderberry, and

Arctic blueberry become the most important food utilized by Alaska's

interior black bears (Hatler, 1972). However, in areas where salmon

occur, black bears food habits change to salmon as they become available.

Animal food, however, constitutes only a minor portion of the black

bears total food intake. Hatler (1972) states that animal food, constitutes

less than 15 percent of the annual diet, is apparently taken whenever it

is obtainable, and is frequently carrion. Invertebrates (particularly

insects) along coast areas are also sought by bears. The black bear

will take an occasional prey animal, but is of little significance as a

predator. Black bears, as with most bears, have been known to be

cannibalistic.

Although quite wary of man, some black bears frequent garbage dumps

in populated areas, often being encouraged as tourist attractions. Such

bears frequently raid human dwellings, which results in-a wasteful

mortality of these nuisance animals.

Mortality factors affecting bear populations are for the most part

unidentified. In accessible and kahabited areas, hunting and other

human activities are the most significant. Relatively unexploited

populations appear naturally limited by other, unidentified factors.

Parasites infestations of black bear are generally low. Endo-

parasites, such as roundworms, tapeworms, lungworm, hookworms and

filariid worms are common. Trichinae give the most cause for public

concern, as most bears are infected by this parasite. All bear meat

should be well-cooked before eating.

BLACK BEAR - UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

Black bears are considered a minor species in this region as they

occur in low numbers and are confined generally to the northern portion

of the unit. Although population numbers are low, the species range is

felt to be expanding. Previously, the southern range limit was

described as the sparse spruce forest habitat below Lake Iliamna

or the Iniskin-Chinitna Bay area, however; sightings have been

reported in Katmai National Monument and on the Douglas River

(Jim Faro, A.D.F.&G., pers. comm.).

Black bears are seldom hunted in this unit although a few are

taken on guided hunts. Most are taken incidental to hunting of

other big game or even to fishing. Apparently, local residents

take a few bears for food when they are readily available. This

use was probably more important in the past than it is today.

Harvest for 1975 was estimated to be less than 20 animals with

the effort evenly split between sport and local domestic uses.

The population levels are too low to justify any potential

non-consumptive uses.

Generally speaking, most factors impacting the brown bears will

likewise impact the black bears.

BLACK BEAR -- UNIT 14 (ANCHORAGE)

Black bears are present throughout Unit 14 in varying abundance.

Although population figures are not available densities are considered

fairly high in the central portion of Subunit 14A. (J. Didrickson,

Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Palmer, pers. comm.). In the southern

portion, Subunit 14C (including the Anchorage vicinity), densities

are moderate (D. Harkness, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage,

pers. comm.). It is doubtful that black bear populations in this

unit were ever much higher than they are at present, except in what is

now metropolitan Anchorage. Even here, the suburban areas support

good numbers of bears, as attested by numerous public complaints

in the spring.

Little explicit information is available regarding distribution and

habitat requirements of black bears within this region, however, the

population is considered to be typical of the species.

The bears appear usually in early May and are presumed to migrate

to available food areas in lowlands, to southern exposed slopes and to

local dumps. later in the season, concentrations may be seen for

periods on salmon streams, moose calving grounds or berry patches,

but usually they are dispersed throughout the drainages below 2,000

feet. Some areas of noted concentrations occur along the Susitna and

Little Susitna Rivers in spring; in Hunter Creek drainage (south of Knik

River Flats) in August, and in the lower Eagle River-Fort Richardson

area beginning in July (J. Didrickson and D. Harkness, pers. comm.).

Denning occurs by early October and appears to be dispersed

throughout the region.

Harvest from this unit is most accurately termed an "incidental

sport" harvest. This implies that most of the harvest occurs

opportunistically while hunting another species or by chance encounter.

In many cases the carcass is salvaged for meat.

Historical records of harvest were essentially non-existant until

the hide sealing regulation became effective in July, 1973. Even in the

short period since that date, the recorded harvest has shown dramatic

fluctuations. This is related to the subjective "presence" of black

bear. Due to some unknown distribution factor, in some years, bears

are common and other years, very few are visible. In 1974, harvest

was low, totaling 28 for the entire unit. In 1975, the harvest

rebounded, taking 97 bears throughout the unit. This difference appears

to be a shift in distribution and not a population fluctuation over a

one-year period.

The harvest is taken almost entirely by resident hunters. This

current level of pressure does not appear to have affected bear numbers

to any significant degree. Hunting in the area east of Anchorage

has probably been a beneficial damper on annual fluctuations of bear

numbers. Extremely high bear populations could create problems in

Anchorage during the spring.

BLACK BEAR HARVEST UNIT 14 (ANCHORAGE)

Total Mean Skull Mean Skull
Year Subunit Harvest Male Female Unknown Size Male Size Female
19731 14A 42 24 17 1 17.6(21) 15.6(15)
14B 22 19 2 1 16.8(16) 13.6(l)
14A or B 3 0 3 0 -- 15.3(2)
14C 6 5 1 0 17.6

1974 14A 17 29 8 0 17.3(7) 15.9(5)
14B 7 19 2 3 17.8(2) 14.9(2)
14C 4 3 0 1 16.6
1
1975 14A 65 33 23 9 16.1(27) 15.6(22)
14B 15 8 5 2 15.6(7) 15.2(4)
14C 17 14 1 2 16.7

1) 1973 data from period July 1 to December 31.

All data extracted from hide and skull sealing forms.

BLACK BEAR - UNIT 15 (KENAI)

Black bear occur in moderately high abundance throughtout the

western half of the Kenai Peninsula. With the total population estimated

between 1,000 to 3,000 bears (P. LeRoux, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G.,

Soldotna, pers. comm.). Their distribution is generally widespread

through this region with the exception of a locally reduced population

in the vicinity of Homer (i.e. - result of local hunting efforts).

This unit is considered to be prime habitat for black bear. The

topography of the region provides an ideal broad lowland area from

the shores of Cook Inlet to the base of the Kenai Mountains. This

area not only possesses high density moose calving areas but also

provides profuse spring vegetation. Spring foraging habits are

similar to other areas with preferred foods being grasses, sedges,

horsetails, carrion and when available, moose calves. High density

concentrations of black bears are known to occur on the moose calving

grounds in the northern portion of the unit. Concentrations also have

been observed in the early spring on the bluff west of Chickaloon Flats

(C. Irvine, Game Biologist, A.D.F. &G., Anchorage, pers. comm.) and

tracks noted on the Flats in the intertidal zone (L. Miller, Game

Technician, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.).

Due to the abundance of forage in this area, differences may

exist between the seasonal movements of this population in comparison

to those of a more mountainous region. Indeed, it is suggested that

some bears probably never leave the lowlands.

Spring habitat is probably not critically limited throughout

most of this area.

Red, pink and silver salmon appear in the major streams in late

July and August and are sought by black bears. By mid-August, high-

bush and lowbush cranberries, blueberries, elderberries, bearberries

and crowberries make up a large part of the diet of those bears

using the alpine-subalpine habitat. Food habits of bears in the lowlands

late summer-fall period are not clearly defined. The late silver salmon run

in Swanson River is felt to be an important food source (P. LeRoux, pers.-.

comm.

Denning sites appear to be widely distributed throughout Unit 15.

Timing is variable but denning generally occurs in late-September.

Historical data on black bear harvest is very sparse. In 1969,

a voluntary multiple species questionnaire first gathered a partial

representation of the harvest. Later, in July of 1973, a mandatory

program of sealing black bear hides and skulls was initiated. Trend

predictions from this current data base must be judiciously speculative

in application.

Sport harvest from this unit is currently moderate, averaging

71 bears in 1974 and 1975. This average is considerably below the

1973 harvest when 71 bears were sealed in the fall alone; the estimate

for the entire year was approximately 90 bears. The difference is

partially due to the incidental nature of the hunt; as moose harvest

effort declined or shifted, so, too, did black bear harvest.

Additionally, the relative abundance of black bear appeared reduced

in this unit in 1974 (S. Linderman, Area Biologist, A.D.P.&G., unpublished

data). It is generally believed that black bear populations fluctuate

independently of hunting pressure in most areas.

Peak harvest generally occurs in May and September with the

overall harvest predominantly in the fall. The present harvest is

probably below the level of harvest the unit can sustain. Since

black bears are a relatively low density species and are not readily

visible in their forest habitat, they are not easily overharvested.

It is suggested that the harvest is predominantly recreational

with less than 50% of the hunters utilizing the meat. Non-residents

take an average 10% of the harvest (P. LeRoux, pers. comm.).

Black Bear Harvest - Unit 15 (Kenai)

Total No. %
Season Harvest No.Males %Males Non-resident Non-resident

Fall '73 69 38 55 8 11

Spring '74 14 9 64
Fall '74 53 33 62
Total 67 42 63 15 22

Spring '75 30 19 63
Fall '75 46 26 56
Total 76 45 59 6 7

Data extracted from A.D.F.&G. hide sealing forms.

BLACK BEAR - UNIT 16 (LOWER SUSITNA)

Black bear information from this unit is currently very sketchy.

Although generally acknowledged as a common species, black bears

are only occasionally visible throughout most of their habitat due

to the terrain and vegetative cover. Estimates of total population

are unknown, however; in some lowland and in certain years, alpine

areas, reasonably high seasonal densities are annually observed,

indicating the population is "healthy".

Little explicit information is available regarding ranging,

distribution and habitat requirements within this region. Generally,

the bears become visible beginning in early May in the lowlands and

on the river flats. An area of high spring density has been noted

in tl,,.e flatlands around the mouth of the Susitna River and in the

region between the Yenta and Susitna Rivers. (J. Didrickson, Area

Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Palmer, pers. comm.) Typical spring food

consists of grasses, sedges (Carex), horsetails (Equisetum), carrion

and possibly, moose calves for a short period in late May and June.

Fish provide a significant portion of the black bear's diet in

early spring. Sockeye salmon begin first appearing in the streams

in late May followed by silver salmon in July. Several streams, such

as the Little Susitna River, receive intensive use during these

spawning runs. In early August, some attention is turned to blueberries,

elderberries, lowbush and highbush cranberries, bearberries and

crowberries.

During some years, bears appear above timberline in the alpine

habitat in the fall. The reasons for this occasional appearance

are unknown.

Denning appears to be variable in timing, but usually occurs

in late September. Trend data is lacking to establish the preferred

denning habitat.

By late spring, the lowland vegetation has become profuse enough

to effectively conceal the bear's movements from the air.

Aerial surveys of alpine habitat in October, 1974 found fewer

bears in the northern portion of the unit (Peters Hills, Dutch Hills)

than in the southern portion (Yenlo Hills, Beluga Mountains and

Mt. Susitna). An additional survey, four days later, found a lesser

number in the southern portion and no bears in the northern portion.

This may suggest a differential denning movement keyed to some unknown

factor(s) (e.g. - accumulating snowfall, diminishing food resources)

(R. Modaferri, Game Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.).

Proposed radio tracking studies in this area should provide

essential details regarding typical daily and seasonal movements

of black bears. It is essential to obtain this range and distribution

data in order to define critical habitats and events in the life

history of the black bear.

In past years, the black bear generally has been regarded as

an incidental big game species. Harvest pressure has been light and

management attention minimal. On July 1, 1973, a hide and sealing

program was initiated to begin providing background data for future

management programs. Prior to this time, no comprehensive harvest

data had been recorded.

Harvest of this species appears from year to year to be quite

variable. This is due to a number of factors. The peak recorded

harvest of 140 bears from subunit 16B in 1973 coincides with the

chronology of the peak moose harvest in that subunit. This indicates

that a significant portion of the harvest is opportunistic and incidental

to the hunting of other species.

In 1976, the bear hide sealing form will be amended to gather

information regarding incidental versus primary objectives of the

bear harvest effort.

The level of harvest also seems to vary with the subjective

11presence" of bear. The same years that bears are not locally

visible, harvest is decreased.. Without credible distribution data,

the implications are not clear. However, it primarily suggests the

bears are preferentially utilizing various habitats rather than

relying upon a site specific one. This suggestion agrees with the

impression of the black bear's "adaptable" nature.

Another factor affecting level of harvest has been the "fair

chase" regulation, effective July 1, 1974, adding black bear to the

list of big Same species which may not be hunted the same day an

individual is airborne. Removing the opportunity for black bear

hunters to spot bears from the air and shoot them on.the same day

could be very effective in reducing the harvest or. this wary species

in a unit where air transportation is important. The impact of this

regulation is not yet clearly discernable.

Black bear hunting is popular in the spring when they are the

only species of big game that can be legally taken. Hunters seek

bears shortly after the bears emerge from hibernation when their

hair is longest and the hide is of excellent quality. Hide quality

deteriorates as the winter hair is shed and rubbed spots appear,

and most sport hunting ceases by mid-June as a consequence. The

harvest of males is greatest in the spring because they leave the

den before females and because females accompanied by cubs are protected

by regulation.

Sport hunting of bears resumes in September when hides have

improved in quality and continues until bears den for the winter.

Black bears suport considerable use at this time but many of the

bears harvested are taken incidental to hunts for other species.

The proportion of females in the fall harvest is greater in comparison

to the spring harvest due to a greater availability of sows that have

become naturally separated from grown cubs.

Permits were requested by a small number of people in 1975 to

allow the use of bounds for black bear hunting. This may be the

beginning for Alaska of a popular and traditional sport practiced

throughout other states.

in terms of "subsistence" effort, the motives of black bear

hunters are not precisely defined. Historically, the regulations

have not required sealing of the hide in order to accommodate both

the meat and trophy hunters. The regulations did not require the

trophy hunter to pack out the carcass for meat nor the meat hunter

to pack out the hide and skull for sealing. The 1976 hide sealing

program will be amended to filially delineate the difference between.

these respective efforts.

Under comparative intensive management throughout the contiguous

states, harvest figures typically indicate the average animals taken

are from the yearling to two-year-old age classes. Preliminary studies

of the Alaskan harvest indicates the average is from an older age

class. These differences imply that the Alaskan black bear population

likely has a large harvest potential (R. Modaferri, Game Biologist,

.A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, in progress.)

Because of a paucity of available data, it is currently difficult

to assess the sensitivity of black bear to environmental impacts.

Logically, the destruction of preferred habitats will. reduce the
17

density of bears, however; the nature of the impact may vary the

bear's response. For example, proposed dam construction on the

Susitna River simply will remove available habitat but continued

human encroachment will likely amplify the bear's notoriety as garbage

scavengers (and human nuisance). The total effects of proposed

clearcutting and open pit mining in this unit are not well understood.

Black Bear Harvest Unit 16(Lower Susitna)

Total No. Mean Skull
Year Subunit Harvest Males 2/ % Males Size Male 3/
19731/ 16A 15 8 62 1-5.2(8)
16B 140 88 68 16.7(72)
16A or B 1 0 0 (0)

1974 16A 15 9 64 15.7(9)
16B 49 34 72 17.1(31)
16A or B 2 1 50 17.6(l)

1975 16A 18 12 75 15.8(10)
16B 100 63 73 16.8(53)
16A or B 1 1 100 17.2(l)

1) 1973 data for period July 1 December 31.
2) Percentage based on known sex of bears.
3) Skull sample size in parenthesis.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat.
Anchorage, Alaska. 143 pp + 563 maps.

. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource inventory of
the Northeast Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp, 757 pp. +
128 maps).

Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1952. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 284 pp.

Didrickson, J.C. and D. Cornelius. 1975. Black bear survey-inventory
annual report. Game Management Units 14 & 16. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

Dufresne, F. 1946. Alaska's animals and fishes. A.S. Barnes and Co.,
N.Y. 279 pp.

Erickson, A.W. and W.C. Youatt. 1961. Seasonal variations in the hematology
and physiology of black bears. J. Mamm. 42(2):198-203.

. 1965. The black bear in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish and
Gntme. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-6-R-5.

Hall, R.E. and K.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Roland
Press. New York. Vol. I and 11. 1,083 pp.

Hatler, D.F. 1972. Food habits of black bears in interior Alaska. Can.
Field Nat. (86(l):17-31.

Johnson, L. 1971. The black bear in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish
and Game. Wild. Notebook Series. 2 pp.

LeRoux, P.A. 1971. Black bear survey-inventory annual report. Game
Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Black bear survey-inventory annual report. Game
Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-4.

1974. Black Bear survey-inventory annual report. Game
Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-5.

1975. Black bear survey-inventory annual report. Game
Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-6.

Manville, R.H. and S.P. Young. 1965. Distribution of Alaskan mammals.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. Cir. 211. 74 pp.

Walker, E.P. et al. 1964. Mammals of the world. John's Hopkins Press.
Baltimore. Vol. I and 11. 1,500 pp.

BROWN-GRIZZLY BEAR

The brourn-grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) are the largest animals of

the genus, with the Alaskan brown-grizzly bears the largest of all

carnivores. Most taxonomists now believe that the brown bear and

grizzly bear are all of a single species. Brown bears on the Kodiak-

Afognak Island group are a reproductively isolated population with

distinctive cranial features, and are considered a separate subspecies.

However, reference to the brown bear implies southern coastal populations;

whereas, reference to the grizzly bear indicates northern and interior

Alaska populations.

The brown bear resembles its close relative the black bear, Ursus

americanus. The brown bear, however, is usually large, has a more

prominent shoulder hump and longer, straighter claws. Other characteristics

such as the shape and relative massiveness of the head help to differentiate

these species. Color is not a reliable key in differentiating these

bears for both species have many color phases.

Mature males weigh between 500 to 900 pounds with extremely large

individuals weighing as much as 1,400 pounds. Females weigh one-half

to three-quarters as much as equivalent aged males in given locales. An

extremely large brown bear may have a skull approaching 18 inches in

length. Such a bear when standing on its hind feet is about nine feet

tall. Inland, bears are usually smaller than coastal bears; perhaps

because they lack the rich supply of fish.

The Alaska brown-grizzly bear is common over most of the state.

They inhabit the Alaskan Peninsula, Kodiak and Afognak Islands,

Montague and Hinchinbrook Islands in Prince William Sound and Baranof,

Chichagof and Admiralty Islands in southeastern Alaska.

Although there are no precise data on the abundance of brown-

grizzly bears in the state, there is a general understanding of the

species' status. Numerous attempts to determine the abundance of brown-

grizzly bears in various portions of the state have met with little

success except to yield minimum estimates and to provide information on

their relative abundance.

Brown bears are probably as abundant in the state as during earlier

times, except where they have been displaced by man. Definite reductions

in bear numbers have occurred near human population centers. A marked

reduction has occurred on the Chiniak portion of Kodiak Island, where

conflicts between livestock interests and brown bears are common.

Tagging studies have shown that bear movements are confined to

limited areas and movements in excess of 30 miles are unusual. Burns

and Hensel, (1972) state that in the Kodiak National Wildlife Rcfuge the

size of individual activity areas, established by eight bears, averaged

5.5 square miles and four bears used two activity area each that averaged

5.7 square miles in size. Activities were associated with food gathering

and winter denning. Fixed frequency and location indicated that the 14

bears studied spent 50 percent of their time in lowland habitat.

The breeding biology of brown-grizzly bears is reasonably well

known. Both sexes usually attain sexual maturity at 3 1/2 to 4 1/2

years. Females mature as early as 2 1/2 years while others are 6 1/2

years old at first breeding. Males are usually sexually mature by 4 1/2

years of age.

Matings take place from May through July with the peak of activity

in early June. Brown bears generally do not have strong mating ties,

but individual bears have been observed remaining with their mates for

over a month. The hairless young, weighing less than a pound, are born

the following January or February in a winter den. Litter size ranges

from one to four cubs; two are most common.

The large size attained in several months' growth by coastal brown

bear cubs compared to interior cubs suggests the differences are largely

caused by environment rather than by genetics. A richer food supply,

particularly protein-rich salmon, is generally available to coastal

bears. The foraging period of coastal bear cubs is also several months

longer than that of interior bear cubs which spend more time denning.

The gestation period, usually about 245 days, includes a relatively

long period of delayed implantation, when the blastocyst lies nearly

dormant. Implantation usually occurs in October or November.

The cubs remain with their mothers through their second year of

life. Female brown bears give birth to a new litter every two or three

years. There is strong evidence that the usual interval between litters

is three years.

Maximum life span in the wild is unknown, though captives have

lived to be 30 years old. Age determinations of wild bears using tooth

cementum aging techniques suggest that some bears reach their late 20's.

Cub and yearling litters observed in summer average slightly in

excess of two, suggesting a high survival rate for cubs from conception

to family breakup. However, it is possible that natural mortality

affecting litters may most often involve the entire litter rather than

individual cubs, thereby masking the true extent of mortality.

During winter, bears experience a period of dormancy which they

spend in dens. During this time their body temperature drops, and their

general metabolic rate is reduced. This is not considered complete

hibernation since they do occasionally emerge from their dens to forage,

particularly during spells of warm weather and during years when food is

scare prior to denning.

Bears usually enter dormancy in November and December and emerge

during April or May. The den is often a natural shelter between tree

roots or rocks or may be an excavation dug by the bear itself. Dens are

most common at high elevations near- timber-line, but may be found

anywhere from sea level to alpine areas. On the Alaska Peninsula and

Kodiak, dens are usually located in the alder, willow and grass zone,

and are often lined with grass and leaves.

The precise habitat requirements of brown-grizzly bears,are unknown,

but they are seemingly most at home in open tundra and grassland areas.

Even where they occur in forested areas, as in southeastern Alaska,

substantial mountain meadows, muskegs, sedge flats, and other grassland

areas are present. Perhaps the best indication of habitat requirements

is the fact that the most dense populations occur in lush grassland

communities, as on Kodiak Island and Alaska Peninsula. Grassland types

appear especially critical for bears during the spring, when other high

quality foods are scarce.

The brown-grizzly bear is an opportunist and will feed on game or

domestic animals when it is available. The brown bear is probably not a

significant predator on big game species except possibly during spring

when the young are most vulnerable. Bears are fond of carrion and will

feed on carcasses of any animals they come across. Some instances of

cannibalism have been recorded. As a rule, animal matter constitutes a

lesser but important portion of the grizzly bear's diet. An exception is

coastal areas where abundant salmon comprise a major segment of the

summer and early fall diet.

Bears often congregate where food is abundant, and may be seen

fishing side by side in salmon streams. On July 28, 1970, thirty-one

brown bears were seen fi shing at McNeil River falls a'C one time.

Human activities are the most significant mortality source. Sport

hunting is presently the most important human-related mortality factor,

but there is also a high mortality of nuisance bears near inhabited

areas. Often situations attractive to bears, such as garbage dumps and

free-ranging livestock, are responsible for conflicts ending in the

bear's death. Factors limiting remote and unexploited populations are

largely unknown. of all Alaska's wildlife, brown-grizzly bears are

probably least compatible with human activities. Without special

consideration, their numbers will be markedly reduced where substantial

and sustained human occupation and confrontation occur. Even with

protection, a certain amount of conflict and consequent attribution of

bears can be expected. The whole history of the species on this continent

has followed this pattern, and today grizzly bears have disappeared from

most of their former range in the contiguous United States and Central

America. Their numbers have been markedly reduced over much of Canada

and in small portions of Alaska. The brown bear in Europe has suffered

a similar fate.

The eventual survival of the brown-grizzly bear may not depend

entirely on the designation of vast tracts of unspoiled "wilderness", as

shown by conflicts occurring in large national parks. Instead, the

future of the bear lies in the reassessment of human values to include

reasonable co-existence with it. Bears are not constant competitors and

the major conflicts usually have resulted from improper land planning

and classification, marginal economic pursuits, and basic misunderstanding

of bears and their behavior.

BROWN BEAR - UNIT 8 (KODIAK-ArOGNA-K)

Credible estimates of the total Kodiak brown bear population

are difficult to establish. There is general agreement amoung authorities

that the magnitude of the current population is from 1,800 to 2,500

animals. It appears that this population has declined slightly in

recent years.

Brown bears have usually begun to leave their dens by mid-

April. The bulk of the population is out by mid to late May. The

scarcity of available food in the early spring makes this probably the

most stressful period on the bear population. Depending on the depth and

persistence of the remaining snow cover, the animals concentrate

their foraging for available food on the southern exposure slopes,

the coastal fringe and even out onto the intertidal. Feeding

primarily on newly-emerging plant species such as cow parsnip, red

poque, sedges, horsetails, lupine, false hellebore and grasses; they

also will be scavenging carrion from winter kills of elk, deer and

marine mammals and may frequent the local dumps. A particularly

harsh winter with heavy spring accumulations of snow make the narrow

beach fringes critically important habitats.

Bear densities will increase at the mouths of streams and heads

of bays as vegetations become lusher and the first runs of salmon

begin (typically late May and early June for sockeye). The lower

reaches of the major salmon streams receive intensive use throughout

the spawning seasons (consult fisheries data for timing details).

Early summer finds many bears near the edge of the alpine-subalpine

zone. Considerable movement occurs between this zone and the valley

floors where fish runs appear. It is suspected that these movements,

2 ar-

in some cases, are keyed to the availability of particular food

resources. Bear food habits during this period are not well-known

but the alpine-subalpine area is probably extremely important.

Recent studies by G. Atwell (USFWS, Kodiak, 1975) on bears in the

alpine habitat will soon be available and should indicate more

explicitly the extent of foraging and associated activities in this

zone.

Although there are still daily movements betieen zones, some

bears begin to feed on ripening berries by early August. The most

important berry foods are lowbush cranberries, high-bush cranberries,

elderberries, blueberries and salmonberries. Radio-tracking

st@dies by the USFWS indicate that activity areas (the units of

habitat used to fulfill normal living requirements average 5.5

square miles and range from 1.0 to 13.9 square miles per bear.

Overland movements seem largely responsive to salmon runs in the

surrounding drainages.

Denning begins in early November although a few bears may stay

out until mid-December. On many streams, silver salmon are reaching

their peak of spawning in early November. This species may be more

important to late denning bears than previously believed.

Seventy-four bear dens discovered to date by Richard Hensel of

the USFWS were found from 100 to 3,300 feet above sea level, with most

occurring at elevations of around 1,800 feet. Most bears denned along

the lower limits of subalpine habitat (at 1,500 to 2,000 feet), probably

because of the cover provided by alder or willow thickets. In addition

to providing concealment, shrubs tend to bind the soil, thus limiting

the probability of den collapse during spring thaws. Further, the

drifting snow that accumulates within thickets may be important as an

insulating layer over dens.

North-facing slopes are most often chosen as denning sites,

perhaps as a result of the northwesterly orientation of major valley

systems. Bears evidently prefer to den on well-drained sites where

water seepage into dens is minimized and excavated material is more

easily deposited downhill. New dens are excavated each year because

thawing, seepage, and erosion destroy dens soon after abandonment.

According to Hensel, the most important features of denning habitat

are: (1) steep to gentle sloping ground; (2) semi-open areas

associated with willow or alder shrubs and (3) a relatively stable

soil substrate.

Over 2,000 bears have been taken as sport harvest from this

unit from 1961 to 1975 (annual average - 134). Non-resident success

accounts for an average 55% and has been recently increasing (69%

in 1975). In 1976, the management system will shift to complete

control by ADF&G rather than the historic system of jurisdictional

state and federal management. A tighter limited permit system is

also being initiated partially to compensate for increased hunting

pressures on what currently appears to be near maximum sustained harvest.

Subsistence effort is considered non-existent. Bear-cattle

conflicts still occur; however, the future of ranching based on

present enterprise, appears marginal.

The Karluk Lake drainage is noted as a public viewing and

photographic location. USFWS has conducted scientific studies in

the lake region and the surrounding alpine habitat.

Several immediate potential threats exist which are anticipated

to impact the bear population. Primarily, the Native Land Claims

selections will place approximately two-thirds of the island group

2 7

lands under private ownership, including nearly the entire coastal

regions. Any development of these areas will reduce available critical

spring habitat and likely increase incidental kill from bear-human

interaction. Secondly, increased hunter success is anticipated from

improved accessibility to remote areas via present and future logging

developments.

Finally, the dependence of bears on fish, although not completely

understood, is probably critical.

BROWN BEAR HARVEST - UNIT 8 (KODIAK-AFOGNAK)

Brown-Grizzly bear sport harvest, calendar years 1961 through 1975.

Calendar Total No. % No. % Mean Hide Mean Skull Mean Age/ Calendar
1 2 3/ 4
Year Kill Males Malesv Non-res. Non-res. Size Male-/ Size Male - Male Year Seasons
1961 117 77 66 73 62 17.0 25.2 1/1-5/31
J1962 131 90 69 84 64 16.4 24.8 Same
1963 109 76 70 55 50 16.3 24.6 Same
1964 121 '73 62 62 51 15.1 23.6 Same
1965 184 110 60 87 47 15.7 24.9 Same
1.966 200 107 55 97 49 15.6 23.9 Same
1967 186 107 58 92 49 15.5 23.7 5.0(14)Fall 1/5-5/20 10/1-12/31
-N,)1968 105 61 59 62 59 15.5 23.8 6.2(52) Same
CZ
1969 97 61 63 52 54 15.9 23.8 6.2(53) .1/1-5/20 10/20-12/31
1970 92 61 68 44 48 15.1 23.0 6.0(57) 3/1-5/10 10/20-12/31

continued

1) All male % based on known-sex bears.
2) Length plus width given in feet.
3) Length plus width given in inches.
4) Tooth sample size in parenthesis.

(continued) Brown-grizzly bear sport harvest, calendar years 1961 through 1975.

Calendar Total No. % No. % Mean Hide 2 Mean Skull Mean Aq Calendar
Year -Kill Males Malesl/ Non-Res. N'on-res. Size-Mal Size Male_3/ Male Year Season

1971 113 63 60 51 45 15.1 3.3 6.4(59) 3/1-5/10 10/20-12/31

1972 132 80 62 71 54 15.1 3.5 6.2(77) 3/1-5/15 10/20-12/31

1973 155 85 55 91 59 15.5 24.1 7.4(84) 3/1-5/15 10/20-12/31

1974 165 95 58 113 68 15.4 24.1 7.0(92) 3/1-5/15 10/25-12/31

1975 118 70 59 82 69 15.3 23.6 6.5(66) 3/1-5/15 10/25-12/31

CA;

BROWN BEAR - UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

Brown bears occur throughout southwestern Alaska except on

the islands west of Unimak in the Aleutian Chain. This area supports

the largest populations of brown bears found in the state, and although

precise data on abundance is lacking, there is general understanding

of the species' status. Brown bears are probably as abundant in

this area now as they have ever been. Coastal regions support larger

populations than interior regions, possibly due to the abundant supply

of fish and other foods that are available to bears over a longer

period of the year. (L. Glenn, A.D.F.&G., Came Biologist, Anchorage,

unpublished material.)

Brown bears tend to defy easy definition into "coastal" or

"interior" populations of the Alaska Peninsula due to their extensive

ranging. Indeed, with the salmon runs arriving earlier on the Pacific

coast, bears are known to cross the ridges into the Pacific drainages

in apparent ranging for food (J. Faro, Area Biologist,. A.D.F.&G.,

King Salmon, pers. comm.). These populations utilizing the coastal

drainages, currently appear to be stable in contrast to the central

portion of the unit which has begun to show signs of intensive

hunting pressure.

In early spring, high densities of bear occur in the grassy

flatlands at the headwaters of bays all along the coast. This occurs

particularly prior to the availability of salmon runs. The flatlands

throughout Kamishak Bay are described as critical intensive use spring

habitat with unconfirmed reports indicating similar levels at Insiskin

Bay.

Several coastal highland regions have been designated as confirmed

denning areas. Notably, the Kamishak and Douglas River drainage

highlands have been proposed as critical high density denning areas.

Coastal harvest from the Cook Inlet drainages typically accounts

for 10% of the unit's total harvest (140 total in 1974). This small

sport effort is due to the area possessing virtually no permanent

settlements and only fair accessibility from aircraft or boat ( in

comparison with the remainder of the unit).

Throughout the unit, the spring harvest tends to select for

the taking.of males (i.e. - at this time the sows still with cubs or

yearlings and are illegai to harvest). Over the past years, this

management action has shifted the populations sex ratio in favor of

females. This in turn has been the primary factor in a noted increased

cub productivity.

The concentration of bears at the McNeil River State Sanctuary

and in Katmai National Monument provide the best non-consumptive

viewing areas in the region. During July and August,.approximately

70 bears can be observed fishing in the McNeil River.

BROWN BEAR HARVEST UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

1974

Area Number Percent

Cook Inlet 14 10.0

Lake Clark-Lake Ilianina 6 4.3

Branch River-Naknek River 5 3.5

King Salmon River-Mother Goose 32 23.0

Cinder River-Port Moller 21 15.0

South Tip @ 26 18.5

Pacific Side 36 25.7

Unspecified 0 0.0

Total 140 100.0

Data extracted from bear hide sealing program.

BROWN BEAR HARVEST - UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

Brown-Grizzly Bear Sport Harvest, Calendar Years 1961 through 19-/5.

Calendar Total No. % 1 / No. % Mean Hide 2/ Mean Skull 3/ Mean Age 4/ Calendar
Year Kill Males Males Non-res. Non-res. Size Male Size Male Male Year Seasons

1961 120 85 73 71 59 16.3 25.5 1/1-5/31, all of 9
10/1-12/31, s. of
Egegik Puale Bay.
Rem of Unit 9/10-
12/31.

1962 154 108 70 96 62 16.3 26.6 Same.

1963 164 100 65 114 70 15.9 26.6 1/1-5/31, 9/1-12/31.

1964 155 103 70 108 70 16.1 26.6 Same.

1965 210 136 66 139 66 15.6 25.7 1/1-5/31, all 9.
n. of Meshik 9/1-
12/31. s. of
Meshik 9/15-12/31.

continued

1) All male % based on known sex bears.
2) Length plus width given in feet.
3) Length plus width given in inches.
4) Tooth sample size in parenthesis.

Continued.

Calendar Total No. %1/ No. % Mean Hide 2/ Mean Skull 3/ Mean Age4/ Calendar
Year Kill Males Males Non-res. Non-res. Size Male Size Male Male Year Seasons

1966 231 157 71 173 75 15.6 25.8 N. of Meshik 1/1-
5/31,9/1-12-31,
s. of Meshik 1/1-
5/31, 9/15-12/31-

1967 214 147 70 163 76 15.7 24.5 1/1-5/20,9/15-12/31

1968 160 113 73 134 84 15.4 24.0 1/1-5/10,9/15-12/31

1969 93 66 75 67 72 15.7 24.3 7.5(55) 1/1-5/10, all of 9
9/15-10/30 n. of
Park. 10/1-11/30
s. of Park.

1970 158 103 67 119 75 15.1 23.9 6.9(93) S. of park 5/1-
5/15, n. of park
5/1-5/25, all of 9
10/1-10/31.

1971 195 122 66 138 71 15.0 23.9 6.8(112) 5/10-5/25,
10/1-10/31.

1972 2@9 154 56 203 73 14.6 23.3 6.8@146) 5/10-5/25,
10/1-10/31.

1973 241 138 59 182 76 14.8 23.2 6.0(129) 5/10-5/25,10/7-10/2

1974 140 74 53 114 81 14.1 21.4 5.5(73) 10/7-10/21

1975 224 121 54 139 62 14.4 23.0 6.0(119)

BRO14N BEAR - UNIT 14 (ANCHORAGE)

Very little information is available on brown bear in Unit 14.

The popuation is small, perhaps totaling less than 100 animals

(J. Didrickson, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Palmer, pers. comm.).

As the result of human development in Subunit 14C (Ahchorage and

vicinity), its population is likely less than 10 (D. Harkness, Area

Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.)

Typical for this species, they begin hibernating in early winter

usually above or at timberline. In the spring, depending on conditions,

they emerge to feed on early grasses on south facing slopes and river

valleys. In summer and fall, they are found nearly everywhere food

is available (i.e. - moose calving areas, salmon streams, dumps, etc).

The Knik River flats is a noted prime habitat in this unit.

Likewise, the dump at Eklutna Power Plant at times attracts five or

six bears during the summer-fall periods. Otherwise, the bears are

rarely visible J,n this unit.

Harvest from this unit is entirely sport motivated. Historically,

the harvest has been very low (usually less than 15) implying that

most bear are taken incidental to other hunting. Comparing the harvest

for any one year with the opening date of the brown bear season suggests

that the harvest can be significantly influenced by opening the season

on an earlier date to increase the number of days on which moose,

sheep and brown bear seasons overlap. In recent years the harvest

has dropped even lower, to typically less than five. The closure of

Chugach State Park to brown bear hunting is undoubtedly significant

in sustaining this reduced harvest level. (J. Didrickson, pers. comm.).

It is apparent from age, hide size and skull size data that

most of the brown bear taken in Unit 14 are young bears. It is probable,

that these young, less wary bears are attempting to establish territories

in this area of relatively high human population. There are undoubtedly

reservoirs of older bears in the more remote areas of this Unit where

hunting pressure in minimal. Areas such as most of Subunit 14B,

Chugach State Park or the southwestern portion of 14A in the Little

Susitna River drainage would provide such reservoirs. In these areas,

access and hunting would be difficult.

