Coastal areas, river banks and lake shores their planning and management in compatibility with the ecological balance : 4th European Ministerial Conference on the Environment, Athens, 25-27 April, 1984 : report

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

* * 37
COUNCIL * CONSEIL
OF EUROPE ** * DE L'EUROPE
MEN 4 (84) 2

4th EUROPEAN MINISTERIAL CONFERENCE
ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Athens, 25-27 April 1984

CZIC collectio

COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES:

THEIR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN COMPATIBILITY

WITH THE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

Report presented by the Delegation of Greece

TC
255
.E87
1984
STRASBOURG
1984

CZIC cow1eztI~~. ~MEN 4 (84) 2

X%?%~ ~~4th EUROPEAN MINISTERIAL CONFERENCE
ON THE ENVIRONMENT

COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES :
THEIR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN COMPATIBILITY
WITH THE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

Report
presented by the Delegation of Greece

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
_~~~~~ tv COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
X ~~ 'A_ ~~~ X2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

,,_

Property of CSC Librar

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD ....................................................... 5

PART A THE PRESENT SITUATION .................................6

1. THE ENVIRONMENT OF COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES 6

1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS ...............................6

a. Estuaries and deltas . ........................ 7
b. Wetlands ............................... 7
c. Beaches and sand dunes ............................ 8
d. Other terrestrial ecosystems ...................... 9
e. Marine ecosystems ............................ 9
f. Particular types ...I.............................. 9
g. Rivers and lakes ................ ................. 10
h. Artificial lakes and canals ....................... 10
i. Protected areas ........ I......................... 10

1.2 ECOSYSTEMS DEGRADATION ............. 11

2. PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION, LEGISLATION, EDUCATION, 12
INFORMATION, RESEARCH ......................................

a. Planning .............................. 1 2
b. Administrative arrangements ..... 13
c. Legislation (for more details see doe. MEN 4 (84) 3) . 13
d. The delineation of a coastal or riparian zone ........... 14
e. Land policy ........................................... 14
f. Education 0............................ 15
g. Information .... ................................ 15
h. Research .............. 16
i. Monitoring - Data collection .......................... 17

PART B : POLICY GUIDE .......................................... 18

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES ........................................... 18

2. PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION, LEGISLATION, EDUCATION, RESEARCH. 21

2.1 PLANNING ............................................. 21

a. Data wllection ..................................... 21
b. Plans ................................................ 21
c. Environmental impact assessment ...................... 21
d. Land policy .......................................... 21
e. Pubtic participation ................................. 21

2.3 L .. . . . . . . . ...

2 0SL~K..... .....2

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Page
2.4 EDUCATION - TRAINING ............................... 22

2.5 DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION ....................... 23

2.6 RESEARCH ........................................... 23

3. USE AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES ............................ 23

3.1 AGRICULTURE ........................................ 23

3.2 AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES .......................... 24

3.3 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ............................. 24

3.4 TOURISM AND RECREATION ............................. 25

3.5 HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT ...................... 25

3.6 ENERGY FACILITIES .................................. 26

3.1 MINING ............................................. 26

3.8 TRANSPORT FACILITIES ............................... 27

3.9 TECHNICAL WORKS .................................... 27

3.10 SHIPPING AND BOATING .............................. 27

4. ECOSYSTEMS'AND SPECIES' POLICIES ........................ 28

4.1 TERRESTRIAL COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS .................... 28

a. Ammophilous ecosystems ......................... 28
b. Rocky and steep shor ... 29
c.' Coas&tat hea~thtand~s, buwhes an'd degywaded plant
forJaz.tion s ................................. .... 29
d. Foie.t6 ........................................ 29

4.2 COASTAL MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ......................... 30

4.3 ISLAND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS ......................... 30

4,4 RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES ....................... 31

4.5 WETLANDS .......................................... 31

4.6 ARTIFICIAL LAKES AND CANALS ....................... 32

4.1 PROTECTED BIOTOPES - SPECIES ....................... 32

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LIST OF APPENDICES

1. COASTAL AREAS

2. RIVERS - RIVER BANKS

3. LAKES - LAKE SHORES

4. LAGOONS

5. RIVER MOUTHS - DELTAS AND ESTUARIES

6. OTHER WETLANDS - PEATLANDS, INLAND MARSHES, SWAMPS OR PONDS,
COASTAL MARSHES

7. BIOTOPES AND PROTECTED AREAS

8. SELECTED PLANS AND PROGRAMMES

9. SELECTED LEGAL MEASURES DIRECTLY CONCERNING THE COASTAL
RIPARIAN AREAS

10, DELINEATION AND PROTECTION OF COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND
LAKE SHORES

11. EDUCATION, INFORMATION, RESEARCH AND MONITORING

12, ACTIONS AND AGREEMENTS AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

13. LAND POLICIES

14. COASTAL DEPENDENT ENERGY FACILITIES

15. NUTRIENT STATUS OF LAKES AND WETLANDS

16. LIST OF CERTAIN THREATENED EUROPEAN TAXA AND SPECIES IN COASTAL
AND RIPARIAN AREAS

17, DEFINITIONS - GLOSSARY

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FOREWORD

The Committee of Senior Officials responsible for the preparation
of the 4th European Ministerial Conference on the Environment, to be held
from 25 to 27 April 1984 in Athens, Greece, has defined the theme of the
Conference as follows :

"Coastal areas, river banks and lake shores : their planning and manage-
ment in compatibility with the ecological balance" (1)

The present report, drafted by the delegation of Greece(2) is based
on an analysis of national contributions drawn up along the lines set out
in document MEN-4-HF 12, and subsequent observations and comments by the
national delegations. The delegation of Greece wishes to express its
gratitude for their precious cooperation.

The report consists of two parts :

Part A presents a broad survey of coastal areas, river banks and lake
shores in the Council of Europe member States.

Part B attempts to formulate a policy which should be implemented to
ensure the maintenance of the ecological balance in these areas.

A number of appendices, summarising information provided by the
national delegations, completes the report,

(1) Doc MEN-4-HF 9

(2) The report was prepared by a team set up by the Ministry of
Housing, Planning and the Environment under the coordination
of Dr Marios Camhis and the participation of Dr E. Economidou,
A. Katsaounis, D. Margaritoulis, L. Moraitou, Dr C. Savakis,
D. Spala, G. Petrakakis, Dr A. Zarkanelas.

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A. THE PRESENT SITUATION

1. THE ENVIRONMENT OF COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES

1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Europe, one of the smallest continents, has an extraordinary
variety of coasts, which were formed when the land was cut into islands,
peninsulas, etc., and is surrounded by various seas. Seventeen of the
twenty-one member States of the Council of Europe have coastlines :
four of them are exclusively Mediterranean (Cyprus, Greece, Italy,
Malta), one is Mediterranean-Black Sea (Turkey), one is both Mediterranean
and Atlantic (Spain), one is Atlantic-Mediterranean-North Sea (France)
and the others are washed by the Atlantic, the North Sea or the Baltic.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands and
Belgium, coastal' areas are long, flat, regular and relatively homogenous ;
elsewhere in western Europe they are more heterogeneous, whilst in southern
and northern Europe they are generally steeper, with mountains falling
directly into deep seas. Norway and Sweden in particular are characterised
by rocky coasts and huge moraine formations.

A general and fairly recent rise in the sea level formed the more
or less steep, rocky coasts around old mountain chains. These coasts
are often cut into rias or are shaped by glaciers into fjords. At the
same time, tectonic movements in the Mediterranean led to the formation
of a varied coastline and countless islands, especially in the eastern
basin.

Rivers, streams and lakes in Europe are also of an impressive
variety. The rivers in the mountainous countries of Europe are in general
small and fast with narrow mouths, whilst in the lower countries they are
longer and larger, with extended deltas and estuaries. Most of the
lakes are of glacial origin (Scandinavia, Baltic, Alps) or karstic
(southern Europe).

Coasts, banks and shores are all transition zones or, more scienti-
fically, ecotones. An ecotone combines the characteristics of the two
communities it separates and often contains a great abundance and diversity
of organisms as well as a very high productivity. Coastal areas, banks
and shores are ecotones between terrestrial and aquatic biocenoses.

In Europe these areas contain a very rich flora and fauna, and an
impressive biocenotic zoning. Along the European coastline and on stable
substrates there is firstly an area of coastal marine waters where brown algae
predominate, such as Pelvetia sp, Ascophyllum sp, Fuscus sp, Ectocarpus sp, and
where are also found green algae, sea anemones, sponges, molluscs, fish, etc. On
sandy substrat there are beds of various species of monocotyledons
(Zostera, Posidonia, Cymodocea) and polychaetes. These areas are often
influenced by tides and Spartine sp is dominant in large parts of it.
These biocenoses are followed by ammophilous biocenoses, often in a terres-
trial environment. In the dunes and on sandy beaches grow typical plant
species : Ammophila arenaria (marram grass), Agropyron junceum, Cakile
maritima (sea rocket), Eryngium maritimum (sea holly), Euphorbia paralias

(sea spurge), etc. Wetlands (lagoons, marshes, etc) are situated behind
the dunes and the beaches. Here are found plants of the genus Ruppia,
Salicornia, Juncus, Limonium, Atriplex, Suaeda, etc. and several typical
bird species, such as Podiceps, Pelecanus, Ardea, Egretta, Anas, Calidris,
etc. On rocky coasts chasmohalophytes (Crithmum maritimum, Armeria mari-
tima, Limonium spp, etc.) can be found and gulls (Larus spp) may nest.

a. Estuaries and deltas

The differences between marine coasts, river banks and lake shores
are caused mainly by the different characteristics of the water. There is,
however, an area where these systems (marine coasts and riparian areas)
meet : river mouths, estuaries and deltas. In Europe these sites are
extremely complex, delicately balanced, and have fragile ecosystems. The
largest estuaries and deltas are situated along the coasts of the Federal
Republic of Germany and the Netherlands as well as along the Atlantic
and North Sea coasts of France and Great Britain. There are no estuaries
in the Mediterranean because the natural conditions (ie the absence of
tides) do not encourage this formation. The main Mediterranean deltas are
those of the Rhone in France and the P8 in northern Italy.

Estuarine communities are composed of a mixture of endemic species,
those which come from the sea and a few species capable of passing to and
from the freshwater environment. Some species such as salmon and eel albo
depend on estuaries in transition periods during the migration from salt
to fresh water. The abundant detritus and phytoplankton support commer-
cially important populations of filter-feeding molluscs, such as scallops,
oysters and so on. The estuaries contribute directly to the productivity
of commercial and recreational fisheries and they are valuable nursery areas.

One of the reasons for the high productivity of estuaries and deltas
is that they are nutrient traps creating a sort of "self-enriching" system.
The estuaries and their adjacent marshes and ponds provide habitats for
many species of migrating and nesting waterfowl and numerous shorebirds,
which are affected by the destruction of submerged plant communities and
excessive disturbance from surrounding development and heavy motor boat
traffic.

Most of the north European estuaries and deltas have been trans-
formed by large regulating works, such as dams, dykes and canals which have
to a large extent affected their ecological characteristics. They are
highly polluted, as enormous quantities of a wide variety of pollutants are
carried in the rivers Rhine, Meuse, Schelde, Elbe and others which serve
almost the entire - highly industrialised - centre of Europe. Similar
conditions, although to a lesser degree, exist in most of the Mediterranean
river mouths. The estuaries and deltas have been used for water management,
navigation, industry, agriculture, mariculture and recreation.

b. Wetlands

Vital components of the coastal environment are also the coastal
(saltwater) wetlands. They support waterfowl, nourish marine life, cleanse
the waters of the coast, diminish storm flooding and beautify the shore.

They include salt marshes, swamps, lagoons, meadows, ponds, flat lowlands
subject to the influence of coastal waters. They are periodically exposed
and flooded by salt or brackish water through tide and normal storm action.
Coastal wetlands also provide a buffer between open water and the shore-
line and can be effective in preventing erosion along unconsolidated shore-
lines.

Special cases of coastal wetlands are intertidal marshes, which are
affected by the tidal waters, and the lagoons. Tides are negligible along
the Baltic with the exception of Denmark, which reported an intertidal zone
of about 840 km2. The Wadden Sea, which extends from Den Helder in the.
Netherlands along the entire North Sea coast in the Federal Republic of
Germany as far as Esbjerg in Denmark, is an intertidal zone of particular
importance. It covers in all an area of 7,300 km2. The Dutch part com-
prises 2,300 km2, the German part 4,500 km2 and the Danish part 500 km2.
Spain, France and Great Britain, on the Atlantic and North Sea coasts,
also have significant intertidal zones (300 - 500 km2 for France). The
Mediterranean is in general considered to be tideless (only a few centi-
metres, with the exception of the north Adriatic where the tides are greater
(spring tides :94 cm).

Lagoons are large bodies of open, shallow water which are protected
from oceanic forces by a barrier beach. Lagoon environments are important
sites for marine organisms and are very rich in terms of organic produc-
tivity. Many marine species require lagoon habitats to survive, since
they spend a portion of their lives there. Lagoons are found throughout
the European continental shore and occupy, in some cases, large areas.
The total area of the north European lagoons is estimated to be about
400,000 ha, most of which is restricted to the North Sea. The Mediterra-
nean lagoons cover about 250,000 ha.

Coastal wetlands have historically been filled in or dredged to
accommodate the needs of human settlements, agriculture and industry all
over Europe. The transformation of salt marsh wetlands continues today
for agriculture, industry and recreation.

C. Beaches and sand dunes

Beaches and sand dunes are also important natural systems in the
coastal area. The beach is a constantly changing environment and provides
a natural buffer zone between the sea and upland areas. Beaches and
especially sand dunes and barrier beaches are fragile ecosystems vulnerable
to man's activities. Many important birds, reptiles and other animals nest
and breed on beaches and dunes, and feed and rest there. For example,
turtles come ashore during the spring and summer to lay their eggs above
the highwater line. Terns and other seabirds frequently lay their eggs
on the beach,

Sand dunes are well-known formations, particularly along open,
exposed coasts. Thus Norway and Sweden have few or no sand dunes. Denmark
has quite extensive sand dunes, while in the Netherlands they are also well
developed. By far the most extensive dunes can be found along the French
coast where they cover an area of about 250,000 ha. In the Mediterranean,
Turkey has the most extensive sand dune systems (nearly 110,330 ha). Beach
problems are caused by human actions. Normally, if nothing is built on or

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near the beach, it will remain as long as the process of natural replenish-
ment continues. Since the main threat to the beach is usually from develop-
ment on the land next to it, beach protection requires coordinated manage-
ment of the beach itself and the land behind it. Sand dunes need to be
protected so that they may continue to lessen the force of stormy seas, and
furnish nesting areas and valuable habitats for certain wildlife species.

d. Other terrestrial ecosystems

Other types of terrestrial coastal ecosystems which can be dis-
tinguished in Europe are

a. Coastal heathlands, bushes and degraded formations
b. Coastal forests
c. Rocky shores.

The Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden) have mainly ecosystems
of rocky shores, bushes and forests. A high percentage of the shores
in the Mediterranean countries is rocky (eg Malta 60%, Greece 70%) while
France has an equal distribution of different ecosystems, because it is
surrounded by different seas. Coastal forests exist mainly in the Scandi-
navian countries, in Portugal and the Atlantic part of France. Some of
these forests are threatened by tourist development, over-exploitation and
fire, Rocky shores are also threatened by rock extraction and the construc-
tion of roadways. The heathlands and the bushes are also threatened by
clearing for agriculture or weekend houses.

e. Marine ecosystems

The marine environment on the coast extends to the upper high-water
levels, with the range of the tide defining the limits of the intertidal
shore. From the shore seawards, the marine environment can be classified
into near-shore and offshore zones. For describing typical near-shore
processes the depth of the zones is usually set at 10 metres. The basic
substrat on the near-shore floor may be composed of rocks, sands, silts
and clays, with some organic' fragments such as shell deposits.

There are many important ecosystems in the near-shore zone, such as
deep holes, kelp beds, seagrass beds and fishing banks. The seagrass
beds supply food to grazing animals and detrital nutrients to the water.
They add oxygen and stabilise bottom sediments. They provide nursery areas
because they attract a diverse and prolific biota and often create unique
opportunities for the existence of certain species.

Millions of people spend a great deal of time and money on coastal
swimming, fishing, boating and surfing. However, municipalities and
industries use coastal waters for waste disposal. They are frequently use-
ful for cooling or o'ther industrial processes.

f. Particular types

Norwegian fjords form a particular coastal type in Europe. A typi-
cal feature of these fjords is that they often have more than one threshold.
These thresholds may impede the natural circulation of the inner water masses,
thus creating special biological conditions and temperatures in the fjord.

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Fjords exist also in eastern Jutland in Denmark, in Ireland and in Scotland.
Other particular types are reported by Sweden, where the bedrock and
moraine archipelagos with many islands, peninsulas and bays are very
characteristic of the Baltic Swedish coasts. Finally, polders exist mainly
in the Netherlands (45%), in Belgium and on a very small percentage
(1%) of Ireland's coasts.

g. Rivers and lakes

Freshwater habitats are generally divided into flowing water
systems (streams and rivers) and still water (ponds and lakes). These
environments are characterised by water salinity below 0.1 ppt, no tidal
influences, and rainfall and groundwater as the only water sources.

The riparian area contains important terrestrial and aquatic eco-
systems depending on the condition of the banks (natural or not). The
various types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems vary greatly in length.

Waterfalls are widespread in the Scandinavian countries and in
Switzerland. As regards lake shores, thickets of reed, marshes and wet
meadows are the most commonly found types of terrestrial ecosystems,
while most of the lakes could be characterised as eutrophic or mesotrophic.
The most valuable part of river bank and lake shore systems is an upper
edge-zone (an ecotone) where the top of the bank changes abruptly into the
inland landscape. When characterised by a strikingly different mixture of
trees and bushes, the edge-zone provides habitat conditions not found
elsewhere inland, and therefore attracts a special community of birds and
other animals. Bank tops that merge gradually inland, with a barely per-
ceptible edge-zone, may be of lesser ecological value. Strips of natural
vegetation between open fields and water bodies are important for wildlife
habitat and water quality protection.

h. Artificial lakes and canals

The shores of artifical lakes and canals form a particular kind of
freshwater habitats. Most artifical lakes are used either for hydro-
electric power production or for drinking water supplies. The ecosystems
found along their shores and those of canals are not generally of high
value as habitats, but occasionally can constitute very important biotopes
for birds, especially after the destruction or reduction of a neighbouring
wetland.

i. Protected areas

All Council of Europe member States have many protected areas which
cover a wide variety of biotopes and species : the Wadden Sea tidal flats
in the North Sea and the nesting beaches of the turtle in the Mediterranean
demonstrate the tremendous variety of Europe's biotopes. Protection ranges
from adequate (ie fully covered by legislation) to insufficient (ie a
protection announcement or resolution with no legal backing). The biotopes
of some endangered species (eg the monk seal) are not adequately protected.
A number of biotopes have been declared of international importance accord-
ing to the Ramsar Convention, but this in itself does not ensure that these
biotopes are sufficiently protected.

In spite of their protection status, protected areas also suffer from
the effects of human activities, Man-made alterations and disturbances of
the ecological processes of the surrounding regions influence, gradually,
the protected biotopes.

.1.

1.2 ECOSYSTEMS DEGRADATION

The early settlers in Europe found a land of physical beauty and
fertility. In their efforts to ensure their survival, they cleared the
forests, tamed the rivers with levees and dykes and hunted wild animals.
Men also preferred to settle at, or near, the water's edge from earliest
times onwards. This is shown by the strong tendency to coastal concentra-
tions and high population densities along rivers. Even in this century,
the high productivity and natural values of inland and coastal wetlands
have often not been appreciated by man, who frequently considered them as
"worthless", useful only if drained, ditched, filled in or used for con-
struction or other alien purposes.

However, it was only after the Second World War that the rate of
degradation accelerated, with the development of industry and tourism and
the expansion of coastal settlements. Flat coasts are, to a much greater
extent than steep ones, influenced by the building of ports, marinas,
airports and tourist installations. The degradation of aquatic ecosystems
is mainly due to pollution originating from ports and industrial installa-
tions as well as from residential areas. The degradation of ammophilous
ecosystems is caused by sand extraction, road construction and recreational
and tourist activities. All the above disturb these ecosystems severely
and favour the effects of wind and marine erosion. In the Mediterranean,
the destruction of coastal forests was mainly caused by fires and tourist
activities. The rocky coasts have been disturbed by the building of
coastal roads and site preparation for tourist purposes.

As regards the riparian forests, it seems that their reduction in
area is mostly caused by technical works to provide space for agricultural
land and residential areas, or for tree plantations for industrial use.
As regards reed beds, marshes, water meadows and bushes, these have been
degraded by changes in land use for the benefit of agriculture and cattle
raising and by pollution.

The degradation of lake ecosystems is principally due to excessive
construction and recreation as well as pollution. Lake ecosystems are used
at present for residential, industrial, recreational and agricultural
purposes. Present threats upsetting the ecological balance in lake eco-
systems are pollution from land-based sources, land reclamation, regulating
works and acid rain.

The increase in human population in coastal areas and on river banks
and lake shores has led to the destruction or degradation of biotopes and
the modification of landscapes. This is the essential cause of the decline
of populations of endemic and rare species of flora and fauna. Other causes
are pollution, collection (plants and animals, mainly mammals and birds),
uncontrolled hunting, tourism and urbanisation.

Large coastal areas are already affected by steel works, refineries,
manufacturing industries, etc. Discharges from these industries as well
as from municipal sewage treatment plants, and excessive fertilisation
from agriculture and forestry have influenced the aquatic ecosystems along
the European coasts. Reduced annual fish yields could be attributed to
this situation. In most, if not all, rivers several types of hydraulic
works have been carried out. This has resulted in a considerable alteration
and in some cases degradation of the riparian ecosystems. River banks in
a natural state are not extensive, although the percentage rises in the
less developed countries.

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Terrestrial ecosystems are mainly influenced locally by industry
and harbour structures and by excessively intensive recreational settle-
ments. Both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are threatened by oil
pollution from different sources, which has many times caused serious
losses to plant and seabird populations and each time requires expensive
cleaning-up operations.

Man's intervention in Europe has also been responsible for the
sudden disturbance of the balance between the phenomena of erosion and
deposition. Intensive construction along the coasts, due to the high
concentration of human settlements and industries, has in some areas
caused a complex system of chain reactions which are difficult to control.
Development in coastal areas, on river banks and lake shores has led to
the destruction of estuaries, wetlands, beaches, forests and other eco-
systems, and consequently to a reduction in and change of the fisheries'
catch. If present trends continue, the increase in human population
density and industrial and commercial activity will have yet more substantial
effects on the biological productivity of the coastal and riparian eco-
systems. Finally, areas of scientific and recreational value, with many
important animal and plant species, will be lost forever.

2. PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION, LEGISLATION, EDUCATION, INFORMATION, RESEARCH

A considerable effort has been made during the last fourteen years,
since European Conservation Year 1970, especially in the more developed
countries for the protection and rational management of coastal and riparian
environments, New legislation has been adopted ; plans, programmes and
research have been carried out in many fields, new administrative structures
have been established and coastal and riparian areas have been designated
as protected areas.

At international level, new programmes and policies have been deve-
loped and conventions, protocols and other legal agreements have been con-
cluded by the mem~ber States concerned.

a. Planning

In the field of planning and management, the problems of coasts,
rivers and lakes have in general been tackled within the framework of the
overall regional, urban or environmental plans and programmes. In addition,
several countries, in particular those with a long experience of the
impacts of industrialisation and urbanisation, have decided to draw up and
implement special plans and programmes for the development and protection
of their coastal and riparian areas (Appendix 8).

Certain countries have prepared, or are in the process of preparing,
coastal, river or lake plans of a general nature, such as the coastal
regional plans and sea use plans in France ; the indicative coastal use
plans in Spain, and the lake plans in the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Netherlands have a long history of a systematic approach to coastal
development - a life and death issue for more than half of the total popu-
lation of that country.

-13-

The preparation of plans and programmes specifically geared to the
protection of the environment or of sectoral plans has been more wide-
spread. Such programmes refer to the identification, classification, pro-
tection, management and in certain cases, acquisition by the State or other
bodies, of specific coastal, lake shore or river bank sites. Examples of
such programmes are :the Heritage Coast Programme in Great Britain in
1966, which was followed by Enterprise Neptune :the Programme of acquisi-
tion of coastal sites in France by the Conservatoire du Littoral ; a plan
for the rational use of marine resources in Sweden ; a pollution control
programme for lakes and watercourses in Norway, etc.

The experience gained during these last few years has proved to be
useful not only in confronting, at least, some of the problems of coastal
and riparian areas, but also in accepting the necessity of an integrated
approach to planning and management.

b. Administrative arrangements

The complexity and multiplicity of uses in coastal and riparian
areas, as well as the existence of two different systems - land and sea -
have unavoidably led to the dispersion of responsibilities for planning,
management and control among a variety of authorities.

Authorities in charge of environmental protection and nature conser-
vation, the merchant navy, public works, fisheries and agriculture, public
health, defence, tourism, etc. have diverse and often overlapping responsi-
bilities for the sea and water areas. An even greater number of authorities
or agencies, even within the same ministry, have control over the terres-
trial, coastal and/or riparian issues. The lack of coordination which often
results from the conflict of responsibilities has been a serious obstacle
to effective implementation and control.

Certain countries have succeeded in designating, or establishing,
coordination mechanisms or special authorities at a sectoral or global
level, These arrangements refer to the management of water or of coastal
and riparian biotopes, marine resources management, and others,

Countries with a more decentralised system have entrusted their
local and regional authorities with the responsibility for planning and
management of these areas.

In most countries, present tendencies move in two directions, not
necessarily always incompatible ; the formation of new coordinating
mechanisms and/or more decentralisation.

c. Legislation

Legislation has been substantially enriched since European Conser-
vation Year 1970 in most, if not all, European countries. This process has
also been helped by intensive activity in coastal and riparian issues at
international level (Appendix 9). Most countries have included in their
general legislation on planning or protection of the environment, special
provisions for coastal areas, lake shores and river banks. Some have

(1) For more details, see doc MEN 4 (84) 3 "The law applicable to coastal
areas, river banks and lake shores ; review of the most original legal
systems auct f-future prospects". Study presented by the Dele~ation of
France. -

-14-

issued specific acts concerning the protection of such areas (Ireland-
Coastal Protection Act, 1963 ; Greece - marine environment legislationi.

Usually legislative arrangements referring to coastal areas, lakes
and rivers are spread in several texts, which often leads to gaps in both
implementation and control processes. Other problems which have appeared
in national reports are the difficulties in making agreements with land-
owners, and the lack of financial and staff resources to ensure the
implementation of nature conservation measures.

d. The delineation of a coastal or riparian zone

The area between the mean high and the mean low tides,' often
referred to as the wet sand area or foreshore, was designated as public
property and protected in most countries long before the problems of
coastal and riparian areas became an issue.

Beyond this area, landwards, many countries have a legally defined
limited width of the back-shore or dry sand area, in order to serve, where
necessary, public purposes, In this area, development has been restricted
or prohibited (eg Norway, Sweden, Denmark). The foreshore and the limited
width of the backshore is in most, if not all countries, free to public
access. Although the principle of free access has been confirmed in all
resolutions at international level, it still leaves many problems.

During the last decade, the intensive development of the areas
adjacent to water obliged many countries to define an even larger zone in which
special permits were required or restrictions applied. This zone often
extends from 100 to 500 metres.

The delineation of an area in which special measures are applicd
has generally had positive results. Nonetheless, there are no general
rules as to the exact width of the zone. Using various criteria (mor-
phological, land use, ecological or economic),I various widths have been
specified, The basic paramneters for the delineation of a boundary are set
by the fina~l intentions of coastal management and the particular institu-
tional context in each country.

Sometimes a multi-boundary approach has to be applied to identify
the coastal zone. This approach makes it possible to draw up regulations
and policies adapted to the particularities of the areas involved, resulting
in a more flexible system of management and control.

e. Land policy

An important component of an effective planning and management
pqlicy f or coastal areas, river banks and lake shores is the availability
and the development of proper tools and methods of control. Special atten-
tion should be focused on land, since most policies are land related. The
soci~l, legal and institutinnal structure of land ownership and land control
determines the policy directions and sets the limits of the possibilities
for invervention and for the implementation of a plan. A series of instru-
ments for planning, taxation, market, financial support and administrative
measures have been developed and implemented with varying degrees of
success in member States (see Appendix 10),

f. Education

Despite the emphasis which has been placed on coastal and riparian
issues during the past few years, the same attention has not been given in
most countries to the introduction of the subject in primary and secondary
education. Education on coastal areas, river banks and lake shores is
usually part of the general environmental education programme.

Certain countries such as France, Sweden, Ireland, Portugal and the
Netherlands have given particular attention to programmes referring to
marine shores, rivers and lakes at all levels of their educational system.
To a lesser extent, similar programmes have been developed in Switzerland,
Austria, Spain and Greece. As to the situation in other countries such as
the Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium and Denmark, which already have
a well-developed environmental education system, no precise information has
been supplied.

In most countries, the higher education system deals with the pro-
tection of coastal and riparian areas and lake shores. In recent years
an increasing number of students has been directed to the above-mentioned
fields. This has led to the establishment of new departments or the
expansion of existing ones, leading to undergraduate and/or graduate degrees
in such areas as oceanography, biology, ecology, limnology, coastal
engineering, water management, ichthyology, etc.

g. Information

In most countries information is diffused through the written press,
TV and radio broadcasts, pamphlets and specialised publications. Some
countries have issued a series of interesting leaflets for the coastal and
riparian ecosystems (sand dunes, rocky shores, etc.) Examples of such
publications are those issued by the Nature Conservancy Council of the
United Kingdom and those supported by the French "Conservatoire de l'espace
littoral et des rivages lacustres".

An important role in arousing public awareness has increasingly been
played by non-profit-making organisations. Examples of successful cases
are

The 17 information centres for the environment (CPIE) in France
which inform the public on matters of improving life quality
standards and arouse public awareness ;

The information and education centres set up by the Swiss League
for the Protection of Nature (LSPN), which has 100,000 members,
and WWF-Switzerland with 120,000 members. In the autumn of 1980
- under the title "Pro Natura Helvetica" - these two associations
collected signatures and raised funds to save the south shore of
Lake Neuch'tel. This effort raised in a short time the sum of
about 4 million Swiss francs,

It seems that in general public participation and reaction to
programmes of environmental protection has created greater awareness
of the issues involved.

-16-

h. Research (1)

Research in fields related to the problems and features of the
ecology of coasts, river banks and lake shores is carried out by universi-
ties, research institutes and other agencies, and appears to have increased,
though not to an absolutely satisfactory degree, during the past decade.

Research programmes mainly refer to

- monitoring of pollution of the aquatic environment
- monitoring of the impact of pollution on fauna and flora
- study of areas of ecological interest, such as wetlands
- protection of rare aquatic species
- assessment of the effects of different land management
practices on the quantity and quality of water.

An analysis of the "Directory of Environmental Research Projects in
the European Communities EUR 8079" has shown that of the 22,500 research
projects included in the Directory, only 216 (0.96%) are directly or
indirectly related to coastal issues. Nearly all the projects (91.7%)
mentioned in the Directory are carried out in the Federal Republic of
Germany and the United Kingdom. As regards distribution by topic, 66.2%
are in the category "water", 6.9% in nature conservation and landscape
protection (only 0.06% of the total projects included in the Directory)
and 1.8% in environmental policy and planning. Of the countries included
in the Directory, only the United Kingdom shows a "normal" distribution of
coastal research by topic. 81.8% of the projects in the Federal Republic
of Germany are in the category "water"(2).

Other sources show that there is considerable activity and interest
regarding the Mediterranean. In a document on the "French contribution to
the protection of the environment in the Mediterranean", by the French
Ministry of the Environment (3), at least 16 research centres specialising
in coastal matters are mentioned, most of them located in the French
Mediterranean coastal regions,

The general conclusion which can be drawn is that, although research
is aot lacking, there is a marked deficiency in the exchange of information
between research centres, exceptions notwithstanding. It is worthwhile
mentioning the German-Dutch-Danish cooperation regarding the Wadden Sea,
which includes coordination of research and the drafting of joint research
reports.

./.

(1) As a general rule, the information supplied in the national
reports was not sufficiently detailed to give a satisfactory
overall impression of the subject.

(2) The picture which emerges from this analysis reflects the
amount of information sent by national contributors to the
Directory.

(3) Ministare de l'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie. Contribution
frangaise a la protection de l'environnement en Mgditerran~e,
mars 1981

- 1 7-

i. Monitoring - data collection

Monitoring and data collection in various countries is carried out
through the national monitoring networks, universities and research
institutes.

Certain difficulties in disseminating data have been reported,
mainly due to the variety of the agencies which collect the data and the
lack of coordination between administrative departments.

The above problem has already been faced constructively with the
development of coordinated administrative structures. In the United
Kingdom, for example, dissemination of data is handled by coordinated
agencies, such as the Biological Records Centre and the Marine Pollution
Monitoring Management Group. France has established a central body, the
Secretariat of Fauna and Flora. This agency is responsible for the
development of a methodology for data collection in order to establish a
monitoring network and create a data bank for fauna, flora and the natural
environment. The Secretariat handles the data and arranges the exchange
and dissemination of information to other organisations. Some other
countries have also developed similar structures, or are in the process of
doing so.

The present tendency in most countries is to consider advance know-
ledge of environmental conditions and natural resources not as something
which will hinder development, but, on the contrary, as something which
can help to find the most suitable (economically and ecologically) develop-
ment possibilities, as well as areas which should be protected from human
activities.

The projected "Information system on the state of the environment
and natural resources" of the EEC and the Council of Europe's map of
vegetation are both examples of attempts to provide the necessary back-
ground against which informed decisions can be made.

-18 -

B3. POLICY GUIDE

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES

Fourteen yeacz a SteA Euwpe~an ConeJvadtion YeatA 1970, and tweZve
yeaucv accteA the. S-to cho-Cn ConietIence, the thtreaats -to coas-tat and 'u-Lpaxan
environmenutl ate. the same, whiete the puopect, oS5 con{tonting -them ake
�e66 prominsing. Desepite the piog-kas made and -the momentum buitt up in
-the 19701', the uituation in envitonmenta2 pro-te~ction is now more didjicutt.

Today's envitonmentaZ ptob~ewm axre even moxe. complicated than they
wexe when mo&t envijonmen-ta poPtLiciez wee. -Caunched. We. have ;th'eee di44e-
tevnt Zayex oi e.6eots which have to be tackted : those oi the pa-t pe.iod
oi r'apid gowwth, those .6 o the p-lesent period o6 economic c'Lsiis and -those
anticipated juxm juIwwte activitien go economic tecovety.

This z6etiou dicadvanvtage cowefd and -shoutd be ojse.t by a se~te-
oi othet developments which wexe brouzght -to tiLije duxing the same decade
oi cni%&is. These ate .

- the acquisition ci covnidexab~e knowtedge. oj -the s-ta-te oj the
envitonmen-t (ecosyste~ms' mechani-n, KTe. ectc oiS human action)

-the developme~nt and wide dssebmination o6 -the concep~t oi -the
intWe.9ated approach to ptannning and management

the tLeatiza-tion by aCe concerned oi -the necessi6ty not simp-Cy
-to pkoduce ptCanz and Jowuta-te. poticies, but atso -to �implement
-them.

AUC -the above consideration xe.et -to space as a who-e, but threy
became even moe. pronouunced in -the sevnsitive 6Sie.d oi coauztat areas,
,fivex bank. and tCake shote.. The speciaZ ptobZe~ms oiS these ateaz have
been pointed out, not onty in -the pretc~ding chaptez oiS -this txepox-t, but
a~zo in a sniese oi documenets poduced by neax-y atC t-he iZntexna-tionat
otganization.s conce-ned with enviionmevnt and development duxn9g -the tast
decade.

Pke6e~nt -tterndz show -tha~t deve.opment wite continue -to be tocated
necat wate/L. This -tendency cannot a-Cays be avoided, o{gtevn because there
axe. just no a'Ltenvative e. The -otution -to -the pkob-Cems oj -the. wate't6
edge is a chateenge. IS we. can succeed -thete, the pLob-ems in other
ateas can -then be moxe. ea qiey zotved.

Th,& Conuebxence com-es at the end o6 a seie.s o activitiv es at
naotiona- and intexnationat �et-vet concerning coaastat areas in pawr-ticutca&
(eee aC-o Appendix 12 and doc MEN 4 (84) 5). Thi&s te.acy putz a heavy
bukden on the Con6exence and on -the type o4 potici~e it shoutd ptopose.
In addi-tion -to adhehing -to att the p'tincip4ez de.5ned in the. Wox-td
Con-e/vation S-tAactegy, it shoutd e.peciatty empha~stie. -the connection
between envcawnmeentai proteactiLon and economic deve.opment. This mean-
tha-t

.1.

- 19

EnviaonmenvtaZ tLe.6outces shoued be seen a-z the basis o6,
as we.U as setting the. ZimiPt6 to, economic developmenvt ;

Envwiuovmen-ta2 policy -shou&d be an integtat pae t o
economic policy ;

Co-~sts 6o, envi'tonmevn-ta2 p'rotec~tion measuwe. shou&d be
considered az insepatable it om genenaZ developmevnt co4st;

The piwotection o6 the enviironmeun-t can conutribute to
economic Jtecovety.

The achievement o6 the-se aims t-'et6 on a basPic p'recondition.
Dwaing the Zeamt decade. we wuitnezeed the deve.opmevnt o, gelnea2 ptincipne1,
poaicin, p'ogtamme.s. Now n -the time to ~imp-emeMnt them. Wha~t we thuw
aZso neeed L4 -the deveLopmen-t ot in4t'Lument6 oa implemern-ta-tion 6wCey in-te-
gt-ated in the pocicy-making process.

In addition to the avaitabiZi ty o6 sujjicieMnt ?5ZnanciaZ means, the
main %ecquiLeme~nts 6jo- e.6ective implemen-tation aire : knows - both in
the sevnse o6 acquisition a4 weUl as o6 dissemination P6 inaboomtion
coo'rdicnation between secto'u a-6 welL as between vatxious Zevet o goveAhn-
ment ; pub-ic pairticipa-tion and manageumen~t, includ-ing the e.6ective
implemeunztation o6 Ze~gi Zation in rLepeCkt o coa-ta2 and A-ipaxian aJreas.

Zesotution no 1 oa the 6th 4eazion oa -the Ewwopean Con6et~ence oa
Mintter %e.spons&ibe 60ot Regionat Ptanning (To-vtemotinoz, Spain,
19-20 May 1983) sets out the ge~neta p incip-ee, and objec~tives jotL the
developnment and te~gionaZ/,pawtit poiicy o6 matitWme t'egioni. In addition,
howevet, in &e.ation to the p'trotec~tion oa the environmen-t, development in
coaztaZ aaeals, on xrivet bank,6 and Zak!e shotres shOutd have the aoteouxing
geneta2 objec~tives :

a. The promotion oj activiti~e which couLd exploit the endogenou6
po-teuntia oa the uegionz concetned w.&thowt deAtztaoyng the env4irJonmennt
P(eg agtLoutwkm, aquacu tute, e.tc). The expeuience o -the po-6t-w(vL
peiiod haz shown tha-t, among otheA thing-6, some �Z/Lge capittat-inten6sive
�ndus-tAiaX projec~ts, especia.,Uy in Le.-6 developed tregion,, and huge
towt-&t jac,&Utiea not integrated in the envitonmevnt, do not pkoduce the
expec-ted economic sp'n-o6a-.s

b. The inte~g'ation o -the envi&Lonmenwtat dimensiLon in alt economic
activities (aqgicuLtuwe, indust'zry, ene'gy, -tkannspatot, towuaim, hou4ing,
technicaL wokzs), and at the eawt,&UeC po4-zb-Fe .6tage.

c. The promotion o6 environmevntal iLnitiatives which might Lead to the
cAeeation oa new employmevnt and con-t4ibute con Lidetabty to the -ciZutitn
oa the envit~onmevntaL paob-ems o6 coo-stale awe~as. Examnptes4 pti 4uch acti-
viitiez atee

the management oj natwLat biotope,6, the 'tectamatilon o6
de.elZct Land, -the. ptection ot te~stotation c6 Zandiicape4
impo-r-tant 6tom a cuttwata2 o' histoticat point o4 view, -the
deveLopmenwt andl/o maintenance o6 a2te.'Lnative v-.abZe 4jotrw
o6 atxicuttwLe adapted to seensitive are"oa

- 20-

the development, produc~tion and ins talatiton o6 eqwuipmenLt
to 'Leduce potZution (eg sewage neMtwo'tka, wutatv tea-tmevnt
pt~an~ts)

the &te,-enah and deve.opment o4 new -techniquie. tezz
poZauting and consunming 1?e..s nattwu2 tsouttcez and Ze.6
eMnegy, and the developmevnt ou technique io6 to ecyWiing

the creation oa amaUe wtL medium-sized 6itimz o6 convsultant,
on envitonmemnta ma-tteA4 ; the ctea-tion o.'t deve.opmeMnt o
stkuc-tute zo-L 6 ttaiing/-keIg tt~aining wo'zekzn 6otr jobs in the
eMnvionmenv:t 6e.d ; the devvelopme~nt o cAeawtion oj st'we-
.tuILes 6o awrou ing pubPe~ic invte,'est and providing inio'rmna-tion.

Euwpe~an coazts, xLveA banks and take shotrte' atre chatacteirJeed by
the va-iety oa theiir geoeogicat 6oama~tiov as we.L as the vatiZety o6
their spe~cies and biocommunitiea. The pke.ert va~tion o6 this vaxtie.ty and
uniqu.ennes shoud be one o6 the f.iue-t p'tiZotLiez at nationae and n-telL-
na.tionae tevet.

Coastal- and &-ipactrian bo-tope.z o4 speciae scientific inte~e,6t and
bikotoicaye c &ticat, ezpecia2-ty -tho4e considered -to be itnteAna~tionaty
and natiuonaly importanvt, ,shoud be. strtiLctey ptroteecte~d. Othel coastal
and &ipa~ian atweas should be developed accordiung to the pLninci.pe.s o
eceoZogicai management. This means that the exploi-tatiron and the deveop-
ment o6 the aveca undeA conzide,'wtiLon must proceed onyVy a{teA the pt'e~pta-
-tiaon oa jeuaibiZty actudi. and management plazns, s as to avoid iteNve)L-
zib~e e46ectz on the environmernt and the depletiion oj na.tulraa &eLeouAce6.

The 6ottowing are some o4 the p-'tincipat mea"n which may be weed in
any p'Logtamme do' -the prLotection o1 coa-tat and atiplr.Zn ecosyste~ms

the ideMnt46ication o6 importan-t habitatu and theilL zetztict
pootection, apeciatey duhing ukiticat seasons (ie b-Leeding,
miZyration, 6eeding ;

the prohkibi tion o6 aLU dinehalrge o6 solid and tiqZuiLd waste
in Tthese areas

the fimita~tion o6 human intwrvenYtion in -thece. ate~ae to wne.
management, judicious, tLadiZtionat, no n-,sktctuaae activiti e
auch as natwte oabservation, hunting, j6izhning ;

the ccuaAying out ao ztudi-e and works- -to ptootect andlot&
tes~totte ;those aareaz, using 6obk technol~ogy methods (biotogicaZ))

the incjtLeaze o6 speciatizeid ~ta66 at aUe teve.& 6o-' e.6ective
prLo-tection oj these oAIeoz.

.1.

- 21 -

The objectives oj the policy guide wte

to develop a basic Eutopean poeicy on ;the envitonmen-taf
planning and management o coa4-tal aleas, tLiVeA banzks
and take shotes ;

to introduce -the enviytonmen-tod dimension into the devefiop-
men~t o6 ctheA sectoxs a human activiu~ties in these ateaz

to de{ine speci6ic meawt6rei -to be -taken 6o& -the conseAva-
tion o6 each type o6 coas-tal and xipawian ecosystem.

2. PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION, LEGISLATION, EDUCATION, RESEARCH

2.1 PLANNING

a. Data collec-tion

P'iaoity thoaLd be given at na-tional and inteAnationa2 Zevd. to
the establishmenut o6 inuvenrto- e-s o6 coasta-C ateas, 'uiveit banks and &tcke
sho'tes oj impo'utance 6ot the conse-va-tion 06 -the Ewtopean natuwae heAi-
~tage by making wse as &VL as possible 06 exis&ting intetnationa2 tsytems.

b. PtanMs

In the concept 06 ptns 6ot -the spat-ial development o1 coasctac2
wteas, uiiveA bankz4 and Calze shoLes, uite eL&cdeation should be given
-to economic, social and enviaapnmetcaeC-ts.

Regions o0 paA-t4 .theAeo6 tha~t appea-t on inventoxiez o6 atea- 06
impoqtance Yot& -the con-ze'wa-tion 06 ;the Ewtopean na~twuta heWtage shouLd
be subject to specia2 peanniLng ptog/Awmes aiming at -theiA conseAvation
and w'ie management.

c. Envitonmentat impac~t asse-smevnt

The asessmenut 06 -the impac.t o6 development should be an obtiiga-
tin 06 -those who wd-U develop ct exploit a coastal ci kipa/cian atea
(ppinci-pe o6 causaLity), undetA -the suape'tvi-ion o6 the iteiponzibte
gove,%nmewta-t authokit, ezl who wilC. atso -take -the 6inaJ decision.

d. Land poY-icy

An exchange o6 injotumantzion on -the e66ecAtivene~s 06 0instruments
6oit the implementation 06 Land policy (Ps-ted in Appendix 13) shouldt be
p-tromoted.

e. Pubtic patticipation

Pubtic pa-ticipatioLn in -the concept and p4.epatation 06 plans
,should be ensutced at -the appiopxtiate stages.

- 22 -

2.2 ADMINISTRATION

Cootdination o4 the. activitiQe underttaken LwiUthin one countrPy by
the various national authorities conce.ned with the manageme~nt o coais-tal
Gheaz, tivet bankis and tzake sho-Len should be ensuked by the cAeaktion oJ
appjtop'La-te &rttucltu~e and means o in-teivevntion.

Locat and ce~gionaZ authoriLties should be given the oppoltutnity
to take patxt in decisions tetating to -the pannirng oJ areeas undeA theikr
authn-ity and, whetLe. app'wopaiate, undeA the supe~vizion and coorLdination
o -the cent'tag nationaZ authoritLies.

At each Zevet oJ national adminizttiaton, envx'wnmeuntat puwtec-
tion should be eQntrLuted wtth -the. authoutity, and be given sujicient
mean4 ({JiZnanciat and asta66) to be abe. to de.ernd -their i.nrteresnts agaitnst
public ot privatue cCie. mw bo-r the exploittation oJ areau w&ithin the.A
,spheAee o4 competence.

2.3 LEGISLATION

ConsZide/ing the study by the Detegation o6 Fkance (doc. MEN 4 (84) 3)
the 4ottowing sho uld in pwa-ticutw&V be -taken into account :
sa as possible, tecgZ6Ptoation on co stae ateas, hLive
bank4 and take .hoae. zhoutd be adapted to paeeMnt i-tua.-
t~ioon, conecen-tiwted in one olt Jew -texts, easy qto undeAL-
,stand and suitable 4ot. drz'ec..t implementation ;

Ze.~-L&taion shouP-d putovide. 6ot' a 6wmnewotd wh ich wowed,
on the one hand, in-troduce a system o6 penmxts Jo/L the
deve.opment o6 coa--tal ateaz, xiveLA banks and take .houez
and, on the othet, aetow p-&ans and ptrogwramsn 6o,%t coas6AtD-2
Jea-5, AicVeL banks and fZake sho%.es to have the 6o,%ce o4
taw ;

e~xZting st,%uctwures sChoueld be -teinjoaced, at. new sttuctwues
be in-tioduced, to evnwte impiemenetaction and eniotrcemen-t o
exstin9g tegigziation.

2.4 EDUCATION - TRAINING

P'toviZion shouwed be made in evnviZonmentae education ptogtammez lo-rt

enstab&&shing in etemen-taty and secondaty schooize ecducational
ce.-es ditectely treiated -to the eco-ogica Zimportance. o
coa.6t6, &ive~i and Cakes ;

pub-&&hin9g speciaZLied textbooks and/oki pamphe.te explaining
the eeotogicat aspects and valeue.o coas6ts, uAiv'ea and
-&ake.~s

involving in the p'terpatation o6 education ptLogJLaamme. ate
agenci.e wkhch dea2 uith -the subject, and which o6ften suppZy
Minint'tse. o6 Education with apptropt-iate inhomua~tizon ;

ovtganizing semi~naA and -t,%ai-&ing cowues joa teacheiru ;

.1.

23 -

supptementi.ng ptojessonaZ -&taining w&th knowledge
o6 envitconmen-tat prwtection ;

-twkaining young peopee empeoyed in envitonmen&taey
u~eated jobs (managemen~t o protected akeas, patfz
keeper4, etc)

estabtiJshiLng postgryaduate cowtsVe in envitonmenMtaZ.y
itetted ieds 4otL unemployed scientists

cAeating qa nationae institutiton oL Foundation 6o-'
the 6inanciat and scien2tiic suppoti.t and coorLdination
o6 envitLonmenctat education.

2.5 DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION

Diseminatiion oj injndo'unat~ion on ~the importance oj conseuviLng
coas-ta2 a'Leas, 'uiveA banks and Zake 4shoiret and on the ways and means
o6 so doing, shoued be promoted by intetnationa2 and nattional owtganisa-
;tion's in cooperation wi&th -the na-tiona2 authohiti~e concerned.

2.6 RESEARCH

Reiseatch shou~d be directed, among 0otheA .things, ~towakVrds

a betteA and moale comp&ete knowledge o6 the na~tuAat
envijonment and its mechaninms

new ways and means o, pwomoting su&stainabze expeoita-
tion o6 na~tutat %tesowces, including the czeation oj new
employment

6ieZd erseakch into the e66ec~ts oj human pitessce in
gene-tat and poLZwtion in pwalticucwa on speciaZ types o6
coastaZ and xipawian bioatope;

methods 6o& the ecoLogicat4y sound managemenvt 06 coas&tal
and xipaAian piro. tec/ted axLeAs.

0 0

3. USE AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

3.1 AGRICULTURE

a. Appoptoiate Land poticy measwuek shou-d be -taken -to enswLe that
p)Lme agicwftwua2 LZand is used Jetr apLicwftwke, eApeciadey neatL wtibanised
a,%eas, since i-ts conservcation cowed be o6 substantxel bene6it both -to the
economy oa the akea and -to the natwra and visuaa environmen-t.

- 24 -

b. As dWL as possib~e, tiaditionaf- agticutLZtuha methods -shouLd be used.

C. Wheke agiicu~twtut Land becomes no ZongeA 4it Jo! that putpo-ze, ca'e-
Jut conbside.ation neecs to be given as to whe.ther to Zeeave it to natw'e.
04 ;to Aeceaim it and -thu 'teduce the prre.,uwte to develop makginaZ Land
e.6 ewhe4e.

d. Rcecuamation o6 impo/ttan~t we.t~ancds and tipawia n aveas JO/ agyi-
cuRtwruae. uwe should be avoided.

e. Agnicuctwuaa wastez which cannot be uLesd az 6e.'titsei~z, shoue-d be
usned 4oA ene.gy production (eg biogas) o. Jo,% otherii. applicatiaonz outside

J. The ue. oJ pes~ticides, hebbicides and jextitieun in coastaZ and
L3atwian a/eras shouud be Ljn-Ute~d to the absoewte minimum.

3.2 AQUACLLTURE AND FISHERIES

a. An app'taop-'Wia-te baa.nce shoued be enswLed be-tween, on the one hand,
the econonic needs oJ 6aZhae'nen and consume.uI' demand Jo, 15Zih and, on
the othet, the maintenance o6 the aquatic anima2 population and the
ben-thos, with pa tticu&aA teLet.ence to nwuuety ateaoz and ateaz -suitable.
Jo,% aquacultufLe.

b. Thadititonat aquacu~twte and maxicuw~t-e activ~ities 6hou~d be
pt-omoted in we~tcands and e.pecia.ly in Zagoons and cZosed bays. Appuptoiaate
meaaukez zhou&d be taken to teduce as much az pozzibZe any haIm to biotope.
and pro~tected areas caus ed by the. nece.llsay iMLn6&LatUtLuWLe wo'tks (dkedging,
new channeZ6, insvtattationz and cot&eection 6acititi'es. In-tenw'ive aqua-
cuCtuAe in se~nzitive natutxt area" should oney be authokieed in caez~ o6
ove.tiding public intene~st and on the condition that it Zs pieceded by an
enviAonmeentaZ impact asessmenkt.

C. 2Repopuwation with evndogenows specie ashoutd be encowLaged in accok-
dance with anticte 11, pakagyaph 2 06 the BeAn Convention.

3.3 INDVUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

a. Whe.e. apptop'iate, indutsitne -shouJid be encowuaged to 'sett'ee
knZand, away {,wm coastesL tiLveA banks and tzake s~hQ'Lez.

b. Location in coastaZ and tipa'an a're"aZ -shouLd oney be authoa&ied
Jot industtWi. L activities o i. 4ns taZotions exploiting Zocal mineAtat
,itnowuce ot. indutrices which a'ie coa-&t o. wa-tei depe~ndent, o' in otheA
case o5 ove.uLiding public in-te.est.

c. When a coa&.taZ o- 'tipatip an site i4 ezeen-tiaZ Jo-t paA-ticu~aAc
kndusttiLe.s, the.e 6hould be. steeied -towctsLs awieas with &titte. enviJton-
menta einte.iet, a' to a/Leacu, whe.'e the ha'unm6w e.6ects on the wideA
coca~taZ and tipatian -6 pace awe at a minimum, in pai.ticuvati to Run-down,
deitetict ateca,, suitable. Jot &edeve.opmevt and to aaeaz o6 high
unemploymeMnt.

- 25 -

d. Indwitties Located in coase-tae and -tipattian tenas 6houeld use., and
ptomo~te whenevei pos6ibZe., the endogenouz po-teun-tial o6 the tegiZon.

e. The .ecation o4 poieuwting o& otherwise hawi6ut indsttRiez in olt
neacv prtotec.ted ateas shouud be ptevenited.

4. Retevant conventions and piwatotooa o. iZntetnationat oiganizations,
bitateiwat agrteements and EEC dit~ectivez and decisioni (see Appendix 12)
on the con;tkot and abatement o6 pol&ution cauesd by vatiouw types o6
industries .shoud be implemevnted.

3.4 TOURISM AND RECREATION

a. Tomai-6t deve.opment shou9d be s~t'icctty con-t'LoZieed in o- adjacent
to biotopes and ptoutec~ted ate~as o? na~tioona and nktanamtionazt impourtance.

b. In ateas o0 envivtonmen-taZ interest which cute not uttLty pxotected,
onvy camping and othe.' non-permanent towri&t inseatiaovn should be
attowe d.

c. Wheievea thete is a need loit -toawzLt deve.Zopmen~t, cate.ut consi-
de.'tation zhoLtd be given to what witt be the Zeads-t damaging to the envi"ton-
me~nt. The conveuion oj exisitin9 buLtdings to touxiizt in.st&Uations,
e6pecially in t'taditionat settlements., a.s weXI as the ienting o6 loom- in
houwes, shoued be encoutaged. Sca~tte.-ng oi new tomius deve.Zopmen~t
Thould in genewaZ be avoided. The con4-tkuctiaon o6 concevntiwated comptexe.
(-the honeypot theaoty) might atLso serve to attkact -toawzi6t k away 6,tom sensi-
-tie akeaz.

d. P'te.ute 6o-' the development o6 atecitecation sites in coat-ta2 and
iripatian ateas ne.ar wuban cevtkez s6hould be channeteed to sites which have
Zens envi'tonmentaZ importance i, which have. aUteady been adapted ot the.se

e. A pp to phiate measwue.6 houtd be taken to maintaiZn and/oi improve the
qcuality od bathing wate/u6 by con-tuZeizng sewage dispoal.

6. The deve.Zopment oa -towuZnt activiti~e should not be de.tZimevntat to
the natwLat 4,eova and fauna and thei' habi&ta-t. Regu4a~tionz shouCd p'ovide
bo& ;tempit~aiy ptohtibition a6 Jkee .access to astt'ictty piotected ateaz.

9. The extension and/ok ttaggekiuiing o6 hotiday peiods, though co-teln
bene.icial to the economy and the e~nv~icnmecn-t,zhoud be avoided when this
would zed'iuisty distuwb endangered plCanvt and animaZ speciLe in cit neat
naturaw areas.

3.5 HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

a. Housing and wtban deve.opmenvt outside coas&tal uwban atea-6s -houx-d
be �-iimiLted to an teea at a minimum accep-table distance bjitm coasts,
&ive& banks and .Laze shoite.. Lineai developmen-t along the coast should be.
avoided wheteveA po&ssible.

- 26 -

b. Meua-lwte showed be taken -to evniute that sewage 6,tom coastal and
Auipatrian citite and towns shhoud be pwui6ied so a -to cause the ZeGcwt
po&sib~e damage to tme etiai and aquatic cosystems. Especiae&y Jot-
bathing are"a, aquacwgmtu aZc.e ateas and sensitive. natutae aeaeas, -tr'ea-tmeMnt
platnts showed dischatge -theiA e.6{tuents a~t a zu$icievnt depth and dis-
;tance {6'wm the coaslt it shouteine.

c. Petmitts 6o conttuction wortks and &eand management activities
showed include the obligation to avoid soile etosion and to uestote the
naLtutat enviitonment aus Ja as possib~ee a{;teizwacvd.

3.6 ENERGY FACILITIES

a. Fo,% coast dependent ene'gy qaci 'ti~e, aetetna-tive siting in aVeas
which have no ovetAciding e~nvi-tonmen~taZ inLteitet showed be considered.
Foit non coast dependevnt eneAgy Jac,~eizie., itivng shouwed be. consLidterd in
ateaz outside the coas-tal and Aipakian zones. In aZZ cases, the ernvi&ton-
men~taZ -mpact on the zsZ-tes zhowPed be assessed,

b. In the case o4 ene'gy neecd, the ue. o6 -kenewabee Joams o0J eneigy
showed be considexred but cwte. showed be taken to evnuwte that -the impact
o -the constkuction oJ talge-scae.e wind and wave insta eations on the
enviionmevnt is cane.uY-ty as-&eseed be6octe proceeding.

c. The Impacts associated with the pW'oduction o6 hazardous wastes
4hould be caute.uwey casesised. Aetvtnnative cooling sys;te~mn otheA than
"once th40uLgh coo-ing" showed be considered.

d. Oite.u/ne.ties and pet'tochemicae 6acLteit i6howed be Zoca-ted at
the maxiimum dListaince 4&om sevnsitive akeas and be subject -to zttic-t teSgi-
tea-t-ions.

e. Eeec/t'ric genewatintng atiaons shoued be loca-ted a~teA a comparative
evalua.tion o6 a-tetnative. ,te., o6 -technologiesL 06 production and ;tanz-
poic-t and o6 the produc-tive use ot p-&anrt residues.