For non consumptive use, dumps similar to those near Palmer,

Wasilla and Talkeenta provide the only known viewing areas. There

may be however, some streams such as the Chunilna River (Glear Greek)

that could be designated as a viewing area.

Conflict with commercial cattle grazing has been, and will continue

to be, a minor problem in the Matanuska Valley, especially near the foot-

hills.

0 0 0
GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 14

Brown-Grizzly Bear Sport Harvest, Calendar Years 1961 through 1975.

Calendar Total No. % l/ No. % Mean Hide 2/ Mean Skull 3/ Mean Age 4/ Calendar
Year Kill Males Males Nonres. Nonres. Size Male Size Male Male Year Seasons

1961 14 6 43 7 50 12.3 9/1-9/30

1962 7 4 57 0 0 13.1 Same

1963 13 8 67 5 38.4 12.9 20.2 Same

1964 12 9 75 1 8 12.8 16.7 Same

1965 15 7 47 7 47 12.6 25.9 9/1-10/15

1966 5 2 40 2 40 13.4 28.1 9/1-9/30

1967 12 6 55 6 50 11.8 21.2 Same

1968 11 3 30 6 55 14.4 21.9 Same

1969 2 2 100 0 0 13.0 20.4 1.0(2) 9/20-10/20

1970 4 0 0 0 0 ---- ---- 0 9/15-10/5

1971 16 6 38 4 25 11.8 18.0 3.0(6) 9/1-10/5
cc 1972 4 2 50 0 0 12.5 14.7 4.8(2) 9/10-10/10

1973 1 1 100 0 0 10.7 0 2.8(l) 9/10-10/10

1974 3 1 50 0 0 10.6 16.8 3.8(l) 9/10-10/10

1975 5 4 80 1 20 14.4 19.4 9.8(4) 9/10-10/10

1) All male % based on known-sex bears. 3) Length plus width given in inches.
2) Length plus width given in feet. 4) Tooth sample size in parenthesis.

BROWN BEAR UNIT 15 (KENAI)

Brown bears are low to moderate in abundance in Unit 15. Based

on reported observations, the unit's total population is estimated

between 75 to 150 bears (P. LeRoux, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G.,

Soldotna, pers. comm.). The population appears to have been increasing

in recent years.

High spring concentrations of bears on the upper Moose River Flats

coincide with moose claving activities in the same area. There is

little doubt that bears are attracted to these areas during the May-June

calving period. The area not only produces several thousand moose

calves each year, but also produces a large quantity of the more

preferred spring plant foods such as sedges, grasses and horsetails.

Food habits and movements appear to be similar to those of

Unit 8. Salmon spawning streams such as the Kenai, Kasilof, Deep

Creek, Anchor, Fox and Chickaloon River drainages attract concentra-

tions of bears in July-September.

Much of the alpine-subalpine zone is important bear habitat

during summer and fall. Denning does not appear concentrated in

any particular area.

Due to the abundance of undeveloped lowlands along the west side

of the Kenai Peninsula, this species has no requirement to utilize

the coastal fringe, with the possible exception of the Chickaloon

Flats.

Harvest from this unit is entirely sport motivated (P. LeRoux,

pers. comm.). Harvest since 1961 has averaged 4.73 bears annually

with 23% taken by non-residents.

Most of the bear habitat in this unit is currently either

undeveloped or under wildlife oriented land use classification.

However, with a significant portion of the Kenai Peninsula transferring

to private ownership under the Native Land Claims Selection Act, the

future of this area is uncertain. Recreational and industrial develop-

ment will, in addition to decreasing available range, increase human

bear conflicts and hunter accessibility. Both factors will result

in higher incidental kill.

GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 15 (KENAI)

Brown-Grizzly Bear Sport Harvest, Calendar Years 1961 through 1975.

Calendar Total No. % 1 No. % Mean Hide Mean Skull Mean Age Calendar
Year Kill Males Malesv 2 3
Nonres. Nonres. Size Male-V Size MaleV Male Year Seasons

1961 4 2 50 0 0 17.5 9/1-9/30

1962 5 2 40 3 60 11.4 Same

1963 4 2 50 0 0 12.8 Same

1964 2 2 100 2 100 12.8 23.3 Same

1965 3 1 33 1 33 13.1 Same

1966 4 1 25 1 25 17.3 Same

1967 4 2 50 1 25 15.4 24.5 Same

1968 11 7 64 1 9 14.4 22.2 Same

1969 6 4 67 0 0 14.3 24.8 6.8(2) Same

19 7 0 4 2 50 1 25 15.2 26.2 7.8(l) 9/20-10/15

1971 3 2 67 0 0 12.8 19.1 2.8(2) 9/20-10/15

1972 2 1 50 0 0 0 23.7 3.8(l) 9/10-10/10

1973 6 3 50 3 50 13.7 21.0 4.80) 9/10-10/10

1974 8 5 63 2 25 13.1 17.9 7.8(3) 9/10-10/10

1975 5 3 60 0 0 13.4 23.8 3.8(2) 9/10-10/10

1) All male % based on known-sex bears. 3) Length plus width given in inches.
2) Length plus width given in feet. 4) Tooth sample size in parenthesis.

BROWN BEAR - UNIT 16 (LOWER SUSITNA)

Brown bear are found throughout Unit 16 in moderate to high

densities. Although precise data on the population is lacking,

the subjective impression of Jack Didrickson (Area Biologist,

A.D.F.&G. , Palmer, pers. comm.) indicates 100 and 300 bears to be

the population in subunits 16A and 16B respectively. The population

generally appear to be static.

Very little is known about the food habits of bears in the

unit, however, because of vegetative similarities, it is expected

that they are similar to those of bears in Units 8 and 9. Early

spring food is relatively abundant, with broad expanses of sedge meadows,

grass flats and potholes providing an abundance of early green plants.

Carrion left from hunter and winter kills further supplements

spring brown bear diets. Moose calves and rodents are probably

also important.

High spring densities of brown bear have been noted in the

Bachatna Flats region. It may be that the surrounding mountainous

geography of this area serve to concentrate the bears onto this

spring habitat in a manner similar to areas in Kamishak Bay (Unit 9).

By early summer, salmon are important to brown bears in Unit 16.

Red salmon appear in July and August and bears frequent Lewis River,

Talachulitna Creek, Fish Lake Creek, Alexander Creek, and Coal Creek.

King salmon arrive in July and August in many of the streams and are

often available later into the fall on the spawning grounds.

Silver salmon and a few pink salmon also spawn in the unit, and the

later run silvers may provide a major food supplement in the fall.

Although denning activities have not been studied in this unit,

habitat requirements are probably similar to those on the Alaska

Peninsula (Unit 9). Bears in Unit 16 appear to den earlier and

emerge a little later than those on the Peninsula. The Chigmit

Mountain region surrounding Bachatna Flats is suspected to contain

prime denning habitat.

As in other units, the alpine-subalpine zone is important for

summer and fall feeding as well as for denning.

Sport harvest from this unit has averaged 29 bears annually

since 1961; with non-residents accounting for 57%. Apparently

the result of a reduction in the length of the fall season,

harvest from the years 1972, 1974 and 1975 have been below average.

The population is considered capable of supporting the level of

harvest from recent years.

Harvest for domestic use is very rare in this unit. Also,

the potential for non-consumptive uses of brown bear in this unit

is considered to be low.

Generally, impacts on this population will be the result of

human encroachment reducing range and available food. This may occur

indirectly, for example, by impacting a salmon run or by reducing

moose range and, consequently, the moose calf crop (J. Didrickson,

pers. comm.). Both are significant seasonal. food resources to the

brown bear. Likewise, recreational and industrial development will,

in addition to decreasing available range, increase human-bear conflicts

and hunter accessibility. Both factors result in a higher incidental

kill.

4' 3

GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 16 (LOWER SUSITNA)

Broi,m-Grizzly Bear Sport Harvest.

Calendar Total No. % J/ No. % Mean Hide 2/ Mean Skull3/ Mean Age4/ Calendar
Year Kill Males Malcs Nonres. Nonres. Size Male Size Male Male Year Seasons

1961 29 11 41 19 66 12.7 21.7 5/15-6/15,
9/1-12/31

1962 18 9 50 10 83 12.1 Same

1963 27 18 69 11 41 13.0 23.6 Same

1964 19 ij 68 9 47 12.7 22.8 Same

1965 37 22 73 19 51 13.5 22.5 Same

1966 28 11 41 14 52 13.2 24.4 Same

1967 25 11 48 16 64 14.1 22.6 Same

1968 23 16 70 16 70 14.4 22.0 Same

1969 37 23 62 17 46 14.1 22.0 6.8(22) 5/15-6/15,
9/1-10/15

1970 41 32 80 28 68 14.0 22.1 6.8(28) 5/15-6/10,
9/1-10/15

1971 41 20 51 20 49 13.0 20.9 5.1(18) 5/15-6/10,
9/1-10/15

continued

1) All male % based on known-sex bears. 3) Length plus width given in inches.
2) Length plus width given in feet. 4) Tooth sample size in parenthesis.

GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 16

(continued) Brown-Grizzly Bear Sport Harvest.

Calendar Total No. % No. % Mean Hide Mean Skull Mean Age Calendar
Year Kill Males Males Nonres. Nonres. Size Male Size Male Male Year Seasons

1972 23 13 59 11 48 13.6 23.6 B.0(12) 5/15-6/10,
9/10-10/10

1973 43 24 60 24 56 12.9 22.0 6.5(24) 5/10-5/25,
9/1-10/10

1974 24 14 64 16 67 13.2 22.2 6.6(14) 5/10-5/25,
9/10-10/10

1975 19 8 42 8 42 13.5 20.4 7.2(8) 5/10-5/251
9/10-10/10

4tib

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's Wildlife and Habitat.
Anchorage, Alaska. 143 pp + 563 maps.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource
inventory of the Northwest Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp,
757 pp. + 128 maps).

Alexander, J. 1971. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-4.

Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1952. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 284 pp.

Didrickson, J.C. 1970. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress
report. 'Game Management Units 14 & 16. Alaska dept. of Fish and
Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-2.

1971. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Units 14 & 16. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-3.

1973, Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Units 14 & 16. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-6.

Dufresne, F. 1946. Alaska's animals and fishes. A.S. Barnes and Co., N.Y.
279 pp.

Eide, S. The broT,,Tn-grizzly bear in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Wild. Notebook Series No. 7. 2 pp.

Erickson, A.W. 1963. Bear report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-6-R-4.

and D.B. Siniff. 1963. A statistical evaluation of factors
influencing aerial. survey results on brown bear. Trans, N. Am.
Wild. Conf. 28:391-409.

1965. The brown-grizzly bear in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-6-R-5.

et al. 1968. The breeding biology of the male brown bear.
Zoologica. 53(3):85-101.

Faro, J.B. 1970. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-2.

1971. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-4.

1974. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-6.

Glenn, L.P. and L.H. Miller. 1970. Report on 1969 brown bear studies.
Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-2.

1971. Report on 1970 brown bear studies. Alaska Dept.
of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-2, 3.

Hall, R.E. and K.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Roland
Press. New York. Vol. I and 11. 1,083 pp.

Hensel, R.J. et al. 1969. Reproduction in the female brown bear. J. Wild.
Mgt. 33(2):357-365.

IUCN. 1972. Bears - their biology and management. Papers and proc. of the
Intl. Conf. on bear res. and mgt. New Series No. 23. 371 pp.

Lentfer, J.W. et al. 1966. Bear studies. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Fed. Aid. Proj. W-6-R-6.

et al. 1967. Bear studies. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Fed. Aid Proj. W-15-R-1, 2.

et al. 1968. Bear studies. Alaska Dept of Fish and Game.
Fed. Aid. Proj. W-15-R-2, 3.

et al. 1969. Report on 1968 brown bear studies. Alaska Dept.
of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proi. W-16-R-3 and W-17-1.

LeRoux, P.A. 1970. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
proj. W-17-2.

1971. Brown-grizz3:-,, bear survey-inventory progress report.
Came Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-3.

- 1973. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. 14-17-4.

4-1 7

1974. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-6.

Manville, R.H. and S.P. Young. 1965. Distribution of Alaskan mammals. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Ser. Cir. 211. 74 pp.

Smith, R.B. 1974. Brown-grizzly bear survey-inventory progress report.
Game Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-6.

Somerville, R.J. 1965. An evaluation of the 1961-63 Alaskan brown and
grizzly bear management program. M.S. Thesis. U. of Montana. 117 pp.

Walker, E.P. et al. 1964. Mammals of the world. John's Hopkins Press.
Baltimore. Vol. I and 11. 1,500 pp.

CARIBOU

The barren ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) is generally associated

with the artic tundra, mountain tundra and northern forests of North

America, Russia and Scandinavia. This species has been a distinctive

part of the Alaskan fauna for thousands of years and is resident

throughout the state except for the Southeastern Panhandle and most

offshore islands.

Caribou are large, rather stout deer with large, concave hoofs that

spread widely to support the animal in snow and soft tundra and function

well as paddles when it swims. Caribou are the only members of the deer

family in which both sexes grow antlers. Antlers of adult bulls are

large and massive; those of adult cows are much shorter and are usually

more slender and irregular. In late fall caribou are clove-brown in color

with a white neck, rump and feet, and often a white flank stripe. The hair

of newborn claves is generally reddish-brown but may range from pale beige

to dark brown. Newborn calves weigh approximately 13 pounds and may double

their weight in 10-15 days. Adult bulls weigh 350-400 pounds; however,

weights of 700 pounds have been recorded in the Aleutian Islands. Mature

females average 175-225 pounds.

The shedding of velvet in late August and early September by large

bulls marks the approach of the rutting season. The bulls cease feeding

and show increasing aggressivenss that soon results in combat. Fights

between bulls are seldom violent and injuries are uncommon. The peak

of the breeding period in Alaska varies somewhat between herds, but most

occurs in October. Most yearlings are capable of breeding but the first

breeding usually occurs at an age of 28-29 months. By late October adult

males have exhausted their summer accumulation of fat and once again begin

feeding. Bulls start to shed their antlers after the rut and most adult

males are "bald" by January. Pregnant cows and young animals retain their

antlers until May or June, but non-pregnant females usually shed their

antlers in April.

As the spring migration begins, females and many calves of the previous

year congregate as they move to the calving area. In late May or early

June a single calf is born. Newborn calves can walk within an hour and

after a few days can outrun a man and swim across lakes and rivers.

Like most herd animals, the caribou must keep moving to find adequate

food. This distributes feeding pressure and tends to prevent overgrazing.

Caribou are not as likely to starve to death as moose or deer because if

food is not available in one area, they move to another.

In summer, caribou eat a wide variety of plants, apparently favoring

the leaves of willow and dwarf birch, grasses, sedges and succulent plants.

As autumn frost kills off plants and foliage, they switch to lichens

("reindeer moss") and dried sedges. After a winter of lichens and dried

food, caribou seek out the first new growth of spring.

The Alaskan caribou is largely a mountain animal, associated with

areas above or near timberline, but its movements are extensive and

unpredictable. Areas known for many years to have great numbers may

suddenly be abandoned as the herd changes its migration pattern. Such

irregularities even today cause privation among the native people in Alaska

and Canada who depend upon caribou for food.

Annual caribou migrations are generally directional, long-distance

treks occurring in spring and early summer as cows and yound move to

traditional calving grounds and then to summering areas. The bulls and

some young animals follow far to the rear and scatter widely during the

summer. In the fall and early winter, the herd assembles for the rut

and then moves to wintering grounds.

b 0

There are more than 600,000 wild caribou in Alaska distributed in 13

more or less distinct herds. At present the herds are healthy and increasing

steadily, but the future can only bring a decrease in numbers. As civiliza-

tion encroaches and the back country is developed, more and more valuable

caribou habitat will be lost.

CARIBOU UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

The Alaska Peninsula caribou herd presently ranges over an

area of about 30,000 square miles extending from Naknek Lake

southwest to and including Unimak Island (Unit 10). The herd

has increased in numbers from a recent low of about 2,500 animals

in the late 1940's to a present population of approximately 23,000.

This herd consists of three segments: one north of Port Moller;

one south of Port Moller; and one ephemeral population on Unimak

Island.

In the mid-1800's caribou were abundant on coastal areas near

Bristol Bay and along both sides of the Alaska Peninsula. Trading

posts at Fort Alexander (at the mouth of the Nushagak River) and

at Ugashik did a brisk business in caribou skins. At that time

caribou moved seasonally on and off the peninsula. By the turn

of the century, however, large migrations across the Kvichak River

had stopped and caribou moved only as far north as Becharof Lake.

Today, their occurrence in the Pacific coastal drainages is

only occasionally noted in the areas south of Katmai National

Monument. This low level usage of the Pacific coastal region

precludes defining any specific habitats as critical; however,

increased ranging through this area is anticipated by extrapolating

the current population growth (Jim Faro, A.D.F.&G., King Salmon,

Alaska, pers. comm.).

Likewise, coastal sport and subsistence harvest is insignificant.

CARIBOU - UNIT 15 (KENAI)

Caribou occurred on the Kenai Peninsula until the early 1900's.

Apparently, loss of habitat to extensive fires and intensive hunting

around the turn of the century caused the species to decline rapidly.

Caribou were extinct in the area around 1913.

In the early 1950's, the Fish and Wildlife Service conducted

feasibility studies to determine if historic caribou ranges on the

Kenai Peninsula could again support caribou. Suitable range was found

in the Chickaloon River-Mystery Creek area, the Skilak-Tustumena

Lake area and the Caribou Hills north of Homer, These areas were

reappraised in 1964 by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, which

then released 15 caribou near the Chickaloon River in May, 1965. In

April-, 1966, 29 more were released at Watson Lake near Sterling.

These transplants were highly successful and in the years since 1966,

caribou were observed at scattered points over the entire western half

of the Kenai Peninsula.

At the present time, the largest group (about 400 animals) is

resident in the northern Kenai Mountains south of Hope, between the

headwaters of Resurrection Creek and the Chickaloon River (i.e. -

the American Pass herd). A smaller band of 60-75 caribou winters

on the Moose River Flats, and then calves and summers on the lowlands

just north of the Kenai Airport (i.e. - the Kenai herd) (P. LeRoux,

Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Soldotna, pers. comm.).

The American Pass herd has done well on its limited range. Recent

studies have established the carrying capacity of the range at roughly

300 wintering Caribou. Studies are currently in progress to refine

this estimate.

During the first years of hunting on this population, a limited

permit system was in effect to control the level of harvest. Due to

the inaccessibility of the area, hunters failed to harvest the annual

population growth. Fearing the population exceeding the carrying capacity

and thereby damaging the range, an unlimited permit system was initiated

in 1974. Hunter response has been excellent with 869 permits issued in

1975 and 87 Caribou taken. The net result of this management action has

achieved the desired wintering population of approximately 300 animals.

Considering the difficulties in access to the area, strong recreational

values are implied as the primary harvest motive. In most cases, the

meat is salvaged for domestic use.

The remainder of the Kenai Peninsula is judged to be either

poor or uninhabitable range for caribou. This accounts for the slow

growth of the Kenai herd and the disappearance of caribou that inhabited

the areas south of the Kenai River following the transplants (P. LeRoux,

Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Soldotna, unpublished data).

The Kenai herd generally move to their wintering grounds on the

Moose River Flats in November or December. They return to the muskeg

area north of the Kenai Airport usually in April and no later than

early May. Here calving occurs. There is currently no open harvest

season on this herd.

A fence is being constructed around the airport to reduce potential

conflicts.

CARIBOU HARVEST - UNITS 7 AND 15 (Kenai)
American Pass Herd

.Caribou seasons, permits issued harvest by sex and hunter success.

Permits Percent
Year Season Issued Harvest Total Successful
Male Female

1972-73 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30 20 6 0 6 30.0
1973-74 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30 100 10 1 11 11.0
1973-74 Jan. 1 - Jan. 31 50 1 0 1 2.0
1973-74 Feb. 1 - Feb. 28 50 0 0 0 0.0
1973-74 March 1 - March 31 50 0 0 0 0.0
1974-75 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30 )
Jan. 1 - March 31 573* 30 14 44 7.7
1975-76 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30
Jan. 1 - March 31 869* 87

Unlimited permits

Chronology of the caribou harvest, American Pass group. 1974-75.

August .-September October
10-20 21-31 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31

Male 8 8 11 1 0 2 0 0

Female 6 5 2 0 1 0 0 0

Total 14 13 13 1 1 2 0 0

November January February March

Male 0 0 0 0

Female 0 0 0 0

Total 0 0 0 0

CARIBOU HARVEST - UNITS 7 & 15 (KENAI)
American Pass Herd

Caribou seasons, permits issued, harvest by sex and hunter success.

Permits Percent
Year Season Issued Harvest Total Successful

1972-73 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30 20 6 0 6 30.0
1973-74 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30 100 10 1 11 11.0
1973-74 Jan. 1 - Jan. 31 50 1 0 1 2.0
1973-74 Feb. 1 - Feb. 28 50 0 0 0 0.0
1973-74 March 1 - March 31 50 0 0 0 0.0
1974-75 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30
Jan. 1 - March 31 573* 30 14 44 7.7
1975-76 Aug. 10 - Nov. 30
Jan. 1 - March 31 869* 87

Unlimited permits.

Chronology of the caribou harvest, American Pass group, 1974-75.

August September October
10-20 ZI-31 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31

8 8 11 1 0 2 0 0

6 5 2 0 1 0 0 0

Total 14 13 13 1 1 2 0 0

November January February March

0 0 0 0

Total 0 0 0 0

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Game Commission. 1952. Investigation to determine practicability
of reestablishing caribou on the Kenai Peninsula. Fed. Aid in Wild.
Restoration Quarterly Rpt., 7(2);60-63.

Allen, J.A. 1901. Description of a new caribou from Kenai Peninsula,
Alaska. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:143-148.

Banfield, A.W.F. 1951. The barren-ground caribou. Can. Wild. Ser.,
Dept. Res. and Dev., Ottawa. 56 pp.

Glenn, L.P. 1967. Caribou report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-15-R-1 and W-15-R-2.

Hemming, J.E. 1971. The distribution and movement patterns of caribou
in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Wildl. Tech. Bull. No.l.

Hemming, J.E. and L.P. Glenn. 1968. Caribou report. Alaska Dept. of Fish
and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-15-R-2.

. 1969. Caribou report. Alaska Dept. of Fish
and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-15-R-3 and W-17-1.

Hemming, J.E. and R.E. Pegau. 1970. Caribou report. Alaska Dept. of Fish
and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-1 and W-17-2.

LeRoux, P.A. 1973. Caribou survey-inventory annual report. Game Mgt. Units
.7 & 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

.1974. Caribou survey-inventory annual report. Game Mgt. Units
7 & 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-5.

.1975. Caribou survey-inventory annual report. Game Mgt. Units
7 & 15. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

McGowan, T.A. 1966 Caribou report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-6-R-6 and W-15-R-1.

Murie, O.J. 1959. Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula.
N. Am. Fauna, No. 61, 'U.S. Dept. of Agr. 406 pp.

Skoog, R.O. 1968. Ecology of the caribou Rangifer tarandus Zranti in
Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. California, Berkeley. 699 pp.

REINDEER - UNIT 8 (KODIAK - AFOGNAK)

Sixty-two reindeer were introduced at Alitak on the south end

of Kodiak Island in 1921 by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. An aerial

survey in May, 1963 by USFWS and ADF&G found 768 animals. An additional

survey in July, 1965 located 553 animals. No formal census has since

been attempted but the current population is estimated to number

appoximately 300 and is declining.

Management of this species population has been termed as

11management by neglect." Due to legalistic issues stemming from

the original private ownership by the Alitak Reindeer Company (1931)

and the stated interests by current Alitak village residents, ADF&G

(current "managers" by default) are necessarily reluctant to initiate

management actions on the species.

From the ADF&G viewpoint, the species is feral; active herding

has not been attempted since 1942. The cause for the decline of the

population is unknown but is suggested to be the result either a

misappropriate transplant onto bad habitat or perhaps the results

of a current high density of brown bears occupying the same range

(R. Smith, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Kddiak, pers. comm.). The

choice remains whether to try to enhance the species with an

additional transplant of caribou bulls (i.e., bolster their "semi-

domestic" gene pool) or to simply allow natural depletion.

Theoretically, a predator control program might assist the species

overall productivity, however; this would be in direct conflict

with the objectives of brown bear management within the Kodiak

National Wildlife Refuge.

Sport harvest is essentially non existant due to the inaccessibility

of the area. Subsistence harvest by local villagers and fishermen

is estimated to take fewer than 25 animals each year. There are no

closed seasons or bag limits on the species.

SITKA BLACK-TAILED DEER

The Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) is one

of eleven subspecies belonging to the mule deer group. The closest

relative of the Sitka black-tailed deer is the Columbian black-tailed

(Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), considered by some to be the same

species.

The Sitka deer is smaller and stockier with a shorter face than

other members of the black-tail group. Summer coat is reddish-brown

replaced by dark grey in winter. Both sexes have dark foreheads,

shading to light grey. The tail is black on top with a white underside.

Alaskan deer have dark-brown antlers with typical black-tail branching

(usually five points on each side). The antlers are relatively small,

probably due to a mineral deficiency in their diet. Largest antler

development normally occurs on four- and five-year-old bucks.

The average life span of most deer is only five to six years, but a

few have been known to attain an age of 12. Adult does weigh about 100

pounds and bucks range from 150-175 pounds, with the largest bucks

reaching 250 pounds.

The Sitka black-tailed deer was previously confined to the heavily

timbered region of the north coast of British Columbia and southeastern

Alaska. Several transplants have increased deer range to various places

around the northeast Gulf of Alaska. Successful transplants took place

on Kodiak Island in 1924 and in Yakutat Bay in 1934. These successful

transplants show that Sitka deer can survive in a variety of habitats.

Generally, Alaskan deer habitat is steep and mountainous, usually

rising from sea level to 5,000 to 7,000 feet. The climate is maritime

with temperatures ranging from -10' to 70'F, with Kodiz.k Island

generally cooler. The annual precipitation is between 80-1-20 inches per

year. 6 0

The Sitka deer spends most of its life in a single drainage,

moving up and down mountains with changing seasons. Merriam (1967)

states 14 tag returns showed 11 deer travelled 1 mile or less, and the

others travelled 8, 12, and 15 miles. One buck which was tagged as a

fawn in June, 1962 was killed in November, 1966 within one-half mile of

the original tagging site. During summer months deer migrate to open

alpine ranges. After the first heavy frosts of fall, deer move down

into high timber. Throughout the winter, the majority of deer remain

just below snowline, moving up and down with changing snow depths. When

snow is deep, most deer stay in a narrow zone adjacent to beaches.

Sitka black-tail populations fluctuate depending oil winter weather

conditions. A series of mild winters tend to allow larger populations

while many cold winters with high snowfall tend to decrease populations.

Breeding begins in mid-October, peaking in mid-November. In late

August, bucks molt into winter pelage and begin to strip the velvet from

their antlers.

By early September, most males are in breeding condition.

Dominance is established during the rut by mild pushing contests,

presentation of antlers, pawing and stamping. Violent clashes between

bucks are uncommon. Bucks lose weight during the rut and by late

December have exhausted most of their fat reserves. From October or

November to early March, does are in heat every 24 to 28 days. Most

females mature sexually and breed during their second autumn. If

feeding conditions are excellent, does may breed in their first autumn

whereas a poor year may delay breeding until their third autumn.

Gestation period is roughly seven months. The fawning period extends

from March to November with main concentrations in June. When bucks are

scarce, some females will not be breed until their second or third heat.

When fawns are born in late summer, they are still small at the onset of

winter and the females are still weak from nursing. Consequently both

are susceptible to harsh winter conditions.

Pawns are usually born in fringes of trees adjacent to a lowland

muskegs or beaches. They weigh from five to eight pounds at birth.

During the first few weeks they gain weight rapidly. They are reddish-

brown with a line of white spots along the back and scattered spots on

the sides. By late August or September the spots begin to disappear.

Most does give birth to a single fawn, but there are incidents

of twins. Almost immediately after birth fawns use some vegetation

and by September can live without milk. Fawns remain with the doe

throughout the winter. If food is scarce, does will drive fawns away

from choice food. Fawn survival during the first year depends upon

abundance of food and winter weather. Severe winters may reduce fawn

survival to almost zero. Predation seems to be a minimal factor in

fawn survival, although black bears, brown bears, grizzly bears, bald

eagles, wolves, wolverines, lynx and coyotes occasionally prey on fawns.

Maternal ties begin to break in late spring, and are usually broken

after one year. At this time yearling pairs begin to form. Pairs seen

throughout summer and into the rutting season are often mistaken for

twin fawns of the previous year.

The Sitka deer is polygamous, which allows for an unbalanced sex

ratio between mature adults. The harvest of deer may be selective

without effecting productivity of the population. Unbalanced sex ratios

create a distribution of food during the winter which aid the does

because there are usually more bucks harvested than does.

Deer are not gregarious, adults are sexually segregated for most of

the year. Family groups, if present, usually include several does with

fawns (occasionally with a young buck), and groups of bucks (2-8, normally

2-4). These groups are normally seen converging on a central feeding

area. Yarding seldom occurs except in deep snow.

Depending on the season, Sitka deer will vary their utilization of

herbaceous and grass-like plants. Deer congregate on the beaches in

spring utilizing new shoots of beach grasses, sedges and plantain. As

the snow recedes, skunk cabbage, marsh marigold and salmon berry and

blueberry leaves become primary foods. Deer cabbage is the major food

while the deer are in the high country. During July the deer again move

into the high timber and alder slides where they feed on the leaves and

young shoots of salmon berry and black currant. Deer will use these

low-growing herbs when available in the winter months. Woody pAlant

species (browse) such as blueberry become important with snow cover.

Browse alone does not constitute an adequate diet, and it must be

supplemented with herbs. With very deep snow deer are forced to the open

beaches to feed on dry beach grass and kelp both of which are very low

quality and provide little nutrition.

DEER - UNIT 8 (KODIAK - AFOGNAK)

Since the original transplant in the early 1930's, the deer

on Kodiak have falred quite well. The current population is estimated

to number between 15,000 and 20,000 and is still expanding its

distribution on Kodiak proper (R. Smith, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G.,

Kodiak, pers. comm.). Although their presence is reported throughout

Kodiak, historically, high density wintering areas were only noted in

the northern coastal regions. Presently, these areas are displaying

a trend of southerly progression down the coasts as far as Uyak Bay

on the west side and the outer southern shores of Ugak Bay on the

east side. The west side's expansion appears to be progressing

quicker due to the availability of better browse.

Deer also occur throughout Afognak although competition with

elk for winter range has probably reduced their potential population.

During recent years, the elk population declined and a corresponding

increase in deer'numbers was noted.

During winter, depending on snow conditions, the deer may be

subjected to a critically stressful period in which excessive snowfall

inhibits their ability to travel about and find food. Lack of

food will force them to lower and lower regions until they may

eventually be concentrated along the beach fringe or actually onto

the beach. Any factor affecting the availability of browse in this

critical winter habitat (e.g. competition with cattle or elk, human

encroachment or high deer densities) will result in excessive winter

mortalities.

Around the Chiniak Peninsula, open range cattle grazing presents

stiff competition for deer populations. Under present ranching methods,

little supplemental feed is provided for the cattle which then rather

nonselectively must feed on the same winter browse as the deer.

Current ranching interests appear to be yielding marginal returns

and their future remains uncertain.

On Afognak, where deer and elk are found in overlapping winter

habitats, the deer's lighter weight enables it to traverse snow

depths more readily than elk and thus feed at higher elevations.

During severe winters however, both species may be forced onto the

beach fringe.

It is suggested that the weaker animals of the herd will

differentially be displaced to the lower elevations, leading to a

succession of the weakest animals'appearing on the beach. First,

the sick animals appear, followed by fawns, then old bucks (depleted

by rutting) and finally, old does while the healthy animals remain

in the fringe areas coping with the snow (J. Alexander, Game Biologist,

A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.). Feeding occurs in the intertidal

region on various macroalgaes, however, disagreement exists regarding

whether these animals are feeding in a marginal survival state or are

truely there by choice (i.e., kelp possesses low nutritional value).

The nutritional quality of browse is perhaps equally as important

as the quantity.

A stomach content study done by J. Alexander
(A.D.F.&G., unpublished data, 1968) indicates...."The
number and quality of plant species utilized by
deer in non-spruce areas was much greater than the
number and quality of plants used in spruce wintering
areas." These feeding differences generally correspond
to the habitat differences between the east (spruce)
and west (non-spruce) coastal areas.

Describing the major food species...."The use
of crowberry (Empetrupi nigrum), increased from 9%
of the rumen contents in December to 48% in March,
in non-spruce habitat types. Fireweed -(Epilobium
angustifolium), also increased in rumen samples
from 17% to 42% during the same period. Shrubs

were the third most important food items observed. Use
of willow (Salix sp.), increased from 7% to 29% and
elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), 14% to 22% between
December and March.

"Of the 12 plant species observed in rumens col-
lected from deer inhabiting spruce areas, several such
as kelp, alder (Alnus fruticosa) and spruce (Picea
sitchensis), are considered to be of little nutritional
value. The percent of volume of spruce increased from
36% in December to 53% in March. Likewise, kelp in-
creased from a trace to 44% in the same period. The
percentage of willow increased in volume but decreased
in frequency of occurrence, suggesting perhaps a decrease
in availability during peak snow depths."

Supported by this study, a general feeling exists that a combination

of better winter browse and climatic conditions creating wind swept

areas has enabled the development on the west coast of a more

vigorous population, less prone to winter fluctuations (J. Alexander,

and others, pers. comm.).

With melting snows of late spring, deer tend to follow the

snowline back up into the subalpine and alpine zones feeding on various

emerging forbs, flowers and greens. Although the summer range extends

from tidewater to the alpine zone, the main population will predominately

remain in the higher elevations. Generally, a small range is suspected

(R. Smith, pers. comm.).

Deer utilize many plants in Unit 8 not generally considered

important in other units. Fireweed is probably the most important

summer food but deer also use grasses, wild rose, elderberry and

salmonberry. Some blueberry is present under spruce cover, but rarely

occurs in the abundance normal to Prince William Sound and southeast Alaska.

Other plant species used less extensively on summer range include

highbush cranberry, bearberry, crowberry and cow parsnip. Some ground

dogwood is present, but it is not as important to deer here as in

other areas of Alaska.

Deer will range through the higher elevations until the first

hard freeze. At that time the forage dessicates and the population

begins moving down; usually by late September (R. Smith, pers. comm.).

under unique weather conditions deer have been observed in light dry

snow at 1,200-1,800 feet elevation and did not descend lower until

the wet heavy snows of March (J. Alexander, pers. comm.).

The harvest might best be described as a "recreati@,nal subsistence"

effort. It is likely that nearly all of the animals taken were

utilized for meat, however; the efforts of over 2,000 licensed hunters

averaging 3.7 days hunting per deer (1974) and the expanse of

transportation to and from hunting areas implies strong recreational

values. Further indication of recreational values lie in the fact

that only 61% of the hunters were successful in their efforts and that

the hunt was at least partially selective in harvesting 62% bucks.

"Subsistence" motives are implied from the figure of 69% of the

successful Kodiak hunters taking more than one deer and from non-

resident hunters comprising less than 3% of the statewide efforts.

Historically, the harvest effort has put heavy pressure on the

populations within easy access of the road system around Kodiak.

These populations declined and now are under tighter season and

bag limit regulations.

Currently, hunting pressure is dispersed through various

subunits (see figure) with the majority of the harvest occurring

between October and December. Boats were used for 56% of the harvest

indicating a strong effort from local fishermen. The current level

of total harvest is considered to have only light impact on the

deer populations.

Several potential threats exist which will likely impact the

population. However, considering the increasing numbers and expanding

range the effects will likely be localized. Primarily, the Native

Land Claims selections will place approximately two-thirds of the

island group lands under private ownership including nearly the entire

coastal regions. Any development of these areas may reduce critical

winter habitat and increase incidental kill. Secondly, increased

hunter success is anticipated from improved accessibility to.remote

areas via present and future logging developments.

Unit 8 Deer Harvest Statistics, 1966 1974

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Number of Hunters: 1,800 2,300 1,441 658 925 689 1,127 1,141

Number of Deer Harvested: 1,500 2,100 1,420 870 915 587 1,166 1,754

% Hunter Success: 48 14 43 55 45 46 47 61

Number of Deer per Hunter: .8 .9 1.0 1.3 1.0 .85 1.0 1.5

Number of Hunting Days per Deer: 5.7 5.0 6.3 2.4 4. 5 5.2 5.0 3.7

PREPARED BY: Roger B. Smith, Game Biologist III

UNIT 8 - DEER HARVEST STATISTICS, 1974

Number Percent

License Buyers 2,022

*Licensee Interviews 234 11.6%

License Buyers Not Hunting 881 44%

r6%
Hunters Afield 1,141

Females Harvested 665 38%

Males Harvested 1,089 62%

Total Deer Harvested 1,754

Successful Hunters 700 61%

Days Hunted Per Deer 3.7 days

Deer Per Hunter Afield 1.54 deer

Deer Per Successful Hunter 2.51 deer

Total Days Hunted 6,506

Number and Percent Hunters
Taking:

One Deer 216 31%

Two Deer 1-56 22%

Three Deer 86 12%

Four Deer 242 35%

Total 700 100%

From telephone hunter interview; harvest figures extrapolated
from 11.6% sample of license buyers. Survey conducted by Roger
Smith and Ben Ballenger, A.D.F.&G., Kodiak.

7 0

CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE 1974 DEER HARVEST

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total-

No. 78 86 458 691 441 1,754

% 4.4% 4.9% 26.1% 39.4% 25.1% 99.9%

TRANSPORTATION UTILIZED

Boat Private Air Air Taxi Auto-

% 56% 6% 21% 17%

No. 527 52 199 164

From telephone hunter interviews; harvest figures extrapolated from
11.6% sample of license buyers. Survey conducted by Roger Smith and
Ben Ballenger.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEER HARVEST BY SUB-UNITS 1974

Sub-Unit
Number

1 Crag Point to Mill Bay. 43 2.5%

2 Sequel Point to Crag Point, drainage to 69 3.9%
Chiniak Bay.

3 Sequel Point tc. Narrow Cape. 17 1.0%

4 Sharatin, Kizhuyak and Viekoda Bays; 406 23.0%
Whale Island and Kupreanof Peninsula.

5 Pasagshak Bay to Saltery Creek 35 2.0%

6 Saltery Creek to Hidden Basin. 35 2.0%

7. Uganik Island. 216 12.3%

8 Little River Peninsula to Spiridon Bay. 294 16.8%

9 Raspberry Island. 181 10.3%

10 Afognak Island. 164 9.4%

11 South Ugak Bay and remainder of southeast 259 14.8%
side of Kodiak Island.

12 Remainder of Kodiak Island south and west of 35 2.0%
Spiridon Bay.

Total 1,754 100.0%

From telephone hunter interviews, harvest figures extrapolated from
11.6% sample of license buyers. Survey conducted by Roger Smith and
Ben Ballenger.

UNIT 8 Distribution of Deer Harvest 1974

role

AFOGNAK ISLAND
10
9.4%

10. 3% - -1"
9

%
7
1 2.5p.,

4
23.0%
'Ile 2
G
2%;
16.8% 5 f 1-1.0%
2%) 3

12 11 14.8%
2% KODIAK ISLAND

73-

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat.
Anchorage, Alaska. 143 + 563 maps.

. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource inventory
of the Northeast Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp.,
757 pp. + 128 maps).

Alexander, J.E. 1970. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj.
W-17-2.

1971. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

Burris, O.E. and D.E. McKnight. 1973. Game transplants in Alaska.
Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Game Tech. Bull. No. 4. 57 pp.

Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1972. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 284 pp.

Cowan, I.M. 1956. The life and times of the black-tailed deer. In
Taylor: The deer of North America. Wild. Mgt. Inst. Stackpole Co.,
668 pp.

Hail, R.E. and D.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Roland
Press. New York. Vol. I and 11. 1,083 pp.

Manville, R.H. and S.P. Young. 1965. Distribution of Alaskan mammals.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Cir. 211. 74 pp.

Merriam, H.R. 1965. Deer report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid. Proj. W-6-R-5, 6.

. 1966. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-6-R-6 and W-15-R-1.

. 1967. Deer report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-15-R-1, 2.

. 1968. Deer report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-15-R-2, 3.

1971. Deer report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-17-1.

Palmer, L.J. 1944. 'Food requirements of some Alaskan game animals. J.
Mammal. 25:49-54.

Scott, R.F. and D.R. Klein. 1958. Sitka black-tailed deer studies.
Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-3-R-12.

Smith, R.B. 1974. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management 'Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and game. Fed. Aid Proj.
W-17-6.

1976. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj.
W-17-7.

Walker, E.P. et al. 1964. Mammals of the world. John's Hopkins Press.
Baltimore, Vol. I and 11. 1,500 pp.

ELK

Alaska's present elk herds originated from a transplant of eight

Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) calves from the Olympic

Peninsula in Washington state to Afognak Island in 1928.

Elk are sometimes called wapiti to distinguish them from moose

(Alces alces) which are termed elk in Europe. Roosevelt elk are larger,

slightly darker in color and have shorter, less symmetrical but more

massive antlers than the Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni)

which is found east of the Cascades in Canada and the United States.

Within Alaska, elk are found only on Afognak and Raspberry Islands

near Kodiak although a transplant was made to Revillagigedo Island near

Ketchikan in 1964. This transplant appears to have been a failure.

Elk share many physical traits common to deer, moose and caribou.

They are much larger than deer, though not as large as Alaskan moose.

Distinguishing features include a large yellowish rump patch, grayish

to brownish body and dark brown legs and neck. Unlike some members of

the deer family, both sexes have upper canine teeth. The males have antlers

which in prime bulls are very large, sweeping gracefully back over the

shoulder with dagger-like, light-tipped spikes pointing forward. Alaska

elk antlers, like those of other Roosevelt elk, have a tendency to form

two to three points at the end of each antler. Elk lose their antlers

during late winter each year and grow new ones the following summer.

The soft growing antler is covered with "velvet" which is scraped off

after the antlers harden in the fall, by rubbing and jousting with

saplings. When the antlers are hard and polished the bulls fight and

joust among themselves. Cow elk are similar in appearance to the bulls

but are usually smaller and have no antlers.

Bull elk on Afognak Island have been weighed at over 1,000 pounds

dressed weight. These animals were estimated to weigh up to 1,300

pounds when alive.

Like most northern animals, calf elk are born in late May and early

June when abundant food is available for the mother and mild weather

increases the spotted calves' chances for survival. Birth usually

occurs under cover of dense spruce forests, hidden from predators and

protected from the elements. A few days after giving birth the mother

joins other cow elk with calves. A single cow will often baby-sit with

the calves while the remaining cows seek food.

As summer progresses, the elk bands move above timberline and feed

on the alpine slopes where the breezes keep biting insects at bay and the

young growth of plants if highly nutritious. By July the calves, although

still nursing, will feed on succulent forbs.

In August the bands of elk begin to congregate and form herds. In

early August the herds normally consist of cows, calves, yearlings and an

occasional mature bull. Usually small bands of mature bulls are near,

but not part of, the main herd. During September the bulls join the

herd and mating activities begin. In herds numbering over 100 animals

a great deal of activity takes place as large bulls challenge each other

and occasionally begin pushing and shoving matches. The smaller yearling

bulls often attempt to take advantage of the larger bulls' preoccupation

and run past them to win the favors of a female. Bull elk frequently

emit their high-pitched whistle during the rutting period. This is

known as "bugling" and is an inspiring though eerie sound.

By mid-October most of the breeding activities have ceased and the

herd may begin to split tip and again go down to lower elevations. The

winter months are spent along the fringes of the beaches, in the lower

7-1

valleys, and in the dense spruce forests. At this time the main activity

of elk is searching for food.

Elk are hardy animals. However, their large size and herding

tendencies require tremendous amounts of food. From late spring to

early fall when a variety of food is available, elk are normally

grazers, utilizing such plants as blue joint, sedges, fireweed, lupine,

cow parsnip, sea lovage and chickweed. From late fall through early

spring Alaskan elk are principally browsers and their main food consists

of elerberry, highbush cranberry, willow, and devil's club sprouts.

Alaskan elk like mushrooms and even chew on rotten losgs. In some

ways the elk may be its own worst enemy as large herds often kill their

own food supply by stripping, trampling and eating too closely their

staple winter supply of willow and elderberry. It is for this reason

that it is important to keep elk herds from becoming too large in relation

to the food supply.

Factors which work to reduce the growth of elk populations include

a small amount of predation by brown bears, hunting, disease, starvation,

and a lowered birth rate when animals are too numerous for the food supply

to support.

ELK - UNIT 8 (AFOGNAK)

In Alaska, elk occur only in the northern Kodiak Archipelago

on Afognak Island and nearby Raspberry Island. Established on Afognak

Island in 1929 by a transplant of eight calves from Washington state,

the elk population grew rapidly to an estimated 212 animals in 1948

and to a peak of 1,200-1,500 elk by 1965. As with other ungulate

species, the availability of winter forage is critical to their survival.

A decline associated with over-utilization of winter range began in

the late 1960's. Unusually heavy snow accumulations and cold temperatures

during the winters of 1970 and 1971 brought massive die-offs and by

1972, only about 450 animals remained. The elk populations appears

to be gradually increasing by 5% to 10% annually and, in 1975, was

estimated at about 600 animals (R. Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak,

pers. comm.). Even during recent relatively mild winters, however,

losses to malnutrition have occurred and it is unlikely that mid-1960's

population levels will be reached without significant improvements

in habitat quality. It is estimated that the present habitat will only

support between 500 to 800 elk.

Elk reached their highest population levels in the grass-shrubland

areas of southwestern Afognak Island and Raspberry Island. Willow

stands along streams and bogs and dense stands of elderberry provided

abundant winter forage initially but were depleted when elk populations

became excessive prior to the mid-1960's population crash. Supplementing

these depleted grass-shrubland ranges, the understory vegetation found

in mature spruce forests is presently an important source of winter

forage for elk. Additionally, the mature forests provide cover for

elk and the reduced sub-canopy snow depths allow easier access to forage.

Currently, the highest populations of elk winter in the densely forested

central and easternmost parts of Afognak Island.

The spruce fringes near sea level appear to be especially critical

habitat for elk during severe winters. When snow depths exceed two

to three feet, elk tend to distribute themselves in forested areas

200 to 300 years from the beach. During milder winters, they may be

found up to 200 feet above sea level. Winter severity has been and

will continue to be the major population regulatory mechanism affecting

Afognak's elk population, until such time as hunting becomes effective

in controlling elk numbers.

The recorded harvest of this species is sport in nature, although

domestic use of the meat is common. During 25 years of hunting, over

1,500 elk of both sexes have been harvested. When the population was

at its highest, hunting was relatively successful. Harvests during

the 1971-1975 period, however, have averaged less than 25 elk annually

and hunter success has been less than 15%.

The largest elk populations now occur in interior and eastern Afognak

Island where dense timber and difficult access result in relatively

poor hunter success. A different situation exists on Raspberry Island

where heavy harvests of the accessible herd necessitated a closure to

hunting in 1968. Poaching is suspected to be primary factor controlling

the growth of the Raspberry Island herd since that time.

Non-resident hunters presently account for roughly half of the

recorded harvest. A few elk are taken incidental to deer and bear

hunting. More than half the harvest usually is taken during September

and October when access by floatplane and small boat is possible.

After mid-November, hunters utilize commercial fishing boats to hunt

coastal areas with limited success.

Potential losses of elk winter habitat to logging are an important

consideration in the management of sustained elk populations. The most

valuable stands of commercial timber grow along the coast, many of which

are critical winter habitat for elk. Depletion of willow and elderberry

stands, invasion of spruce into grass-shrubland communities, and growing

competition for forage from an increasing deer population make maintenance

and enhancement of existing elk winter ranges increasingly important.

While clearcut logging results in temporary increases in growth of

seral forbs and browse species, much of such vegetation is unavailable

under winter snows. In addition, elk generally utilize the edges of

clearcuts most heavily and large clearcuts are of little benefit.

Thorough assessment of vegetation succession and elk use of clearcuts

following initial logging activity will be necessary in developing

alternative cutting methods which will produce favorable elk habitat

in logged areas while maintaining economically efficient logging operations.

Illegal kills of elk have retarded desirable growth in the

accessible Raspberry island elk herd. While development of an extensive

logging road system on Afognak Island will improve distribution of

hunters and facilitiate attaining desirable harvests on some elk herds,

increased poaching can be expected. Enforcement of hunting regulations

will require greater emphasis as access to elk improve.

Unit 8 - 1974 Elk Harvest Statistics from Hunter Reports

NO. PERCENT

Permits issued 776 -

Permits returned 328 42%

Reporting permitees who hunted 118 36%

Successful hunters 30 25%

Mean days per elk 16.6 -

Total days afield 498 -

Male harvest 16 53%

Female harvest 14 47%

Total reported harvest 30 100%

PREPARED BY: Roger B. Smith
Game Biologist III
March 19, 1974

Afognak Elk Harvest, 1950 1975

Percent
Year Harvest No. Of Hunters Success

1950 27 50 54
1951 0 0 0
1952 15 35 43
1953 19 40 46
1954 0 0 0
1955 26 105 25
1956 40 135 27
1957 70 250 28
1958 110 345 32
1959 120 330 36
1960 127 345 37
1961. 120 260 46
1962 110 186 59
1963 100 175 55
1964 60 105 57
1965 142 309 46
1966 116 181 51
1967 102 242 42
1968 72 158 45
1969 68 187 36
1970 62 184 34
1971 27 190 15
1972 18 112 16
1973 18 116 16
1974 30 118 36
1975 23 121 19

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat.
Anchorage, Alaska. 143 pp. + 563 maps.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource
inventory of the Northeast Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp.,
757 pp. + 128 maps).

Alexander, J.E. 1970. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Came
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-2.

1971. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

Anderson, J.P. 1959. Flora of Alaska and Adjacent Parts of Canada. Iowa
State Univ. Press.

Batchelor, R.F.. 1963. Evidence of Yearling Pregnancies in the Roosevelt
Elk. J. Mamm., 44(l):111-112.

1963. Elk Distribution, Abundance and Composition Surveys,
Afognak Island, Alaska. P-R Report W-6-R-3, 3(D-1a).

1963. Elk Range Studies - Afognak Island, Alaska. W-6-R-3,
19 (D-lb).

Murie, O.J. 1951. The Elk of North America. The Stackpole Co., 376 pp.

Nelson, U.C. 1949. Investigations to Determine Elk Populations on
Afognak Island and Recommendations for their Management. Unpub.
P-R Rept., 3-4, 8 pp.

Sheets, A. 1949. Elk Herd Distribution, Abundance and Composition
Studies, Alaska W-6-R-1, 264 (D-1a).

Smith, R.B. 1974. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

1976. Annual. report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-7.

Troyer, W.A. 1960. The Roosevelt Elk on Afognak Island, Alaska. J.
Wildl. Mgmt. 24(l):15-2l.'

MOUNTAIN GOAT

The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) is the single North American

representative of a widespread group of goat-antelopes. They are one of

the two species of all-white hooved large mammals found in Alaska. They

are often confused with young and female Dall sheep, but may be distinguished

by their longer hair, deeper chest, and black horns. The white pelage

of the goat is made up of an underwool interwoven with coarse guard

hairs. There is a crest of long, erect hair up to six or more inches in

length along the spine, on the rump and over the shoulders and neck.

Long hair on the feet gives the animal the appearance of wearing pantaloons.

A shaggy crop of hair hangs from the chin and lower jaw. The pelage

which is longer in winter than summer is shed each spring. Shedding is

usually completed by mid-August with the new coat remaining relatively

short until mid-fall.

The appearance of both sexes is alike except that males are about

10 to 12 percent larger than females. Both sexes have horns, however

they differ somewhat in appearance. The horns of females are slender

with a gradual taper and curve while those of males have a larger base,

more rapid taper and a more abrupt curve in the central portion.

Horn growth begins during the first summer following birth and

continues uninterrupted until the animal is approximately a year and

half old. At this time the horns are five to six inches long.

In Alaska, goats occur from the southernmost tip of Southeast

Alaska, north along the coast to Cook Inlet. With the exceptions of

Bainbridge Island and possibly Culross Island in Prince William Sound,

goats do not occur naturally on any of the coastal islands. The

northern limit of their range extends into the Talkeetna Mountains

nearly to McKinley Park and into the southern drainages of the Wrangell

Mountains. Goats have been transplanted to Kodiak, Chichagof, and

Baranof Islands where they have established breeding populations.

Mountain goats usually mate in November and December. Males may

wander considerable distances in search of receptive females. They do

not collect harems, but some battling does occur. Except during the

rut, adult males are segregated from other age classes and often are

seen in pairs. Females with kids and immature animals are generally

found in groups. In unhunted areas, females, kids and young.goats

sometimes congregate in herds of 70-100 or more.

It is not known if yearling males are capable of breeding. They do

accompany older males during the rut. Evidence indicates that yearling

females do breed, and may bear their first young at about two years of

age.

A single kid is born in late May and early June after a gestation

period of approximately 180 days. Twinning is not common. Kids are

very precocious and can keep up with adults when only hours old. After

the birth of the kids, females with newborns will join together and form

nursery flocks. Kids usually remain with their mothers until the next

breeding season. Because females with yearling kids are often seen in

late spring, it is suspected that goats may not breed every year.

Mountain goats may live 14 to 15 years.

Mountain goats are both grazing and browsing animals, depending on

the particular habitat and season of the year. They normally summer in

high alpine meadows where they graze on grasses, herbs and ground-

growing shrubs. As winter advances and the more succulent species are

frost-killed, the feeding habits shift to browsing. Most goats migrate

from alpine summer ranges to winter at or below tree line but some may

remain on windswept ridges. On many goat ranges in Alaska animals can

be observed year round on the same ridge tops.

Accidental death is the most common form of natural mortality in

Alaska. Snowslides are frequent in the range of the goat. Falls

apparently account for the death of some goats. Many goats show healed

wounds, missing teeth, and broken horns indicating a high incident of

falls. Severe winters also have a detrimental effect on goat.

Wolves and coyotes are apparently serious predators on goats under

certain conditions. Most mountain goat range is rugged enough to offer

security from wolves and other mammalian predators. Goats are apparently

most susceptible to predation in winter when snows are deep and in the

spring during and following kidding. Wolvernies, lynx and eagles, like

wolves and coyotes, will prey on the mountain goats under severe conditions

when smaller prey is scarce.

Because goats inhabit the more inaccessible mountain areas, man's

exploitation of the land through mining and timber harvest has had

insignificant effect on goat populations.

MOUNTAIN GOAT - UNIT 8 (KODIAK - AFOGNAK)

Mountain goats were first introduced to Kodiak Island by the

United States Fish and Wildlife Service during 1952 and 1953. The

transplanted stock, consisting of 7 males and 11 females from the

Seward and Kenai Peninsula regions, were all released in Hidden Basin

of Ugak Bay, Kodiak Island.

Typical of the mountain goat species, the population has displayed

a relatively slow increase and today is estimated from 130 to 200

animals (R. Smith, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G.,, Kodiak, pers. comm.). There

are no records of mountain goats ever having exceeded the carrying

capacity of their range (Hjeljord, 1971) and it is suggested that

this population is perhaps near static on its present range (R. Smith,

pers. comm.).

Most of the population centers in the Grown Mountain region

north of Hidden Basin, however; their range has dramatically expanded

to the south. They have recently been observed as far south as

Old Harbor.

The most stressful period on the goat population is when

winter and spring snows cover available food. According to

studies by 0. Hjeljord (1971), the goats on Kodiak use an extremely

restricted area during the winter. Some movement between one feeding

site and another takes place, but to a great extent goats appear

to stay in the same area for prolonged times.

Providing graphic example of the effects of snowfall on movements,

Hjeljord's observations covered the winters of 1968 and 1969.

"Throughout virtually the whole winter of 1968-1969, there was
a permanent snow cover from sea level to the mountain tops.
In March, the snow depth below the alderline averaged two-three feet
in the Hidden Basin area. At this time, the goats were found
almost entirely above timberline, at altitudes varying from
1,000 to 2,500 feet. They were feeding on wind-blown slopes
and ridges and on south-facing rock outcrops (i.e. - the alpine
habitat)."

Sal

"During the winter of 1969-1970 conditions were entirely
different. At lower altitudes most the precipitation fell as
rain or sleet. Throughout most of the winter there was no permanent
snow cover below 300 to 800 feet on Kodiak, depending on the exposure.
Also, for several hundred feet above this altitude the ground
was partly free of snow.
During February-March 1970, more than 90% of the goat population
occurred on subalpine habitat, feeding on alder-covered slopes
generally adjacent to ravines coming down from the high country."

During particularly severe winters, goats have been observed

on the beach (R. Smith, pers. comm.).

In late April or early May, depending on the snow, the principal

goat ranges are on the lower alder slopes. These ranges are identical

in location with the subalpine winter habitats, but as the season

progresses the animals become more dispersed and show an increasing

tendency toward upward migration. Throughout this early spring

period, foraging on the lower slopes changes gradually from primarily

fern rhizomes and browse of wintEr to the new growth of grasses, ferns

and other herbs (Hjeljord, 1971).

" In mid-May, when there is relatively lush and abundant
growth on the lower alder slopes, growth of new vegetation on
the high wind-blown ridges and rock outcrops has not yet started.
Still the goats are spotted in increasing numbers above timberline
by this time. They travel extensively, along barren ridges as
well as over large continuous snow fields. As the vegetation
on the alpine habitat appears poor both in quality and quantity
at this time of year, this early migration appears to be more
the result of their affinity for the high, rough terrain rather
than a search for better forage. As a rule, goats do not remain
at high elevations during these early days of spring but return
frequently to the habitats at lower altitude.
The permanent shift to the alpine summer habitat takes
place towards the end of May and in the early part of June.
By this time, the larger part of the summer range is still covered
with snow, and only ridges and south-facing rock outcrops can
offer the goats a limited amount of new vegetation (Hjeljord, 1971).

Extensive movements are usually noted on the summer range with

the goats rarely grazing intensively at one place for any length of

time. Along ridges, distinct paths are formed leading to feeding sites.

Although typically, the terrain is steep and broken, the feeding sites

8
C
14

are generally located on relatively gentle slopes. The high occurrence

of goats on south-facing slopes is probably the result of more favorable

conditions for plant growth there. On Kodiak , the goats display a

preference for feeding on the sedge (Carex sp.) meadow and Erigeron

slope habitats.

" This lush vegetation is particularly common in south-
facing bowls on Crown Mountain, and due to late snow melt in these
bowls, portions of the vegetation will be in an early state of
growth even in late summer. According to Fish and Game biologist
Bernhard Ballenger, a large part of the goat population.is found
here during summer (pers. comm.). On the annual aerial goat survey
in August 1970, Mr. Ballenger spotted 49 goats in one such bowl."
(Hjeljord, 1971)

Sport harvest on this species began in 1968 under a tightly

regulated hunt. Current management regulations allow the taking of

15 goats by permit only. The harvest has been traditionally localized

in the Crown Mountain vicinity accessible from Hidden Basin.

The sex ratio of historic harvest data reflects an imbalanced

overharvest of females. This tends to imply an "opportunistic"

rather than a trophy hunt, however; at the current harvest level

this imbalance is probably not liniting the population (R. Smith,

pers. comm.).

Subsistence effort on this introduced species is non-existent.

The relative concentration of goats in the Hidden Basin and Terror

Lake areas are considered as future potential non-consumptive use areas.

Mountain goats hold a rather high aesthetic value to the islanders,

possibly due to its status as a recent transplant and its relative rarity.

Future impacts may arise from the planned hydroelectric development

of Terror Lake and its accompanying roadways providing increased

accessibility to the interior region.

UNIT 8 MOUNTAIN GOAT HARVEST STATISTICS, 1968-1974

Number Number Percent Number
Season Permits Hunters Hunter Goats
Date Dates Issued Afield Success Harvested Conditions of the Hunt

1968 Sept. 1-30 10* 9 67% 6(3M, 3F) 10 goats by permit; public drawing

1969 Sept. 1-30 10* 11 55% 6(5M, 1F) 10 goats by permit; public drawing

1970 Sept. 1-30 15 8 63% 5(4F, lUKN) 15 goats by permit; public drawing

1971 Sept. 1 - 25 8 50% 4(lM, 3F) 15 goats by permit; public drawing
Oct. 30

1972 Sept. 1 - 40 21 48% @100M, 4F, 15 goats by permit;
Oct. 30 3UKN) To be closed by field announcement

1973 Sept. 1 - 32 26 58% 15(7M, 8F) 15 goats by permit;
Oct. 30 To be closed by field announcement

1974 Sept. 1 - 58 28 57% 16(5M, 10F, 15 goats by permit;
Oct. 30 lUKN) To be closed by field announcement

Five additional alternate permits issued.

UNIT 8 - MOUNTAIN COAT HARVEST STATISTICS, 1974*

No. Percent

Permits issued 58 100%

Permits holders reporting 55 95%

Reporting permit holders who hunted 28 51%

Successful hunters 16 57%

Mean days hunted per successful hunter 2.5

Males harvested 5 31%

Females harvested 10 63%

Unknown sex harvested 1 6%

Total harvest 16 100%

Mean no. goats sighted by hunters 23.2 --

From hunter interviews

Unit 8 - Mountain Goat Sex and Age Composition Counts, 1952-1974

Date Adult Kid Total Kid/100 Adult % Kids in Observer Flight Time
(may include Total Count (Hrs)
sub-adults)

1952-1953 7 males and 11 females, total 18 animals transplanted to Crown Mountain.
1954 Zero Data
1955 Zero Data
1956 - - 5 Unsigned, undated report.
1957 2 2 4 100.0 50.0 11
1958 4 2 6 50.0 33.3
9-19-1959 5 2 7 40.0 28.6 Will Troyer
1960 Zero Data
1961 Zero Data
1962 14 8 22 57.1 36.3 Will Troyer
1963 18 8 26 44.4 30.7 Will Troyer
1964 13 13 26 100.0 50.0 Will Troyer
1965 22 13 35 59.0 37.1 Will Troyer
9-20-1966 38 16 54 42.1 29.6 B. Ballenger
9-05-1967 39 19 58 48.8 32.7 B. Ballenger
CC 12-20-1968 57 14 71 24.5 19.7 B. Ballenger 2.2
B-05-1969 73 15 88 20.5 17.0 B. Ballenger 2.4
8-22-1970 61 20 81* 32.7 24.7 B. Ballenger
1971 Zero Data*
7-27-1972 64 27 91 42.1 29.7 B. Ballenger 2.3
9-18-1973 88 24 112 27.3 21.4 R. B. Smith 1.9
8-18/19-1974 37 12 49 32.4 24.5 R. B. Smith 5.3

*"Much snow cover on high elevations, goats hard to spot."--B. Ballenger.

PREPARED BY: Roger B. Smith, Game Biologist III
May 28, 1975

MOUNTAIN GOATS - UNIT 15 (KENAI)

Knowledge of goats in the coastal region of Game Management Unit 15C

is relatively unknown. Goats utilize the fingers of land extending into

the ocean and in winter they utilize the timbered fringe areas to beach

line (Paul LeRoux, A.D.F.&G., Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Little is known about the goat harvest in these areas. It is known

that some areas are being hunted by resident hunters. Very few goats

are taken from Gore Point to Bear glacier. Some hunting occurs in the

Port Dick areas (Paul LeRoux, pers. comm.).

Prior to any timber sales in the Kenai Mountains the area should be

studied to determine if it is used by goats in the winter and is critical

to their existence.

MOUNTAIN GOAT GMU 15 WESTERN KENAI PENINSULA

.Goat harvest and hunting pressure by Subunit for 1969, 1972, 1973 and 1974, GMU 15.

15 (A) 15 (B) 15 (C) Unit 15 Total Number of Percent
Year MM FF All MM FF All 'RM FF Al 1.@/ MM FF All.!/ Hunters Success

1969 31 38 69

1972 0 0 0 11 5 16 41 38 79 52 44 96 160- 50.-0
197^5 0 0 0 10 7 17 32 23 56 46 31 78 1442/ 45.8

1974 0 0 0 3 5 9 47 35 83 56 41 99 222 z14.6

Data not available.
l/ 16 hunters reported taking two goats each.
12 hunters reported taking two goats each.
Co Includes animals of unknown sex.
Cn

PREPARED BY: Paul A. LeRoux, Game Biologist III

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat.
Anchorage, Alaska. 143 pp. + 563 maps.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource
inventory of the Northeast Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp.,
757 pp. + 128 maps).

Alexander, J.E. 1971. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

Ballard, W. 1975. Mountain goat survey technique evaluation. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-7.

Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1952. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 284 pp.

Geist, V. 1962. Observations on the habitat-directed behavior of Stones Sheep
(Ovis dalli stonei) and the Mountain Goat (Oreamnos montanus). Thirteenth
Alaska Sci@y@c_eConf. Proc: 29-30.

Hall, R.E. and K.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Roland
Press. New York. Vol. I and 11. 1,083 pp.

Hjeljord, 0. 1970. Feeding ecology and habitat preference of mountain
goat in Alaska. Alaska Coop. Wildlife Unit. No. 22. U. of Alaska.

1973. Mountain goat forage and habitat preference in
Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):353-362.

Johnson, L.J. 1970. The mountain goat in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish
and Game. Wild. Notebook Series. 2 pp.

Klein, D.R. 1952. A reconnaissance study of the mountain goat in
Alaska. M.S. Thesis. U. of Alaska. 121 pp.

LeRoux, P.A. 1973. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

1975. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

1976. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-7.

Manville, R.H. and S.P. Young. 1965. Distribution of Alaskan mammals.
0
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. Cir. 211. 74 pp.

9 ev

Merriam, H. 1960. Coat distribution and population status. Alaska Dept.
of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-6-R-1. Report No. E-3.

Smith, R.B. 1975. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

1976. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 8, Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-7.

Walker, E.P. et al. 1964. Mammals of the world. John's Hopkings Press.
Baltimore. Vol. I and 11. 1,500 pp.

MOOSE

The moose (Alces alces) is the largest member of the deer family in

the world; and the Alaska form (Alces alces gigas) is the largest of all

subspecies.

Adult males in prime condition that have been weighed indicate that

1,000-1,6000 pounds is the usual range; females weigh 800-1,200 pounds.

Only bulls have antlers. The largest moose antlers in North.America

come from Alaska. In Alaska, trophy class bulls are found throughout

the state, but the largest come from the Alaska Peninsula, lower Sisitna

Valley and Kenai Peninsula. Moose produce trophy-size antlers when they

are six or seven years old and may continue to produce large antlers

until they are 13 or 14. In the wild, moose may live more than 20 years.

Moose are long legged, short bodied, have a drooping nose, a "bell"

or dewlap under the chin, and no apparent tail. They are colored a

variety of brindle browns, shading from pale yellow to almost black,

depending upon the season and the age of the animal. The hair of

newborn calves is generally an orange-brown that fades to a lighter rust

color within a few weeks. Newborn calves weigh 28-35 pounds arid grow to

over 300 pounds within five months.

Moose have adapted well to man's incursions and where they have

been given protection from excessive exploitation, they and man have co-

existed in close association. In Alaska, they occur in suitable habitat

from the Stikine River in the Panhandle to the Colville River on the

Arctic Slope. Moose are most abundant in second growth birch forests,

timberline plateaus and along the major rivers of southcentral and

interior Alaska.

Moose are generally sedentary animals, but seasonal movements

associated with breeding, partutition and treks to favored forage areas

may cover 20-40 miles. A tagged moose is known to have moved 60 miles.

In mountainous areas, bulls spend most of the summer and early fall

at or above timberline, while cows with calves prefer more dense cover

at lower elevations. Cows move toward timberline during the rut and

the bulls meet them about halfway. The sexes separate after the breeding

season; and groups of 10-20 bulls at or above timberline are common.

Both sexes are sexually mature at 16 months on the best ranges.

Breeding begins in late August when the larger bulls shed their antler

velvet and begin pre-rut behavior. This includes antler polishing, a

cessation of feeding activities, jousting with similar-sized males,

calling and seeking receptive females. Males exhaust the entire reserve

of fat accumulated during the sumi@er months during the rut. This may

include 20-25% of their total weight, and they enter the winter exhausted.

Most breeding takes place from September 15 to October 10, with most

females conceiving during the first estrus cycle. Calves are born in

late May and early June after a gestation period of approximately 240 days.

About 90% of the females over two years old breed every year. Cows

generally produce a single calf the first time they breed, but thereafter

up to 60% produce twins depending upon the quality and quantity of

available food. Triplets occur rarely, perhaps once every 1,200-2,000

births. Most calves are born in swampy muskeg areas. A cow moose will

defend her newborn calf vigorously.

The reddish-brown calves weigh 25-35 pounds at birth. Thereafter,

they grow at a fast rate, reaching 300-400 pounds four months later. A

little milk plus vast quantities of willow leaves, sedges, pond weeds

and a sampling of most everything green except spruce trees produces

animal tissue at a prodigious rate. Calves are weaned in the following

fall about the time the mother reenters estrous.

Newborn calves may represent 40-50 percent of a moose p9pulation in

the spring, but mortality is great, and by November their number often

has been reduced by half. Many calves die during the six weeks following

birth. Mortality factors include predators, malnutrition and abandonment.

Unlike species dependent upon pristine wilderness or climax vege-

tation, moose are adaptable to many situations. They thrive on tran-

sitional vegetation such as that which follows forest fires, clear-cut

logging operations, land clearing for agricultural purposes, highway

right-of-way clearing, receding glaciers and braided river beds. Their

annual habitat requirements are broad but include the following:

breeding grounds, winter feeding areas, calving grounds and summer

feeding areas.

During fall and winter, moose consume great quantities of

willow, birch and aspen during fall and winter. They may establish a

hedge or browse line six to eight feet above the ground by clipping all

the terminal shoots of favored food species. When food supplies become

critical, moose may eat food that have little nutritional value. The young

terminal tips and bud ends and leaves contain most of the nutrients.

But when shortages exist, moose will consume the older two-year growth.

Occasionally, they will even resort to feeding on some three-year old

growth. Since there is little food value in this material, the survival

chances of the animals may be lowered.

Spring is the time for grazing, and moose utilize a variety of

foodstuffs, particularly sedges, equisetum (horsetail.), pond weeds and

grasses. In some areas they feed on vegetation in shallow ponds all

summer; in other situations forbs, and leaves or birch, willow, alder

and aspen are the main summer diet.

10 0'

Wolves may take a considerable number of calf moose in late May

and June. Locally, wolves may be important depressants on moose popu-

lations. Since there is total overlap of the distribution of wolves

and moose, wolves must be considered major users of the moose resource.

Black bears and brown bears both eat moose calves but their impact upon

populations has never been thoroughly evaluated.

The winter period is crucial not only to the survival of adults

and young of the year, but also to the survival of the following year's

calves through abortion of fetus or resorption by the cow. Winter food

shortages result in malnutrition and may cause losses to the population.

Some losses may not be directly caused by the malnutrition but result

from diseases or parasites that attack undernourished moose.

Internal parasites that affect moose include liver flukes, tape-

worms and other roundworms, stomach flukes and lungworms. The winter

or moose tick, is the only external parasite that is a serious health

hazard to moose. Other diseases reported in moose include blindness,

Bang's disease, tuberculosis, arthritis and necrotic stomatitis.

Automobile collisions kill some moose, especially in winter when

moose refuse to leave the easy travelled route of a snow-plowed highway.

Moose also prefer to move along plowed railroad right-of-ways rather

than flounder through deep snowdrifts. During winters with exceptionally

deep snow, as many as 200 moose have been killed by the Alaska Railroad.

Moose may move into residential areas and occupy yards, gardens and

similar sheltered areas during severe winters. They often become such

nuisances that they have to be destroyed.

10 1

MOOSE - UNIT 9 (ALASKA PENINSULA)

Although moose are generally considered relative newcomers

to the Alaska Peninsula, early reports show they were present

as far west as Bear Lake near Port Moller in the late 1800's.

Probably they were eliminated periodically from major portions

of the peninsula by cataclysmic volcanic eruptions. As

conditions stabliized and vegetation became reestablished, moose

reappeared, giving rise to a theory of westward movement in

recent years.

The populations between Iliamna and Mother Goose Lakes

apparently built up rapidly from the late 1940's through the

mid-1950's. The population increase below Mother Goose Lake

continued into the early 1960's.

The greatest densities of moose occur along rivers and

their headwaters from King Salmon River to and including the

Meshik River. Sex and age composition counts of selected areas

have included over 2,000 animals in past years although a current

estimate places the total population at approximately 3,500 moose

(Jim Faro, Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Generally throughout the peninsula, moose densities are low and

either stable or declining depending on specific subpopulations.

The low densities are due either to poor reproductive success or to

habitat adaptation following a population peak (circa 1.960).

Along the Pacific coastal drainages, moose populations are

very low, but apparently stable. A few animals are observed in

the bay areas during summer and fall but then are suspected to

migrate across the mountains to winter in the western lowlands.

Jim Faro (pers. comm.) reports seeing moose tracks in May leading

back to the Pacific drainages.

Considering the low population and the present lack of observable

cause for migrating, no critical habitat is defined for the Pacific

coastal moose.

Human uses of moose include trophy hunting, largely by guides

and non-residents, and recreational meat hunting by residents.

This unit produces what may be the world's largest representatives

of the species, but few weights and measurements are available at

this time. Some of the largest recorded moose antlers have come

from Unit 9.