6. Speciaity st'iLct meadwtes -showld be taken to enswte that due con-
&idetatLon -X'A given to enviAonmentae (tequitements when teamirnae and
a4sociaAted 6acbeities 4o,% Receiving, s-to'ring and d&rtibuwting na-tww2 gas
oht coat ate Zocated in coasvtaZ and -tipaxian zones.

9. Cov-Ldoiu 6o, cr'ude oit and natww2 gas pipe.izne shouwd be as
naAttow as pozzibPe and, as 4a& as is ptac~ticae and in accordance with
,sa6ety tegutations, shouwd be Loca~ted in oa adjacenwt -to exiPting, a.enady-
devetoped, itoadd, ttA&Uwayls and pipelines. WheAe envinvZtonmentaZy se.sitive.
o,% protected -tm ter.tiat ot aquatic akeas cannot be avoided, ptio-ity
-shoud be given to cate6u2 -teto'ation 06 the aAea.

3,7 MINTNG

a. Speciat autho'diation showLd be tteequited 6o&t mining opetrations, so
a -to minimise the. adveue impact o6 noiee, dust WCateA pQb~wtioqn, waste
mate~iais and vistual disturbance,

b. M-ineAae e.traction Wtea. shoQed be -'tettted wheAever, p044-ibee, ofT
itectaimed to an apptop'tiate and bene6iciaZ -&and woe.

.1.

- 27 -

c. Piwovizioni 5howtd be made to mitigate -the envi&onme~n-tat imnpac~t o6
4 oil eo-sion dwLing mining.

d. Measutes s4houd be taken to avoid and abate pottutiovn in cases
o4 oi2-ktg accidenvts.

e. Sand extractioni and undeAt-wateA mining shoutd be tregucakted.

3.8 TRANSPORT FACILITIES

a. New &tcad and &caitwL&ay construction shou&d not in genveta be 4Lited
neaW the coast cot shouteine i6 64uLitabLe atteAna-tive2 exist. NeitheA
toad,6 noA pakzkinvg dacitities shoutd be a-loweed in senkslitive. coa-&-tal and
Lipawtian ecos yste~ms. Adequate pairkizng 6aci&ities, bicyc~e and footpaths
shol4d be potovided in o& neat atteas seetcted jot visi&touar and use~s,
accortding to ecotogicat cAitvriatg.

b. The haitmniut e6Sect on the enviionmevnt o6 the grtowth 06 &J./ge poit-t6
shout1d be conftkoteed as da& as po44ibtee. The deve.lopmen~t o6 medium sized
post5, and o6 6"hing poitht, zhoutid be allowed, prtovided tha~t a A4u6icient
dis6tance. is kept 6&om sevnsitive b~io-tope and potected aUreas.

c. DuVing the constauLc~tJvtiono6 poxt jaci%&ties, jetties, etc., cwte.
-houw&d be -taken -to avoid any significant e66ect on the iLn6hoite cw~tents
and the 4edimenitation )Legime o6 the coa4-tat wates.4.

d. AiJpoxts shou~d be sited as AaA. as po4ibte 6,tom piotec~ted akeea6.

3.9 TECHNICAL WORKS

a. DIteedging in prtoteclted aJea. 4houfd be ptohibited, untess i. t ia
necess4ay 60) conservation pup%4po , and 6houu-d be cont'Ltoetd in 0otheA
natu~ae aLea- 40 as to minimize damage to the eco04y4te~ms and to the
judicious exploitation o0 the mzLvine and aipatian ezouwLcez.

b. 'a-teitbed engine~eing shoutd oniy be undetlzetae 6ox ieae ons o6
oveiuriding pubtCic in~tektet white. 6Sil-~Lng coutd atso be undeutakenv 60oL
nece6saxy tand pwrotec.tion. In any case, cate hlzhod be tazken to minimize
adverze e66ects on wa-teA quaitw2 , mahwLne. pitoducLtivit, pubtic . hea&th and
especiaPlly on the 4statu o6 prtotected axea6.

C. DuV ing the design and constr~uction o6 ivland toads, buidgte, dam6
and wortk joi -the divex6ion ota impoundmenAt o6 watteA, the neceszaay meazwuee
shoutd be -taken -to avoid distwubance oj the natwuae -edimevntation pxoce,6s.

d. S-teep banki and 4hoke. uteting 6tom technica2 worktk and teikety to
p'roduce eto-siovi ot tcandscltips shotL4d be. smoothed down cit teutaced.

3.10 SHIPPING AND BOATING

a. In-te~na-tiona convenwtions on dwnping f/tom shiLps and accidental
.6pilZ (-the London, He.-inki and Batcetona Conventions) shoufd be stPLic~tty
implemen~ted .

b. In ptanvinvig shipping teaves, maxine prtotected akeaa shouf-d be
avoided as 6at as po44ibte.

- 28 -

c. Mo-tot-boats should be banned {,om p'wotected a1Leas and Leguzwated
in 0otheA ateaz o6 impo'tance 6oi public heatth, natwue conservation and
'tecteation. Speciaa attention should be given to avoiding pouutiaon,
excess ;t'LLZ4Lc and diturLbance o p'rotected cateas in i4n&tand wateAways6.
Wtind~A4ing shoueid be 'tegueated in ptotected ateas and banned in sevnsi-
tive bioatopes.

o 0

4. ECOSYSTEMS' AND SPECIES' POLICIES

4.1 TERRESTRIAL COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

a. Ammnophiiows ecosystems (Bandy beaches, dunes, sitt and mud 6o-etehMrn e)

Vege-taticon should be kept intact to prevenzt distwubancez o4 sandy
beaches and dune,6.

Natutae beach pbocsese, shouild be maintained by discouhagiLng
,5tatctuhez which advetsety a46ect etittotata. and titavapoakt, untes auch
p/cc toese crea-te conditUons which may become hazawLdous -to the &.tabZC-&ty
ci ;the arLea and to public zaae~ty.

Shot'e p'otection ptlog'ammes which aim at ptez e/tvng the natuWae
beach ptooite zhouid be encouwaged and developed.

Se~iowsty etwded beaches shoufd be testoted whe/Le appup Ltaop te.

TopogIqaphc Letie6 shouZd be ereto'zed a~te't sand ex-trtaction, by
tepianting c. Rteseeding, so azs -to limit wind and mauine etozaion.

Pkiva-te and public p'ojec-ts to keteto'te and stabi&6e dunes,
especiatey with 6encez and indigenous ptanCts, shouled be encouraged.
Distwutbance o6 sensbitive dune ateas by vehiclee shoufld be prtevented.

Constkuction o6 mo-toatways adjacent to sandy beaches and dunes should
be avoided.

Beach expansion by 6Ztfing, dwnping, etc. especialey in -the motLe
sen-sictive acveas, shoued be avoided.

Consttatction o6 ate -types o6 buildings, shoutd be prnohibited within
a minimum di&stance ktom -the beach.

The tawge-scaee and commetciaJay organized A'epai& oJ boats and
smat&e ve~seX i5houd as JcoA " possible be ptrohibited on sandy beaches and
dunez.s, and should be 'Aestticted -to suitab~ee site,6.

Excavation and temovat o6 dunes and beach xidgez in sensitive oJream
should be p'rohibited.

Sand extiraction zhouPtd be lfimited, as 6a/ acs pozzib~e, -to specia.ay
,selected ateas whehe the haivm5ut e66ects aue at a minimum.

.1.

- 29 -

b. Rocky and s-teep khoe~s

The use oa natuxaf- meansn and pwope&iq designed sttuc-tu4Ae.5 4o
p-'otec;tion againCt eo-Lsion shoutd be encouraged.

Human activities tha~t wouPd aeteL ~the natAuat e volution oa -the
shoIte ptFde., ie ex.trtac~tion o4 t'ock matetia-eo inOtL ndowtt-iitL o't -oeiWAt
instattations, shoutd, whe.teveA pozzibte, be &est'tnained o&' prohibiUted
in avetas o6 impo'tance.

Conzttuction o6 roadways on rtocky zhotLes shoutd be avoided, but
when necesa/ag, -the moat suLtabte. distanece {jom the coa.-t&lne shouLd be
dehtemined.

Housing and -towu-L6t developmen~t bshoued be ZeimiZted on veAy steep,
,rocky shores.

The development oa settlements in sens&L-tive. ateas shou91d be
Lnimited, and zhoued be ailowed onty on condition -tha~t -thei'L con2.�tALuctizon
does no~t exc~esive.y hatw the naMtwtaw 6Lokta and 6auna, and thact they ake
compactible with -the envitonmevnt.

The construction o6 pomt 6aci&tLes - ?otc boatz and rmatt vessets
- and -the necezza'ty wofL~k .houtd be contwotetd and shoutd aLways be com-
patibte with -the natwvaa environmevnt.

c. CoastaJ. heath~tnds, bushe. and de.9taded ptant Jo'rmtion4

To covn oLt etozion and su&6ace tuwnoJ4, souLnd coiservatian pracctice
shoued be tecqwited, eg the provision ot bjeta st~ipz o6 natuAat vegeta-
tion atong -the coastine..

The deve.opmevZ oS 4wntmme t tetmeenMt n hou~d be aLLowed on condi-
;tion that -the natuatL vegetation is conseow ved -to .the maximum.

La~kge 'Aactcez shouLed be z-tabiL1ised immediately aateA any opeaa-
.tion thavt destAoys the natwtat vege.tation and Leave. -the 4oit open to
eJxosion.

d. Fotestst

CoastaL 6ot,%est shoutd be stitic-tt pr'wtected, especialey -those on
a2lluviat soits.

Logging activities shoutd be cont'wLtetd, so tha;t wacterzhed tLunoO6
is maintained at &its otiginaZ qLuatity and 6Zow Zevet.

EutosZon con-t-oL standakds zhouLd be estabteihed and apptied in
att phacses o6 coa-staZ togging operactions, so tha-t wa~teuvhed tunoij i's
maintained at &ts oiginat qwgualty and jLow Levetz.

Measuwte- shoutd be Ltaken to Lreduce -the dangex and the damage o6
Jo-'east 6te.z.

3Q -

4.2 COASTAL MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

The discha'tge o6 e66Zuent6 and -the dumping oa 6 sLdge iZnto the sea
shou&1 be Lsubject to -the pitovisios o06 -the te.evant nteAnatiaonat in~s-ttu-
ments such as -the. London Dumping Convention, -the Boate.eona Convenvtion,
.the He.Zinki Convevntion, e.tc.

At Legu4atdions, prtactices, standaxcds, e.tc. suggested by iZntet-
nationaZ agencies, such as the Inute~gtoveknmen~ta2 Mcvuitime Ocganisa~tion,
zhou&d be adop-ted and caompie~d wi-th.

Fish spawning gaounds and vak'ious benthic communitie. -6houed be
prto-tec~ted against any activic ties -tha~t wowutd change -the. natutat pto-
cMe.,.se 6 o these system4.

In tLe.'t-icteRd ateeaz such as 6joutds, closed bays and Z&agoanon, ;the
dumping o6 dkedging mateniaU& and even the dischartge ot b~io-ogicatt
tjeacted wa-ste. watete shhoucd be avoided as 6ata az possible.

In open coastLine wLth 4avuababte condi-tions, eg open exposed
coasts, good oxygen sLpp-y, ckeakc. ;tnspataent water, the dischatge o6
was-te wateiu with sus.pevnded matter should nout be allowed untesne a suLitabZe
submarine out~aU is used,

States show(d examine. the possibilitiie o6 utiLzings dome.btic
and/cor indwutstoia e.6Zuen~t6 riich in e.sentiaZ nut'tien~t6 - wcithout zu-
pevnded matte& - Zn alleviating prtoduc~tion in otigot'taophic wateu (eg
Medi-e.'tanean Sea) even in te ttrc~ted aecaJs such as smnall hays.

DischaAge. o6 waste watts with sus~pended matteA o,% any o-the.
activity which would incueazae -the -tubiditty shoutd be avoided entiAe.9y
in a-'tea wi&th undef'wavtea meadows, known nwuetxy and 6Zinkhzg gpuvnds, e.tc.
even ii a submatine ouwt~oaf2 is ukeed.

Fishing activi-t~ies tiiabee to desftkoy ben-thc systemns h6kowd be
tegu~ated, epeciatty in a-'eaz o6 known nwuueiy and Z6ihsng po-tentida.

4.3 ISLAND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Endemic animaZ6 and p&tan~ts shouf~d be. pio-tected and -the iZn-t'oduc-
tion o6 exotaic species shoued be pirohibited, es~pecially in smaZZ istand-6.
To-tatty w- patrtiq denuded ilandsc shhoued be -teptanted with indi-
genous species.
T'taditionat crops and activi-ties such " apicuttuite and the judi-
cious eQxploita-tiaon o atomactic p&zn~ts on Medi~teManean i&s-Cctnd4 'shooed be
enceowtgged.

The judiciaou management oA 6oatests -shoued aeso be encouxaged
sing-e s pecie.s Botrest o eucalyp-tus o-A exo-tic pines shouzd be avoided.

The ca.Lgying capacity o0 -these 'systems should not be. exceeded by
-to ufist acLtivZiti~e, housing and the. exploitation o6 mine.taZ tezowuces.

.1.

-31-

4.4 RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES

Re~6oewtion (77) 8 on the prowtection o0 jZke ahoLels and uiveA banki
and Recomme~ndation R (82) 12 on al&uviLa 6uoreit in EwLope ,shoud be
imptemeunted.

Meac-utes should be taken to enzuke The. potec~tion o6 the edge-zone
on tiveA banks and teake zhoas.', especiatty wheAe aLtuvLiaL 6oatezt6 oaie con-
cejne d.

Each development pkojecet shouwed be pteceded by a 6study on The
impact on The AivetA bank and take /hote ecosy4.tems.

Interventions on Aive. bank, which atre z4tit in a na-twwa U tate
,6houwd be prohibibted, unfe-e they are o, oveIAtiding publeic in/teAet.

The mea.uwL~e taken to avoid 6toodizng o6 'cAive.' s6hould be those
which have the least impac~t on The environmeent, such as the planvting o6
,suitabZe pfants and tPiee.

The. deygada~tion 06 kivet bank ecosy6ytemn by The diZ6chaxge od
e.66uent6s otr. The dumpiLng o6 mstes shou&Ld be prLevented.

Meazwze4 should be ;taken (eg durczinage, p.Can~ting) to avoid The wash-
ing out and tJ.anspo'ut to the tiives 06 soi0Z mate/ucax 6)Lom 6o)Le4t and
agkicuvetwuta and othet aehaz.