The absence of active villages combined with low moose

populations along the Pacific coast implies that "subsistence" efforts

are virtually nil there. In the 1974 season out of the 705 moose

harvested throughout the total unit, only 21 (3.0%) were reported

harvested in the Pacific drainages.

Throughout the unitY Alaskan residents usually account for

rougbly 50% of the harvest with majority of the animals taken before

November 1. From the 1974 coastal harvest, residents reported taking

14 moose; non-residents 7.

Future impacts are anticipated as the result of development

of Native Land Claims Selections. Encroachments depleting browse

and increased hunting access to remote areas have historically

reduced populations and ranges. Throughout the Alaska Peninsula,

established moose populations in the vicinity of villages are now

non-existant.

103

MOOSE - UNIT 9 - ALASKA PENINSULA

Harvest and Hunting Pressure

Percent
Year Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success % Non-Resident

1964 185 64 0 249

1965 213 68 4 285 -- --

1966 240 75 8 323 519 62.2

1967 301 68 9 378 509 74.3

1968 366 72 5 443 583 76.0

1969 3i7 70 6 393 527 74.6 47.6

1970 266 84 2 352 457 77.0

1971 317 116 7 440 591 74.5 41.4

1972 454 91 11 556 773 71.9 50.7

1973 607 206 26 839 1,175 71.4 36.0

1974 520 167 18 705 1,072 65.8 43.2

.1/
1975-

1) Compilation of returns in progress.

104

MOOSE UNIT 9 - ALASKA PENINSULA

HUNTER SUCCESS

Non- Total
Year Resident % Resident % Unknown % Harvest

1969 212 53.7 167 42.3 16 4.1 395
1970 151 42.9 73 20.7 128 36.4 352
1971 244 55.5 182 41.4 14 3.2 440
1972 232 41.7 282 50.7 42 7.6 556
1973* 469 55.9 314 37.4 56 6.7 839
1974 347 49.4 332 47.0 26 3.6 705

Total 1,665 50.3 1,350 41.1 282 8.6 3,287

Total known moose harvest .................................... 839
Harvest shown on IBM run ..................................... 771

1974 %

Alaska Resident Harvest (non-peninsula) ................. 257 36.5
Alaska Peninsula Resident and Vicinity Harvest .......... 90 12.8
Non-resident Harvest .................................... 332 47.1
Residency Unknown ....................................... 26 3.7

Total 705

Unit 9 Coastal Harvest by City:

City Successful Hunters

Anchorage 9
Kenai 1
Seward 2
Soldotna 2

Total 14

MOOSE - UNIT 14 (ANCHORAGE)

Moose are and have been an integral part of this rapidly developing

area. Moose populations were benefited considerably by the openings

created in mature forests during the first half of the century by

construction of the Alaska Railroad, gold mining and colonization of

the Matanuska Valley. The openings were created not only by construction

activities but by fires started attendant to these activities. Early

accounts indicate a scarcity of moose in the lower Susitna and Matanuska

Valley. Large numbers of moose began to appear in the mid-1940's.

Large areas burned about 1924 and reburned about 1940, with

smaller fires in intervening years. Great quantities of birch, willow

and aspen browse appeared where little was present before. Triggered

by the sudden abundance of food, the high reproductive capability of

moose resulted in a rapid increase in the herd. Moose populations

in much of Unit 14 reached historic highs of abundance in the early

1950's. Since then, a gradual reduction of winter range, combined

with several unusually severe winters, has caused some reduction ift

moose numbers in specific areas.

Subunit 14A, the Matanuska Valley, is currently estimated to

support a static population of approximately 2,500 moose. During winter,

this population is found below 1,000 feet throughout all the drainages

particularly along the Knik and Matanuska Rivers. Anticipating continued

human development and encroachment on the winter habitat in this region,

the areas surrounding the base of the Talkeetna Mountains from Willow to

Moose Creek may become critically important to moose in future years.

Although this habitat is not considered prime, presently a major portion

of it is state owned and could be rehabilitated (J. Didrickson,

Area Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Palmer, pers. conim.).

106

Following the typical seasonal movements of this species, calving

occurs throughout the swampy lowlands beginning in late May and extending

through June. Some noted areas are Nancy Lake Flats, Palmer-Hay Flats,

Knik River Flats and Little Susitna River Flats as well as along the

Little Susitna River itself. By late summer, they are returning to

the uplands and remain there until heavy snows and lack of available

food forces them back towards the lowlands.

Subunit 14C is an area possessing peculiar management problems.

This subunit incorporates metropolitan Anchorage, Fort Richardson

Army Base, Elmendorf Air Force Base, Chugach State Park, the State

Refuge at Potter Marsh and the northern portion of the Chugach National

Forest. All the area is used by moose except the highest peaks and

ice fields. Inevitably, moose and people clash over the use of roads,

airfields, ornamental shrubs, golf courses, school yards and playgrounds.

While moose show some tolerance to intensive development, man seems

unable to tolerate moose in some situations. Furthermore, as the

intensity of human land use increases, moose are limited by the scarcity

of food and the lack of areas providing life's necessities. These

stages have been reached in many of the areas in the vicinity of Anchorage.

Moose are not excluded or eliminated from the commercial and

military airports. Limited access highways are fenced and an ever

increasing portion of the area is under concrete or asphalt as

urbanization spreads to the north. Moose have persisted in surprising

numbers in the remaining lesser developed areas, but not without creating

controversy.

In the mid-1950's 2,500 to 3,000 moose were observed wintering

in the Eklutna Flats-Eagle River area. Presently, less than 600

moose are estimated to utilize the lowland region from Eklutna Flats

to Potter's Marsh. Approximately half of this population

1 *0 7

winters on the Fort Richardson-Elmendorf complex, (D. Harkness, Area

Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.). Efforts by military

wildlife management programs to rehabilitate portions of this habitat

may serve to slow the decline of this local population.

The recorded harvest from these subunits are primarily sport

motivated although the meat is usually retrieved for domestic use.

In 1975, non-residents took 13.7% of the harvest in Unit 14.

Reflecting the decline in populations in subunit 14A, harvests

have dropped in recent years. In both 1974 and 1975, only 167 moose

were taken from this subunit annually. Recorded poaching incidents

account for an additional 50 animals yearly.

Harvest from subunit 14C has in recent years fluctuated at

low levels finally reaching an all time low in 1975 of 29 moose.

This harvest reflects a combination of shortened seasons, and closed

areas (e.g. - Fort Richardson) but most significantly, is the result

of several factors reducing the populations. Poor overwinter survival

of calves, vehicle collision mortalities, poaching and incidental

kills exceeded the sport harvest in 1975. A recent increase in auto

accident kills most likely reflects the great increase in Anchorage

area traffic. The high poaching total illustrates the encroachement

of the Anchorage populace into moose wintering areas and consequently

the irresistible temptation to "pot" a moose from ones back porch.

Although direct comparison between all known mortality factors

and the annual calf production is difficult, it is probably safe to

assume that far more animals are leaving the population than entering

it. In view of the rapidly growing Anchorage populace, there is little

reason to believe that the downward trend will reverse itself

(D. Harkness, unpublished data).

108

Non-consumptive use of this unit's population is high. The

Matanuska Hay Flats has been proposed for an educational viewing

area. Likewise, the Palmer Hay Flats is renowned for viewing moose

between December and April. During summer and fall, moose are

frequently encountered in upland forested regions such as Chugach

State Park.

A management study is currently in progress on Fort Richardson

utilizing visual collars to better understand seasonal movements

in this area.

109

Moose harvest and hunting pressure in Alaska's Game Management Subunit 14A,
1970-1975.

No.of Percent
Year Date Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success

1970 8/20-9/20 182 0 1 183
11/1-11/20 102 0 6 108
Unknown Date 79 2 4 85

Total 363 2 11 376 897 41.9

1971 8/20-9/20 177 0 1 178
11/1-11/20 225 0 0 225
9/1-9/20
Antlerless 0 101 0 101
11/1-11/14
Antlerless 0 233 0 233
Unknown Date 127 145 9 281

Total 529 479 10 1,018 2,090 28.7

1972 8/20-9/20 83 1 1 85
11/1-11/20 100 1 0 101
9/1-9/20
Antlerless 0 75 0 75
Unknown Date 29 17 2 48

Total 212 94 3 309 No Data No Data

1973 8/20-9/10 136 0 2 138
11/1-11/10 167 0 3 170
Unknown Date 34 1 3 38*

Total 337 1 8 346 1,506 23.0

continued

This figure includes 4 male moose, 1 female, and 1 moose of unknown sex
reportedly taken in October, December, January or February.

I.0

(Continued) Moose harvest and hunting pressure in Alaska's Game
Management Subunit 14A, 1970-1975.

No.of Percent
Year Date Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success

1974 8/20-9/20 164 0 3 167

Total 164 0 3 167 1,225 13.6

1975 9/1-9/20 166 1 0 167 893 18.7

MOOSE HARVEST UNIT 14C

Year Bulls Cows Unk. Sex Totals

1965 246 249 2 497
1966 134 77 4 215
1967 55 1 5 61
1968 90 38 0 128
1969 92 14 2 108
1970 65 5 6 76
1971 98 44 1 143
1972 55 36 3 94
1973 93 40 4 137
1974 41 4 1 46
1975 29 0 0 29

Comparison of success among persons hunting bull moose excluding
airport and Fort Richardson hunt.

Year Bull Kill Hunters Percent Success

1969 92 215 42.8
1970 65 181 35.9
1971 93 226 41.2
1972 41 137 29.9
1973 78 388 20.1
1974 41 265 15.5
1975 29 197 14.7

112

MOOSE UNIT 15 (KENAI)

The Kenai Peninsula includes the Kenai National Moose Range and

is almost synonomous with moose. Although moose are long-time

residents of the peninsula, population levels have fluctuated over

the years with changes in vegetation and the age of the forest canopy.

Reflecting these changes in habitat status, the current population

has declined dramatically from its peak in the late 1960's.

Since the 1920's, fires (largely caused by man) have had a

most beneficial effect upon the numbers of moose in the unit. The

most significant event benefiting recent moose populations was the

350,000 acre fire that occurred in 1947. The fire was capricious,

skipping some areas entirely while burning to the mineral layer in

others, and leaving a patchwork of vegetation over nearly 450,000

acres. Plant succession since has been equally variable and the

complex of vegetation types and successional stages provided unparalleled

moose habitat that is now past its zenith. Fires continued to bless

the area, with approximately 5,000 acres burned on Kenai Lake in

1959, 90,000 acres burned in the Swanson River area in 1969 and

450 acres burned in the Russian River area in 1969. Requiring

six to ten years to reach the proper vegetative successional stage,

these more recent burns are just beginning to provide prime critical

winter moose forage. They are insufficient in acreage however, to

compensate for the loss of the 1947 burn area through successional aging.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has played an active role in

modification of winter ranges as a part of long-term management goals

on the Kenai National Moose Range. Several thousands of acres have

been mechanically reverted from moderate-aged white spruce to willow

113

and birch in the Skilak Lake area and a considerable portion of the

1969 burn has been "rolled" for aesthetic and browse production

purposes. A controlled burning program and pulpwood logging operations

should provide additional browse within the refuge.

In spite of these habitat rehabilitation efforts, the population

in the northern subunits (15A and B has declined from an estimated

8,000 moose in 1971 to presently 3,500 to 4,500 moose (P. LeRoux,

Are Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Soldotna, pers. comm.).

In Subunit 15B, the region along the lower Funny River, the Horsetail

Lake area, and benchlands below timberline are important wintering grounds.

Moose habitat off the Kenai National Moose Range has not fared as

well. Subunit 15C currently supports a declining population of between

3,000 and 4,000 moose. In the Homer area, where natural and man-caused

fires are rare because of the moist climate, the ranges are in poor

condition. The older fire-created communities are becoming mature and

no new range has been created.

Some climax willow communities at timberline, along streams, on

the bluffs and along the beaches from Kenai to south of Ninilchik

continue to support sizeable populations of moose, but much of the

range shows the effect of overuse, The Ninilchik and Anchor River

bottoms in particular appear to be most important in this subunit

for providing critical winter forage.

At the eastern edge of Unit 15 where the land is managed by

the Chugach National Forest, moose habitat is restricted to steep

mountain slopes and river valley. This range is also in poor condition.

In December or January, depending on snowfall and available browse,

moose will begin moving into the lowland areas.

114

Around mid-April, the bulls and females without calves migrate back to

the upland and timbered areas. Some animals, however, remain low during

the summer and may spend from seven to nine months in the lowlands

(P. LeRoux, pers. comm.).

Calving on the Kenai occurs in the lowland areas beginning in late

May to early June. At this time the animals are generally dispersed,

but densities of 400 to 500 animals may be observed on the Moose River

Flats. Likewise, the Chickaloon River Upper Flats may contain 30 to 40

animals.

The primary objective of the harvest appears to be domestic usage

of the meat. This objective is closely intermixed with the strong

recreational facet, the eastern po rtion of subunit 15B is being managed

to produce trophy bulls.

A shortened season (20 days) prompted by declining populations

reduced the harvest to all time lows for all subunits in 1975. The

total harvest for the entire unit was 219 moose versus the harvest of

1,419 moose in 1972.

Possessing strong aesthetic values (perhaps psychologically more

than visually), moose are coutmon and popular subjects for viewing and

photographic purposes.

Most of Unit 15 is under jurisdiction of the Federal Government

in the Kenai National Moose Range. The State of Alaska and the Kenai

Peninsula Borough own the southern portion of Unit 15. This area

includes two state parks, neither of which have much importance to

moose. A portion of the state and borough lands will eventually be

in private hands, and native corporations may select some refuge land under

the Native Claims Settlement Act.

115

Generally, however, there is stable land tenure on the most important

moose habitat.

Here, as elsewhere, roads tend to intersect annual moose migration

routes. The Sterling Highway passes through prime winter range and

nearly a hundred moose-vehicle collisions may occur annually. Several

thousand moose migrate twice annually between the Kenai Mountains

and the Moose River lowlands. Any future highways intersecting this

region, especially if fenced, would affect perhaps 30% of the moose

in Unit 15.

116

Harvest and Hunting Pressure Subunit 15(A) (Harvest Ticket Return Data)

Percent
Year Season Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success

1965 lst 0 0
2nd 299 0
Combined 365 299 0 664

1966 1st 211 185 0 396
2nd 137 0 0 137
Combined 3821 185 0 567

1967 lst 185 0 0 185
2nd 62 0 0 62
Combined 247 0 0 247 1,036 24

1968 lst 166 1 0 166
2nd 91 0 0 91
Combined 268 1 0 269 1,092 25

1969 lst
2nd
Combined 287 7 294

1970 lst 134 0 3 137
2nd 69 0 1 70
Antlerless 16 191 3 209
Combined 2912 191 11 493 918 54

1971 lst 153 2232 1 376
2nd 141 2612 0 402
Combined 3691 4842 4 853 1@637 52
1972 Ist 106 1452 1 236
2nd 54 02 0 54
Combined 1932 1452 1 339 1,518 22

1973 lst 156 4 2 162 1,427 19
2nd 82 2 11 85
Combined 259 7 4 270

1974 141 6 5 152 801 19

1975 101 0 0 101 695 15

* Data not available.
1) Total of lst and 2nd season may be less than for combined season
because of inclusion of animals for which date of kill was not given.
2) These data from permit returns. Numbers include both male and female calves.

Moose Harvest and Hunting Pressure - Subunit 15(B) Soldotna

Number Percent
Year Bulls Cows Unk.Sex Totals Hunters Success

1965 183 193 1 377

1966 119 26 4 149

1967 69 0 1 70

1968 108 6 2 116
2/
1969 119 55- 2 176

1970 69 75(15BE=50) 2 146
1971 128 791/(15BE) 5 212
1972 73 11 l/ (15.BE) 1 85

1973 145 116(15BE) 6 267 877 30
15BE=82
15BW=63

1974 95 1 1 97 313 31
19753/ 24 0 0 24 158 16

1) Data derived from registration permit returns.
2) Data derived from field observations.
3) Note: Legal season was not opened.

Moose Harvest and Hunting Pressure - Subunit 15(C) Homer

Percent
Year Bulls Cows Unk.Sex Total Hunters Success
1961 106 1/
1962 -- 100 l/ --

1963 349 147 496

1964 470 337 807

1965 263 229 492

1966 278 72 350 -- --

1967 294 -- -- 294 643 46

1968 404 20 5 429 972 44

2/
1969 420 109-= 4 533 -- --

1970 319 68 7 394 775 51
1971 263 146-1/ 4 413 836 49
l/
1972 170 114:- 0 284 1,041 27
1973 152 143@ l/ 5 300 1,111 27
1974 230 133 l/ 3 366 1,240 30

1975 90 4 0 94 658 15

1) Data derived from permit hunt reports.
2) Data derived from field observations.

MOOSE - UNIT 16 (LOWER SUSITNA)

Subunit 16A is estimated to currently support a near static

population of approximately 1,600 moose. Likewise, Subunit 16B

has a static population (with possible localized 1260 decreases)

numbering between 7,000 and 10,000.

As in other units, the winter habitat is most critical to the

survival of moose. Depending upon snowfall and available food,

moose will migrate downhill in winter. During this period,

they occupy nearly all the drainages below 1,000 feet. In

Unit 16, the most wintering important noted are Alexander Creek, the

Susitna, Chulitna, Tokositna, Kahiltna, Yenta, Skwentna, Beluga,

Chakachatna, Katnu (Big River) and Drift Rivers and some of their

tributaries.

Calving occurs in lowland swampy areas beginning in late May and

early June. Calving ground locations in this unit are not well identi-

fied, but in Subunit 16A calving probably occurs along the Tokositna and

Kalhitna River flats and likely in the swampland below Little Peters

Hills. In 16B the Susitna Flats, Bachatna Flats, Fox Flats, the

swamplands on both sides of Susitna-Belgua Mountain complex and

most of the swampland below 1,000 feet in altitude between the

Alaska Range and Cook Inlet serve as suitable calving grounds.

Later in the summer, the return trek begins back into the

uplands. Here rutting and breeding occur in the fall. In Subunit 16A,

a study is in progress utilizing radio tracking and visual collars

to follow the seasonal movements of 49 moose (J. Didrickson, Area

Biologist, A.D.F.&G., Palmer, pers. comm.).

Unit 16 encompasses most of the primary habitat types preferred

by moose including seral willow on the alluvial bars, successional

120

willow and aspen below receding glaciers, climax willow stands at

timberline and seral birch, willow and aspen in fire-created ranges.

As the result of the high waters and scouring action of ice at spring

breakup, river bottoms receive nearly annually, a regrowth important

as moose forage.

Recently, moose have suffered several severe winters in Unit 16

and the available winter habitat was not adequate to sustain the popula-

tions. Hundreds died in 1971 and many more in 1972. Creation of additional

range through mechanical manipulation or controlled fires is possible

if human demands for moose warrant the expense.

This unit receives substantial harvest pressure, primarily from

Anchorage area hunters. This is due to its proximity and relative

ease of access by aircraft and boat. In 1973, harvest in this unit

reached a record high of 925 moose. Eighty percent of this harvest

was accomplished through the use of aircraft. The initiation of

the regulation banning hunting the same day airborne, reduced the

harvest in 1974 to 528 moose. A shortening of the season length in

1975 further reduced the harvest to 242 moose.

The harvest motives are characterized as a recreational hunt for

domestic use. Intensive hunter use occurs in the readily accessible

areas of Mt. Susitna, Alexander Creek, Beluga Lake, Drift, Chakachatna

and McArthur Rivers. Potential non consumptive use exists in these

same areas.

Use of this natural resource has not been commensurate with its

potential because until the late 1960's access to the area was restircted

to aircraft and boats. In 1969, the Sunshine Bridge was opened across

121

the Susitna River as part of the Anchorage-Fairbanks Highway. This

opened a small corner of the unit containing high quality moose habitat

and human use of the area increased dramatically.

Most of Unit 16, including all of the high quality moose range, is

now owned by the State of Alaska, the Matanuska-Susitna Borough and

private individuals. Development in the area will probably be closely

tied to the construction of the proposed Knik Causeway which would link

Anchorage to the lower Susitna Basin. If this causeway is built,

development in Unit 16 will be rapid. Present development plans for the

capital relocation, clearcutting and mining in this unit will probably not

have much adverse long-term impact other than improved hunter accessibility

to the area. With proper regard to moose calving grounds and migration

routes, human developments may indeed benefit moose populations by pro-

viding additional winter forage as the result of transitional succession

of vegetative regrowth.

Moose harvest and hunting pressure in Alaska's Game Management Unit 16,
west side of Cook Inlet, 1969-1975.

Percent
Year Season Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success

1969 8/20-9/30 252 0 5 257
11/1-11/30 183 0 1 184
11/21-11/30
Antlerless 0 123 0 123
Unknown Date 180 44 1 225

Total 615 167 7 789 1,366 57.8

1970 8/20-9/30 238 0 3 241
11/1-11/30 228 0 5 233
11/21-11/30
Antlerless 0 152 0 152
Unknown Date 132 60 7 199

Total 598 212 15 825 1,442 57.2

1971 8/20-9/30 174 0 0 174
Yentna
8/20-12/31 9 -- 1 10
11/1-11/30 249 -- 4 253
11/21-11/30
Antlerless 0 174 2 176
Unknown Date 153 61 8 222

Total 585 235 16 836 1,648 50.7

1972 8/20-9/30 142 0 1 143
Yentna
8/20-11/30 11 -- 0 11
11/1-11/30 236 0 236
16A - 8/20-9/30
Antlerless &
16B - 8/20-9/30 &
11/1-11/30 0 119 0 119
Unknown Date 69 25 4 98

Total 458 144 5 607 1,413 43.0

continued

123

(continued) Moose harvest and hunting pressure in Alaska's
Game Management Unit 16, west side of Cook Inlet, 1969-1975.

Percent
Year Season Bulls Cows Unid. Total Hunters Success

1973 8/20-9/20 303 128 10 441
Yentna 8/20-
11/30 9 8 0 17
16A - 11/1-11/10 &
16B - 11/1-11/20 265 143 5 413
Unknown Date 32 18 4 54

Total 609 297 19 925 1,995 46.4

1974 16A-8/20-9/20 & 266 95 6 367
16B-8/20-9/30
16B - 11/0-11/20 49 .49 1 99
16A-8/20-9/20
Antlerless 0 30 0 30
'Unknown Date 21 11 0 32

Total 336 185 7 528 1,580 33.4

1975 16A-9/1-9/20 43 0 0 43
16B-9/1-9/20 &
11/1-11/10 199 0 2 244

Total 242 0 2 244 829 29.4

124

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. 1959. Annual report for 1959. Report
No. 11 116 pp.

1966. Moose studies. Fed. Aid Proj. Nos. W-6-R-5 and
W-6-R-6.

1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat. Anchorage, Alaska.
143 pp. + 563 maps.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. A fish and wildlife resource
inventory of the Northeast Gulf of Alaska. Vol. I and 11 (411 pp.,
757 pp. + 128 maps).

Bishop, R. 1969. Moose report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed.
Aid Proj. W-15-R-3.

Bratlie, A. 1966. 1966 moose data. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Typed. Unpub.

Burris, O.E. and D.E. McKnight. 1973. Game transplants in Alaska. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game. Game Tech. Bull. No. 4. 57 pp.

Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1952. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 284 pp.

Faro, J.B. 1970. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj.
W-17-2.

1971. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-3.

1973. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

1975. Annual report of survey-inventory activities. Game
Management Unit 9. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

Franzmann, A.W. and P.D. Arneson. 1973. Moose research center studies.
Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-5.

1974. Moose research center studies. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-6.

et al. 1974. Development and testing of new techniques
for moose management. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid
Proj. W-17-2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Hall-, R.E. and K.R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Roland
Press. New York. Vol. I and 11. 1,083 pp.

12 5-

LeResche, R.E. 1970. Moose report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-12.

and J.L. Davis. 1971. Moose research report. Alaska Dept.
of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-4.

LeRoux, P.A. 1970. Moose survey-inventory progress report. Game mgt.
Unit 15 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-2.

. 1971. Moose survey-inventory progress report. Game mgt.
Unit 15 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-3.

. 1972. Moose survey-inventory progress report. Game mgt.
Unit 15 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-4.

-. 1973. Moose survey-inventory progress report. Game mgt.
Unit 15 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-5.

. 1975. Moose survey-inventory progress report. Game mgt.
Unit 15 Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17-6.

Manville, R.H. and S.P. Young. 1965. Distribution of Alaskan mammals.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Cir. 211. 74 pp.

Neiland, K.A. 1974. Moose disease report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-17-4, 5, 6.

Rausch, R.A. 1964. Summary of moose investigations. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Typed. Unpub. 27 pp.

. 1965. Moose status report. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game.
Type. Unpub.

. 1967. Report on 1965-66 Moose studies. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-15-R-1.

and R. Bishop. 1968. Report of 1966-67 moose studies. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj. No. W-15-R-2 and W-15-R-3.

VanWormer, J. 1972. The world of the moose. J.B. Lippincott Co., New
York. 160 pp.

Walker, E.P. et al. 1964. Mammals of the world. John's Hopkins Press.
Baltimore. Vol. I and 11. 1,500 pp.

126

DALL SHEEP - UNIT 8 (KODIAK - AFOGNAK)

In 1965, 13 dall sheep were released at Uganik Bay on Kodiak

Island. The transplant has not faired well. A report in the summer

of 1966 indicated that a ram, ewe and newborn lamb had been seen

at the headwaters of Barling Bay, approximately 30 miles from the

release site.

No other reports on the status of the animals were received

until November, 1974. At that time, a band of seven sheep were sighted

in Zachar Bay drainage. A single mature ram was observed along with

two lambs and four ewes or subadults. The sheep were at approximately

2,400 feet elevation on a southwest exposure with a windswept snow

depth of about 10 inches.

No other information is available.

12-7

FURBEARERS AND SMALL GAME

Furbearers and small game can be found in the Cook Inlet-Kodiak

Island area in varying numbers and in diverse locations. Baseline

data, especially population size and composition, on most of the

species is almost non-existent. Some indication of relative abundance

may be obtained from trapping records, but these are often incomplete

or pertain only to specific areas. There is no documented record

of the size of the small game harvest. Some data is available on

the level of harvest of wolf, wolverine and beaver because these

animals must be presented to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game

for sealing.

The information for the following species accounts were gleaned

from Fish and Game biologists who reside in the area. Most of their

information is from personal experience or from hunters and trappers

they have contacted. With the exception of a grouse project*

conducted some years ago, no research is presently being conducted on

small game or furbearers in this area.

The Kodiak Island group produces a variety of furbearers, but

because of the relatively warm maritime cli-inate these furs do -not

become as prime as furs from more northern areas. Consequently,

Kodiak furs do not command top prices on the commercial fur market.

Some recreational trapping occurs in the vicinity of the city of

Kodiak, but the bulk of the fur catch is produced by a few

individuals who trap primarily to supplement their income. Since

Ellison, L.N. and R.B. Weeden, 1968. Game bird report. Fed. Aid.
Wild. Rest. Proj. W-13-R-2 and 3. Work Plan B.

123

there are so few serious trappers, a large portion of the Kodiak

Island group is not trapped at..all. As a traditional native subsistence

effort, trapping has little or no historic background in this area.

The portion of Game Management Unit 9 bordering Cook Inlet and

Shelikof Straits is virtually uninhabited. This area is so rugged and

remote that few individuals visit to engage in trapping or small game

hunting. The few people who do visit, normally fly across Cook Inlet

from Homer or Kenai. The magnitude of this effort is unknown.

The Kenai Peninsula is not a large fur producing area. Most

of Game Management Unit 15 does not contain good furbearer habitat

and thus populations of these animals do not reach high numbers.

Some recreational trapping occurs near the cities and along the

road systems. Hares are hunted and trapped for subsistence use.

There is no non-consumptive use of furbearers except for the viewing

of beaver in the Portage area and red squirrels in the various campgrounds.

Except for localized instances, little information is available

on furbearers and small game in the Susitna and Matanuska Valleys

of upper Cook Inlet. The delineation of habitat types and distribution

of species is not possible with the scope of our present knowledge.

Only for wolf, wolverine and beaver is the relative importance of

the fur harvest known. Some non-consumptive use occurs through

efforst to photograph and view small game and furbearers.

The greatest danger of furbearers and small game is the loss

of critical habitat that may affect one or more species. The

relationship of small game and furbearers to each other is a close

one. The presence of all species of small game is essential for the

presence of furbearers. As furbearers are of commercial value to man,

then so, too, are the small game species they feed upon.

129

BEAVER

The beaver (Castor canadensis) is the second largest rodent in the

world. It is a semi-aquatic mammal about 48 inches in length with an

average weight of 40 to 60 pounds.

Beavers are monogamous and will usually retain a lifelong

association with its mate. Adult beavers breed in January and

February. The gestation period is 115 to 120 days. The young are

born in April or May. Beavers have one litter a year with an average

of four kits per litter. Litter size ranges from two to seven kits.

They reach sexual maturity at two years and have a life expectancy

of about 12 years.

Beavers are herbivores. During spring their food is mainly

grasses, ferns, roots, some tree bark and a variety of water plants.

During summer and fall they consume the bark of birch, willow, alder,

poplar and ash. Aspens are the most favored beaver food and contain

the most nutrients.

As fall approaches, beavers construct a lodge and collect a food

supply for the winter. The lodges are constructed in northern or

northwestern edges of ponds to get the greatest amount of sunlight

during the winter. Clean freshwater and a good food supply are

essential to the well-being of beavers.

Beavers are exposed to greatest danger when they leave the water

to forage for food. Wolves, coyotes, lynx, wolverine and bears may

prey on beaver. In addition to the larger predators, kits are subject

to predation by foxes, marten, otters and eagles.

Kodiak Island Group

Alaska's first recorded beaver transplant occurred in 1925 when

24 beavers were released on Kodiak Island. Seven beavers were liberated

at Clark's Lake and 17 were released in the streams entering Kalsin Bay

(ADF&G, 1973).

Since the transplant, beavers have occupied all of the available

habitat. Population numbers are medium to low on Kodiak and low on

Afognak. Long winters appear to have an effect on population numbers.

Beavers have been overtrapped along the Kodiak road systems. Their

importance as a commercial furbearer is minor when compared to the

rest of Alaska.

Beavers are considered a nuisance because they dam streams.

However, people do like to see and photograph them. Some bartering

of furs is done in Kodiak. Prices range up to $30.00 (Roger Smith,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Beaver are abundant within this area. Trapping pressure is by

local residents and varies from light to non-existent. Trapping has

no significant effect on the beaver population.

Development of oil and minerals in this area may have an adverse

impact on beaver habitat and increased human populations will result

in higher recreational trapping pressure (Jim Faro, Area Biologist,

ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Beaver occur in moderate numbers throughout suitable habitat,

especially in the lowland lakes. They are abundant on Kalgin Island

where they are occasionally trapped. There are some Jrainages that

131

provide good beaver habitat that have no beaver in them today.

One of these is the Resurrection Creek system. Beaver could be

transplanted there, but with expanding populations, they may

repopulate naturally.

A few beaver trappers use airplanes, but most operate off of

the road systems either by foot or snow machines. Trappers are

encouraged to take beaver along the road systems because of difficulities

in keeping road culverts open.

Historically beaver numbers were much higher than they are today.

The 1964 earthquake caused a drastic reduction in numbers. The reason

for this is unknown (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna,

pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet,

Beaver are found throughout this area. They occur in greatest

numbers in the rivers and streams of the Susitna Valley between the

Alaska Range and the Talkeetna Mountains and along the west side

of Cook Inlet.

In GMU 14 from 1969 to 1973, the known beaver harvest has ranged

from 23 to 220, with an average of 130.8 taken per year. In GMU 16

from 1969 to 1973, the harvest has ranged from 279 to 975, with an

average of 584.0 per year. About 95% of the beaver harvest is for

commercial sale.

In the area between the Susitna and Matanuska Rivers, the

proliferation of subdivisions and summer homes on lakes and streams

and roads through beaver habitat result in conflict with beaver

populations. When these conflicts occur, beaver are ultimately

removed from the areas (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G.,

Palmer, pers. comm.).
132

Beaver affidavit analysis, 1969-1973.

Percent
Game Percent Kits and Percent Total Avg.No.
Mgmt. Kits Yearlings Adults No.of No. of Beaver/
Unit Year Limit (Under 54") (Under 59") (over 59") Beaver Trappers Trapper

8 1969 No limit 28.5 40.7 59.7 175 12 14.5
1970 No limit 31.3 49.3 50.7 351 24 14.6
1971 No limit 36.5 55.4 44.7 85 8 10.6
1972 No limit 32.0 40.0 60.0 52 6 8.7
1973 No limit 24.3 43.4 56.6 115 9 12.8

9 1969 40 and 15* 23.4 34.4 66.0 148 17 8.7
1970 40 and 15* 19.6 34.2 65.8 419 37 11.3
1971 40 and 15* 26.4 42.7 57.3 246 25 9.8
1972 40 and 20* 21.3 36.0 64.0 337 27 12.5
1973 40 and 20* 19.7 35.4 64.6 726 57 12.7

F- 14 1969 40 16.8 42.4 60.0 220 33 6.6
1970 40 27.2 51.0 49.0 202 32 6.3
1971 40 20.0 42.0 58.0 50 14 3.5
1972 40 34.8 43.5 56.5 23 6 3.8
1973 40 18.6 35.0 65.0 159 37 4.3

15 1969 40 39.3 57.1 45.1 135 14 9.6
1970 40 25.0 58.3 41.7 73 15 4.8
1971 40 20.7 34.5 65.5 29 7 4.1
1972 40 41.5 58.7 41.3 29 5 5.7
1973 40 .24.2 46.0 54.0 133 20 6.6

16 1969 40 15.8 41.5 59.1 975 66 14.7
1970 40 17.9 38.3 61.7 717 62 11.5
1971 40 17.6 40.2 59.8 279 28 9.9
1972 40 13.8 31.6 68.4 329 25 13.1
1973 40 19.7 39.8 60.2 620 58 10.7

COYOTE

The coyote (Canis latrans) is about one-third the size of the

timber wolf. They average about 25 pounds at maturity, but a large

male may weigh as much as 50 pounds. Females are slightly smaller.

The coyote stands about two feet high at the shoulders. It's body,

including a tail length of 11 to 16 inches, is about four feet long.

It is fairly well established that coyotes mate for life.

They breed during winter, from late January to early March. -The

female will carry her young for 60 to 65 days and will usually give

birth to five to seven pups.

The coyote is basically carnivorous, but will eat vegetable

matter. Preference is usually for food that is easiest to get, with

hares being the number one item in the diet. Carrion is the next

largest food item and is most important during the winter. Coyotes

will eat most any rodent, deer, elk, bear, sheep or goat carcass if the

opportunity presents itself.

The successful encroachment by the coyote into areas where the

food supply is often meager and competition is keen is a tribute to

the coyote's ability to survive. It is quite likely that the

coyote's variable appetite and its adaptability to man's presence

are what have allowed it to prevail.

Kodiak

Coyotes do not occur on the Kodiak Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Coyotes do not occur in this portion of Unit 9 (Jim Faro, Area

Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

134

Kenai Peninsula

Coyotes are abundant throughout the Kenai Peninsula. Their

numbers have been increasing over the last five years. This may

be partly due to a series of bad winters that have produced a number

of winter-killed moose.

Most coyotes are taken incidental to other trapping. They are

so difficult to catch that most trappers do not make sets for them.

Their numbers will fluctuate naturally even with liberal trapping

seasons.

Because of their secretive nature they are seldom photographed.

People do like to hear them howling and yipping (Paul LeRoux, Area

Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet.

Coyotes range throughout Units 14 and 16. The Susitna and

Matanuska Valleys appear to be prime coyote habitat (Jack Didrickson,

area biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

LAND OTTER

The North American land otter (Lutra canadensis) is a thick set

mammal with short legs, a neck as wide as its head, small ears and

a muscular body that is broadest at the hips. Its tail is powerful

and a little more than a third as long as its head and body. Only

the hind feet are webbed. Adul'ts weigh 15 to 35 pounds and are

40 to 60 inches in length. Females are about 25% smaller than males.

When prime, their fur appears black-brown, with the belly slightly

lighter in color than the back. The chin and throat are greyish.

Otter fur consists of a very dense undercoat overlaid with longer

guard hairs.
131

Land otters in Alaska usually breed in May. One to six pups

axe born in a den the following year between January and June after

a gestation period of 9 to 13 months. Delayed implantation (a period

of arrested embryonic growth) accounts for this variation in the

length of gestation.

In general, otters are not sexually mature until they are at

least two years old. After that, they may produce a litter every

year. They can live and breed for more than 20 years.

Land otters hunt on land and in freshwater and salt water.

They eat snails, mussels, clams, sea urchins, insects, crabs, shrimp,

octopi, a variety of fish, and occasionally birds, mammals and

vegetable matter. Almost all the food the otter eats it has caught.

Very seldom, if ever, will the land otter eat carrion.

Kodiak Island Group

The land otter is found throughout the Kodiak Island group.

This entire area is prime otter habitat. The land otter does not

experience drastic fluctuations except in the vicinity of the city

of Kodiak, where indiscriminate shooting takes place.

The Kodiak land otter harvest has been low because a large

portion of the Kodiak area is not trapped. Only about 10-15 people

can be considered serious commercial trappers. Natives have not

been historically or traditionally involved in trapping land otters

on Kodiak.

A prime land otter pelt will average $60-$80. In the past

three years otter have averaged over $50.00 per year. Some barter

takes place between local fishermen and fishermen from other states.

136

Land otters are occasionally seen in the salt water channels

near the town of Kodiak. When they appear, the local people derive

considerable aesthetic value from viewing the animals (Roger Smith,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Land otter are present in this area. No other information

is available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers.

comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Land otter are abundant along the south side of Kachemak Bay.

Along the beach fringe from Homer to Portage their numbers are low.

Numbers are also low in the inland areas south of the Kasilof River.

In the Kenai River and Swanson River drainages land otter occur in

moderate numbers. They were once very abundant along the lower

reaches of the Anchor River. Today their numbers are very

low. The reason for this decline is unknown.

Because of their high mobility, trapping has had little, if any,

effect on land otter on the Kenai Peninsula. Human development

can be detrimental in denning areas. For example, a denning area

along the Kenai River has been abandoned because of a housing

development (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers.

comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet,

Otter are scattered throughout these units. They occur in

moderate to abundant numbers along the Little Susitna River (Carl

Wilber, trapper, pers. comm.).

137

LYNX

The lynx (Lynx canadensis) is the only member of the cat family

that is native to Alaska. They weigh from 15 to 35 pounds and are

just over three feet long from nose to tip of their five-inch tail.

Mating takes place in late winter, usually in March or April.

After a gestation period of about 60 days, the kittens are born under

or in a natural cavity such as a windfall, a rocky ledge or spruce

tangle. A female will usually produce one to four kittens per litter.

Normally, lynx have only one litter per year unless food is scarce

in which case they may not produce any young.

The lynx is dependent upon snowshoe hares for the major part

of its diet and as a result, lynx populations fluctuate with hare

populations. As the hares become more abundant, lynx find more food

available, their survival improves and their numbers increase.

With the "crash" of the hare population, lynx also "crash" because

of food scarcity.

In addition to snowshoe hares, small animals and birds fall

prey to the lynx. Lynx rarely kill larger animals, such as caribou

calves, but they do scavenge the remains of large mammals killed by

wolves, hunters and severe winters.

The pelts of lynx are used for fur and garment trimming.

Kodiak

Lynx do not occur on the Kodiak Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Lynx are present throughout Unit 9, but numbers are low. No

additional information is available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G,

King Salmon, pers. comm.).
138

Kenai Peninsula

Lynx are moderate to low throughout the Kenai Peninsula. They

are more abundant in the foothills of the Kenai Mountains than along

the beaches of Cook Inlet. Their numbers fluctuate with the hare

populations.

Trapping effort is high because of high fur prices. Some prime

pelts are bringing up to $200.00.

Some human activities may indirectly favor lynx. Land clearing

may stimulate the growth of brush and hare populations and thus lynx

numbers (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.)

Upper Cook Inlet.

Lynx are found throughout these units. Presently their

populations are moderate to high. A downwa rd trend in lynx numbers

should occur in the near future as snowshoe hare populations decline.

They are sought by trappers because of current high prices. (J. Didrickson,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.)

MARTEN

The marten (Martes americana) occurs throughout much of Alaska.

It has a luxurious brown pelt that is highly prized in the fur trade.

Males will weigh between one and three pounds when adult.

They are about 16 inches long, with the tail measuring seven to ten

inches. Females are slightly smaller.

Breeding usually takes place in the summer with birth of one

to five young the following March or April. Delayed implantation

occurs in this species which accounts for the extremely long gestation

period (260 to 290 days). This limits the female to one litter per

year.
139

Martens feed on a variety of prey. Their diet consists of squirrels,

hares, shrews, mice, birds, eggs, fish and insects. They will eat

carrion if other foods are scarce.

The most significant danger to martens is man. Through forest

fires, development and encroachment, man can have detrimental effects

on marten populations by destroying their habitat, mainly conifers,

which marten are specifically adapted to.

Kodiak Island Group

In 1952, 20 marten were released on Afognak Island. The outcome

of the Afognak transplant is still not fully understood. Enough

marten observations have been reported, however, to indicate this

transplant cannot be considered a complete failure (Alaska Department

of Fish and Game, 1973). Marten are now distributed in suitable habitat,

but since this is limited, numbers are low. A few are taken incidental

to other trapping, but coastal marten do not bring a good price

(Roger Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Marten do not occur in this area (Jim Faro, Area Biologist,

ADF&G., King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Marten are extremely rare on the Kenai Peninsula. A few may

be found in the Cooper Landing-Russian Lakes area (Paul LeRoux,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.)

Upper Cook Inlet

Marten may be found scattered throughout the spruce forests

of this area. The suspected prime area for marten is the Susitna

Valley between the Susitna River and the Alaska Mountain Range

(Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

MINK

The mink (Mustela vison) belongs to the family which includes

weasels, marten, wolverine, etc. They are one of the most valuable

and sought after fur bearers in Alaska.

In prime condition, mink are a dark chocolate-brown color with

coarse guard hairs and a thick and wavy underfur. Adult males range

in length from 19 to 29 inches with an average of about 26 inches.

They weigh an average of about 3 3/4 pounds. Females are smaller.

The breeding season extends from March through late April.

Young are born mainly during mid-June. Annual differences in the

abundance of food available to mink affect both the number of young

born and the number which are successfully weaned. Litter size

varies from four to ten, with an average of five.

Virtually anything that is alive and can be killed will be

utilized as food. This includes a variety of fish, birds, bird eggs,

insects, clams, crabs and small manunals.

Mink are most commonly found near streams, ponds, marshes and

fresh or saltwater beaches, but an abundance of mice or hares will

cause them to move inland in search of prey.

141

Kodiak

Mink do not occur on the Kodiak. Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Mink do occur in this unit. No additional information is available

(Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Mink occur on the Kenai Peninsula in moderate numbers. They

are most abundant along the major streams, especially those that

remain open or partially ice-free in winter. There appears to be

some correlation between numbers and the magnitude of salmon runs.

The severity of winters may also effect mink populations. Human

development, particularly along the Kenai River, may be detrimental

to mink.

Mink prices are currently very low ($7.00), so few trappers

bother to pursue them (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna,

pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Mink occur in this area. No additional information is available

(Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

MUSKRAT

The muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) is much smaller than the beaver

or porcupine, weighing only two to four pounds. They are 10 to 14

inches long without the 8 to 11 inch tail. The pelage is composed

of a short, soft, dense, fine underfur that is interspersed with a

142

thick, protective coat of long coarse, dark, shining guard hairs which

produce the dominant color of the upper parts. The general coloration

ranges from a medium silvery brown to dark brown or almost black.

The lower surface is generally lighter than the upper parts.

Breeding takes place from the beginning of March or April and

continues through fall. After a gestation period of 22 to 30 days,

from 1 to 11 young are born. The female is bred again while she

is still nursing, so two to three litters are produced annually.

Muskrats are basically herbivorous, feeding on many kinds

of aquatic plant material such as cattail roots, typha, lillies

or stems. They also eat animal tissue such as mussels and occasionally,

fish.

Kodiak Island Group

In 1925, personnel of the Alaska Game Commission conducted a

muskrat transplant from the Copper River area to Kodiak. Of the

100 animals shipped from Cordova, 30 were lost in transit. The

remaining were released at Clark's Lake and Potatopatch Lake on

Kodiak, Monk's Lagoon on Spruce Island, Litnik Lake on Afognak Island

and various ponds on Whale Island.

At present, muskrats are established on the Kodiak Archipelago.

But densities are so low that they are almost not harvested. This

transplant must be considered an economic failure (Alaska Department

of Fish and Game, 1973).

Alaska Peninsula

Muskrats occur in this area. No other information is available.

(Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, pers. comm.).

143

Kenai Peninsula

Muskrats are uncommon on the Kenai Peninsula. A few may be

found along the Swanson River, at the outlet of Skilak Lake and

along the east fork of the Moose River. Very few are trapped.

(Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Muskrats are abundant on the Susitna, Little Susitna and Knik

River flats. They are found throughout these units in lesser numbers

in most of the low lake country. Because of low fur prices, very

little trapping occurs (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G,

Palmer, pers. comm.).

PORCUPINE

The porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is a stout short-legged

rodent that is 25 to 31 inches long and is covered with hair and

quills of varying length except on the feet pads and nose. Their

color varies from black to brown with hues of yellow or white on the

tips of the long guard hairs. The tail is short and thick and

heavily covered with quills. The average weight of an adult porcupine

varies between 15 and 18 pounds.

A male porcupine will usually breed with only one female during

November. After a gestation period of about 16 weeks the female

will give birth to a single youlig which will weigh between one and

two pounds and be about 10 inches long.

Spruce bark may be considered their primary winter food; birch

is also important. In suinmer, they utilize a wide variety of green

leaves, buds and aquatic foods which almost entirely replaces the

bark in their diet.
14 4

These food habits can be injurious to forests and reforestation

projects. In some areas, control of porcupines has been justified.

However, porcupines are an integral part of the Alaskan faunal scene

and should not be thought of as pests merely because they are not

economically important to man.

Kodiak

Porcupines are not found on the Kodiak Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Porcupines occur in this area. No additional information is

available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G., King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Porcupines are found in moderate numbers throughout the Kenai

Peninsula. Their population seems to be down somewhat from a few

years ago.

Many people like to view and photograph porcupines along the

road systems. Many porcupines are killed by highway traffic.

(Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Porcupines occur in this area. No additional information is

available. (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G., Palmer, pers.

comm.).

145

PTARMIGAN

There are three kinds of ptarmigan; all of which are found

in Alaska. The willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus are found nearly

everywhere in high treeless country. Rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus)

live in all major treeless areas except low flat tundras. White-

tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) are high country birds that occupy

the rugged alpine areas. Sometimes the three species are found on

a single mountain, and often two kinds breed close together. In such

cases there is usually a clear altitudinal separation of the various

kinds, with willow ptarmigan living closest to timberline, rock

ptarmigan on middle slopes and low ridges and white-tails high amoung

rough boulder-strewn ridges close to glaciers and snowfields.

All ptarmigan nest on the ground soon after the snow melts.

Eggs, usually six to ten per nest, are incubated for three weeks.

Hatching takes place in late June and early July.

In winter, willow ptarmigan eat willow buds, willow twigs and

some birch; rock ptarmigan nip off birch catkins, birch buds and

willow; white-tails mix buds and catkins of willow, birch and alder

in varying amounts. This diet lasts into spring, giving way, as snow

melts, to a blend of insects, dried berries, new leaves and flowers.

As insects disappear and plants become dormant,their diet turns to

berries, seeds and buds. By mid-October, most ptarmigan are back

on their winter menu.

Ptarmigan numbers fluctuate. As with many other grouse, the

population depends on each year's production of chicks. Under these

conditions, one or two years of poor reproduction or high winter

losses can cause drastic declines in abundance.

146

Kodiak

Willow and rock ptarmigan are found on Kodiak Island. Their

numbers are low on the southeast and southwest sides of Kodiak, but

the southwest one-third of the island has a very abundant population.

Tugidak Island has very high population at this time.

Approximately 3,000 birds are harvested annually. Not more

than 10% of these are rock ptarmigan.

Little non-consumptive use occurs except for an occasional

photograph. (Roger Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Willow and rock ptarmigan occur throughout this area. White-tails

may occur in the northern part; their presence in the vicinity of

Katmai National Monument has not been confirmed. (Jim Faro, Area

Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Ptarmigan are found primarily in the alpine areas of the Kenai

Mountains. Some willow ptarmigan may be found in the lowland areas,

but only during the winter months. (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist,

ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Ptarmigan are common in the alpine areas of these units. The

Talkeetna Mountains above timberline to 5,000 feet appear to be

prime ptarmigan habitat. Ptarmigan numbers are low because of poor

nesting success for several years in succession. Willow and white-tailed

ptarmigan in upper Little Susitna River drainages and upper Willow Creek

may be depressed by heavy hunting pressure.

147

RED FOX

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes is found throughout Alaska except

for some of the islands of southeastern Alaska and Prince William

Sound. It is native to Kodiak, but is an introduced animal on many

islands, a result of fox farming operations in the early 1900's.

Red is the most common color, but pelage can vary from light

yellowish to deep auburn red to black and silver. The red fox

weighs between 8 and 11 pounds. A full-grown male measures 38 to

42 inches in length with a 14 to 16 inch tail. The female is slightly

smaller in size.

An average litter of four kits is born in late April. At birth

the kits weigh four to five ounces. Normally only one litter is

born each year. The kits' eyes open about 10 days after birth, and

they leave the den for the first time a month later. The mother

gradually weans them, and by the time the kits are three months old,

they are learning to hunt. Both parents care for the young.

The red fox is omnivorous and is quick to take advantage of

any food item that it can find or catch. Being an opportunist,

red foxes eat a variety of foods, including muskrats, squirrels,

hares, birds, eggs, insects, vegetation and carrion. Mice, however,

seem to be preferred and are probably the number one food item.

Foxes are very adaptable to a wide range of habitat and thrive

close to humans, requiring only a source of food and cover. They

are subject to periodic outbreaks of rabies, a disease which appears

to be endemic in most red fox populations. An epidemic can kill

all foxes in a wide area.

Man is probably the principal predator on foxes, followed by

wolves, coyotes, lynx, wolverines and perhaps bears. Eagles are a

major predator on kits in some areas.

143

Kodiak Island Group

Red foxes are found on many of the offshore islands and on Kodiak

and Afognak Islands. They are not found on Tugidak, Shuyak

or Sitkalidak Islands. Most of this area can be considered prime

fox habitat. There is a good food supply of carrion on the beaches

and in the tide pools; voles, hares, ptarmigan and fish are abundant.

Kodiak does not experience drastic population fluctuations.

The harvest of red foxes from Kodiak probably accounts for

less than 1% of the statewide harvest. Most are taken for commercial

use, but some are harvested by the recreational trapper and used for

trim or as wall-hanging decorations.

Little non-consumptive use occurs except for some photography.

The animals are so common that few people pay much attention to

them. (Roger Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Red fox are present in this portion of Unit 9. No other information

is available. (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. co-mm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Red fox are rare except for a few that may be found in the

Caribou Hills area north of Romer. The limiting factor seems to be

deep snows that do not crust over inhibiting the foxes' travel. (Paul

LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet.

Red fox are abundant throughout these units. It has been reported
40 that the fox population has declined somewhat in the Little Susitna
River drainages north of Wasilla. This is probably due to a decline in

snowshoe hare numbers.
149

RED SQUIRREL

The red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) is common throughout

the evergreen forests of Alaska. They are smallest of the tree

squirrels, averaging about eight inches long with a four to six inch

tail.

Ordinarily solitary, red squirrels pair for mating in late

winter. There are usually two litters produced each year. In April

or May the first litter of two to seven young are born with a second

litter arriving in August or September.

Red squirrels eat a wide variety of plant food and occasionally

birds' eggs. Their principal food is spruce cones. The storage habit

is highly developed in this species, but they only store food in

one or two places and only after extensive preparation.

The principal enemy of the red squirrel is the marten. Other

predators of the red squirrel include the weasel, large hawks and

owls and the mink.

In the Cook Inlet-Kodiak areas the red squirrel is entirely

dependent on spruce forests. Any change in these forests will have

a direct effect on the red squirrel.

Kodiak Island Grove

A red squirrel transplant consisting of 47 animals captured

in the Anchorage area was conducted in July and August of 1952 to

Afognak Island, a few months prior to the marten transplant on that

island. This transplant resulted in excellent squirrel populations

but apparently did little to affect the ultimate success of the

marten introduction. Also in 1952, 24 squirrels were released on

Cape Chiniak, Kodiak. This introduction was not successful in

lbo

establishing a red squirrel population (Alaska Department of Fish

and Game, 1973). However, they now appear to have become established

along the northeast corner of Kodiak Island (Roger Smith, Area

Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Red squirrels occur in moderate density over much of their range.

Logging will reduce available habitat. There is no human use of red

squirrels except for nature study and some photography (Roger Smith,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Red squirrels occur in this area. No additional information

is available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai. Peninsula

Red squirrels are abundant through the Kenai Peninsula. They

provide public viewing especially in the campgrounds. Humans appear

to have little effect on them except when spruce logging occurs

(Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Red squirrels occur throughout these units. No additional information

is available (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

SNOWSHOE HARE

The snowshoe or varying hare (Lepus americanus) is the most

common and widcspread hare in Alaska. They average 18 to 20 inches

in total length and weigh three to four pounds. In summer, the

coat is yellowish to grayish brown with white underparts. This coat

15- 1

is shed and replaced by white pelage in winter.

Snowshoe hares breed at about one year of age and have two

to three litters per year. The gestation period is 36 to 37 days.

First litters are born around the middle of May and average about four

young. The second litter often averages six young and occasionally

there is a third litter.

Snowshoe hare populations are cyclic. The population in an area

will build up over a period of years to a peak abundance to be followed

by a sudden decline to a very low level. Reasons for the decline are

unknown. When hares are very abundant, foxes, lynx, weasels and mink

increase because of the abundant food supply. These predator populations

decline when the hares die off.

The snowshoe hare offers a great deal of recreation for the small

game hunter, especially in years of abundance. The hare is available

to most hunters and can be taken along the highway systems. The

meat is tasty. Their fur is not durable nor valuable, but is has

been used in the manufacture of felt and for trimming and lining

garments and gloves.

Kodiak Island Group

The first successful transplant of hares in Alaska was conducted

in 1934. A release of 558 snowshoe hares was made on Kodiak and

Afognak Islands. This transplant was very successful, and in 1952

hares from Kodiak Island were captured and introduced to the adjacent

Woody and Long Islands. These introductions were also successful

(Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

On Kodiak Island, the snowshoe hare occurs in moderate density

where habitat is best. They do not have suitable habitat everywhere

on the island. Therefore, individual populations fluctuate sporadically.

152

There is an intense hunting effort both for sport and subsistence

use along the Kodiak road system and in the Port Lyons and Ouzinke

areas. People seem to enjoy seeing hares and occasionally photographing

them (Roger Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Snowshoe hares occur throughout this area. No additional

information is available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon,

pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Snowshoe hares occur throughout the Kenai Peninsula. Their

numbers are low now, but some localized pockets do have moderate

numbers. Since numbers are low there is little sport use. Most of

the hares that are taken are used for trap bait (Paul LeRoux, Area

Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet,

Snowshoe hares can be found throughout these units, but numbers

today are low. The Matanuska and Knik River drainages appear to be

excellent snowshoe hare habitat (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist,

ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.) .

SPRUCE GROUSE

The spruce grouse (Canachites canadensis) occurs throughout

Alaska, but is most common around Bristol Bay and on the Kenai Peninsula.

Usual habitat is spruce-birch forest with an understory of mountain

cranberry, blueberry, crowberry and spiraea growing on a carpet of

sphagnum mosses.

During May, the hen lays five to nine eggs in a shallow nest

usually at the base of a spruce tree. Hatching occurs about mid-June.

By early September, flocks made up of an adult male and several hens

and broods are common. These family flocks disband in October and

the smaller groups settle on wintering areas, often in dense stands

of spruce.

In winter, spruce grouse feed almost exclusively on spruce needles.

As snow melts in spring, the birds spend more time on the ground and
supplement their spruce needle diet with cranberries that p@rsisted

through the winter. Principle summer and fall foods include cranberries,

blueberries, crowberries, green leaves, assorted flowers and seeds.

Chicks eat many insects the first few weeks after hatching.

The spruce forest habitat is extremely critical to the well-being

of spruce grouse. Wildfires have been the most important cause of

spruce grouse habitat destruction in Alaska.

Kodiak

In 1957 and 1959, thirty-one spruce grouse were released on

Kodiak Island. No birds remain from these trnasplants (Ala.ska

Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

1,54

Alaska Peninsula

Spruce grouse occur in this area. No additional information is

available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Spruce grouse are found throughout the Kenai Peninsula. Presently

numbers are low. The spruce grouse population has been low for about

three years and should begin an upward trend soon. Hunting appears to

have no effect on spruce grouse numbers (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist,

ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet

Spruce grouse are present throughout this area. Numbers are low;

nesting success has been poor for several years in succession (Jack

Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

WEASEL

The short-tailed weasel or ermine (Mustela ermina) is one of

the smallest carnivores living today. They can be recognized by their

small size and short tails with black tips. Males are 10 to 14 inches

long with a two-inch tail. Females are slightly smaller. The upper

parts of the body and tail are amber brown in summer, with the underparts

pure white. During the winter, the animals turns all white.

Weasels mate during February and March. Females will give birth

to four to six young after a gestation period of 35 to 38 days.

Young are born in a den that may be located in old burrows, hollow

trees or any suitable hole. Development of the young is rapid.

I
r, r
a a

They nurse for the first four or five weeks and by the time they are

six to eight weeks old they are able to aid in hunting.

Weasels are carnivores. They prey on small mammals and birds,

making little use of invertebrate or vegetable foods and showing

little seasonal change in diet. They are most active at night.

Their slender bodies enable them to enter any burrow or hole into

which they can thrust their heads. In this way a weasel can follow

� mouse or vole to the end of its burrow. A weasel will remain in

� small area until it exhausts most of the food available.

Because they prey primarily on rodents, co-existence with man

is possible. Very little knowledge has been obtained about the

natural mortality of weasels. It is believed that wolves, wolverine,

foxes, coyotes, lynx and raptors may utilize weasels as prey.

Kodiak Island Groug

The short-tailed weasel is indigenous to the Kodiak Island group.

The entire area appears to be a good weasel habitat. Their numbers

are dependent on the vole population. Because of this, they experience

short term cyclic fluctuations.

Weasels are rarely trapped except as an incidental catch.

Thus their contribution to the commercial or subsistence economy is

negligible. An occasional weasel may be photographed, but because

of their secretive nature their contact with humans is uncommon

(Roger Smith, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).

Alaska Peninsula

Weasels may be found in this area. No additional information

is available (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.) .

156

Kenai Peninsula

Weasels occur throughout the Kenai Peninsula. Population numbers

today are very low. Weasel populations are directly linked to the

abundance of voles and shrews. Thus their numbers fluctuate considerably.

A few weasel are taken each year incidental to other trapping.

Prices and population numbers are too low to make weasel trapping

a profitable venture (Paul LeRoxu, Area Biologist, ADF&C, Soldotna,

pers. comm.).

Upper Cook Inlet.

Weasels occur in these units. No additional information is

available (Jack Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

WOLF

Wolves (Canis lupus) are the largest members of the dog family.

In Alaska, an adult male may weigh up to 130 pounds. Females are

slightly smaller. Wolves are sexually mature at 22 months. Females

produce their first litter at two years of age, generally in May or

early June following a gestation period of about 63 days. Litters

average about six pups. In spite of a high birth rate, wolves never

seem to become abundant; apparently mortality is high. The relative

importance of various mortality factors is not known, but disease,

intraspecific strife, accidents, injuries suffered while gathering

food and hunting and trapping all account for substantial numbers

of wolves. Few wolves in tbe wild live for 10 years.

Wolves are carnivores. Their principal food in southcentral

Alaska is moose and caribou. They supplement this diet with berries,

fish, waterfowl, small mammals, sheep and goats. Food consumption

probably averages four to seven pounds of meat per wolf per day.

In the past, wolves have been subjected to bounties, unrestricted

hunting and trapping and poison. They have survived this treatment

and have even become re-established in some areas. In the past 10 years,

they have repopulated most the Kenai Peninsula. The state has scorned

predator control efforts-and eliminated the bounty and has also instituted

regulations classifying wolves as big game and furbearers and providing

seasons and bag limits appropriate to existing wolf population levels.

Kodiak

Wolves do not occur on the Kodiak Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Wolves occur throughout GMU 9 and populations are increasing

in all areas. Data concerning population levels and composition

is lacking.

Past harvest data indicate that in GMU 9, the annual wolf harvest

has been about 30 animals. It is unknown how many of these come from

the Cook Inlet and Pacific drainages. Due to the rugged terrain,

it is unlikely that many, if any, were taken there.

At this time, wolves are not considered a factor regulating the

population levels of either moose or caribou. However, should populations

of either of these prey species decline significantly, an abundant

wolf population could be a factor in maintaining low moose and caribou

numbers (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon, pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

Because of their high mobility wolves may be found almost anywhere

on the Kenai Peninsula. A minimum of 95 to 100 wolves may be found in

Game Management Units 7 and 15.

The first wolf hunting season on the Kenai Peninsula was held

in 1975 when 238 permits were issued to hunters. By November 1975,

these hunters had taken six wolves. Since that date 12 wolves have

been taken. Wolves may now be taken by hunting or trapping. Almost

all wolves are taken for sport and recreational use. Few, if any,

are sold to fur buyers.

There is no non-consumptive uses of wolves. However, the potential

for people to see and hear wolves does exist (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist,

ADF&G, Soldotna, pers. comm.).

yyper Cook Inlet.

Wolves appear to be increasing throughout Game Management Units

14A, 14B and 16. The elimination of aerial wolf hunting may be a

factor in this increase. Estimated numbers of wolves are:

GmU 14 - 50 to 100, GMU 16 - 150 to 200. Prime wolf areas are the

Rainy Pass-Happy River and Upper Talkeetna Rivers.

Between the lower Knik River and Susitna River, large numbers

of people and agricultural interests have caused some conflicts with

wolves. Generally, this has resulted in the removal of the wolves.

The harvest of wolves from GMU 14 from 1962 to 1975 has ranged

from 1 to 30 wolves with an average of 12.2 wolves per year. In

159

GMU 16 from 1962 to 1975, the harvest has ranged from 2 to 84 wolves

with an average of 29.6 wolves per year. In GMU 14, about 60% of

the harvest is for sport use while 40% is for commercial use. In

GMU 16, the sport harvest is about 25% and the commercial harvest is

75%. On a statewide basis, GMU 14 contributes 1% of the harvest and

GMU 16 contributes 3%. Subsistence use is negligible (Jack Didrickson,

Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

WOLVERINE

Wolverine (Gulo gulo) are the largest land-based weasel and

belong to the same family that includes mink, land and sea otter,

marten, etc. Adult males weigh from 30 to 60 pounds and are usually

three feet long including a six to eight-inch tail. They stand

about 12 inches at the shoulders. Females are slightly smaller

and lighter.

Wolverines are relatively long-lived animals, with some reaching

13 years of age. Both sexes become sexually mature at 14 to 15 months.

It appears that females breed once a year after maturity. The wolverine

usually gives birth to two or three kits, but as many as five have

been observed.

The specifics of wolverine habitat requirements are unknown, but

ample food sources apparently are the key requirement. Almost any

item from fruit to the largest ungulate constitutes food. Carrion

appears very important; beached marine mammals and winter-killed

ungulates are relished.

Recent studies suggest that wolverines are not adversely affected

by moderate use of land by man. Instead, the major threat to continued

existence of wolverines stems from man's proclivity for killing

160

carnivores and for severely altering habitats. With moderate protection,

wolverines will continue to use habitat adjacent to and within metropolitan

areas. In Alaska, there is no evidence that predation by wolverines

adversely affects game populations or caused excessive economic loss.

Kodiak

Wolverines do not occur on the Kodiak Island group.

Alaska Peninsula

Wolverine occur throughout Unit 9. Populations appear abundant

but baseline data on population size and composition are lacking.

Much of the existing trapp@ing pres sure is by village residents.

Because of the lack of people in this portion of Unit 9, trapping

is almost non-existent (Jim Faro, Area Biologist, ADF&G, King Salmon,

pers. comm.).

Kenai Peninsula

South of the Kenai River, wolverine numbers are moderate to

low. Few are found along the beaches of Cook Inlet. Their numbers

increase with increasing altitude in the foothills of the Kenai

Mountains.

Wolverine were more abundant two to three years ago. This

decrease is probably due to a decrease in prey species. More wolverine

appear in the low country when snow gets deep. Although they are

extremely difficult to catch, trapping may have some effect on

wolverine'numbers (Paul LeRoux, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Soldotna,

pers. comm.).

161

Upper Cook Inlet - GMU 14 and 16

Wolverine range throughout these units. In Unit 14 from 1962

to 1-975, an average of 20.5 wolverine were taken per year. In Unit 16,

an average of 43 were taken each year during the same period. The

trapping catch in GMU 14 amounts to about 2.5% of the statewide

harvest and 6.5% of the statewide harvest comes from Unit 16 (Jack

Didrickson, Area Biologist, ADF&G, Palmer, pers. comm.).

162

WOLVERINE BOUNTY AND SEALING RECORDS UNIT 15

Year Males Females Unknown Sex Total

1961-62-1/ 1 1

1962-631/ -- --

1963-641/ -- 3
l/
1964-65'- 13 13

1965-66" 15 15
1966-67.i/ 16 16
2/
1967-68-@- 19 19
1968-69 2/ -- --
1970-71 2/ -- -- -- --

3
1971-722/ 18 7 0 25
1972-73 3/ 14 6 0 20
3
1973-74" 11 3 1 15

1) Data from bounty records.
2) Bounty discontinued, no record of harvest.
3) Data from sealing records.
-- Zero data.

163

MARINE MAMMALS

Marine mammal populations in Alaska have been subjected to

human utilization of varying intensities for many centuries.

Remains of marine mammals in middens indicate the coastal dwelling

natives utilized the resource to a high degree. Historical records

indicate that hunting pressure prior to the early 1900's was so

intensive that seal, sea lion and sea otter populations in much of

Alaska were reduced to low levels. Pressure on seals and sea lions

declined sometime after the turn of the 19th century, because natives

were no longer dependent upon them for subsistence and white man

turned to more economically attractive materials. As a result, seal

and sea lion numbers increased. In 1911, sea otters were included

in the Fur Seal Treaty and all hunting, except for natives using

aboriginal means, was made illegal. Very few otters were harvested

over the next 40 years and in many areas numbers began to increase.

Today, marine mammal populations are considered to be near or at

carrying capacity for the habitat over much of their range.

In 1972, the United States Congress passed major domestic

legislation setting U.S foreign and domestic policy for the management

of all marine mammals. This legislation took the form of The Marine

Mammal Protection Act of 1972. In Alaska., this act has done little

more than to place a moritorium on the taking of marine mammals.

Little information exists on the status of sea lion populations

in Alaska prior to 1956. Information that is available indicates

that the statewide population prior to 1920 was considerably less

than it is today. Recent rookery and haulout counts indicate the

present population in Alaska is probably in excess of 200,000 animals.

164

Sea lions were once extensively used by coastal dwelling natives

for subsistence purposes. The flesh was eaten, the intestines were

used to make waterproof clothing and the hides were used for boots

and boat coverings. White man harvested them for oil and hides.

Today, there is no subsistence use of the resource. Before The

Marine Mammal Act of 1972, a few adult sea lions were taken by

commercial fishermen for shrimp or crab bait and an occasional

animal was taken for food. The only major use of the resource

was a limited harvest of young animals for the fur industry.

Little is known about harbor seal numbers prior to the 1920's.

Bounty records and comimercial harvest information indicate that the

population continued to expand in spite of a continuing harvest.

Harbor seals have long been used for subsistence purposes by

natives. Today, there is essentially no subsistence use of this

resource. Commercial harvesting of harbor seal skins reached its

peak in 1965 and continued to decline each year thereafter. All

harvesting of harbor seals ceased with the advent of the Marine

Mammal Act of 1972.

Most marine mammals inhabit a very special environment - the

near shore community. This environment is extremely susceptible

to disturbance in the form of man's encroachment through pollution

and removal of components of the system. In particular, petro-

chemical developments along our coast will inevitably result in the

contamination of some marine ecosystems. Degradation of marine

habitats, whether resulting from chronic low-level contamination

or massive spills, may impact marine mammal populations by lowering

ecological productivity as well as by direct injury to animals.

Major conflicts may arise between marine mammals and man for

the use of valuable food species. Salmon purse seine fishermen

complain of seals and sea lions occasionally getting into their

nets causing partial or complete loss of their catch and damage

to nets. Salmon trollers often report sea lions stealing hooked

salmon from their lines. Gill net fishermen often complain of sea

lions robbing their nets and tearing up gear. King crab fishermen

report that sea lions cause the loss of crab pots by biting and

sinking the inflated plastic buoys which mark the pots.

There are currently no established uses of sea otters.

Traditional use by Alaska natives ceased during the period of

commercial hunting and subsequent closures. While the federal

closure from 1911 to 1960 allowed for such use, there was no

conflict when the state laws prohibiting any use went into effect

in 1960. The present estimate of sea otters in Alaska is 100,000

to 125,000 (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

Sea otters exert a profound effect on many littoral species

of invertebrates and possibly on certain species of bottom fish.

Only a few superficial attempts have been made to quantitatively

measure this effect; however, certain relationships are strongly

indicated by the information that is available.

Sea otters may eat 8 to 15 pounds of digestible food per day.

In areas of high sea otter density (up to 100 per square mile),

certain favored food species may be either greatly reduced in

numbers or have a substantial reduction in the age structure and

maximum size. For example, the appearance of large numbers of sea

otters in an area may greatly reduce the number of green sea urchins

in some areas, particularly intertidal areas. However, in other

166

areas there may be an increase in sea urchin numbers but very few

of these will reach maturity. In many areas the extent of kelp

beds is restricted by the grazing of mature sea urchins.. Reduction

of the age structure of sea urchins often permits expansion of kelp

beds and this in turn may provide better habitat for certain other

vertebrates and invertebrates. The result may be an overall increase

in the productivity of the ecosystem and potentially enhance sport

and commercial fisheries.

This increase in productivity may not always be considered

beneficial to specific fisheries, as few species of mollusks, crabs

or sea urchins would exist at harvestable levels. An example is

the present conflict between sea otters and the abalone fishery

in California where few abalone reach harvestable size in areas

with dense sea otter populations.

No such conflicts exist in Alaska today; however, there is

a potential for such a conflict to develop with future dungeness

crab and sea urchin fisheries. Where the fishery is limited to

waters greater than 30 to 40 fathoms deep few problems should develop

as sea otters are not able to dive to these depths. But in shallower

waters, it may be impossible to maintain commercial shell fisheries

and high sea otter populations.

On the other hand, most sea otter populations that have fully

recovered from exploitation appear to be regulated by food

availability. Any factor affecting the availability of sea otter

food species, such as commercial fishing or changes in water quality,

may have a profound effect on the sea otter population.

161

HARBOR SEALS

The harbor seal, Phoca vitulina, is a member of the family

Phocidae that includes "true" seals. They differ from their

nearest relatives the sea lions, fur seals and walruses in that

they have no external ears, have flippers that cannot be turned

forward and may be found in a marine, estuarine or fresh water

environment. In Alaska, it is known also as the common or spotted

seal. It is the only hair seal (phocid found in southern Alaska

and the Aleutian Islands. From Bristol Bay north, it shares its

range with bearded seals, Erignathus barbatus, ribbon seals

Histriophoca fasciata and ringed seals Pusa.hispida.

Harbor seals usually occur in close proximity to the coast

although sightings of animals a mile or two offshore are not

unusual. Spalding (1964) did not consider the harbor seal a pelagic

species and states that they are seldom found more than five miles

from shore. Bigg (1969) supports this as he states.that "harbor

seals live mainly along the coast." However, it is apparent from

observations made by the National Fisheries Service during pelagic

fur seal investigations that individual animals occasionally do

occur some distance offshore. They made a number of sightings,

nearly all of single animals, up to 50 miles offshore. Seals thrive

equally well in areas with rocky or muddy ocean bottoms. Unlike

sea lions and sea otters, which prefer relatively clear water,

harbor seals occupy both clear and turbid waters. They are able

to catch fish in silt-laden glacial streams and at the bases of

glaciers extending to the sea.

Haul-out areas include offshore rocks, sandbars and beaches

of remote islands. Floating ice pans calved from glaciers are used

for hauling out when available. During winter, ice shelves which

form at the heads of bays are frequently used as hauling platforms.

The average weight of the adult harbor seal is about 200 pounds

and length is five to six feet. Their color varies greatly, but

is basically a bluish-grey on the back with a scattering of black

sports and irregular white rings and loops; the belly is silvery-

white with scattered dark spots. Occasionally, there are marked

differences in coloration between seals of two different bays or

fiords. I

From southeastern Alaska to the Aleutian Islands, harbor seals

give birth between late May and mid-July, with most pups being born

during the first three weeks of June. Birth occurs on sandy beaches

or remote reefs and rocks or on glacial ice pans. Usually one pup

is born but twinning does occur. Newborn pups are about 35 inches

long and weigh about 28 pounds. The pups are able to swim almost

immediately after birth and often take to the water before the next

high tide covers their birth place. Pups are usually weaned after

three to four weeks.