The impact on AiveA2sde ecosy6tems 04 the ope.'wfion o6 hydxoe.tec-
-t'cc powet sta.tion., minez, etc. s ho uld be undeh .6trZcit, sy.6-tematie 6uk-
v&elance,

4.5 WETLANDS

State4s shoutd adhete to The Ram6at ConveMntion and impleement .L-ts
provisionsv.
In genemat, -tectamation o6 we~tfeaand,.6zhoud be pr.ohibih/ted. In case.
o6 oveAtiding pubic. interest, an envitonmenta .imppactt asesmen.t Thouf-d
be cavLied out.

Management peians should be dawn up and impleemented so0 as to pao-
mote, whe/eveA po,6,sibZe, the conservation o6 weteand and, in adl otheA
ca-se.-6 theiA wiee use.

In pat'rticu1catw, p&ant which aim at pwomoating &esea'Lch, enhancing
T h &eoceaationat and aethe~tic vatuez, and pr'oatec~ting The unique and
exceptionaxl si-te.6 shoutd be pepared.

Ac.tivitite which exp.loit the t'esoutce..6 o4 The atea without at~t te-
ing The envirtonmen-t, sucCh as aquacuawfte, matZicuwtwtte, etc., shoutd be
atLowe d.

WheAe. po6ibt&e, degraded weteand4 s6hould be &e.,toaeed.

.1.

- 32 -

Acivitie that atteAt the swuA6acee Q wetlands in ce.Itain Aegivon,,
,5uch as excavaCtion, {6i&&ng, cteaciing, paving and Trading, should be
'tens-twaned.

Activittez that ateta -the na~twuZ wRutea systems o6 wetlands, such
as dkaining and dyking, 6houtd be fZnimi-ted -to the 4-t'tiCte1y nene.tvLY.

The degrLcadation o6 weteandz caweed by the dischag.e 06 pollutants
O& -the dumping o6 wate. sshouLd be prLohibi&ted.

The conotLLLction o6 permanent oIL Aemi-pe~manent 'LeoteatUionae in-
~5taxCatiio ns shoutd be prohtibited.

4.6 ARTIFICIAL LAKES AND CANALS

W'JheJe apptop&LWate, measure.s advocacted 6oIL the pro-tection o6 xtive.-
bankis, take zhoIkes and wettand, -s houd be applied to aktiLiciaL cake.hs and
caonatz.

4.7 PROTECTED BIOTOPES - SPECIES

S-tatel -showed adhehe -to -the t~etevant inttn ationa ayie e~me~nts on
-the L tection oj 4auna and 6teotra and -the'r biotopes (such a6 -the
Wa~hngpton, RamatL, Bein and Bonn Conventions), Zimpeme~nt their pov-i-
zAion-s and participate in inteAnationat p-LgtLamme.- such a -the MAB syqstem
and the Councie o6 Ewuwpe's biogenetic Ite.eAves ne.txwoLk.

In Pax-t-icuLa&L, State. showeid

Z6 nece-ssay, adapct and Fein6o-Lce -theiL exi&5ting teg-Ls-eia-tion ;

implemen~t -the provision-s 6 A-ticte 1) (2) 06 the BeAn Con-
vention ALega~dxvng the inWtroductilon 06 exiotic species, espe-
ciatey in ateaws whele endemic -taxa ate. sound ;

pfLrotect the biotope. 06 importtanMt speciues by setting u)p p3w-
-tec-ted areLas on -the ba-sts oj adequate tega2 p-FLOvisionLs and,
when app-'op-Fiaate, designating the. actea undeai the Ievan-t
inteAnationaL invustimentse t

enue 6uLe U ovse.a-vatizon 06 the e/stab-&ished p-otected bio-tope.s

undeAtake -Studi~e and Aezena)Lch on the dis-t'~ibution, the biology,
the ecology and the. conLse.-'wtion As-tatu 06 p&Zn-tz and animatL in
coa-s6tf- arLeca-s and Qn itve. bankus and Zake shotez.s

eu}Le. nt6u3c t p-oLoteCction 06 th'te.tened species and -theZi habitats

pubL-&sh Red Data Bookz i6 they do not yet exiat ;

coolrdinaate the establishmeunt 6 5seed bankz-s 6otI endangered petantz
and 06 cocsta and tipakian botanicaL gardens.

- 33 r,

The appendices I - XI are based on
information provided by the member
States up to September 1983.
Any figures given should not be
used for comparison between States
since no common criteria have been
used.

APPENDIX 1

COASTAL AREAS

a. (i) Total length (km)
(ii) Area of coastal zones (ha)
(iii) Area of intertidal zones (ha)

b. Distribution of coasts

(i) Temperate seas (Mediterranean-Atlantic)
(ii) Cold seas (Atlantic, North Sea, Baltic)

c. Length or percentage of total length of flat (sedimentary)
and steep (erosive) coasts
d. Percentage of coastal length where regulating works exist
e. Classification of coasts, natural, semi-natural, artificial
f. Area (ha) or length (km) or percentage of coastal areas
occupied by sand dunes
g. Particular coastal types (fjords, rias, polders, etc)
k. Types of ecosystems
1. Evolution of ecosystems
M. Present uses (including protection)
n. Natural disasters
p. Threats
q. Desirable (possible) uses of ecosystems for the conservation
of the ecological balance

- 34 -

BELGIUM

a. (i) 67 km, (ii) 31,400 ha, (iii) 6,000 ha
b. (ii) Cold seas : North Sea
C. Most of the coast is sandy, with or without dunes
d. 5% (Port of Zeebrugge installation)
f. Approximately 1,500 ha
e. Natural 10%, artificial 90%
g. There are some polders behind the dunes
k. Terrestrial ecosystems most are ammophilous (sandy beaches
and dunes)
Aquatic ecosystems : soft substrate (without beds of
phanerogams)
1. The urbanisation of the coastal zone caused complete
destruction of a considerable part of the sand dunes.
The remaining dunes are protected and if possible restored.
There is a tendency to displacement of sandy beaches towards
the eastern part of the coast and probably a progressive
eutrophication of the aquatic ecosystem
m. Ammophilous ecosystems : recreation (access to certain
dunes is prohibited)
Aquatic ecosystems : sand banks, in the subtidal zone,
are used for sand and gravel
extraction
n. There are no natural disasters typical of the area
p. Terrestrial ecosystems tourism (roads, camping,
settlements, etc), construction of
marinas, etc
Aquatic ecosystems : eutrophication, microbial and
industrial pollution, sub-sea
excavations, sand and gravel
extraction
q. - "Sanctuarisation" of certain terrestrial and aquatic zones,
permanently or temporarily (eg during the reproduction
period of fish)
Active measures regarding physical planning (absolute
respect of the Section Plans and implementation of them in
cooperation with the movements for the protection of nature)
Careful implementation of the obligations resulting from
the Conventions of Oslo and Paris (regulations on dumping,
standards of emission, control and impact studies) with
regard to the pollution of the marine environment
Careful implementation of the various directives of EEC.

CYPRUS

a. (i) 782 km
b. (i) Temperate Seas : 100% Mediterranean
f. About 1,200 ha. Almost the whole area of the sand dunes
was stabilised in the past by the Forest Department
k. Terrestrial ecosystems 585 ha coastal forests (101 ha of
this area (or 17%) are littoral
forests on sandy alluvial soils)

- 35 -

m. Ammophilous ecosystems : Tourism and sand extraction
p. Ammophilous ecosystems : Tourism, sand extraction and
oil pollution
Coastal forests Touristic development near the sea-shore,
removal of sand and gravel from the sea-
shore for building purposes and forest fires

DENMARK

a. (i) Approximately 7,400 km of which about 1,500 km consist of the
continental type while the rest, approximately 5,900, are of
insular type
(iii) Approximately 84,000 ha of which 59,000 ha are tidal flats and
22,000 ha salt marshes
b. (ii) Cold seas 6,900 km Baltic, 500 km North Sea
c. - Flat coast 3%
- Steep (erosive)coast : 6% (of which approximately 17% consist
of rocky basement coasts and 83% cliffs)
- Shores (either stable or sedimentary) : 91%
d. The main regulating works exist on the North Sea coast
e. - Natural (most of the coast)
- Artificial (a few per cent)
f. At least 1%, but more likely 5% (21,500 ha and 86,000 ha
respectively) ; most of the dunes are in west Jutland
g. - Polders (less than 1% of total coast length) exist in the
tidal coast region
- Fjord coast of east Jutland
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous is dominant, if sandy
and gravel beaches are included,
halophilous, coastal heathlands and
coastal forests
Aquatic ecosystems : soft substrate ecosystems are dominant
rocky substrate ecosystems make up
only 30 km of the total
m. - Fishing
- Recreation (hunting, summer residences/week-end cottages,
bathing, yachting and so on)
- Waste water and sewage outlets
- Rock quarrying
- Sand and gravel exploitation
- Military purposes
n. Floods : floods of over 2m above DNN (Danish Ordnanse Datum)
occur almost every year. Flooding exceeding 4 m occurs only
once in about every 100 years. The dykes are constructed to
resist floods having a mean frequency of one/two hundred years
p. - Waste water outlets from households
- Waste water outlets from industry
- Oil pollution
- Tourism (erosion, pollution, litter, etc)
- Exploitation of stone, sand and gravel
- Drainage
- Pollution from spreading fertiliser in the surrounding area

- 36 -

FRANCE

a. (i) 4,720 km (including the islands) measured on a map I 100,000
Approximately 800 km of estuaries are included in the total
length.
(ii) Between 150,000 - 250,000 ha
b. (i) Temperate seas : 1,800 km Atlantic, 1720 Mediterranean
Cold seas : 1,220 km
c. Flat (sedimentary) 59%, steep (erosive) 41%
f. Approximately 500 km
k. Terrestrial ecosystems ; ammophilous 30%, halophilous on rocky
shores 40%, coastal heathlands and
bushes 20%, coastal forests 10%
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate 40%, soft substrate 60%
m. Maritime, submarine cables and pipes, transport, national
defence, industries and services. Resource (fishing, aqua-
culture, exploitation of algae, etc). Source of raw materials
(construction materials, hydrocarbons, salt, etc). Source of
energy, recreation and health. Dumping (industrial and urban
wastes, explosives, radioactive materials, etc). Offshore
constructions.
p. Ecosystems on soft substrate : sand and gravel extraction
Sand dunes and beaches : urbanisation, recreation, installa-
tions, artificial ports,
construction of dykes
Forests : urbanisation, fires
q. The maintenance and improvement of traditional agriculture
and fishery, limitation of forest fires and development of
aquaculture, taking into account as much as possible the
maintenance of the ecological balance

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. (i) 820 km
b. (ii) Cold seas 330 km Baltic, 490 km North Sea
c. Flat coast the North Sea coast (which is characterised by the
influence of the tide and referred to as "watt"
(tidal flats)). The most important ecological
zones on the North Sea coast are the salt marshes
and the tidal flats. These latter are of para-
mount importance, since this ecosystem with its
highly specialised indigenous animal and plant
species is unique in the world
Steep coast: The Baltic coast is characterised by sand and
rock cliffs, storm beaches, beach "spurs",
sand spits, dunes and lagoons. Most important
differences from the North Sea coast
- tides are hardly noticeable
- much lower salinity of the water
- absence of mud flats as a result of low tidal range
p. Wadden Sea : construction of dykes, marine pollution caused
by tourism and recreational boating, disturbance
to bird population by hunting
Baltic Sea : extremely heavy marine pollution caused by sewage
discharged from neighbouring States on the Baltic,
strong increase in recreational use

- 37 -

q. Wadden Sea : to stop the construction of new industrial plants
to declare the Wadden Sea a national park and,
where appropriate, a wetland of international
importance ; to establish more nature reserves
Baltic coast : to construct more sewage purification plants
and more recreational facilities in agreement
with nature conservation authorities
to establish more nature reserves and to
declare the shallow-water zones a wetland of
international importance

GREECE

a. (i) Approximately 15,000 km (of which the mainland coast comprises
7,300 km and the insular 7,700 km)
b. (i) Temperate seas : 100% Mediterranean
c. Flat (sedimentary) 30% ; steep (erosive) 70%
f. Approximately 100 km (3,000 ha)
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous 20%, halophilous on
rocky shores 40%, heathlands - bushes
30%, forests 10%
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate 55%, soft substrate 45%
m. Recreation, agriculture, fishing, forestry, tourism
p. Uncontrolled tourism, illegal housing, fires, over-grazing,
agricultural reclamation, illegal fishing

IRELAND

a. (i) 5,596 km
(ii) 456,000 ha (55% of the total land area)
b. (ii) Cold seas : Atlantic 100%
c. Flat (sedimentary) coasts : estimated at 2,500 km
Steep (erosive) coasts : estimated at 3,096 km
d. Approxmiately 3%
e. Natural 94%, semi-natural 4%, artificial 2%
f. 14,300 ha
g. Fjords approximately 2%, estuaries/lagoons/bays approx. 15%,
rias (at least 5) approximately 10%, polders approximately 1%
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous (14,300 ha of sand dune
systems ; 547 km sandy beaches)
halophilous (very little salt marsh)
about 2%
coastal heathlands-bushes (very little)
coastal forests (4,166 ha state forests
in defined coastal zone in 1969)
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate : about 30%
soft substrate : approximately 70% -
extensive areas of sand and gravel
intertidal mud flats

- 38 -

1. Sand dunes excessive grazing by cattle
removal of CaCO3 material as fertiliser
excessive recreation in a few localised areas
removal of sand and gravel for building
Forests accidental fires
m. Sand dunes : grazing, sand extraction, recreation
Salt marsh : agricultural, wildlife, dumping refuse
Forests : forestry, recreation
Estuarine : salmon netting, harvesting and cultivation of
molluscs, especially oysters, mussels, winkles
n. Landslips have been recorded in Co.Wexford after coastal
erosion. No known significant impact on ecosystems.
p. Recreation, reclamation, increasing urbanisation, industrial
and organic pollution, over or intensive grazing by herbivores
q. In most cases, normal controlled traditional grazing and
harvesting would be acceptable

ITALY

a. (i) Approximately 7,500 km (mainland 4,100 km, islands 3,400 km)
c. Flat (sedimentary : the Adriatic coast, formed by alluvial and
marine deposits ; the Ionic coast (often
swampy, low sandy beaches alternating with
short, rocky stretches and low spurs),;
the southern part of the Tyrrenian coast
(with alluvial deposits from rivers mixed
with marine sand), parts of Calabria and
insular coasts
Steep (erosive) parts of the Adriatic coast ; Mount
Conero promontory (approx. 20 km) ;
southernmost part (approx. 70 km) ;
North Tyrrenian coast (bordered by narrow,
sandy beaches) ; parts of the Calabrian
and insular coasts
p. UrbanisAtion, land reclamation, industries altering the original
situation, the building of infrastructures (harbours, jetties,
etc) pollution, destruction of the protective dune-maquis
system, fires, uncontrolled touristic exploitation.