Female harbor seals attain sexual maturity when three or four

years old. Mating usually occurs in July, shortly after the females

have stopped nursing their pups. Delayed implantation occurs and

embryonic development is retarded for about two months. The period

of active fetal development is about 8.5 months. These seals are

relatively long-lived, and some survive longer than 30 years in

the wild.

160

The most common foods eaten by harbor seals are fish and

crustaceans. K. Pitcher (A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, Ak., pers. comm.)

reported that as of September 1, 1975 he had analyzed stomach

contents from 161 seals collected in the Prince William Sound-Copper

River Delta area. Dominant species included Alaska pollock

(Theragra chalcogramma), herring (Clupea harenigus , eulachon

(Thaleichthys pacificus), and octopus (octopus sp.). Other species

identified included shrimp (Pandalus sp.), squid, salmon . .

(Oncorhynchus- sand lance (Ammodytes hexaptenus) and starry

flounder (Platichythys stellatus). This wide variety of food

items indicates that seals will take what is most readily available

at the time of feeding.

Other than man, their only major predators appear to be killer

whales and sharks, although some may be taken by eagles and wolves.

Some mortality does occur when rookery areas are disturbed during

pupping. This disturbance increases the rate of abandonment of

pups. Very few cases of severe pathology have been observed in

harbor seals. Almost all adult seals have roundworms and spiny-

headed worms.

Seals tolerate moderate boat traffic through their marine habitat

and some disturbance. Although seals may be able to tolerate low

levels of pollution, large amounts of oil or other toxic substances

in the water would be detrimental by harming seals and their food

supply.

Remote beaches such as those found on Tugidak and Ugak Islands

are critical to the successful pupping and breeding of harbor seals.

Disturbance of these areas should be avoided, especially during

the months of June and July. The number of seals frequenting an

170

area such as Tugidak Island begins to grow in late May. By the

first week in June, newborn pups begin to appear and by mid-June

pupping reaches it peak. Females with pups will remain on the

beaches until the pups are weaned and breeding begins, usually in

July. During hunting operations at Tugidak Island hundreds of seal

pups were left abandoned. It appears that some abandonment is

natural, but disturbances by man cause the abandonment rate to soar

(E. Klinkhart, A.D.F.&G., Anchorage, pers. comm.).

In arctic Alaska the harbor seal has long been a source of

food and clothing for the Indian and Eskimo. However, in southern

waters his habit of plundering fishermen's nets has resulted in

considerable persecution by fisheries interests. They were

regarded as a nuisance and as a result, in 1927 a $2.00 bounty was

placed on all seals. In 1939, this was increased to $3.00.

This $3.00 bounty was retained until 1967 when the Alaska Legislature

eliminated the bounty in southern Alaska. During that 40-year

period over one million dollars was spent on bounties. As a whole,

the bounty system did not control seal numbers.

In 1962-63, Alaskan harbor seals entered the European fur

market, a market which annually consumes up to 500,000 seal skins.

High prices were paid for raw seal skins, stimulating a great deal

of interest in harvesting the animals. In 1964, an average prime

adult skin was worth $20.00 to the hunter; choice pelts brought

as much as $50.000; pup skins averaged about $17.00 each (Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, 1964). The estimated yearly harvest

in Alaska, south of Bristol Bay, climbed from about 6,000 to 10,000

seals prior to 1963 to over 50,000 in 1965. The market prices of

seal hides then dropped, resulting in a significant decline in hunting

171

pressure. The seal harvest in 1966 dropped to less than 30,000 and

continued to decline each year thereafter.

Widespread public concern for the welfare of harbor seals and

other marine mammal populations has been demonstrated in recent

years. The Marine Mammals Protection Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-522)

was a misguided result of this concern. In general, this act placed

a moritoriuni on the taking of all marine mammals and placed the

responsibility for their management under federal jurisdict*ion.

Harbor seals have not been studied extensively in the Cook Inlet-

Kodiak area and direct population enumeration work has been done

only in a few selected places. The secretive nature of the animals

coupled with the broad expanses of habitat they are found in make

direct population estimates difficult.

The population estimates presented in this report were calculated

using known harvest levels and their apparent effect on the population

combined with information on reproductive rates. Estimates by this

method tend to be low because of several factors. They do not

include natural mortality which may be somewhat compensated by high

harvests but is not eliminated. Mortality of pups may be particularly

significant. Harvest data does not include sinking loss (which

can range fromO-50%) or animals which are wounded and later die.

When prices for seal skins were very high unknown numbers of seals

were not bountied and may not be included in the harvest data.

In some areas hunting was never intensive and little insight

into population size can be gained from harvest data. The only

basis for population estimates in these areas are observation of

relative abundance and knowledge of available habitat.

172

It appears that the waters of upper Cook Inlet are poor habitat

for harbor seals, except during the summer salmon runs. It is

.impossible to compute the seal population of Cook Inlet, but an

idea of seal numbers may be constructed from bounty records during

the 1960's.

Upper Cook Inlet Seals Taken For Bounty, 1961-1966.

Year Number of Seals Bountied

1961 407

1962 488

1963 674

1964 962

1965 979

1966 442

Note: An average of 37% were taken each year from the Susitna River.

Harbor seals are present year-round along the western shore

of lower Cook Inlet. Concentrations of several hundred seals occur

in the vicinity of Augustine Island, Cape Douglas and along the

Alaska Peninsula in Hallo Bay and Kukak Bay (Prasil 1971). The

location and magnitude of pupping is not known. The Kamishak Bay-

Augustine Island area received some hunting pressure in the mid-1960's

and a reported 500 seals were taken in the area in 1964. Department

biologists saw 50-60 seals hauled on ice along the south side of

Augustine Island on April 9, 1971.

The Barren Islands, well known for the large numbers of sea

lions which utilize the area, also have a substantial number of

harbor seals. Alaska Department of Fish and Came (1973) reports

173

high density harbor seal numbers on Sud Island, the south side of

Ushagat Island and part of West Amatuli. Bounty records show a

harvest of 1,001 seals in 1964 and about 500 in 1965.

Much of the coast of Shuyak Island is excellent seal habitat,

particularly the western portion. In 1966, 926 seals were reported

taken from the Shuyak area. High density seal areas on Afognak

Island include Seal Bay and Perenosa Bay. Nearly 800 seals were

bountied from these areas in 1965. Seals are found along the entire

coastline of Kodiak Island. Concentration areas include Cape Chiniak,

where 931 seals were counted and Ugak Island where 2,796 were seen

(Mathisen and Lopp, 1963). Fish and Wildlife Service biologists

reported seeing 200 seals at Ayakulik Island during January 1973.

Sitkalidak Island, particularly the southeastern shore, is reported

as a concentration area (A.D.F.&G., 1973). Ben Ballenger, A.D.F.&G

reported seeing 500 seals here on August 27, 1970. In March 1968

a hunter reportedly took 250 seals from Sitkalidak in a single week.

On the southern end of Kodiak, Geese Islands, Aiaktalik Island and

Alitak Bay are all reported as high density harbor seals areas

(Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

The Trinity Islands south of Kodiak host one of the largest

known harbor seal concentrations in Alaska. While seals are present

all year in the area, large numbers concentrate during June and

July for pupping and breeding. The western and northern shoreline

of Tugidak Island contain the largest numbers of seals. In 1968,

a Department biologist counted nearly 9,000 seals on Tugidak.

Bishop (1967) estimated the Tugidak population at 12,000-17,000

including up to the 5,500 pups. In 1964 and 1965 about 5,000

seals were harvested from Tugidak each year. Sitkinak Island also

174

has large numbers of seals; 1,000 to 1,500 animals were seen on an

aerial survey on June 21, 1972.

Harbor Seal Pup Harvest,__Tugidak Island 1965-1972

1965 - 4,100 1969 - 900

1966 - 2,200 1970 - 1,160

1967 - 700 1971 - 1,100

1968 - 800 1972 - 1,100

There is little information from Chirikof Island, but it appears

to be good seal habitat. Several hundred seals were bountied from

Chirikof in 1966. During sea otter surveys of the area, Calvin

Lensink reported seeing harbor seals (Alaska Department of Fish and

Game, unpublished data).

175

Tugidak Island Aerial Seal Surveys

Date 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

March 29 1,600

May 15 800

May 28 500

May 30 300

June 6 4,000

June 12 3,200 6,000

June 14 1,000

June 15 3,000 7,800

June 17 8,900 100

June 18 3,400 4,500

June 21 1,100

June 22 3,500 4,300

June 25 6,650

June 26 1,300

June 29 5,100 3,150

July 7 2,300

July 9 3,400 3,000

July 16 2,000

July 19 1,400

July 23 3,500

Aug. 22 6,600

Oct. 15 1,500

176

SEA LION

The Northern, or Steller's sea lion Eumatopias jubatus are

members of the family Otariidae which includes sea lions and fur

seals. They differ from the common seals Phocidae in that they

have hind flippers that can be turned forward and used in a more

four-footed method of movement on land, have external ears, and are

found almost exclusively in a marine environment. They are the only

sea lion found in the Gulf of Alaska.

Sea lion pups are most commonly born during late May and June,

with the majority of pupping occurring during the first two weeks in

June. Usually only one pup is produced, but twinning occurs rarely.

The average weight at birth is 44 pounds. Females eventually weigh

600 to 800 pounds, and males may grow as large as 2,400 pounds.

Breeding activity begins in late May when mature bulls begin

defending territories on the coastal rookeries. Females may move

about the territories, but all intruding males are challenged. On

large rookeries, males generally have 14-17 females within their

defended areas. Most females breed within a week or ten days after

giving birth, with the peak of breeding activity occurring in mid-June.

Not all sea lions go to rookery areas during the breeding season.

Large numbers of bulls occupy male hauling grounds, generally located

adjacent to rookeries. Also, males and females without pups may

gather on hauling grounds where males also defend territories and

engage in breeding activities. Territorial behavior by males begins

to decrease around the first of July and by mid-July most breeding

activity has ended.

Pups are capable of swimming within hours after birth but most

do not venture into the water until they are at least a month old.

177

By late July, rookery populations begin to decline as some territorial

bulls and females without pups leave the area. Hauling grounds that

contained few or no sea lions during the summer gradually begin to

attract more animals, but the number using each hauling ground varies

from day to day and month to month.

As many as 25% of adult females fail to produce a pup each year.

In addition, more than half the new pups die in their first year.

Drowning, abandonment, malnutrition and predation are the major causes

of death. Killer whales, sharks and men prey on adults as well as pups.

Sea lions are generally shy animals and rush to the water when

approached by man, except during the June breeding season. During

that month, sea lions on rookeries show great reluctance to leave

the land. Although most females will finally flee when a man ap-

proaches too closely, some become very protective of their pups and

refuse to leave their sides. Similarly, many males continue to

defend their territories against all intruders, including men.

During winter, some sea lions move into the more protected waters

of bays and inland passages. They use hauling grounds that may have

been unoccupied in summer and often follow predictable feeding

patterns, such as moving into herring spawning areas in spring.

Although sea lions live in the marine environment, they occasion-

ally ascend freshwater rivers for short periods of time. They seem

to thrive best in remote island areas with extensive shallow water

and rocky bottoms highly productive with fish life.

Offshore rocks exposed through all stages of the tide are

important as resting areas. Sea lions are excellent swimmers and

178

range widely in search of food. They are uncommon in glacial areas

where the water is turbid, and prefer relatively clear waters.

Sea lions eat a wide variety of foods including rockfish, sculpin,

cod, greenling, sand lance, smelt, salmon, halibut, flounder, octopus,

squid, shrimp and crab.

Sea lions have long been considered an enemy of fishermen because

of their dietary preference for fishes. But few quantative data

are available concerning the extent of predation on commercially

exploited fishes.

Populations of sea lions have been exploited by man throughout

history. The earliest records of harvest of sea lions comes from

middens near native village sites and show that sea lions were used

extensively. In fact, there are indications that sea lion populations

were reduced prior to the early 1900's by subsistance hunting.

Commercial interest in sea lions brought about harvests of pups

for their pelts. Over 45,000 sea lion pups were recorded harvested

from Alaskan rookeries from 1959 through 1972 (Calkins et al 1975).

The Marmot Island and Sugarloaf Island rookeries contributed 31,070

of this total. The average price paid to the hunter for sea lion

pup skins was about $8.00. All harvesting of sea lions ceased with

the advent of the Marine Mammals Act of 1972.

Surveys by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game biologists

and information from other marine mammal biologists indicate that

there are 32 different rookeries and hauling areas in the Cook Inlet,

Kodiak and Shelikof Strait areas. Sea lion rookeries and haul out

areas are found on a variety of different substrates ranging from

sand to beaches with boulders up to 10m in diameter, to bedrock.

These areas are often found on exposed points or isolated small islands.

179

Sea lions usually inhabit offshore rocks and islands that are

seldom visited by man, but human activities may cause animals to

leave rookery areas. Vania, 1971, found that since the harvesting

of sea pups began, a gradual decline occurred in the number of adults

that utilized the Sugarloaf Island rookery. When harvesting was

closed, adult numbers again increased. Since rookery and haul out

areas are vital to the well-being of sea lions, careful planning

must be made before these areas are disturbed by man.

Apparently a large proportion of sea lion populations haul out

on traditional rookeries and hauling grounds. Rookeries and summer

hauling areas are almost exclusively located along the outside coast.

Generally, these areas are also used in winter, but in some instances

by reduced numbers of animals. In winter, some movement of sea lions

into more sheltered, inside waters occurs.

Although breeding females and mature territorial bulls are strongly

tied to rookeries, Sandegren (1970) observed considerable movement

to and from a rookery. Some territorial bulls went to sea occasion-

ally while others remained on the rookery for over 60 continuous

days. Females tended to make periodic trips to sea, probably for

feeding purposes, but cows about to give birth, who have just given

birth, or are estrous were reluctant to leave the rookery. Peak

numbers of animals are usually ashore about midday (Mathisen and Lopp

1963 and Sandegren 1970). Stormy weather, high surf, high tides,

disturbance and high solar radiation all appear to cause animals to

return to the water. Numbers of animals found hauled out are usually

greatest during summer (Mathisen and Lopp 1963). Population estimates

based on rookery and hauling ground counts must be considered minimal

as some animals will almost certainly be in the water at any given

180

time. The various factors which influence haul out behavior must

be considered when planning a rookery count or when interpreting

the results (Pitcher 1975).

The following is an account of each rookery or haul out area

as reported by Calkins et al, 1975, and Pitcher 1975.

East Chugach Island, Perl Island, Elizabeth Island, Nagahut Rocks

These islands comprise the 'Chugach group and are located on the

coast of the Kenai Peninsula near the entrance to Cook Inlet. Several

small hauling areas exist on these islands with the following numbers

from either Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) or Mathisen

and Lopp (1963): East Chugach Island - 20, Perl Island - 737, Nagahut

Rocks - 80, and Cape Elizabeth on Elizabeth Island - 129.

Flat Island

One and four-tenths north of Magnet Rock, 300 sea lions reported

here by Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973).

West Amatuli Island

One of the Barren Islands in the middle of the entrance to

Cook Inlet between the Chugach Islands and Shuyak Island. Alaska

Department of Fish and Game (1973) gives population of 1,600.

Sugarlo Island

One and one-tenth miles south of East Amatuli Island in the

Barren Islands, Sugarloaf Island has one of the largest sea lion

rookeries in the Culf of Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game

(1973) has the population at 10,000 while Mathisen and Lopp (1963)

181

counted 11,998 sea lions. Pup production has always been very high

here. Estimates made by Vania, (1967 and 1968) show 5,200 pups in

1967 and 3,000 in 1968.

Ushagat Island

The westernmost and largest of the Barren Ilsands. Population

given by Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) as 100 and by

Mathisen and Lopp (1963) as 834.

Latax Rocks

The northernmost feature of the Kodiak-Shuyak-Afognak group,

3,300 sea lions have been counted here. (Mathisen and Lopp, 1963 and

Alaska Department of Fish and Gamei 1973).

Sea Lion Rocks

Five and one-half miles eastward from Tonki Cape and four miles

northward from Marmot Island. 500 sea lions listed in Alaska Department

of Fish and Game (1975) and 1,600 by Mathisen and Lopp (1963).

Tonki Cape

The northeast end of Afognak Island shown only in Alaska Department

of Fish and Came (1973) with 100 sea lions.

Marmot Island-

Parallels the eastern side of Afognak Island. This, along with

Sugarloaf Island in the Barren Islands, is one of the two largest

sea lion rookeries in the northeastern Gulf of Alaska. Alaska

Department of Fish and Game (1973) gives total population as 10,000

animals while Mathisen and Lopp (1963) show 5,790 for their highest

182

count. This rookery produces a large number of pups with Vania

reporting 5,900 pups in 1967 and over 5,000 in 1968 (Vania, 1967

and 1968).

Long Island

The easternmost island in the northern end of Chiniak Bay.

Fifty to 75 sea lions have been sighted hauled out here (Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Mathisen and Lopp, 1963).

Cape Chiniak

The southeast point of Chiniak Bay, Mathisen and Lopp (1963)

show 772 while Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) shows

600 sea lions.

Ugak Island

Two and one-half miles off Narrow Cape, 440 sea lions shown in

Mathisen and Lopp (1963) and Alaska Department of Fish and Game

(1973).

Cape Barnabas

The eastern end of Sitkalidak Island 2,487 sea lions sighted

here by Mathisen and Lopp (1963), 1,000 by Alaska Department of

Fish and Game (1973).

Twoheaded Island

This island is off the southern extremity of the western shore

of Sitkalidak Strait and has a population of 3,608 to 4,261 sea lions

(Alaska Department of Fish and Game 1973, Mathisen and Lopp 1963).

183

Cape Hepburn

At the southern tip of Hepburn Peninsula in Alitak Bay, no

recent counts recorded.

Sitkinak Island

Northeasternmost island of the Trinity Islands off the south end

of Kodiak Island, 470 sea lions (Mathisen and Lopp 1963, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game 1973).

Chirikof Island

Sixty miles south-southwest of the Trinity Islands Alaska Department

of Fish and Game (1973) shows 500 sea lions here while Mathisen and

Lopp (1963) counted 2,450.

Sundstrom Island

Off the southwest end of Aiaktalik Island between the south end

of Kodiak Island and the Trinity Islands. Listed in Alaska Department

of Fish and Game (1973) with 100 sea lions.

Outer Seal Rock

About two miles west of Cape Ikolik on the southwestern end

of Kodiak Island, Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) shows this

area to be used by 50 sea lions.

Tombstone Rocks

About a mile off of Middle Cape on the western side of Kodiak

Island, 50 sea lions (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 1973).

18-4

Middle Cape

The westernmost promontory on Kodiak Island, 25 sea lions

(Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

.@La@e Egat

On the eastern shore of Shelikof Strait 12 miles southwest of

Cape Uganik, Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973) lists 50

sea lions using this haul out.

Cape Paramanof

The northwest end of the peninsula included between Paramanof

and Malina Bays on the west side of Afognak Island. 50 sea lions

shown in Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973).

Augustine Rocks'

Nine miles south of Augustine Island in Kamishak Bay in the

southeast corner of Cook Inlet, Alaska Department of Fish and Game

(1973) lists 500 sea lions here.

Cape Nukshak

Thirty-six miles south of Cape Douglas on the Alaska Peninsula,

used by 500 sea lions (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1973).

Cape Ugyak

Eight miles south of Cape Nukshak, used by 100 sea lions according

to Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973).

8 r
a

Cape Gull

Five miles south of Cape Ugyak, 100 sea lions (Alaska Department

of Fish and Game, 1973).

Takli Island

Between Cape Atushagvik and Cape Ilktugitak, north of Katmai

Bay, no recent counts.

Puale Bay

Between Cape Kekwinoi and Cape Aklek on the Alaska Peninsula

in the southern part of Shelikof Strait, Alaska Department of Fish

and Game (1973) shows 2,800 animals.

SUMMARY OF SEA LIONS ROOKERY AND HAULING GROUND COUNTS

Number of
Number Area Date Sea Lions

363 East Chugach Is. 1963a 20

446 Perl Is. 1963a 737

361 Cape Elizabeth 1963a 129

362 Nagahut Rocks 1963a 80

360 Flat IS. 1973b 300

326 West Amatuli Is. 1973b 1,600

329 West End Amatuli Is. 1973b 100

325 Sugarloaf Is. 1963a 11,998
1973b 10,000

Rocks sw of Sud Is. 1964b 800

328 Ushagat Is. 1963a 834
1964b 1,500
1973b 100

323 Latax Rocks 1973b 3,300

Sea Lion Rocks 1963a 500
1973b 1,600

321 Tonki Cape 1973b 100

320 Marmot Is. 1963a 5,790
1973b 10,000

258 Long Is. 1964b 50
1966b 5
1973b 75

257 Cape Chiniak 1963a 772
1966b 290
1973b 600

256 Ugak Is. 1964b 100
1973b 440

255 Cape Barnabas 1963a 2,487
1973b 1,000

continued

continued Summary of Sea Lions Rookery and Hauling Ground Counts

Number of
Number Area Date Sea Lions

251 Twoheaded Is. 1964b 1,800
1966b 2,600
1973 4,000

252 Cape Hepburn -- --

250 Sitkinak Is. 1963a 470

245 Chirikof Is. 1963a 500
1973b 2,450

246 Sundstrom Is. 1973b 100

266 Outer Seal Rock 1973b 50

267 Tombstone Rocks 1973b 50

268 Middle Cape 1973b 25

259 Cape Ugat 1966b 400
1973b 50

322 Cape Paramanof 1973b 50

410 Augustine Rocks 1973b 500

324 Cape Nukshak 1973b 500

316 Cape Ugyak 1973b 100

315 Cape Gull 1973b 100

317 Takli Is. --

265 Puale Bay 1973b 2,800

SEA OTTER

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are members of the weasel family

(Mustelidae) and are related to mink and land otters. Adult males

weigh 70 to 90 pounds with some individuals weighing 100 pounds.

Females average 40 to 60 pounds. Adults reach a length of four and

one half feet. The hind feet are webbed and are used for swimming.

While the toes on the fore feet are short and stiff, the animal is

able to use them deftly to handle food objects. Sea otters are adapted

to ocean life but on land their gait is clumsy and they are easily

run down by a man. Probably because of this vulnerability, they are

seldom found more than a few yards from water.

In the water they are graceful and powerful swimmers capable of

quichly covering considerable distances above or beneath the surface.

When chased they sometimes swim porpoise style, alternately swimming

underwater and arcing above the surface for air.

The fur, which is possibly the finest in the world, consists

of very dense fine underfur of inch-long fibers and very sparse guard

hairs. The underfur ranges from brown to almost black. Guard hairs

may be black, pale brown or silver, often giving a "veiling" effect

of silvery hairs on a dark background. Older animals often develop

a silvery head. This combined with the prominent whiskers leads to

the nickname of "Old Ilan of the Sea."

Unlike seals, which rely on a heavy layer of blubber for pro-

tection against the cold North Pacific waters, the sea otter must

depend upon air trapped in its fine dense fur for maintaining body

temperature. If the fur becomes soiled or matted by material such

as oil, the insulating qualities are lost. This results in loss of

1810)

body heat and eventually death. For this reason, otters spend much

time cleaning and rubbing their fur to keep it clean.

Perhaps the most characteristic behavior of sea otters is their

habit of swimming on their backs. In this position they propel them-

selves with their hind flippers, using them alternately like paddles.

They may be seen in shallow off-shore areas, often in kelp beds, float-

ing on their backs, feeding, preening or sleeping.

Sea otters mate at all times of the year, and their young may

be born at any time. However, more appear to be born in late spring

than any other time of the year. Like other marine mammals, they

have only one pup during each breeding cycle. In rare cases, twins

are born but it is unlikely that the female could care for both of

them and probably at least one dies. Pups weigh three to five pounds

at birth and are light brown in color. The female cares for the pup

for almost a year. Her maternal instinct is very strong and she

seldom leaves her pup except when diving for food. When traveling,

sleeping or preening, the pup usually rides it's mother's chest as she

floats on her back. The pup may weigh 25 pounds when weaned and looks

almost as big as its mother.

Females usually won't mate while they have pups with them. As

a result they average one pup every two years.

Sea otters do not migrate and seldom travel far unless an area

has become overpopulated and food is scarce. They are gregarious

and may become concentrated in an area, but they do not normally form

herds. An exception is pods of up to several hundred animals, which oc-

casionally form off-shore. They usually do not defend territories

but breeding males will drive nonbreeding males out of areas where

females are concentrated. Bald eagles prey on newborn pups and killer

190

whales may take a few adults but predation is probably insignificant.

Many sea otters live for 15 to 20 years.

Fish, sea urchins, rock oysters, crabs, mussels, various other mol-

lusks and octopus make up the normal diet of sea otter. They usually

dive to the bottom in 5 to 250 feet of water and return with sev-

eral pieces of food, roll on their backs, place the food on their

chests and eat it piece by piece using their forepaws. Occasionally

one will crack clams by hitting them together or even by placing a

rock on its chest and pounding the clam against it. In the wild,

sea otters never eat on land.

The search for food is one of the most important daily activites

of sea otters, as large amounts ar e required to sustain the animal

in healthy condition. Feeding dives generally last less than one

minute although some otters are capable of staying underwater for

5 minutes or more.

Captive animals required a daily food intake of clams, fish and

octopus equal to one-fifth to one-quarter of their body weight. In

order to obtain the 8 to 15 pounds of solid food needed,an otter may

have to bring up 40 to 50 pounds of whole shellfish.

Sea otters once occupied the shallow coastal waters of the North

Pacific from southern California north through the Aleutian Islands

to the Karnchatka Peninsula and south to the northern islands of

Japan. In 1742, Vitus Bering's men returned with sea otter pelts from

the historic voyage of discovery of Alaska. These rich furs stimulated

interest and initiated an era of exploitation which almost wiped out

the sea otter. Between 1742 and 1911 commercial fur hunters reduced

sea otters to an extremely low population level. Perhaps fewer than

2,000 remained in the world by 1911 when they were given complete

protection under the Fur Seal Treaty Act.

191

Historical records indicate that sea otters were fairly abund-

ant along the North Gulf Coast and in Prince William Sound prior to

intensive Russian hunting which began about 1795 (Lensink 1962).

It appears that by 1800, however, populations of sea otters in the

area had been reduced to very low levels. Continued Russian hunting

through 1867 and American exploitation until 1911. prevented their

recovery.

Small, remnant groups of animals apparently survived in isolated

areas as indicated by Kenyon's (1969) report of two, illegally taken

sea otter skins seized by the government at Seward in 1924. Repop-

ulation to current levels undoubtedly was the result of build up and

dispersal of these remnant groups.

Kenai Peninsula

From Cape Puget to Port Graham on the Kenai Peninsula, sea

otters have been reported scattered but no large numbers prior to

1967. In approximately 1967 large numbers of otters began to be

regularly sighted on the southern tip of the Kenai Peninsula in the

area from Koyoktaluk Bay to Chugach Bay. In 1968 on a survey of

this area 400 otters were seen. Lensink 1960 reports a sighting

of 15 animals near Elizabeth Island in 1953 while Kenyon 1969 felt

that no significant population of otters occupied the area. The

apparent movement of large numbers of otters to the southern tip

of the Kenai Peninsula, probably from the Barren Islands, and subsequent

expansion up the southeast side of the Kenai, probably occurred

in 1966 to 1968. At the same time otters from Prince William Sound

probably moved into the eastern portion of the area.

192

An aerial survey conducted by the Alaska Department of Fish

and Game in October of 1975 confirmed that concentrations of sea

otters did occur along the Kenai Peninsula, east to Cape Puget.

Results of the survey are presented in the following table. The

Kenai Peninsula information should only be used to indicate the

presence of animals and can in no way be extrapolated to give total

numbers. More work is required in the area to delineate the

population. Reports from the public since 1970 indicate that up

to 200 otters are regularly seen in Port Graham and that small

numbers are straying into Kachemak Bay. Sightings north of

Kachemak Bay as far as Ninilchik are increasing.

Barren Islands

In the Barren Islands sea otter sightings date back as far as

1931, with a record of 2 otters near Sud Island. Sea otters have

been sighted regularly in the Barren Islands since, with the highest

count prior to 1970 of 325 which was made in 1957 and reported by

Lensink (1969). Kenyon (1969) reports 272 otters in the Barren

Islands from a 1959 survey and estimates 363 from this.

In June of 1970 Schneider flew a survey of the Barren Islands

in a Grumman Goose with himself as the only observer. Offshore

coverage was poor although conditions and visibility were good.

A complete count of the Barren Islands was made with a total count

of 307.

193

0 0

Sea otters counted on aerial surveys of the Kenai Peninsula.

June, 1970 - January, 1971 and October 1975.

Area June 5 & 9 July 15-20 Aug. 14 Oct. 12 Nov. 12 Jan. 12 Oct. 1975

C. Junken-C. Resurrection 5 30 42 27 10 30 40

Resurrection Bay 2 2 0 4 2 NS 41

Aialik Bay 1 20 5 8 0 21 41

Harris Bay 8 18 7 5 3 21 88

Nuka Bay 106 56 NS 31 28 27 47

Port Dick 0 11 NS NS 3 23 63

Rocky Bay-Port Chatham 121 125 NS NS 9 26 157

Koyuktolik Bay-Port Graham 0 0 NS NS 0 NS 53
Im-
C.0 Total: 243 262 54 75 55 152 530
11

38 sea otters counted from shore and skiff 11/20/70.

Kamishak Bay

The Kamishak Bay area including Augustine Island, Shaw Island

and Cape Douglas have been partially surveyed on numerous occasions.

Lensink (1962) reported that approximately 50 otters were reported

from Augustine Island in 1918 and that Spencer counted 40 at

Augustine Island and one at Shaw Island in 1957. Lensink counted

52 on Augustine in 1959, but he considered it a poor count. In

1965 Keynon counted 18 on Augustine Island and 101 in the Shaw

Island-Cape Douglas area. In 1969 Alaska Department of Fish and

Game biologists tallied 62 and 130 animals in the Augustine Island

area on different counts. In 1971 again Alaska Department of Fish

and Game biologists counted 150 otters between Augustine Island and

Tignagvik Point. Also in 1971 Prasil counted 60 otters between

Augustine and Shaw Islands.

@@e Douglas to Wide Bay

Surveys along the Alaska Peninsula have been fragmentary and

most of those made were done under less than ideal conditions.

There are a number of reasons for this. Weather tends to be poor

along the south shore where squalls form along the mountains.

Areas where an aircraft can refuel are north of the mountains and

there are relatively few passes, therefore range of the aircraft

is a problem.

Small numbers of otters appear to have expanded around Cape

Douglas from the Kamishak Bay population. Scattered individuals

have been reported throughout the area but the main concentration

occurs in the vicinity of Shakun Rock where 71 were recorded.

Prasil (1971) recorded up to 443 on subsequent surveys of the area.

195

Kodiak Archipelago

Portions of the Kodiak area, including the Barren Islands,

Shuyak Island, Afognak Island, the Trinity Islands and Chirikof

Island, have good sea otter habitat although some of the area is

undoubtedly of poor quality. Kodiak was an important hunting area

during the Russian exploitation, but the population was never

completely wiped out. Today, a relatively large population exists

at the north end of the group around Afognak, Shuyak and the

Barren Islands.

In 1948 refuge manager Beals reported three otters off Shuyak

island and in 1951 Chapados and Spencer saw 15 on Sea Otter Island

and 67 at Latax Rocks (Lensink 1960). In 1957 Lensink saw 14 in the

Trinity Islands and 281 around Shuyak area. In 1964 Ed Klinkhart

counted 63 sea otters at Latax rocks, 13 at Seal Island and one at

Marmot Island. Most recently 15 were sighted off the south end of

Marmot Island in July 1975. A partial survey of Afognak Island in

October 1975 (Afognak Bay to Paramanof Bay) totaled 1,939 otters.

Concentrations occurred at the north end of Marmot Island, Seal

Bay and Perenosa Bay.

Sightings at areas other than the north and south ends include

five sighted by James Faro at Uyak Bay and three near the south

end of Chirikof sighted by the crew of the "Teal" and most recently,

10 otters sighted by Ben Ballenger in April 1975 just off Outlet

Cape south of Raspberry Island.

Much of Kodiak Island contains only marginal sea otter habitat;

however the population will increase as otters move'into those areas

that are suitable. A smaller population of unknown size occupies

the shallow waters near the Trinity Islands and Chirikof Island.

I IV, 6

This population should continue to increase. The total population of
0 the Kodiak-Afognak-Barren Island area probably exceeds 4,000.

191

WHALES

Miscellaneous observations on cetaceans are included here only

to indicate their presence and possible relative abundance. In

most cases, there is no more information than a collection of

sightings; no population estimates can be made, nor can distribution

be clearly defined.

Beluga or White Whale (Delphinapterus leucas)

The bQluga is a common inhabitant of the waters of Cook Inlet.

There is, however, a dearth of factual biological information on

the animals. Belugas have been studied in Alaska since 1954, but

these investigations have dealt primarily with food habits and with

methcds of controlling depredations on commercially valuable salmon

in the Bristol Bay area. Knowledge on life history and ecology in

Alaska is incomplete.

Belugas generally resemble cigars, with one end blunt and the

other tapered. The rounded head has a thick cushion of fat and flesh

over the forehead; the body continues to swell as far as the flippers,

and from this point gradually diminishes to the horizontal flukes.

Newborn belugas are almost six feet long; adult females may reach

13 feet in length ; adult males grow to nearly 16 feet. Belugas

are dark blue-gray at birth, becoming light gray and finally white

at 4 to 5 years of age. This color change is caused by the loss

of pigment in the skin.

In Alaska, belugas commonly occur from Cook Inlet westward to

Bristol Bay, northward along the Alaskan coast, and eastward into

arctic Canada. The Bristol Bay population appears to be resident

193

throughout the year. Movements of the Cook Inlet population in winter

are not known. In the waters of the northern Bering Sea and the

Arctic Ocean, belugas move with free ice or leads in pack ice. It

is believed that the Bering Sea is the wintering area of belugas

frequenting the western Canadian arctic and the eastern Siberian

arctic, as well as for those remaining in Alaskan waters (Brooks, 1954a).

There is little basis for establishment of total numbers of

belugas in Cook Inlet. Aerial surveys made by Klinkhart in 1963

and 1964 indicated a summer population of 300 to 400 animals.

Over much of their Alaskan range, belugas enter estuaries in

summer as soon as ice moves offshore. The entering of estuaries may

be the result of concentrations of smelt or other fish which are

ascending rivers from the sea.

The diet of belugas during the spring and summer months is probably

the best known aspect of beluga biology in Alaska. In 1954, the then

Alaska Department of Fisheries initiated a program to determine if

the beluga was a competitor with man for commercially valuable

salmon in the Bristol Bay area.

The belugas examined by Brooks (1954a, 1955, 1956, 1957) contained

5 species of salmon as well as smelt, flounder, sole, sculpin, blenny,

lamprey, two types of shrimp, and mussels. Since this study was

conducted during the summer months (May to August), it is possible

that a greater number of food species enter the beluga's diet at

other times of the year (Brooks, 1954a).

It is uncertain whether belugas were ever harvested commercially

in Alaska. Whaling stations operated at Port Armstrong, Port Hobron

and at Akutan Island, prior to 1940, but the Alaskan Fishery and

Fur Seal Industries Reports make no mention of belugas being a part of

the whale harvest.

Personal conversation with a long-time Anchorage resident

revealed that an attempt to harvest Cook Inlet belugas was made in

the 1930's. About 100 belugas were netted in the Beluga River for

meat and oil. After the initial catch, no animals returned to the

river and the venture was abandoned.

Sport hunting for belugas has developed in the Cook Inlet area.

Several Alaskan guides have said, "hunting the beluga whale is by

far the most exciting big game hunting ever done." (Anonymous, 1965.)

Hunters, equipped with an open dory, harpoons and high powered rifles,

herd the whales into shallow water where the animals are harpooned

and shot.

Pacific Right Whale or Black Righ Whale (Balaena glacialis)

This large whale was hunted to near extinction in the North

Pacific and was most frequently found in the Gulf of Alaska in the

summer months. Little is known about their present distribution

and abundance except they are considered rare. (Leatherwood et al 1972)

Gray Whale (Eschrichtins robustus)

Gray whales are known to migrate through the Gulf of Alaska in

the spring from May through November to feed in the waters of the

Bering and Chukchi Seas. In December and January, they return to

breed in shallow waters of California and Mexico. (Leatherwood et al 1972.)

The National Marine Fisheries Service reports sightings of gray

whales between the Fairweather Grounds and Yakutat Bay in April, 1958.

Minke Whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)

Minke (pronounced minky) whales, also known as little piked

whales or sharp-headed finners; are the smallest of the baleen whales

in the northern hemisphere, reaching a length of approximately 33 feet.

They are grayish black on the back and white on the belly and on the

underside of the flukes and flippers. Each of the flippers has a

very distinct horizontal. band of white. The baleen, which may be

visible from a short distance away when the animal is feeding, is

coarse, less than one foot long, and either yellow or white.

When viewed from above, the snout of the minke is distinctly

triangular, similar to but sharper than that of the finback. The

animal's blow is low and barely visible. The dorsal fin is relatively

large and falcate and is usually exposed as the animal rolls through

the water to breathe. The flukes are seldom raised when the animal

is beginning a dive.

Minke whales are frequently solitary animals though they may

congregate in areas of food concentration in northern seas during

the spring and summer. They are more likely to be seen up close than

their larger cousins (blue, fin and sei) or than the giant bottlenose

whales because they frequently come very close to boats, as if curious

about them.

Minkes feed primarily on small shoal fish (cod, pollack and capelin)

and may approach very close to shore pursuing these.

Minke whales are relatively common throughout the Gulf of Alaska

and are known to concentrate in areas of abundant food such as the

Kodiak Island area and Prince William Sound. They are migratory,

moving into the Gulf of Alaska in spring and returning south in the

fall. The minke is the most common small whale in the Gulf of Alaska

with pclagic fur seal investigators reporting 43 minkes at 33 locations.

201

Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis)

The range of the sei whale extends into Gulf of Alaska water

although the specific distribution is poorly known (Leatherwood et al 1972).

Sei whales have been reported during pelagic fur seal investigations.

Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus)

Blue whales are found in the Gulf of Alaska from May through

September according to Leatherwood et al 1972. Pelagic fur seal

investigations of the National Marine Fisheries Service recorded seven

blue whales sighted from 1958 through 1968. Blue whales are consid-

ered endangered and near extinction.

Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeaagliae)

Humpback whales are the most common of the large whales with

dorsal fins in the Gulf of Alaska and according to Leatherwood et. al.

(1972) can be seen in virtually any part of their range in the summer,

which includes all of the Gulf of Alaska. National Marine Fisheries

Service pelagic fur seal investigators have sighted 132 humpbacks

on 64 different occasions in the Gulf of Alaska.

North Pacific 1,Thite Sided Dolphi (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens)

North Pacific white sided dolphins or lags are found from Alaska

to Baja, California according to Leatherwood et al (1972) but sight-

ings are not common in the Gulf of Alaska. One sighting of 2,000+ lags

was recorded by National Marine Fisheries Service pelagic fur seal

investigators at latitude 57' 34', longitude 140' 33' and a sighting

of 12 lags was recorded during the cruise of the OCEANOGRAPHER.

These lags were recorded as being near the 1,000 fathom curve off

Yakutat Bay.

202

Killer Whale (Orcinus orca)

The most distinctive field characteristic of the killer whale

is the very prominent dorsal fin, which may be as much as six feet

tall and extremely erect in adult males. Though the dorsal fin of

females and immature animals is less than three feet tall and slightly

back-curved, it is nonetheless taller even in these animals than in

any other cetacean species.

Killer whales are the largest members of the dolphin family.

Adult males reach a length of over 25 feet (lengths of 31 feet are

recorded,for the western North Pacific). Females are slightly

smaller. At birth, young are approximately seven to eight feet long.

Both sexes are heavily-bodied and have large paddle-shaped flippers.

They are basically black but have an extensive region of white

on the undersides extending from the lower jaw to the anal region,

with a branch extending onto the flank behind the dorsal fin. There

is an oval white patch on the side of the head just above and behind

the eye, and a light gray saddle marking just behind-the dorsal fin.

The undersides of the flukes are white. Both all-black and all-white

animals have been reported (one albino was captured in B.C. in 1970)

but these are unusual.

Killer whales usually travel in groups of from a few to 25 or 30

individuals, though herds of more than 50 have been reported from

Puget Sound.

Killer whales feed on large fishes and other marine mammals

(seals, sea lions and porpoises and whales).

Killer whales are found throughout the Gulf of Alaska during

the summer months and may shift to the south in the winter (Leather-

wood 1972). A total of 36 killer whales were sighted by National

203

Marine Fisheries pelagic fur seal investigators on nine different

occasions in the Gulf of Alaska. National Marine Fisheries Service

special agent Jim Branson reported seeing 500+ killer whales near

Middleton Island on April 24, 1973.

Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)

The harbor porpoise, also known as the Gulf of California

propoise, is the smallest cetacean in the eastern North Pacific,

reaching a maximum length of about five feet. It is characterized

by a rather small triangular dorsal fin and a chunky body with a

rounded head and an extremely small indistinct beak. Its body is

dark gray above and white below with a transitional speckled zone

on the sides.

As the name implies, the harbor porpoise inhabits bays, harbors,

river mouths and relatively shallow inshore waters. Though it may

travel in schools of nearly a hundred individuals, it is more often

seen in pairs or in small groups of from five to ten individuals. It

swims quietly at the surface. It will not ride the bow wave and is

very difficult to approach closely by boat.

The harbor porpoise is the smallest cetacean in the Gulf of

Alaska and can often be seen in the bays and harbors throughout

the Gulf of Alaska according to Leatherwood et. al. (1972). Pelagic

fur seal investigators report a total of 176 animals sighted at 17

locations between 1958 and 1968.

204

Dall Porpoise (Phocoena dalli)

Dall's porpoise is a distinctively marked cold water species

which may be readily identified on the bow of a vessel by several

characteristics: (1) the prominent white patch on the flanks and belly

which extends from about midway on the body nearly to the tail flukes,

(2) the white markings on the dorsal fin and on the upper trailing

edge of the flukes, and (3) the overall body shape, particularly the

head and the very robust midsection, which is very unlike that of any

other animal in the eastern Pacific. In addition, there is a promin-

ent keel on the top and the bottom of the tail. As it rides the bow,

Dall's porpoise moves very quickly and jerkily, darting in and out

of the bow wave with amazing quickness.

Even when it does not come in to ride a moving vessel's bow wave,

however, Dall's porpoises are a thrill to see and may be easily iden-

tified. It does not jump clear of the water, but when it is making

a high speed run, as when it is attempting to overtake or avoid a

boat, or when it is feeding, its entire body may be obscured by the

11rooster tail" or spray it puts out from its head as it surfaces to

breathe. Dall's porpoise reaches a length of over seven feet, and

though it normally travels in small groups (2-15) in Southern Calif-

ornia waters, herds of over 500 have been reported from the Alaskan

Coast. They are sometimes found with Pacific white-sided dolphins

and at least in the area of the Northern California Channel Islands

are often seen in small groups near Pacific pilot whales.

The Dall porpoise is probably the most common cetacean seen

in Gulf of Alaska waters with sightings common both near shore and

offshore. A total of 1,912 Dalls were sighted on 289 occasions during

pelagic fur seal investigations between 1958 and 1968 by National

Marine Fisheries personnel.

Sperm Whale (Physeter catodon)

Leatherwood et al (1972) considers the sperm whale migratory,

being found in the Gulf of Alaska in the summer months. National

Marine Fisheries pelagic fur seal investigators list sightings of

19 sperm whales on nine occasions.

Pelagic catches of whales in the Gulf of Alaska by Japan and

Russia have been recorded by the National Marine Fisheries Service

and are shown in the following table. This reflects the total catch

of whales by these two nations in all Gulf of Alaska waters, including

areas south of Cape Spencer.

206

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MARINE MAMMALS REFERENCES

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1964. Hair seal status report.
Unpub. report. 7pp.

. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habitat. Anchorage, Alaska.
143pp. + 563 maps.

Anonymous. 1965. Beluga offer top big game. Anchorage Daily Times.
July 1, 1965.

Bigg, M.A. 1969. The harbor seal in British Columbia. Fish Res.
Bd. Can. Bull. 172. 33pp.

Bishop, R.H. 1967. Reproduction, age determination and behavior
of the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina L., in the Gulf of Alaska.
MSc. Thesis. Univ. of- Alaska, College, Alaska. 120pp.

Brooks, J.W. 1954a. Preliminary report on beluga investigations in
Bristol Bay. Unpub. data.

* 1954b. Annual report, Alaska Dept. Fisheries 6:51-57.

* 1955. Annual report, Alaska Dept. Fisheries 7:98-106.

1956. Annual report, Alaska Dept. Fisheries 8:54-56.

1957. Annual report, Alaska Dept. Fisheries 9:57-58.

Calkins, D.G., K.W. Pitcher and K. Schneider. 1975. Distribution
and abundance of marine mammals in the Gulf of Alaska. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game. Unpub. report, 67pp.

Kenyon, K.W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
N. Amer. fauna no. 68: U.S. Government printing office,
Washington, D.C. 352pp.

Klinkhart, E.G. 1966. The beluga whale in Alaska. Alaska Dept. of
Fish and Game. Fed. Aid in Wildl. Rest. Vol. VII. Proj. W-6-R
and W-14-R. llpp.

Leatherwood, S., W.E. Evans and D.W. Rice. 1972. The whales, dolphins
and porpoises of the eastern North Pacific, a guide to their
identification in the water. NUC TP 282, 175p. Not for sale.
Can be obtained through MMD.
Lnsink, C.J. 1960. Status and distribution of sea otters in Alaska.
Jour. Mamm. 41; 172-182.

. 1962. The history and status of sea otters in Alaska.
Ph.d. Thesis. Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 188pp.

208

Mathisen, D.A. and R.J. Lopp. 1963. Photographic census of the Steller
sea lion herds in Alaska, 1956-1958. U.S. Fish and Wild. Serv.
Spec. Sci. Bull. #424. l7pp.

Pitcher, K.W. 1975. Distribution and abundance of sea otters, Steller
sea lions and harbor seals in Prince William Sound, Alaska.
Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Unpub. report. 31pp.

Prasil, R.G. 1971. Distribution of sea mammals and associated land
mammals found along the Katmai Nat'l. Monument. Proceedings
22, Ak. Sci. Conf., College, Alaska.

Sandegren, F.E. 1970. Breeding and maternal behavior of the Steller
sea lion (Eumetopias iubatus) in Alaska. MSc. Thesis. Univ. of
Ak., College, Ak. 138@p-

Spalding, D.J. 1964. Comparative feeding habits of the fur seal,
sea lion and harbor seal on the British Columbia coast. Fish.
Res. Bd. Can. Bull. 146. 52p.

Vania, J. 1967. Sea lion. In marine mammal investigations. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game; Vol. IX. Annual project segment report,
Fed. Aid. in Wild. Restoration. Proj. W-14-R-2 and 3,
work plan G.

. 1968. Sea lion. In marine mammal investigations. Alaska
Dept. of Fish and Game; Vol.X. Annual proj. segment report,
Fed. Aid in Wild. Restoration. Proj. W-14-R-3 and W-17-1, work
plan G.

o 1971. In annual report of survey-inventory activities.
Part II. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Came. Fed. Aid in Wild. Rest.
Proj. W-17-4.

209

WATERFOWL RECREATION AND SUBSISTENCE USE

Waterfowl Sport Hunting

Waterfowl sport hunting statistics in Alaska are generated from a

combination of two sources. Total duck harvest, number of hunter days,

snipe and crane harvest and goose harvest by species is calculated from

an annual mail survey of ten percent of all licensed buyers in Alaska.

Duck species composition information are derived from the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Survey where hunters send in duck wings.

Sport hunting in Cook Inlet represents the greatest concentration

of duck hunters and consequently duck harvest of any area in Alaska.

The combination of a large number of local residents around Cook Inlet

and abundance of coastal saltwater marshes and intertidal lands are

responsible for the large amount of hunting which occurs here.

A much smaller amount of hunting and harvest occurs on Kodiak due

to the lesser number of people living on the island. On Kodiak however,

two areas of hunter concentration are Kalsin and Middle Bays. These are

on the short road system out of town and receive most of the hunting

pressure from Kodiak city residents. All of the good hunting areas

around Cook Inlet can be in many cases reached by private automobile on

the road systems or by a short airplane trip.

The average seasonal take per active duck hunter in the Cook Inlet

area is about seven ducks per season. However, the average take by a

hunter on Kodiak amounts to over ten ducks per season. Kodiak duck

hunters experience the highest average seasonal success of any other

hunters in Alaska. About one half of the ducks bagged by Kodiak hunters

are non-game species. Non-game ducks constitute a small (about five

210

percent) portion of the hunters' bags in the Cook Inlet area. Non-game

species are scoters, eiders, harlequins and old squaws. Many of these

species are quite abundant around Kodiak, especially later in the season

when some excellent hunting for these birds is available. Relatively

few of these species are available near the major hunting areas in Cook

Inlet.

In Table 1, the sport hunting statistics for Cook Inlet, Kodiak and

for the entire State of Alaska are given for the past four years.

Waterfowl sport hunters in the Cook Inlet area annually spend nearly 35%

of the total hunting days in Alasl,,a and take about 38% of the duck

harvest and 14% of the annual goose harvest. Hunters on Kodiak annually

contribute about 3.5% of the State's total hunter days, and 4% of the

annual duck harvest, but less than 1% of the annual goose harvest. In

total, Cook Inlet and Kodiak hunters annually combine to represent about

40% of the State's total hunter days and duck harvest, while they take

about 14% of the annual goose harvest. Although not depicted in Table

1, many hunters who reside in the Cook Inlet area and on Kodiak annually

travel to the north side of the Alaska Peninsula for goose hunting

trips. Harvest and hunter days represented in Table 1 is therefore only

that which occurs in the respective geographic areas.

In the Cook Inlet area over 85% of the duck harvest is comprised of

mallards, pintails, american widgeon, greenwinged teal, and shovelers.

These same six species represent nearly half of the annual duck harvest

on Kodiak.

As can be seen from Table 1, goose harvest on Kodiak-Afognak Island

is not large. Very few geese stop on these islands on their way south

in the fall. About 2,000 emperor geese annually overwinter on the

211

TABLE 1. Sport Hunting Statistics, Cook Inlet, Kodiak and Statewide.

1971-74 Four Year Average Cook Kodiak Total Kodiak Statewide
Per Year Statistics Inlet & Cook Inlet Totals

Hunter Days 18,500 1,910 20,410 53,500
Ducks Shot 32,000 3,100 35,100 83,370

Ceesel/
Canada 1,640 0 1,640 9,730
Emperor 0 40 40 2,095
White-fronted 150 0 150 840
Brant 10 10 20 1,140
Snow 50 0 50 370

Total Geese 1,850 50 1,900 14,175

Cranes shot 95 0 95 620
Snipe shot 895 220 1,115 14,175

1972-74 3 year average

212

southern part of Kodiak Island, but few hunters go to this area for

waterfowl hunting.

Table 2 shows the waterfowl sport hunting statistics by major

hunting location in Cook Inlet and on Kodiak. Susitna Flats and Palmer

Hay Flats are the two major hunting areas in Cook Inlet and annually

rank among the top three for total hunter days and duck harvest in

Alaska. Waterfowl harvest data and hunter days which occur on the areas

in Table 2 must be considered minimum. Many hunters in Anchorage hunt

on Susitna Flats for example, but do not indicate on the mail survey

form that they hunted there. These hunters are put in an unknown cate-

gory within the Cook Inlet region where they reside. Actual duck har-

vest and hunter days on most of these areas could in actuality be increased

by about 10%.

It is estimated that waterfowl hunters on Kodiak spend an average

of $47,750 per year in pursuit of their sport. The meat from the birds

which they harvest is calculated to value $10,200 for a total of $57,950

on Kodiak. In the Cook Inlet area it is estimated that duck hunters on

the average spend annually $832,500 to hunt waterfowl. The birds which

they harvest are worth $236,950 in meat value for a combined total of

$1,069,450. Combining meat values and dollars spent waterfowl hunting

in both areas it is estimated that a total of $1,127,400 is the amount

which waterfowl hunting is "worth" in these two areas. This amounts to

45.8 %of the total dollars generated for Alaska.*

Nonconsumptive Recreational Use

Nonconsumptive human recreational use of waterfowl and seabirds or

*Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1976. A compilation of Fish and

Wildlife Resource Information for the State of Alaska. Vol. I - Wildlife.

213

TABLE 2. Waterfowl sport hunting statistics by major hunting location,
Cook Inlet-Kodiak.

Specific Location

1971-1974; Four Susitna Palmer Potter Kachemak Trading
Year Average Flats Hay Flats Marsh Bay Bay

Hunter Days 4,465 3,950 885 975 645

Ducks Shot 10,070 6,290 1,050 2,260 1,620
Geese Shotl/ 520 165 5 230 185

1/ 1972-1974; three year average

1971-1974; Four Eagle River Chickaloon Portage Redoubt Goose
Year Average Bay Bay

Hunter Days 1,185 955 800 200 500

Ducks Shot 1,160 1,705 600 525 1,000
Geese Shotl/ 10 520 25 25 10

1972-1973; three year average

214

any wildlife is a very difficult thing to quantify under most circumstances.

Under highly controlled situations such as National Parks, visitor days

can be measured and outdoor activities evaluated by questionaires. In

the Cook Inlet-Kodiak area, only descriptions of the nonconsumptive

values can be provided.

Possibly the single most heavily used area in the Cook Inlet-Kodiak

area is Potter Marsh, near Anchorage. The Seward Highway which runs

through a portion of the marsh provides access to excellent waterfowl

viewing, photography opportunities, and other nonconsumptive uses of

waterfowl. A portion of Potter Marsh which adjoins the Seward Highway

has been closed to waterfowl hunting to facilitate viewing. It is estimated

that annually over 10,000 people purposely visit Potter Marsh to view

and photograph waterfowl and other birds. This area also serves as an

excellent outdoor classroom for the numerous schools and other nature

students in Anchorage.

The Palmer Hay Flats and Matanuska Valley around Palmer are also a

popular viewing area, especially in the spring. Duck and goose numbers

in this area peak at something over 100,000 birds during a one to two

week period each spring. Many of these birds use green fields in the

Matanuska Valley and areas having shallow water. Perhaps 5-10,000 or

more people annually visit these areas to view and photograph waterfowl.

The Portage area located near the mouths of Portage Creek, Twenty-

Mile River and Placer Creek also receive heavy nonconsumptive recreational

use. This area is a popular one for outside tourists, as well as local

residents. Possibly five thousand people annually visit the Portage

area to view and photograph birds, however, the major noncomsumptive use

is made by people traveling on the Seward Highway and viewing birds

incidental to their travel. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game is

2 155

cooperating with the Bureau of Land Management in a habitat enhancement

program on the Portage area which will facilitate nonconsumptive as well

as consumptive use.

Much incidental viewing of waterfowl also occurs on the Seward

Highway between Anchorage and Homer. Many lakes and ponds along this

highway have a few ducks, loons, gulls, etc. and some degree of enjoyment

is experienced by many people viewing these birds while traveling on the

road.

Good viewing opportunities are available at the town of Homer.

Because the Homer Spit extends several miles into Kachemak Bay a variety

of waterfowl, shorebirds and seabirds can be seen and photographed from

the spit. Boat tours are also available. These are used primarily by

outside visitors to take them through Kachemak Bay where a variety of

waterfowl and seabirds are present and are readily seen.

Incidental viewing of waterfowl occurs throughout the Cook Inlet

area. For example, large numbers of ducks, geese and swans can be seen

at various times of the year by people traveling in aircraft in this

area. The value of such observations is difficult to determine, but the

presence of numerous birds, or in some cases just one swan, undoubtedly

adds something to the experience of traveling in the Cook Inlet region.

On Kodiak Island the majority of purposeful nonconsumptive bird

viewing is done from the road system out of Kodiak. Because the road

traverses a number of habitat types (salt marsh, tidelands, rocky shores

and beaches) a variety of waterfowl, seabirds and other birds can be

seen. One of the major recreational pastimes in Kodiak is to get out on

a nice day, regardless of the time of year, and drive the road system.

The presence of sometimes large numbers and always a variety of birds

available undoubtedly adds to the pleasantness of the drive " out the

road."
216

Much incidental viewing and photography of seabirds also occurs by

the many boat and aircraft travelers around Kodiak and Afognak Islands.

Travellers on the State Ferry system going in and out of Kodiak can

frequently see large numbers of seabirds on trips between Seward and

Kodiak.

In aggregate the noncomsumptive use of waterfowl and other birds in

both the Cook Inletand Kodiak areas far exceeds the use by waterfowl

hunters. However, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game believes these

two uses are entirely compatable and will try to provide for both uses

where conflicts might occur.

Subsistence Use

Subsistence hunting (that occurring outside of the legal season

dates) is not believed to be either extensive or occurring in great

magnitude in any location throughout the Cook Inlet-Kodiak Region.

Probably the only area where subsistence hunting occurs to any degree is

around the small villages located on Kodiak-Afognak Is lands. However,

this subsistence hunting is not believed to be great and it certainly

has not adversely affected the welfare of any population or species of

waterfowl or other birds.

WATERFOI%TL PRODUCTION

Cook Inlet Coastal Marshes

Since the mid 1950's the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been

conducting estimates of the breeding duck populations in Alaska. They

annually fly some one hundred hours over flight lines that cover most of

the major duck breeding habitat in the State. The paths flown are the

217

same each year so that estimates of breeding ducks are comparable and
49 lend themselves to long term average estimates. Most of the aerial

surveys done in the Cook Inlet area are conducted over upland (above 600

feet MSQ.

In 1975 the Department of Fish and Game initiated a series of

breeding waterfowl surveys which are identical to those used by the Fish

and Wildlife Service. These surveys have been conducted over the coastal

marshes in Cook Inlet in an attempt to better document waterfowl nesting

and production which is occurring in'these areas. Maps depict the areas

surveyed. Land within the heavy outlying border on each area is that

habitat which estimates of nesting waterfowl are made. The numbered

transverse lines across each area are the survey flight lines. Ducks

are counted on one-eighth of a mile either side of the aircraft along

these lines.

In Table 3 the results of these aerial surveys are shown. The

number of birds by species which are calculated to occur on each area

are presented as well as what proportion of the total duck population

each species represents. At the bottom of Table 3 are the calculated

populations of swans, geese, cranes and loons by area.

In Table 4 the size of each area in square miles is listed. Also

shown in Table 4 are the square mile densities of nesting ducks located

on each area. The Jim-Swan Lake area, Portage Flats, and Trading

Bay areas each have over 100 breeding ducks per square mile. These

nesting duck densities exceed densities in other areas of Alaska. The

Yukon Flats which has over 10,000 square miles of habitat has about 100

ducks per square mile. However, the calculated populations in both

Table 3 and 4 represent in some cases only one year and at the most two

218

0 0 0
TABLE 3. Calculated breeding bird populations on coastal Cook Inlet marshes and on the Jim Swan Lakes area.

2/
Palmer Hay Goose Bay Susitna Chickaloon Portage Area
No. % of Total No. % No. % No. % No. %

Pintail 850 32 108 20 5,268 49 542 46 567 25
G-W Teal 109 4 234 42 1,756 16 296 25 522 23
Mallard 488 18 116 21 1,043 10 74 6 637 28
Am. Widgeon 144 5 - - 759 7 234 20 67 3
Shoveler 451 17 60 11 436 4 - - 70 3
Gadwall 77 3 - - 108 1 39 3 - -

Total Dabbler 2,119 79 518 94 9,370 87 1,185 100 1,863 82

Scaups 267 10 12 2 883 8 - - 24 1
Goldeneyes 235 9 17 3 250 2 - - 268 12
Miergansers - - 6 1 68 1 - - 104 5
Bufflehead - - - - 27 1 - - - -
Canvasback 50 2 85 1 - -
Scoters - - - - - - - - - -

Total Divers 552 21 35 6 1,313 13 0 0 396 18
Total Ducks 2,671 100 553 100 10,683 100 1,185 100 2,259 100

CIO

Swan 5 - 68 - 12
Canada Goose 211 14. 1,110 55 9
White-fronted Goose - - - - -
Sandhill Crane 22 12 23 15 -
Common Loon 42 12 - 12
Red-throated Loon - - 17 -
Arctic Loon 4 17

l/ 1975-76 two year average
2/ 1976 only

TABLE 3 (CONT'D.). Calculated breeding bird populations on coastal Cook Inlet marshes and on the Jim Swan Lake area.
2/ 2/ 2/ l/ Total Except
Trading Bay Redoubt Bay Fox River Flats Jim Swan-Area Jim Swan
Species No. % of Total No. % No. % No. % No. %

Pintail 4,890 45 6,015 33 150 20 504 27 18,390 39
G-W Teal 2,750 25 6,468 35 158 20 89 5 12,293 26
Mallard 471 5 2,458 13 69 9 345 18 5,356 11
Am. Widgeon 1,209 11 1,110 6 61 8 481 25 3,584 8
Shoveler 578 5 - - - - - - 1,595 3
Gadwall 107 1 205 1 - - - - 536 1

Total Dabbler 10,005 92 16,256 88 438 57 1,419 75 41,754 88

Scaups 374 4 1,100 6 - - 256 13 2,660 6
Goldeneyes 235 2 711 4 183 24 128 7 1,899 4
Mergansers 214 2 474 2 144 19 - - 1,010 2
Bufflehead - - - - - - 12 1 27 Tr
Canvasback 51 3 135 Tr
Scoters - - - - - - 18 1 18 Tr

Total Divers 823 8 2,285 12 327 43 465 25 5,749 12
Total Ducks 10,828 100 18,541 100 765 100 1,884 100 47,503 100

C:) Swan 21 356 - 4 462
Canada Goose - - - - 1,399
T 289 172 461
White-fronted Goose - -
San,dhill Crane 642 86 - - 800
Common Loon 86 - - - 152
Red-throated Loon 385 43 - - 445
Arctic Loon - - - 21

l/ 1975-76 two year average
2/ 1976 only

TABLE 4. Total land area and breeding ducks per square mile of habitat on
coastal marshes in Cook Inlet and the Jim Swan Lakes area.

Birds per mi. 2

2
Area Size in Mi. Dabblers Divers Total Ducks

Redoubt Bay 248.0 65.6 9.2 74.7
Susitna Flats 136.0 68.9 9.7 78.6
Trading Bay 107.0 93.5 7.7 101.2
Palmer-Hay Flats 42.7 49.6 12.9 62.5
Chickaloon Flats 39.0 30.4 0 30.4
Portage Area Flats 18.3 101.8 21.6 123.4
Fox River Flats 16.6 26.4 19.7 46.1
Goose Bay 9.2 56.3 3.8 60.1

Total Cook Inlet Marshes 616.8 67.7 9.3 77.0

Jim Swan Area 14.0 101.4 33.2 134.6

221

years of survey information. These are, however, our best estimates of

nesting duck numbers on Cook Inlet marshes. The average of 77 ducks per

square mile on all Cook Inlet marshes exceeds nesting duck densities on

almost all other breeding habitat in Alaska.

Good estimates of waterfowl produced on these areas are unavailable

However, a reasonable assumption for Cook Inlet is that dabblers produce

one duckling for each adult bird present and divers produce 0.8 ducklings

for each adult bird present. If this assumption is true, then total

duckling production on Cook Inlet marshes exceeds 46,350 birds yearly.

Duckling production and total fall flight can be calculated for individual

areas listed in Table 3 by using the 1.0 and 0.8 figures for dabblers

and divers respectively.

Duck Production On Cook Inlet Uplands

About 2,000 square miles of upland Cook Inlet waterfowl production

habitat exists. Using U. S. Fish and Wildlife estimates (see 1971 USFWS

Report by J. G. King and C. J. Lensink, An Evaluation of Alaskan Habitat

for Migratory Birds) a total calculated duck breeding population of

24,700 birds is annually present in this area. They estimate that

13,500 dabblers, 9,400 divers, and 1,800 nongame ducks occur on these

uplands. This amounts to a breeding duck density of 12.4 birds per

square mile. Using production figures of 1.0, 0.8, and 0.6, for dabblers,

divers and nongame species, respectively, a total duckling production

of 22,100 birds is indicated. -The value of near coastal Cook Inlet

marshes to waterfowl production is easily seen by considering that over

twice as many ducks are produced here on slightly over 600 square miles

of habitat than on about 2,000 square miles of surrounding upland

habitat.

222

Other Production Areas

Definitive surveys of ducks and other waterfowl produced in other

areas of this region have not been conducted because duck production is

minimal. However, a substantial but unmeasured number of birds are

produced on Kodiak Island. On Kodiak Island 10-20,000 ducklings of the

game species are annually produced at the heads of small bays and along

habitat bordering streams and rivers. Duckling production by nongame

species such as harlequins and mergansers is undoubtedly substantial on

Kodiak and other areas within the Kodiak-Cook Inlet region. Because

most of these groups nest in obscure isolated places such as wooded

streams and rivers, even a guess of the number of birds present or

produced is impossible.

Goose Production

Before the 1964 earthquake very few Canada geese existed in Cook

Inlet. However, since the earthquake-apparently in response to habitat

change-a mushrooming population of lesser Canadas has become estab-

lished. A July 1974 survey in Cook Inlet showed a population in excess

of 2,000 birds (see Table 3 for relative distribution by area). Al-

though unconfirmed, these geese probably nest some distance back from

saltwater in the low, brushy areas. Flocks of nonbreeding geese are

conspicuous and spend the summer closer to saltwater and frequent tide

influenced streams and rivers. Initial but limited morphology and

banding studies on these geese in the Anchorage area indicates they are

Parvipes and are wintering in Oregon's Willamette Valley along with

dusky Canada geese from the Copper River Delta near Cordova.

A small population of geese, numbering about 1,000, are present

during the summer in the Trading Bay and Redoubt Bay areas. These birds

223

generally occur several miles from saltwater and inhabit small ponds and

lakes. Although unconfirmed, the production of goslings probably occurs

in this area. However, the bulk of the population appears to be non-

breeding adults or sub adult white fronted geese.

In 1973, 13 Vancouver Canada geese from Southeast Alaska were

shipped to Kodiak. These birds were held in captivity for several

months and then released. It was anticipated that this group of birds

would be the first of a series of releases of Vancouver geese designed

to create a resident, nonmigratory population of Canada Geese on Kodiak

Island. However, since then the Fish and Wildlife Service policy has

been to not sanction this project until the determination of what species

of Canada goose is nesting in Prince William Sound is made. With this

determination a better indication of whether Vancouvers from Southeast

or the Canadas from Prince William Sound should be transplanted to

Kodiak. Should the transplant project eventually proceed, the people on

Kodiak-Afognak islands could have an additional waterfowl resource

available for both noncomsumptive and consumptive users. Although

unconfirmed, we do not believe any of the original 13 Canada geese have

sucessfully nested and reared young, although a few of the birds can

still be occassionally seen around Kodiak.

Swans

Trumpeter swans are associated with interior, forested habitat

while whistling swans occur primarily on coastal tundra areas. Swans in

the Cook Inlet-Kenai Peninsula area are the trumpeter species while the

few swans which nest on Kodiak are whistlers.

There have been two nearly complete inventories of trumpeter swans

in Alaska, in 1968 and in 1975. Both surveys were conducted in late

224

August and early September by personnel of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Serivce. Survey data from the 1975 survey are not yet available. Eventual-

ly swans seen by location will be provided on 1:63,360 scale maps and

compared to 1960 observations. Also, observations by specific location

in 1968 are not readily available but totals by regional areas of obser-

vation are. On the western side of the Kenai Peninsula (upland, but

generally below six hundred feet MSL) 181 swans were seen in 1968.

There were 21 pairs of swans in this total and an aggregate of 65 young

birds. Apparently the Kenai Peninsula population has stabilized since

1968 as the 1975 count showed about the same number of birds present (J.

G. King, pers. comm.). On the west side of Cook Inlet from Redoubt Bay

west to the Alaska Mountain Range and north, 1,022 trumpeter swans were

observed in 1968. However, this figure represents swans seen north of

Willow to Talkeetna, but the proportion of birds very probably repre-

sents little more than 10 % of the total population. These birds were

composed of 91 adult pairs and in aggregate they had 362 young birds.

The number of birds observed in the same area in 1975 is substantially

above what was seen in 1968 (J. King, pers. comm.). Apparently either a

population increase on the west side of Cook Inlet has occurred or birds

were missed in 1968. On both the Kenai Peninsula and on the west side

of the Cook Inlet most of the swan observations occurred on shallow

water areas of five acres or less which were surrounded by sedge. Most

observations were also made at elevations below 300 feet MSL, however,

observations of swans on water areas of over 1,000 feet MSL were made.

The only swans which overwintered in the Kodiak-Cook Inlet Region

are found on Kodiak Island. During the winter of 1975 an observation of

12 different swans were made on Kalsin and Middle Bays. A local bird-

watcher identified these birds as whistlers and said that all birds were

2 2 53

adults and remained throughout the winter of 1974-75. This wintering

area is quite abnormal, but these birds are probably the same birds

which nested on Kodiak Island.

GENERAL WATERFOWL DISTRIBUTION

Winter

In Cook Inlet, near shore wintering waterfowl are found primarily

from Kachemak Bay south, around the Kenai Peninsula and on the west side

of the Inlet from Kamishak Bay south. However, a few birds can be found

from Kenai south from Kamishak Bay, but these birds are limited primar-

ily to scoters and a few eiders. Offshore populations of scoters

eiders and seabirds are numerous. The largest waterfowl concentration

of wintering birds in Cook Inlet is found in Kachemak Bay. However, too

few winter bird surveys have been done to adequately assess the impor-

tance of lower Cook Inlet to wintering populations. A survey of Kachemak

Bay, conducted in 1968, showed about 10,000 waterfowl were present

during the winter. A mid-February survey in 1976 in Kachemak Bay showed

about 8,000 waterfowl present (Table 7) and a total bird population of

about 10,000. Table 5 shows the number of birds counted along the

coastal areas and both the west and east sides of Cook Inlet during early

February 1976. This survey showed a wintering bird population in lower

Cook Inlet, including Kachemak Bay, of 21,071 birds of which 13,920 were

waterfowl. Again this includes only nearshore bird populations. A

significant, but unknown proportion of birds are missed during the

aerial surveys. Table 6 also contains estimates of waterfowl found in

lower Cook Inlet during early February 1971. In Table 8 the results of

the waterfowl survey conducted in the third week of March 1970 in bays

22G

along the south side of the Alaska Peninsula are shown.

Wintering birds in Cook Inlet are confined primarily to Kachemak

Bay and south on the east side and south of Kamishak Bay on the west

side of the inlet. This is because areas to the north have heavy shore

ice during the winter and the birds cannot find adequate food and resting

cover.

More surveys of wintering waterfowl have been conducted on Kodiak

Island than in any other area of Alaska. However, results of the most

extensive survey, which was conducted in late winter 1975, are yet

unavailable. This survey sampled various portions of Kodiak and Afognak

Island and relates bird population to shoreline habitat type. Results

of this survey which was conducted by Department of Fish and Game personnel

will be available during the early fall 1976.

In Table 9 a summary of wintering waterfowl surveys conducted since

1966 is presented. The largest number of birds occur in the bigger bays

where a substantial amount of the shoreline remains ice free.

In Table 10 a summary of two winter surveys made in 1973 and 1975

by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel is presented. This survey

includes all birds and encompasses most of the nearshore area adjacent

to the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. As can be seen on Tables 9 and

10 the number of waterfowl and other birds wintering in nearshore areas

around Kodiak and Afognak Island is substantial. More definitive information

will be available when results of the 1976 survey are analyzed.

Spring and Fall

Unlike winter periods, extremely large concentrations of ducks,

geese, swans, and other birds occur during the spring and fall in some

areas in the northern part of Cook Inlet. The most important of these

227

TABLE 5. Winter Survey of Waterfowl and
Seabirds of Lower Cook Inlet
Feb. 9, 10 and 18, 1970'

The follo,.-ting is a breakftqn of the number of birds observed in the
major bay located %,.,ithin the Surveyed areas plus the combined total of all
Lower Cook Inlet

LOCATION (East @ide of Cook Inlet) No. of birds

Takoma Cove

Goldeneze 20
Harlequin duck 16
Unid. sea duct-, I
Bufflehead .72
Cormorant 3
GlaUCOUS-winged Gull 7

Sunday Bay

Goldeneze 2
Oldsquaw 42
Harl equi n 3
Unid. sea duck 11
Bufflehead 17
Merganser 2
Small alcid I
Glaucous-winged Gull is
Miew Gull 2
Unid. gull 3
Loon 2
Cormorant 1
Mature Bald Eagle I

Taylor Bay

Goldeneze 4
01 dsqUaw 1
11arl equi n 4
Unid. sea duck 15
Bufflehead 18
flerganser 1
Smal I shorebirds 40
Small alcids 11
Mew Gul 1 2
GlclUcous-winge-d Gull 24
Unid. gull 3

228

Taylor Bay, Con't.