MALTA

a. (i) 190 km
(ii) Approximately 2,000 ha
b. (i) Temperate seas : 100% Mediterranean
c. Steep (erosive) : 100% (20% cliffs, 80% rocky coasts)
e. 64% natural, 18% semi-natural, 18% artificial
f. 5%
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous ecosystems 1%
halophilous ecosystems 60%
Aquatic ecosystems rocky substrate 85%, soft substrate 15%
(mainly Posidonia submarine beds)
m. Sandy beaches : recreation
Flat rocky beaches : recreation
p. Terrestrial ecosystems coastal development in some areas
Aquatic ecosystems over-fishing
q. Over exploitation under legislative control

- 39 -

THE NETHERLANDS

a. (i) 456 km
(ii) Approximately 306,000 ha, comprising the following :
- dunes 36,000 ha
- sandy beaches about 8,000 (intertidal approx. 3,000 ha)
- salt marshes t 8,000
- mud flats "i 200,000 (Wadden Sea, Delta area)
- estuaries " 42,000
- salt lakes " 12,000

(iii) Approximately 210,000 ha (including the Wadden Sea)
b. (ii) Cold seas : North Sea 100%
c. Flat (sedimentary) 456 km (100%), of which approximately 30%
continuous, 50% Wadden Sea, 10% estuaries
d. 100%
e. Natural nil, semi-natural 178 km dunes, artificial 274 km dykes
f. 39%
g. Dunes 39%, polders 45%, enclosure dykes 11%, Westerschelde-
outflow area 1%, others 4%
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous ecosystems 60%,
halophilous ecosystems (artificial)
approximately 5%
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate (artificial) approx. 5%
(eastern Schelde, Delta, Wadden Sea),
soft substrate (submarine sea-grass
vegetation in Lake Grevelingen of
4,000 ha is apparently the largest
continuous area in north-west Europe)
1. Storm surges can have a significant effect on the Dutch coastal
system as was proved with the major flood in 1953. The
present coastal defences are designed to withstand all storm
surges, with a statistical tolerance of over-flow over the
dykes of once in 10,000 years.

m. Terrestrial ecosystems : coastal defence, water infiltration
and extraction for drinking water,
recreation, military use
Aquatic ecosystems fisheries, marine culture, recreation,
sand extraction, dredging and dumping
p. Pollution, eutrophication

NORWAY

a. (i) Approximately 54,800 km, including mainland and islands :
mainland (including fjords and bays) 21,190 km
islands (about 57,000 in number) 33,600 km
(ii) 33,597 x 10 ha (only for islands)
c. No quantitative data available
g. Fjords : western Norway, between Stavanger and the Trondheim
fjord, represents the typical fjord coast region.
Many of the fjords cut through the north-south moun-
tain range, far into the country. Songerfjord is the
longest and deepest (1300 m deep). The thresholds
of the fjords may impede the natural circulation of
the inner water masses, creating special biological
conditions in the fjords.

- 40 -

m. Coastal areas of high conservation interest are found
not only in mainland Norway, with islands, but also in the
archipelago of Svalbard (area 62,000 km ), where a large
part-of the coastline is covered by glaciers. In this part
of the country, about 50% of the land area is protected by
national parks and nature reserves.
p. Urbanisation, certain recreational activities, marine
installations, sand and gravel extraction from beaches and
sea bottom, oil pollution and pollution from land-based
activities.

PORTUGAL

a. (i) 1,943 km, of which 942 km are mainland and 1,001 km insular.
(267 km and 734 km in the autonomous regions of Madeira and
the Azores respectively)
(iii) Mainland coast : approximately 2,500 ha
Madeira : 50 ha
b. (i) Temperate seas : Atlantic 1,943 km (100%)
c. Flat (sedimentary) coast : mainland 458 km
Madeira nil
Azores 5%
Steep (erosive) coast : mainland 484 km
Madeira 256 km
Azores 95%
d. Mainland coast : 0.08%
Madeira :0,04%
Azores :4.2 %
e. Mainland coast :natural 28.75%, semi-natural 42.2%,
artificial 29.05%
Madeira :natural 68.7%, semi-natural 56%,
artificial 7.3%
Azores :natural 39.8%6, semi-natural 37.5%,
artificial 22.7%
f. Mainland : 1,013 km
Madeira : 16%
Azores : 0.2%
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : mainland - 23% coastal forests and
1.17% littoral forests on alluvial soil
Madeira - 4.1% ammophilous, 20.4%
halophilous, 65% coastal heathlands
and bushes, 8% coastal forest
Azores - no quantitative data available
Aquatic ecosystems no quantitative data available
1, Mainland ; dunes and flat coasts evolution is affected by
their orientation in relation to the predominant winds (north-
west and north) and marine movements. Another important
element is sedimentation due to solid material carried by
watercourses. Coastal forests have been developed to fix
the dunes.
m. Sand extraction, agriculture, recreation, housing (urbanisa-
tion), tourism
p. Extraction of inert material, ineffective drainage of
rainfall, tourism

- 41 -

SPAIN

a. (i) 7,872 km (estimated on a scale of 1 : 500)
b. (i) Temperate seas : Mediterranean (mainland 1,854 km
islands 1,349 km)
Atlantic (mainland 1,915 km
islands 1,541 km)
Cantabric 1,221 km
c. Sandy coast : 38% (51.48% of the Mediterranean part,
50.62% of the Atlantic part and
65.64% of the Cantabric part)
Marshes 4.03% (40,9% of the Mediterranean part,
38.97% of the Atlantic part and
21.5% of the Cantabric part)
Rocky coasts 51.03% (2.55% of the Mediterranean part and
5.2% of the Atlantic part)
Artificial coasts 5.21% (4.71% of the Mediterranean part,
6.39% of the Atlantic part and
12.8% of the Cantabric part)
m. Recreation-tourism 23.56%, fishing ports 8.81%,
industrial 3.17%, nature conservation 6.09% indeterminate 59.04%
p. Urbanisation, industry, tourism, contamination, fires,
droughts, extraction of inert materials, profit on hunting,
river dams (inhibition of deposit material transport)

SWEDEN

a. (i) Approximately 15,000 km (measured on a scale of 1 : 10,000),
including the island of Gotland and islands with bridge
communications. The mainland coast is about 14,000 km and the
islands (Gotland and Oland) are about 1,300 km
(ii) Approximately 500,000 ha
b. (ii) Cold seas : North Sea (2,000 km length, 75,000 ha area)
Baltic (13,000 km length, 425,000 ha area)
c. Predominantly sedimentary coasts :
- sandy coasts with or without dunes 5%
- estuaries, deltas, river mouths, graus <1%
- moraine coasts (stone, boulder) about 50%
Predominantly erosive coasts :
- rocky coasts, practically stable over a
period of some human generations about 40%
- cliff coasts, erodible over a period
of a human generation <1%
- rocky coasts with narrow sandy beaches <1%
f. About 2,000 ha or about 1% of the total coast length
g. The Gullmarn fjord (or semi-fjord) on the west coast,
the "rauk" coast (stack coast) on the island of Gotland and
the "high coast" in the county of Angermanland.
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : ammophilous %5%
halophilous rw35%
coastal heathland-bushese35%
coastal forests %,30%
(alluvial forests negligible)
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate <5%
soft substrate e95%

- 42 -

m. Recreation, fishing, sand extraction (marginally),
protection of the natural environment
n. No natural disasters have occurred which have had a
significant effect on the Swedish coastal ecosystems.
Landslips locally have caused limited morphological changes.
They are infrequent.
p. Discharges from industries (pulp factories, steel works,
refineries and power stations) as well as from municipal
sewage treatment plants. Excessive fertilisation. Harbour
developments. Sand and gravel extraction. Oil pollution

TURKEY

a. (i) 8,333 km
(ii) 303,955 ha
b. (i) Temperate seas : Mediterranean (4,382 km length, 181,945 ha area)
Marmara (925 km length, 9,300 ha area)
Black Sea (1,695 km length, 99,450 ha area)
c. 75% flat (sedimentary), 25% steep (erosive)
e. 85% natural, 10% semi-natural, 5% artificial
f. 110,300 ha
k. Terrestrial eocsystems 23% littoral forests on sandy
alluvial soils
Aquatic ecosystems : rocky substrate 25%
soft substrate 75%
m. Ammophilous ecosystems recreation, sand extraction
Aquatic ecosystems recreation, fishing
n. Earthquakes and landslips, but with no major effect on
coastal ecosystems
p. Fires (for coastal forests)

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

a, The following data are based on a coastal study published in 1968

(i) England and Wales : 4,412 km, of which 1,230 km lies in Wales
This measurement includes coastline with a direct frontage
to the sea and inlets only where they could properly be
regarded as "arms of the sea", for example below the lowest
ferry point or natural ferry point if no actual ferry exists.
In general, offshore islands, other than small rock stacks,
were included.
Scotland : 10,190.6 km (measured oft 1 inch scale). The
mainland comprises 3,906 km and the islands 6,282 km
b. (i) Temperate seas : Atlantic 50%
Cold seas : Atlantic 10%, North Sea 40%
c. Flat coasts 50% (comprising beaches, intertidal flats and
salt marshes
Steep coasts ; 50% (including cliff coasts of all kinds,
rocky shores and beaches protected by
sea walls)

- 43 -

f. 5 - 10%
There are two main types of dunes - those which develop as
a series of dune ridges either seawards or landwards, used
for cattle and sheep grazing, and those which form a flat
plain under persistent onshore winds (the machair in the
Outer Hebrides) extensively cultivated.
k. Terrestrial ecosystems : 65% ammophilous approx.5 - 10%
halophilous " 50%
coastal heathlands 5%
coastal forests (less than 1%)
(16,000 ha in four coastal forests)
Aquatic ecosystems 35% - soft substrate 17.5%
rocky substrate 17.5%
p. Main threats may be summarised as follows:
ammophilous recreation, sand extraction
halophilous recreation, mineral extraction
heathlands agriculture, reclamation for other uses
forests felling and timber extraction
rocky substrate coastal quarries, recreation
soft substrate reclamation, shell fisheries

Sand dunes : erosion (by human agencies, especially recreation)
building activities, military uses, etc
agricultural impact mainly on cultivated "machair"
if traditional management techniques are abandoned
eutrofication, overgrazing and trampling
afforestation of the large more mobile dune systems
Sea cliffs agricultural reclamation of the cliff top
development (housing, caravan parks)
increased public access
oil pollution, which may kill many thousands
of birds
Shingle structures : gravel extraction and interruption
of the sediment supply, which eventually leads to
erosion
establishment of nuclear power stations
Landward parts : recreation, urban development
Intertidal areas : agricultural development and flood protection
industrial reclamation and development
dams for water storage and power generation
harbour and marina development
wildfowling
local problems

- 44 -

A P P E N D I X 2

RIVERS - RIVER BANKS
3
a. (i) Number, length (km), mean annual flow (m /year)
(ii) Percentage of mountainous and plain zones
b. (i) Number of rivers with hydraulic works, % length of riparian banks
(ii) Percentage of length of riparian zones affected by
regulating works
c. Types of ecosystems
d. Evolution of bank ecosystems
e. Present uses (including protection)
f. Natural disasters
g. Threats
k. Possible measures (desirable for the maintenance
of the ecological balance)

AUSTRIA

a. (i) 16 main rivers, of a total length of 3,000 km
(ii) 75% mountainous and 25% plain
b. (i) 1 river with large dams and 15 rivers with other
hydraulic works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : 15% riparian forests, small percen-
tage of thickets of reed, marshes
and wet meadows
Aquatic ecosystems : 80% salmonide, 20% cyprinide
d. Terrestrial ecosystems : degradation caused mainly by
commercial and agricultural actitivies
Aquatic ecosystems :pollution from various sources
(cyprinide)
e. Recreation, navigation, agriculture, sport, industry,
commerce and irrigation
f. Seasonal floods
g. Sedimentation in watercourses due to erosion
k. Most suitable uses in order to avoid sedimentation,
construction of reservoirs for flow control

BELGIUM
- - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~9
a. (i) Three main rivers of a total flow of 12 x 10 m3/year ;
total length of all watercourses 28,355 km
b. (ii) 80% with regulating works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : 5% riparian forests
10% thickets of reed, marshes,
wet meadows
15% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : 80% salmonide, 40% cyprinide
e. Eutrophication, degradation due to pollution and hydraulic works
f. Floods (not serious)
g. Eutrophication due to hydraulic works
k . Treatment of waste waters, conservation of the banks in as
natural a state as possible

- 45 -

CYPRUS

a. (i) No rivers, but 40 main streams o0 a3total length of 1,500 km
and mean annual flow of 0.6 x 10 m /year
(ii) 80% mountainous, 20% plain
b. All rivers with hydraulic works
c. Terrestrial ecosystes : 14.4% riparian forests, small
percentage of thickets of reed, marshes
and wet meadows and 50% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : 2.5% salmonide
d. Parts of riparian forests are affected by fires, reforestation,
grazing and felling
e. Timber production, recreation, protection of fauna and flora
(for riparian forests only)
f. Fires and floods
g. Biocides (for salmonide ecosystems)

DENMARK

a. (i) 5 main rgvews, total length 44 km and mean annual flow of
3,4 X 10 m3/year
b. All rivers with hydraulic works and regulating works
C. Terrestrial ecosystems 10% riparian forests, 90% thickets
of reed, marshes and wet meadows
Aquatic ecosystems It is impossible to subdivide the
river ecosystems into salmonide and
cypri-nide zones because the
ecosystems change within a very short
distance
d. The riparian alder forest is a natural evolution of the
ecosystem along the river
Reed beds evolve towards marshes and wet meadows, because of
changes in the level of water and the plant communities
The salmonide and cyprinide development depends on the flux
of watercourses ; they are threatened by water level changes
and pollution
e. Deciduous forests for forestry (wood production), wet meadows
and salt marsh areas for hay harvesting, cattle grazing,
corn production and the whole river area for recreation
f. Intensive draining of the surrounding wetlands, pollution
due to fish farms and fertilisers

FRANCE

No data available
c. Sporadic occurrence of riparian forests

- 46-

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. (i 8 main rivers of a total length of 7,463 km and mean annual
flow of 159 x 10 m3/year
b. (i) All main rivers with hydraulic works
(ii) Many rivers affected by dykes
C. Terrestrial ecosystems :riparian flood plain forests, thickets
of reed, marshes and wet meadows
e. Nature reserve, important resting, feeding and wintering
area for endangered migratory species of waterfowl
g. -Water pollution (many rivers entering the Federal Republic of
Germany are already polluted and in some German areas they
carry additional pollution resulting from insufficiently
purified sewage effluents from households and industry, includ-
ing a high content of heavy metals)
-Important changes in the ecosystem caused by discharge of
large quantities of saline waste water from potash mines in
other countries (including Alsace)
-Water engineering measures lead to the loss of biotopes for
rare species, or of ecologically important areas such as
freshwater mud flats, by raising soil
-Draining and breaking up of the flood meadows and marshes
-increasing excavation activities and disturbances by
aquatic sports and angling
-Eutrophication caused by the leaching of mineral fertilisers