Cormorant 6
Northwest Crow 4
Mature Bald Eagle 3
Immature Bald Eagle I

West Arm Port Dick

Goldeneze 259
Unid. bay docks 15
Harlequin 82
White-winged Scoter 2
Surf Scoter 59
Unid. Scoter 50
Unid. sea duck 51
Mallard 107
Unid. dabbler 40
Bufflehead 5
Red-breasted Merganser 9
Unid. Merganser 16
Small alcid 7
Mew Gull 4
Glaucous-winged Gull 2
Loon 2
Cormorants 23
Mature Bald Eagle 5
Immature Bald Eagle 1

Rocky Bay

Goldeneze 232
01 dsquaw 1
Surf Scoters 90
Unid. Scoter 26
Unid. sea duck 13
Bufflehead 44
Unid. Merganser 20
Small shorebird 10
Small alcid 4
Glaucous-winged Gull 5
Cormorant 16
Raven 1
Loon 1
Magpie 2

Windy Bay

Goldeneze 46
Harlequin 11
Surf Scoter 134
Common Scoter 15
Common Eider 216
Unid. Scoter 14

229

Windy Bay, Con't.

Unid. sea duck 11
Mallard 15
Bufflehead 9
Unid. Merganser 6
Small shorebirds 30
Small alcid 3
Grebe- 1
Cormorant I
Magpie I
Mature Bald Eagle I

Chugach Say

Harlequin 10
Surf Scoter 308
Common Scoter 45
Unid. Scoter 65
Unid. sea duck 64
Bufflehead 1
Red-breasted Merganser 4
Small alcid 1
Grebe 1
Glaucous-winged Gull 1
Cormorant 6
Northwest Crow 3

East Chugach Island

Harlequin 28
White-winged Scoter 1
Surf Scoter 52
Common Scoter 2
Unid. Scoter 4
Unid. sea duck 2
Small shorebird 1
Glaucous-winged Gull 2
Cormorant 89
Northwest Crow 54
Perl Island (seaward side only)
Unid. Scoter 10
Unid. sea duck 2
Cormorant 48
Northwest Crow 10

Elizabeth Island

Harlequin 19
Surf Scoter 2
Common Scoter 7

230

Elizabeth Island, Con't.

Unid. Scoter 31
Unid. sea duck 6
Unid. Merganser 1
Small shorebird 23
Loon 1
Cormorant 25
Northwest Crow 26
Mature Bald Eagle I

Port Chatham

Scaup 10
Goldeneze 128
Harlequin 36
Surf Scoter 122
Common Scoter 26
Unid. Scoter 22
Unid. sea duck 24
Mallard 232
Bufflehead 27
Red-breasted Merganser 9
Common Merganser 2
Small shorebird 50
Small alci d I
Greb I
Glaucous-wing-ed Gull 12
Loon A
Cormorant 17
Magpie 4
Mature Bald Eagle I
Immature Bald Eagle I

Koyukotolik Bay

Scaup 40
Goldeneze 123
Harlequin 50
Surf Scoter 42
Common Scoter 23
Common Eider 71
Unid. Scoter 176
Unid. sea duck 1
Mallard 95
Bufflehead 11
Red-breasted Merganser 5
Small alcid I
Glaucous-winged Gull 2
Loon 3
Cormorant 4
Northwest Crow 25
Mature Bald Eagle 1

231

Port Graham

Goldeneze 176
Unid. duck 4
01 dsquaw 2
Harlequin 39
White-winged Scoter 1
Surf Scoter 11
Common Scoter 2
Common Eider 16
Unid. Scoter 52
Unid. sea duck 13
Bufflehead 26
Red-breasted Merganser 27
Common Merganser 3
Unid. Merganser 4
Medium-size shorebird 150
Glaucous-winged Gull 2
Cormorant 5
Northwest Crow 13

Seldovia. Bay

Scaup 68
Goldeneze 93
Unid. duck 19
Oldsquaw 46
Harlequin 11
White-winged Scoter 8
Surf Scoter 26
Common Scoter 2
Common Eider 4
Unid. Scoter 70
Bufflehead 16
Red-breasted Merganser 2
Unid. Merganser 6
Medium-sized shorebird 1
Small alcid 4
Mew Gull 5
Glaucous-wing Gull 1
Cormorant 7

Kasitsna Bay

Scaup 26
Goldeneze 31
Unid. duck 4
Oldsquaw 3
Harlequin 3
White-winged Scoter 2
Surf Scoter 48
Unid. Scoter 28
Bufflehead 70

232

Kasitsna Bay, Con't.

Small alcid 3
Glaucous-winged Gull 1
Cormorant 1
Northwest Crow 40

Jakolof Bay

Scaup 2
Goldeneze 33
Unid, duck 21
Harlequin 33
Surf Scoter 27
Common Eider 3
Unid. Scoter 17
Bufflehead 6
Red-breasted Merganser 1
Unid. Merganser 1
Loon 2
Raven 3

Tutka Bay (shoreward side only)

Goldeneze 166
Unid. duck 74
Oldsquaw 3
Harlequin 51
Surf Scoter 136
Unid. Eider 2
Unid. sea duck 22
Red-breasted Merganser 13
Unid. Merganser 17
Small alcid 1
Greb 1
Cormorant 2
Magpie 5
Mature Bald Eagle 1

Sadie Cove

Goldeneze ll1
Unqid. bay duck 18
Unid. duck 24
Oldsquaw 2
Harlequin 61
White-winged Scoter 43
Surf Scoter 70
Common Eider 12
Unid. Scoter 46
Mallard 18
Bufflehead 5
Red-breasted Merganser 1

233

Sadie Cove, Con't.

Unid. Merganser 1
Small alcid 84
Large alcid 1
Mew Gul 1 1
Loon 20
Cormorant 8
Mature Bald Eagle 2

China Poot Bay

Goldeneye 333
Unid. duck 38
Harlequin 4
White-winged Scoter 5
Surf Scoter 520
Unid. Eider 1
Unid. Scoter 503
Unid. sea duck 6
Mallard 898
Bufflehead 3
Red-breasted Merganser 5
Small shorebird 420
Mew Gul1 21
Glaucous-winged Gull 8 8
Cormorant 1
Raven 9
Northwest Crow 1ll
Magpie 1
Mature Bald Eagle 7
Immature Bald Eagle 3

Peterson Bay

Goldeneze 61
Unid. duck 26
Oldsquaw 5
Harlequin 1
Mallard 7
Red-breasted Merganser 8
Small alcid 2
Cormorant 3

Halibut Cove

Goldeneye 311
Unid. ducks 25
Oldsquaw 16
Harlequin 6
Surf Scoter 77
Common Scoter 14
Unid. Scoter 161
Mallard 69

234

Total for Kachemak Bay, Con't.

Northwest Crow 277
Mature Bald Eagle 17
Immature Bald Eagle 4

LOCATION (west side Cook Inlet)

Redoubt Bay

0ldsquaw 1
Glaucous-winged Gull 2

Tuxedni Bay

Oldsquaw 6
Unid. sea 137
Large shorebirds 1,600
Glaucous-wing Gull 2

Tuxedni Channel

Oldsquaw 4
Large shorebirds 1,775
Magpie 1

Chinitna Bay

Oldsquaw 2

Oil Bay

Goldeneze 1
0ldsquaw 6
Unid. sea ducks 12
Raven 2

Iniskin Bay

Oldsquaw 805
Unid. sea ducks 87

Cottonwood Bay

Oldsquaw 4
Unid. sea duck 4

Iliamna Bay

Oldsquaw 104
Small alcid 1

235

Ursus Cove

Oldsquaw 60
Unid. sea duck 45

Bruin Bay

Oldsquaw 24
Small alcid 4
Pelagic Cormorant 2
Northwest Crow 2

Kamishak Bay

01 dsqua,.,i 247
Unid. sea ducks 51
Small alcid 1
Northwest Crow 1

Totals for all Lo@,-ier Cook Inlet

Scaup 147
Goldeneze 2,646
Unid. duck 752
Oldsquavi 1,911
Harlequin 734
White-winged Scoters 77
Surf Scoters 2,135
Common Scoters 410
Common Eider 349
Unid. Eider 5
Unid. Scoter 2,719
Mallard 1,445
Unid. dabblers 40
Bufflehead 307
Red-breasted Merganser .146
Common Merganser 5
Unid. Merganser 92
Small shorebirds 490
Medium shorebirds 162
Large shorebirds 3,375
Small alcid 699
Large alcid 47
Gillimot I
Grebe 5
Mew Gull 288
Glaucous-winged Gull 413
Unid. Gull 662
Loon 53
Cormorant 440
Raven 17
Nort,h%,.,est Crow 445
Magpie 11
Mature Bald Eagle 35
Immature Bald Eagle 8
Total Waterfowl - 13,920
236 21,071

Table 6. Ducks and geese found in bays in Lower Cook Inlet by aerial survey.

Location 8-25-69 9-9-69 10-2-69 4-16-70 6-1-70 8-12-70 9-28-70 2-9-71 5-12-71 10-5-71 11-3-72

Redoubt Bay 1626 2632 2630 1170 1917 2587 3531

Kalgin Island 50 -39 71

Fox River Flats 915 1650 1950

Aurora Lagoon 50 0 334

Halibut Cove 185 250 408

China Poot Bay 110 0 682

Neptune Bay 18

Sadie Cove 56 5

Tutka Bay 165
CAO
-_j Kasitsna Bay 390

Jackolof Bay 160

Seldovia 195 128

Port Graham 208 1025

TABLE 7 Winter and Spring Survey of
Waterfowl and Seabirds along the Shoreline of
Kachemak Bay

Feb. 18 and May 3, 10, 1976

The survey was conducted by the Department of Fish and Game
utilizing a de Havilland "Beaver" with Paul Arneson, Game Biologist
III, Warren Ballard, Game Biologist II and David Erickson, Tech-
nician III, as observers.

The area survey included all birds from the storm zone on the
beach to a distance of 200 M on the seaward side of the aircraft.
The height above the water was 100 feet.

The following is a breakdown of the species and number found
in Kachemak Bay.

Number
Species Winter Spring

Greater Scaup 97 2,730
Goldeneye 1,791 894
Unid. Bay Ducks 18 ---
Unid Ducks 348 167
Oldsquaw 430 1,026
Harlequin 315 505
White-winged Scoter 70 724
Surf Scoter 1,195 3,433
Common Scoter 289 1,367
Common Eider 48 89
Steller's Eider --- 8
Unid. Eider 5 10
Unid. Scoter 1,993 669
Unid. sea duck 176 58
Mallards 996 214
Pintail --- 334
Green-wing Teal --- 24
Widgeon --- 89
Unid. dabblers --- 151
Bufflehead 158 170
Red-breasted Merganser 51 85
Common Merganser 1 94
Unid. Merganser 35 ---
Small Shorebirds 747 4,553
Medium Shorebirds 1 808
Large Shorebirds --- 6
Marbled Murrelets --- 8
Common Murrelets 20
Guillemot --- 158
Common Loon 14
Unid. Loon --- 38

233

Table 7 Cont'd.

Number
Species Winter Spring

Horned Grebe --- 12
Unid. Grebe --- 25
Bonaparte's Gull --- 42
Mew Gull 268 442
Glaucous-winged Gull 306 1,854
Herring Gull --- 32
Unid. Gull 608 1.%942
Pelagic Cormorant 7
Double-created Cormorant --- 12
White-flanked Cormorant --- 10
Unid. Cormorant 51 143
Black Brant --- 2
Lesser Canadian Geese --- 1,033
Immature Bald Eagle --- 2
Mature Bald Eagle --- 5
Northwestern Crow --- 73
Raven --- 2

Total 9,997 24,085

Total Waterfowl 8,016 12,842

239

Table 8.
Ducks and geese found in bays of the south side of the Alaska Peninsula
by aerial survey.

Date of Survey

Location 3/20-23/70 10/11-12/72

Puale Bay 685
Portage Bay 184
Wide Bay 462 631
Agripina Bay area 465 200
Chiginagak Bay area 505 352
Yantarni Bay area 623 141
Amber Bay 465 240
Aniakchak Bay 1145 449
Cape Kumlik 198
Sutwik Island 263
Kujulik Bay 3915 391
Cape Kumlin 250
Hood Bay 20
Chignik Bay 430 35
Chignik Lagoon 1153
Castle Bay 95 287
Castle Cape to Seal Cape 65
Kuiukta Bay 5
Mitrofania Bay & Island 38
Ivanoif Bay 65 1043
Stepovak Bay 42 862
Grub Gulch Bay 241
Clark Bay 104
Orzinski Bay 124 85
American Bay 62
Chichagof Bay 76
Dorenoi Bay 295 32
Balboa Bay 510
Beaver Bay 123 224
Shumagin Islands 4086
Canoe Bay 1362
Pavlof Bay 715
Pavlof Islands 1118
Deer Island 345
Sandman Reefs 412
Sanak Islands 2762
Cold Bay 462 3057
Morzhovoi Bay 2925 4439
Otter Cove 434

240

Table 9. Ducks and geese found in bays of Kodiak Island by aerial survey.

Date of Survey

Location 1-19-66 2-11-66 3-14-66 11-11-66 3-12-69 1-21-71 2-18-72

Sharatin Bay 30 2 175
Kizhuyak Bay 149 4 79
Settler Cove 8
Spruce Bay 75
Viekoda Bay 2 30 85
Terror Bay 270 385 616 288 102 155
Uganik Island 231 23
N. E. Arm Ugan 205 )
E. Arm Uganik 573 392 489 229 125 576
S. Arm Uganik 15 1
Spiridon Bay 101 6 138
Zachar Bay ill 668 470 612 235
Larsen Bay 197 6 184 1058
Uyak Bay 991 1237 1378 1325 490
Karluk Lagoon 90
Sturgeon Lagoon 235
Halibut Bay 75
Sukoi Lagoon 300
Alitak Lagoon 150 '85
Tugidak Island 600 390
Sitkanak Lagoon 50
Deadman Bay 125
Olga Bay 170
Portage Bay 75 145
Kaiugnak Bay 175 175
Three Saints Bay @-4 310
Barling Bay 100 50
Midway Bay 120
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Amee Bay 15 P
Port Holbron 8 0
McDonald Lagoon 45
Hidden Basin
>-4 >-4 123
Kiliuda Bay ril
410 528
Shearwater Bay P4 130
@D I'D
Cull Cape 75
Eagle Harbor 50
0 0
Ugak Bay 469
Saltery Cove 60
Pasagshak Bay 125
Narrow Cape 258
Chiniak Cape 257
Kalsin Bay 35 360
Middle Bay 261 175 181
Women's Bay 30 375
Monashka Bay 160

241,

Table 10. Marine bird survey via M/V Aleutian Tern by Kodiak National Wildlife
Refuge personnel, Jan. 25-Feb. 8, 1973 and Feb. 5-22, 1975.

1973 1975

Loon sp. 424 83
Grebe sp. 7 72
Red-necked 1
Cormorant sp. 1982 1728
Emperor Geese 621 52
Mallard 700 2556
Pintail 200 4
Gadwall 30 75
Dabbler sp. - 50
Scaup (Greater) 80 15
Goldeneye sp. 1142 1205
Common 146
Barrows 24 30
Bufflehead 36 27
Harlequin 691 675
Eider sp. 67 1745
Common 4512 58
King 4654
Steller's 340 1176
Old squaw 7863 9410
Scoter sp. 3192 984
Black 2154 1402
White-winged 3059 2073
Surf 1194 327
Merganser sp. 39 27
Common 21 21
Red-breasted 13 34
Hawk sp. 3
Marsh 1
Bald Eagle age? 4 8
Adult 183 179
Immature 37 50
Golden Eagle 1
Sandpiper sp. 50
Gull sp. 124 1589
Glaucous-winged 32 923
Mew 356 731
Murre sp. 8420 14,994
Common 179
Thick-billed 66
Pigeon Guillemot 46 106
Horned Puffin 1
Tufted Puffin 1
Crested Auklet 15,083 7011
Murrelet sp. 63 280
Ancient 3
Magpie 28 84
Raven 8 3
Crow 524 879

242

areas are: Chickaloon Flats, Portage Flats, Potter Marsh, Eagle River

Flats, Palmer Hay Flats, Goose Bay, Susitna Flats, Trading Bay and

Redoubt Bay. Large numbers of migrant waterfowl can also be found in

Kachemak Bay on the Fox River Flats and in some of the smaller bays on

the south side of Kachemak Bay. Kamishak Bay on the west side of Cook

Inlet is also a heavily used waterfowl and shorebird migration stopping

area. Birds utilizing Kamishak Bay have followed the coastal route from the

lower Pacific flyway wintering grounds. Many of these birds will cross

the Alaska Range and fly up Lake Iliamna to more interior and western

Alaska breeding grounds. other areas of lesser importance to waterfowl,

but of local importance to birdviewers include the Kenai River and

Kasilof River Flats on the east side of Cook Inlet. All of the above

areas mentioned receive heavy bird use during both spring and fall

periods.

In Tables 6, 7 and 8 various waterfowl surveys conducted in lower

Cook Inlet and on the south side of Alaska Peninsula are summarized for

both spring and fall periods. Complete coverage was not made for most

surveys in some areas so these figures must be considered very minimum.

Relatively few surveys have been made on Kodiak Island during spring and

fall migration periods. However, all bays and estuaries which have a

small salt marsh or intertidal land are undoubtedly used by substantial

numbers of ducks, geese, shorebirds and other birds. A general assump-

tion is that the larger the salt marsh or intertidal area exposed, the

greater number and diversity that will occur. Some species that frequent

the Kodiak-Afognak Islands in the spring, such as black. brant, bypass

the island in their southerly fall migration. Black brant during the

fall are extremely rare, but during the spring perhaps several tens of

thousands use a number of bays and estuaries in the island group.

243

RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

Arctic Peregrine Falcon are classified rare and endangered by the

Federal Government and the State of Alaska. Although Arctic Peregrines

do not nest in the Cook Inlet-Kodiak region, some birds are known to

utilize the coastal areas during spring and fall migration periods on.

their way to and from wintering grounds to the south. Probably any area

in Cook Inlet could receive use by small numbers of Arctic Peregrines,

however, they would be uncommon on Kodiak Island.

Although no endangered waterfowl species have been verified in the

Cook Inlet-Kodiak region, there is a strong possibility that the Aleutian

Canada goose may occur there, especially on Kodiak Island. The Aleutian

Canada is a small goose with a wide white neck ring at the base of its

black neck. The entire world population (Spring population of about

nine hundred birds) apparently breeds on Buldir Island in the Western

Aleutian Islands.

The birds migration route from Buldir Island to Crescent City,

California is unknown. It is possible that the geese follow the Gulf

Coast during the fall. However, it is most probable that they take this

route during spring migration. Many of the small islands around Kodiak

and Afognak Islands appear to be a stopping place for Aleutian Canada

geese. As more geese are banded in future years, and when radio transmitters

are placed on the birds during the fall of 1976, the probability of

Aleutian geese being verified in this area increases.

If Aleutian Canada geese are verified, perhaps the most significant

event which may occur is that the areas frequented may be judged to be

critical and subsequently classified as critical habitat under federal

244

law. Lands judged to be critical may be purchased, leased or otherwise

controlled. It is also against federal law to use federal funds on

critical habitat for projects that will adversely affect the geese. This

could include such things as roads, airports, logging activities, etc.

At this time, the probability of Aleutian geese being verified in this

region is high; but the probability of lands being designated critical

is low.

CRITICAL HABITAT

The term critical habitat can have very general or very precise

connotations. For example, fertile water areas with adjacent nesting

cover are critical for production of waterfowl each year. Specifically,

a given precise area may be critical to large numbers of birds or even

entire species, subspecies, or populations. Critical habitat as will be

delineated here is that habitat or land area which is necessary fer the

survival or well being of large numbers of birds. Critical habitat

could also be that area used by rare and endangered species, but no such

areas have been identified as yet in the Cook Inlet-Kodiak region.

A given area may be critical to birds during the summer for nesting

purposes, but not for example, during the fall or spring for feeding and

resting. A given area may be critical for an individual bird, but if

that area were removed or adversely altered, the species of which that

individual bird is a part may pot be affected. Unfortunately, few

studies in Alaska have been made which actually identify precisely why

an area is critical or very important. We can usually say only that

many birds occur where they do and generally why they do occur there.

Intertidal areas with broad mud flats and sedge-grass flats which

2 4 b

flood at higher high tides are, taken as a whole, essential to the

survival of many waterfowl, shorebirds and indirectly many seabirds in

this region. Exceptions are probably swans which could survive exclusively

on upland areas. It is a rational generalization that the bigger such

intertidal zones are, the more important they are. One major reason for

the intertidal flats importance is the quantity of food which is produced there.

Tidal action creates a constant interchange of nutrients and organic

matter for plant and animal growth. Freshwater streams are equally also

associated with these flats. Brackish water (mixed salt and fresh) is

more productive than either salt or fresh water. Varying tide levels

create a change of plant and animal communities from mud (most fre-

quently flooded) to grass-sedge and finally spruce forest (never flooded).

The species of plants and animals within each "life zone" are often

different and thus create very diverse food sources for birds.

It is difficult in most instances to say, for example, that the

loss of a given tide flat would result in a number of birds disappearing.

In many cases the birds can go elsewhere. However, exactly what the

carrying capacity for birds is for any given area of tidal flats would

be difficult to determine.

The critical function in the life history of waterfowl which inter-

tidal areas fulfill is that they provide good places for birds to use

during the spring and fall, before and after inland nesting areas are

ice and snow free. Because the nesting season in Alaska is so short, it

is imperative that waterfowl and shorebirds arrive on their breeding

grounds ready to nest as soon as conditions allow. If intertidal areas

were not available, waterfowl and shorebirds would have to overfly from

their wintering grounds to their nesting areas. If such were the case,

far fewer waterfowl would be in Alaska than are here today. Likewise

246

during the fall, intertidal areas serve as a safe resting and feeding

area for the birds to gain strength and body fat for their long flight

south after their inland nesting areas have become ice covered.

There are a number of areas within the Cook Inlet-Kodiak Region

which have some state or federal land protection existing now. There

are five areas currently designated as state refuges. These are: the

Palmer Hay Flats, Goose Bay, Potter Marsh, Susitna Flats, and the

Trading Bay area. The Redoubt Bay area has also been nominated as

state refuge, but the current year's legislature did not so designate

the area. There are two areas which have critical habitat classification

under state law - Kachemak Bay and Kalgin Island. The U. S. Fish and

Wildlife Service has land management authority on most of the southern

end of Kodiak Island which is in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge.

Under authority of the Native Land Claims Settlement Act, the Fish and

Wildlife Service has requested two additional refuges in this region;

the Barren Islands and the Shumagin Islands. All intertidal lands

surroundiag or adjacent to federal refuges are state owned. There are

two additional areas within this region which have special classification.

The Chickaloon Flats intertidal lands are owned by the State while the

Fish and Wildlife Service and Forest Service currently own the uplands.

This area is under cooperative management agreement between the State of

Alaska and the two federal managing agencies. On the Portage Flats area

the State also owns intertidal lands while the Bureau of Land Management

and U.S. Forest Service own most of the upland marsh area. A cooperative

management agreement between state and federal managing agencies is

currently being drafted by the Bureau of Land Management and this area

will eventually be placed in cooperative management status.

24-7

Specific Critical Habitats

In this region there are six areas that are critical to the welfare

of waterfowl. There are also a number of other areas which can be

considered very important to waterfowl and sea birds; the difference

between very important and critical could well be a matter of opinion

depending on who is designating them as such. The areas we deem critical

are the Palmer Hay Flats, Susitna Flats, Trading Bay, Redoubt Bay, the

Chickaloon Flats, and Kachemak Bay (Dan Timm, ADF&G, Anchorage).

The Palmer Hay Flats are inside of a line bounded by the mouth of

Cottonwood Creek on the southwest, across Knik Arm to Eklutna on the

east, and north and westward along the railroad tracks on the east and

north, to the base of the bluff bordering the Palmer Hay Flats on the

west. Critical area is within this described boundary. This area is

deemed critical due to the combination of heavy public use on the area,

the waterfowl production which occurs here and the large numbers of

birds which use Palmer Hay Flats both spring and fall. These three

criteria-public use, waterfowl production and use by migrating water-

fowl-are the criteria used to designate all six critical habitats.

Numerous inventories of spring and fall waterfowl using the area have

been conducted. In the fall it is estimated that over 50,000 ducks,

over 10,000 geese and an excess of 15,000 swans (both species) use the

Palmer Hay Flats. This use by migrating waterfowl extends from about

mid August to October 10. Spring bird populations are more spectacular

as larger concentrations occur during a shorter time period. Estimated

spring use includes over 100,000 ducks, over 50,000 geese and over 5,000

swans. Spring bird use occurs from about April 10 to about May 10,

with peak populations occurring around May 1.

248

The Susitna Flats includes the area beginning due north of Point

Campbell, including all intertidal lands between there and Beluga on the

south, and north including all salt marsh below the 100 foot contour.

This area is delineated with legal descriptions in the Susitna Flats

Refuge Bill which passed the Legislature in 1976. During both the

spring and fall seasons estimated total duck use exceeds 150,000 birds;

geese exceed 50,000 and over 10,000 swans use the area each year. Not

only does this area produce a significant number of ducks, geese and

swans each year, but it is also the number one hunting area in Alaska.

Trading and Redoubt Bays include all intertidal lands plus the

lowland salt marsh areas north and west of the ocean beach to about the

100 foot contour line. These two areas both produce substantial numbers

of waterfowl and sustain moderate hunting pressure. Few spring and fall

waterfowl surveys have been conducted on these areas, but numbers of

birds are known to be quite substantial. Estimated total duck, goose

and swan use is very similar to that received on the Susitna flats.

Chickaloon Flats is bordered by Burnt Island on the east to about

Bedlam Creek on the west and includes all tidal lands south to about the

100 foot contour line. This area receives heavy hunting pressure during

the fall as described earlier in this report. Extensive spring and

fall bird surveys have been conducted here and the estimated total fall.

waterfowl use includes about 150,000 ducks and about 100,000 geese.

Swan use both spring and fall is not great, perhaps 1,000 birds each

period. Spring bird use is somewhat less than the fall and includes an

estimated 50,000 ducks and 25,000 geese. On certain days during the

fall the waterfowl concentrations can be quite spectacular on Chickaloon

Flats. During the peak of migration if Portage Pass at the head of

249

Turnagain Arm becomes clouded in, birds will "pile up" on the Chickaloon

Flats. They can number in the tens of thousands for short time periods

until the path clears.

Although the entire Kachemak Bay is considered critical, the inter-

tidal areas of Fox River Flats and the intertidal areas associated with

the bays and estuaries on the south side of Kachemak Bay (particularly

Chinapoot Bay) are the most valuable areas to waterfowl. Although

waterfowl production in Kachemak Bay is low, large numbers of waterfowl

utilize these intertidal areas during spring and fall migration. During

the 1976 spring migration in early May an estimate was made of one

million shorebirds using Fox River Flats on one day. Depending on

weather systems, bird concentrations can be very large during the spring

and fall. Birds are known to fly directly over the mountains in their

migration during spring and fall. During periods of low clouds the

piling up of birds can and does occur similar to the phenomenon on

Chickaloon Flats. Kachemak Bay also sustains a wintering population of

approximately 10,000 waterfowl and other birds.

Other Important Habitats

For waterfowl the following areas are very important. These areas generally

sustain less public, relatively few birds are annually produced and they

receive less bird use during spring and fall migration periods than do

the critical habitat areas. These areas are Cordova, Goose Bay, Potter

Refuge, Portage Flats, Kenai River Flats, Kasilof River Flats, Kamishak

Bay, and all intertidal lands generally located at the heads of bays

and estuaries on Kodiak and Afognak Islands. Kamishak Bay could well- be

a critical habitat area because apparently large numbers of waterfowl

250

and shorebirds pass through this area on their way to and from Alaska

breeding grounds each spring and fall. However, new information on bird

numbers will not be available until late Fall 1976. A "piling up" of

birds could exist here as exists on the Chickaloon Flats and Fox River

Flats, depending on weather conditions.

From the seabird standpoint, the Barren Islands, Shumagin Islands,

Chirikof Island and Semidi Islands are all very important. Not only

are the islands themselves important as nesting areas but the state-

owned waters around each island for perhaps a radius of ten or more

miles are also important as foraging areas for the birds nesting on each

island.

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XAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

47-E 241 431009 W. Amatuli Is. Cormorant 870
Glaucous-Winged Gull 2,300
Black-Legged Kittiwake 300
Common Murre 10
Parakeet Auklet 120
Horned Puffin 1,300
Tufted Puffin 93,000

242 43010 E. Amatuli Is. Northern Fulmar 20
Cormorant 30
Glaucous-Winged Gull 450
Black-Legged Kittiwake 13,000
Common Murre 61,000
Pigeon Guillemot 50
Parakeet Auklet 120
Horned Puffin 13,000
Tufted Puffin 95,000

243 43006 Sugarloaf Is. Cormorant 240
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,600
Pigeon Guillemot 16
Horned Puffin 600
01 Tufted Puffin 9,500

244 43007 Sud Is. Red-Faced Cormorant 70
Glaucous-Winged Gull 500
Pigeon Guillemot 20
Parakeet Auklet 20
Rhinocerous Auklet 1,000
Horned Puffin 400
Tufted Puffin 1,000

245 43005 Carl Is. Cormorant 50
Horned Puffin 40
Tufted Puffin 1,000

HAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

47-E 246 43008 Ushagat Is. Cormorant 200
Glaucous-Winged Gull 240
Pigeon Guillemot 100
Parakeet Auklet 10
Horned Puffin 250
Tufted Puffin 100

247 43002 Middle Latax Rock Cormorant 250
Glaucous-Winged Gull 200

248 43003 North Latax Rock Sea Birds Present

249 43001 South Latax Rock Glaucous-Winged Gull 500
Pigeon Guillemot 400

250 43004 Douglas Reef Glaucous-Winged Gull 200

46-E 251 42011 Unnamed Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 100

252 42010 Aguchik Is. Bald Eagle 1

253 42008 Cape Gull Cormorant 100
Glaucous-Winged Gull 100
C.n Black-Legged Kittiwake 50
CD 254 42007 Gull Reef Cormorant 75
Glaucous-Winged Gull 100

255 42006 Geographic Harbor Glaucous-Winged Gull 150

256 42005 Unnamed Is. Cormorant Present

257 42003 Unnamed Is. Cormorant Present

258 42002 Cape Ilktuitak Cormorant 150
Glaucous-Winged Gull 600
Tufted Puffin 1,000

0 0 0

MAP NO. COLONLY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

46-E 259 42001 Mount Pedmar Cormorant 50
Glaucous-Winged Gull 200

40-E 260 36012 Kelp Point Glaucous-Winged Gull 50

261 36011 Mt. Becharof Horned Puffin Present

262 36010 Kanatak Lagoon Glaucous-Winged Gull 3,000

263 36009 Cape Iguak Glaucous-Winged Gull 3,000

264 36008 Slaughter Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,700

265 36007 Wide Bay Cormorant 600

266 36006 Imuya Bay Glaucous-Winged Gull 100

267 36005 Cape Kilokak Cormorant 150
Glaucous-Winged Gull 150
Tufted Puffin 1,300

268 36004 Agripina Bay Cormorant 100
Glaucous-Winged Gull 300
Horned Puffin 300

269 36003 Ashiiak Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 500
Horned Puffin 5,000
Tufted Puffin 20,000

270 36002 David Is. Cormorant 1,000
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,000
Horned Puffin 4,000
Tufted Puffin 12,000

271 36001 Poltava Is. Cormorant 500
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,000
Horned Puffin 2,000
Tufted Puffin 5,000

MAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

39-E 272 35002 Gull Is. Mew Gull 100

273 35018 Bear Is. Cormorant Present

274 35016 Cape Kubugaki Cormorant Present
Glaucous-Winged Gull Present

275 35014 Alinchak Bay Pigeon Guillemot 50
Tufted Puffin 500

276 35012 Puale Rocks Cormorant 1,200
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,000
Murre 200
Horned Puffin 1,500
Tufted Puffin 10,000

277 35010 Cape Aklek Horned Puffin 4,000

278 35008 Oil Creek Cormorant 2,000
Murre 200,000

279 35005 Cape Unalishaguak Glaucous-Winged Gull 2,000
Black-Legged Kittiwake 3,000
Murre 275,000
Horned Puffin 2,000

280 35004 Jute Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 2,500
Tufted Puffin 15,000

281 35003 Portage Bay Cormorant 3,000

38-D 282 34009 East Boulder Bay Black-Legged Kittiwake Present

283 34001 Kivak Benchmark Black-Legged Kittiwake Present
Glaucous-Winged Gull Present

284 34017 Queer Is. Sea Birds Present

285 34031 Ram Site Pelagic Cormorant 15

XAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

38-D 286 34030 Blow Benchmark Double-Crested Cormorant 15

287 34036 Otmeloi Point Cormorant 2
Glaucous-Winged Gull 5
Tufted Puffin 30

288 34037 Low Is. Cormorant 10
Glaucous-Winged Gull 10
Black-Legged Kittiwake 50
Horned Puffin 10
Tufted Puffin 900

289 34044 Whale'Is. Black-Legged Kittiwake 3,000

290 34045 Treeless Is. Cormorant 400
Tufted Puffin 130

291 34042 Chernof Point Horned Puffin 7

292 34028 Barbara Cove Pt. Cormorant 40
Black-Legged Kittiwake 1,300

293 34029 Trout Benchmark Black-Legged Kittiwake 120

N
294 34021 Reef Two Cormorant 20
Glaucous-Winged Gull 30
Tufted Puffin 200

295 34027 Barbara Cove Cormorant 15
Glaucous-Winged Gull 20
Tufted Puffin 25

296 34034 Nangolka Pt. Glaucous-Winged Gull 100

297 34035 Nangolka Pt. Is. Cormorant 40
Glaucous-Winged Gull 120
Black-Legged Kittiwake 1,500
Horned Puffin 4
Tufted Puffin 1,800

MAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

38-D 298 34026 Uganik Passage Cormorant 5
Glaucous-Winged Gull 470
Black-Legged Kittiwake 850
Tufted Puffin 690

299 34025 Gull Light Cormorant 5
Glaucous-Winged Gull 50
Tufted Puffin 15

300 34023 Rock Pt. Cormorant 25

301 34048 Uganik Bay Islets Black-Legged Kittiwake 300
Tufted Puffin 220

302 34024 Village Is. Cormorant 335
Glaucous-Winged Gull 962
Black-Legged Kittiwake 25
Pigeon Guillemot 10
Tufted Puffin 21@095

303 34039 South Noisy Is. Cormorant 70
Glaucous-Winged Gull 160
N) Black-Legged Kittiwake 100
Horned Puffin 7
Tufted Puffin 2,500

304 34038 North Noisy Is. Cormorant 100
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,100
Black-Legged Kittiwake 1,100
Tufted Puffin 14,000

305 34020 Chief Point Black-Legged Kittiwake Present

306 34012 Carlsen Point Sea Birds Present

307 34011 Alf Is. Black-Legged Kittiwake Present

6 0 0

HAP NO. COLONY NO. USFWS NO. NAME SPECIES COLONY ESTIMATE NESTING PAIRS NESTS

37-B 308 33001 Cape Kiavak Cormorant Present

36-B 309 32002 Geese Is. Cormorant Present
Glaucous-Winged Gull Present

310 32001 Sundstrom. Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 500
Tufted Puffin 800

311 - Tugidak Is. Cormorant i0o

35-E 312 31001 South Is. Northern Fulmar 5,000
Black-Legged Kit-tiwake 30,000
Murre 50,000

313 31029 Navy Is. Cormorant 150
Glaucous-Winged Gull 300
Horned Puffin 1,200
Tufted Puffin 3,500

60
314 31027 Derickson Is. Cormorant
Horned Puffin 100

315 31028 Chiginagak Bay Glaucous-Winged Gull 590
Horned Puffin 2,000
Tufted Puffin 15,000

316 31026 Unnamed Is. Black-Legged Kittiwake Present

317 31025 Cape Kuyuyukak Cormorant 500
Glaucous-Winged Gull 1,400
Black-Legged Kittiwake, 17,000
Murre 9,000
Tufted Puffin 2,000

NO. COLONY INO. USFWS NO. NNAME SPECIES COLONY ESTI"@%TE S T 1

35-E 318 31024 Central Is. Horned Puffin 3,000
Tufted Puffin 90,000

319 31022 Ugaiushak Is. Pelagic Cormorant 600
Glaucous-Winged Gull 2,500
Black-Legges Kittiwake 7,000
Murre 13,000
Horned Puffin 14,000
Tufted Puffin 10,000
Common Eider 300

320 31020 Hydra Is. Tufted Puffin 4,500

321 31023 Unnamed Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 400
Pigeon Guillemot 3,000
Horned Puffin 2,000
Tufted Puffin 5,000

322 31021 Unnamed Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 300
Pigeon Guillemot 300
Horned Puffin 500
Tufted Puffin 7,000
C111 323 31016 Foggy Cape, Cormorant 300
Glaucous-Winged Gull 400

324 31015 Volcanic Dike Glaucous-Winged Gull 700

325 31014 South Sutnik Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 200

326 31019 Garden Is. Glaucous-Winged Gull 500

327 31018 Kunuk Is. Sea Birds Present

328 31017 Cape Kumlik Tufted Puffin 2,000

NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CTR LIBRARY

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