For the-flood p lain forests
-Lowering the groundwater table by the tapping of drinking
water, cultivation of exotic wood species
-Construction of industrial plants in the area of the flood
plain forests
-Large-scale gravel and sand extraction
-Uncoordinated construction of industrial plant
-Sinking groundwater table in near-shore areas as a result
of deep erosion
k. - Establishment of more nature reserves and sufficient buffer zones
- Construction of more sewage purification plants
- Deposition of spoil elsewhere than in ecologically valuable areas
- Restriction or ban on motor-boating and camping activities,
where appropriate
- Keeping of grasslands and dwarf shrub heathlands free of tree
and shrub vegetation
- Reduction of water removal
- Ban on gravel extraction in certain areas
- Diversion of heavily polluted outlet channels
- Restriction of waste waters from the potash mines in Alsace
- Prohibition of angling in silting zones
- Restriction of hunting activities near dams
- Transport of detritus from dams into areas with heavy
bed erosion

- 47 -

GREECE

a. (i) 26 main rivers of9a total length of 2,513 km and mean annual
flow of 0.18 x 10 m3/year
(ii) 78% mountainous, 22% plain
b. (ii) 11 rivers with hydraulic works
c. Aquatic ecosystems : Salmonide (total length 1,860 km)
d. Degradation and disturbance caused by technical works,
agriculture and pollution
e. Agriculture, recreation
f. Floods (not very frequent)
g. Pollution, drainage, reclamation, over-cutting and over-grazing
k. Forest management, controlled tourism and recreation

IRELAND

a. (i) 258 rivers of a9total length of 12,000 km and mean annual
flow of 40 x 10 m3/year
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : small percentage of riparian forests,
60% thickets of reed, marshes and
wet meadows
10% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : 30-40% salmonide, 60-70% cyprinide
d. Degradation of : alluvial forests due to commercial development
thickets of reed, marshes and wet meadows
by drainage for agricultural purposes
bushes by drainage for agricultural purposes
salmonide and cyprinide ecosystems by sewage
and agriculture
e. Recreation, shooting, agriculture (mainly pastures), fishing,
waste disposal, water abstraction, forestry
f. Seasonal floods (mainly in winter)
g. Drainage, organic pollution originating in sewage and
agriculture
k. Multiple use, including wildlife and fishery uses

ITALY

a. (i) 36 main rivers Of a total length of 6,885 km and mean annual
flow of 84 x 10 m3/year
b. All main rivers and some secondary ones
f. Floods
g. Erosion

LIECHTENSTEIN

a. 6 main rivers of9a total length of 77 km and mean annual
flow of 8.2 x 10 m3/year
b.(i) All rivers with hydraulic works
(ii) 100% with regulating works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : very small strip of semi-artificial
bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : mainly salmonide

- 48 -

LUXEMBOURG

a. (i) 5 watercourses of a total length of 310 km
(ii) 53% mountainous, 47% plain
b. Many watercourses have regulating works or hydraulic
constructions
c. Remainders of riparian forests
Aquatic ecosystems : 70% salmonide, 30% cyprinide
d. Forest coverage (32% of the country area) remains stable
Marshes and thickets of reed reduced to small areas because
of measures to improve agriculture
e. Riparian forests have been replaced by meadows and the
remaining ones have no production value, though they are
of great biological importance
In the largest valleys, wet meadows have been and are still
being drained. In the narrow valleys the meadows are
reforested, mainly with conifers
Aquatic ecosystems ; fishing, recreation, navigation (on one
canalised watercourse)
f. Periodical floods, damage mainly in inhabited areas
g. Accidental pollution or organic pollution
k. Degraded banks and bare shores will be replanted.
Ecological requirements must be taken into consideration
during the carrying out of hydraulic works

MALTA No rivers

NETHERLANDS

a. (i) 5 main rivers of a total length of 735 km ; the mean annual
flow of the Rhine and Meuse is 77 x 10 m3/year
b. (i) All the rivers have hydraulic works
(ii) 100% with regulating works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems i 10% riparian forests, 80% thickets of
reed, marshes and wet meadows,
5% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : 100% cyprinide
d. Terrestrial ecosystems :
- wet meadows : along almost every river branch flooded
at high level, used extensively for cattle grazing and
hay production. Degradation due to occupation as
recreation areas
- thickets of reed along quiet river banks, especially in the
estuaries, once valuable for reed crops for different uses
but now less important. Enclosure of estuaries from the sea
have diminished the surface of reed thickets dramatically in
those areas
- bushes ; willow bushes have been planted in the estuary areas
for centuries and were valuable for the branches ; now
harvesting has stopped and the bushes are too old for that use.

- 49 -

d. (continued)Aquatic ecosystems
- Dutch rivers are the downstream part of much larger rivers
and thus have only cyprinide ecosystems. Until 1930 these
parts were important as migration routes for salmonides
and other fishes, but because of the deterioration of rivers
and river banks and water pollution, such fish are seldom
found nowadays.
e. Angling
f. Periods of drought
g. Recreation and shipping (for the terrestrial ecosystems) ;
pollution and canalisation (for aquatic ecosystems)

NORWAY

a. (i) 8 main rivers of a total length of 1,939 km and total annual
mean flow of 76 x 10 m3/year
b. (i) Many rivers with hydro-electric developments (multiple
purpose reservoirs)
(ii) Regulating works in many parts of the banks
f. Frequent floods, erosion, landslips
g. Pollution, hydro-electric works

PORTUGAL

a. (i) Mainland : 16 main rivers of a total length of 2,367 km and
total annual flow of 67 x 10 m3/year
Madeira : 12 streams and torrents of a total length of
90.5 km
Azores : 18 streams and torrents of a total length of
73.8 km
(ii) Mainland : 70% mountainous, 30% plain (region north of Tejo)
40% mountainous, 60% plain (Tejo)
25% mountainous, 75% plain (region south of Tejo)
Madeira and Azores autonomous regions : 100% mountainous
b, (i) Mainland : all rivers with hydraulic works
Madeira : Small number of streams 'and torrents with
hydraulic works
Azores 5 streams with hydraulic works
c, Terrestrial ecosystems : the percentage of banks covered by
forests varies between 5 and 40%
in the rivers in the plains and the
mountains (Guadiana and Ave respectively)
Aquatic ecosystems : Salmonide (Azores)
d, Terrestrial ecosystems : natural riparian forests are being
progressively replaced by forests of
exotic species or of species for
intense industrial exploitation ;
the area of thickets of reed, marshes
and wet meadows and bushes tends to
diminish because of human activities,
embankments and regulating works

- 50 -

d. (cont.) Aquatic ecosystems :
- Mainland : pollution is the main reason for the degrada-
tion of aquatic ecosystems
- Azores : pollution is the main reason here also
e. Terrestrial ecosystems : timbering (data available for the
mainland and the Azores)
Aquatic ecosystems : fishing (data available for the Azores)
f. Mainland : Drought, occurring probably every fifteen years ;
floods probably every sixty years
Madeira : landslips due to floods or the absence of forests
Azores : landslips due to earthquakes or floods
g. Pollution, erosion, sedimentation, human activities
k. The protection of natural banks and the restoration of
degraded zones are very important measures that must be taken
Human intervention should be reduced

SPAIN

a. (i) The total length of th rivers is 66,743 km and the mean
annual flow is 90 x 10 m3/year
b. Many rivers have various regulating works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : 20% riparian forests, 30% thickets
of reed, marshes and wet meadows,
40% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : 25% salmonide, 75% cyprinide
f. Floods (every ten years) and droughts (every 25 years)
g. - Impact of hydraulic works on aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems
- Drainage of marshy areas
- Pollution, eutrophication
- Extended erosion due to constant deforestation for
agriculture and grazing purposes

SWEDEN

a. (i) 42 main rivers of a total estimated length of 42,413 km
b. Almost all rivers with hydraulic works (hydroelectric power
plants)
c, Hydroelectric power production, fishing
f. - The effect of heavy precipitation, intensive snow melt or
long droughts is not regarded as a serious problem, since
most rivers are controlled
Landslips (in areas of clays with high organic content and
water content)
- Erosion of the sandy-silty material deposited in the gullies
during and after the last Ice Age
g. - Impact from hydraulic works
- Changes of climatological conditions as a consequence of the
damming of water
- Changes in the amount of suspended matter transported has a
negative effect on the bottom-living fauna

- 51 -

g.(cont.) - The raised water levels in reservoirs make the groundwater
level rise and this in certain cases leads to swamping of
forest areas
- Increased fish production, immediately after the construction
phase of hydraulic works and final stabilisation, on a
usually lower level of the fish production than prior to the
hydraulic works
- Pollution from household sewage, industrial waste waters and
fertilisers used in farming
- Deposit of airborne emissions causing continual acidification
(40-50% of the deposited acid originates outside Sweden).
The most severe effect on the river ecosystem occurs during
spring when melting of the snow cover gives rise to very low
pH values, which are harmful to aquatic animals
k. Research project, concerning the effects of erosion in
regulating reservoirs and river stretches affected by regu-
lating works

SWITZERLAND

a. i)3,080 rivers longer than I km each, with a total length of
21,200 Vm and a mean annual flow leaving Switzerland of
50 x 10 m3/year
(ii) 40% mountainous and 60% plain
b. (i) Large proportion of rivers with hydraulic works
(ii) 33% of the rivers with regulating works
C. Terrestrial ecosystems : approximately 27% riparian forests,-
small percentage of thickets of reed,
marshes and wet meadows
Aquatic ecosystems : 90% salmonide and 10% cyprinide
d. Riparia~n forests were cleared (13th - 14th century) for
pastures and meadows for intensive cattle breeding. After the
Second World War these areas were only reforested in cases where they
could not be used for modern agriculture. There are practically
no thickets of reed because of the flux of watercourses. More than
99% of wet meadows are of human origin (litter production)
but they are decreasing sharply nowadays because they are given
over either to Intensive agriculture or building.
e. In general, legislation demands the conservation of natural
banks. The riparian vegetation is totally protected, with the
exception of cases where there is overriding public interest.
Deforestation and clear-cutting are forbidden by forestry
legislation.
f. Dangerous floods ; the danger has been greatly reduced as a
consequence of protective and regulating works
g. Mountain areas removing and storing water for hydroelectric
production
Plains :regulating works, gravel removal, pollution,
navigation, forestry, recreation
k. -River ecosystems which are still preserved should be protected
against all human interference
-On natural, semi-natural banks, new works must be permitted
only for the security of the population or for protection of
land already used by man
-Development aimed at gaining new land, for any use, is not
advisable and if it is absolutely necessary, an environmental
impact assessment or landscape study should be carried out first
-Serious consideration should be given to the ecological aspects
of navigation projects before any decision is taken
-An efficient state control body is indispensable

- 52 -

TURKEY

a. (i) 24 main rivers (longer than 250 km each), of a total length
of 12,219 km
(ii) 95% mountainous, 5% plain
b. 68 rivers with large dams and 17 rivers and canals with
hydro-electric power stations
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : 50% riparian forests, 15% thickets
of reed, marshes and wet meadows
Aquatic ecosystems : 30% salmonide, 70% cyprinide
d. - Most of the riparian forests (in coastal plains) have been
cleared for agriculture
- Some of the wet meadows have been drained
- Wet meadows' flora has also been diminished because of
frequent floods
e. Irrigation, fisheries, recreation, pastures, agriculture
f. Floods (small rivers and creeks)
k. Regulating river flow constructions for avoidance of
sedimentation and floods

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

a. The total length of the main rivers under Water Board control
is 80,860 km (28,147 in England, 5,374 in Wales and
47,279 km in Scot and). The mean annual flow of Scottish
rivers is 73 x 10 m3/year
b. (i) All the main rivers and about 700 tributaries with hydraulic
works
(ii) Substantial percentage with regulating works
c. Terrestrial ecosystems : 15% riparian forests, 30% thickets
of reed marshes and wet meadows,
15% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems ; 67% salmonide, 33% cyprinide
g. Improvement schemes (for drainage purposes) for domestic
and industrial effluents
k. - Successful draining of forest areas is necessary in order to
avoid sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs
- Maintenance and improvement of natural vegetation

- 53 -

APPENDIX 3

LAKES - LAKE SHORES

a. (i) Number - Total area (ha)
(ii) Types of lakes
b. Types of ecosystems
c. Evolution
d. Present uses (including protection)
e. Natural disasters:
f. Present threats
g. Possible measures (desirable for the maintenance
of the ecological balance)

AUSTRIA

a. (i) 22 lakes of more than 2 km2 each and a total area of 120,000 ha
(ii) 5 Alpine, 16 other mountainous, 1 plain
b. Terrestrial ecosystems : 12% hygrophilous forests, small
percentage of thickets of reed, marshes and wet meadows
c. Change of trophic status from eutrophic to oligotrophic
as a result of advanced waste water treatment technologies
d. The natural lakes are situated in a protected area -
recreation, farming, housing
f. Anthropogenic influences
g. Conservation of biotopes, further increase in pollution contro�

BELGIUM No natural lakes

CYPRUS

a. (i) 2 lakes of a total area of 1,570 ha
(ii) 2 salty
b. Aquatic ecosystems : 5% with emergent vegetation and 95%
with no vegetation
d. Source of edible salt for the country

DENMARK

a. (i) 1,Q08 lakes of a total area of 43,428 ha
(ii) Almost all are plain, few of them are alcaline
b, Terrestrial ecosystems : the main part consists of thickets
of reed, marshes, wet meadows and the
rest of hygrophilous forests
Aquatic ecosystems : mostly with vegetation
c. Reed-beds evolve towards marshes and wet meadows. The immigra-
tion of different plant communities, caused by a change in the
climate, has modified the lake to its present form ; this
process will continue until its transformation into a bog.
d. Wet meadows are used for the production of hay, grazing and
recreation
e. Pollution from domestic and industrial effluents : intensive
use of fertilisers in farming ; filling up of small lakes
f. Pollution control

- 54-

FRANCE 36 main lakes of a total area of more than 68,000 ha

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. (i More than 337 lakes of a total area of more than 109,424 ha
(ii) 24 mountain lakes (81,710 ha) and more than 315 plain
(27,714 ha)
b. Terrestrial ecosystems :hygrophilous forests, thickets of
reed, bushes, marshes and wet meadows
Aquatic ecosystems : with vegetation
c. ~~Most of the big natural lakes are situated in the area of
former glacial regions in north and south Germany. Owing
to the natural genesis and to strong anthropogenic influences
most lakes are eutrophic (some of them are hypertropic).
The ologotrophic lakes are extremely rare, highly endangered
and consequently particularly worthy of protection. Some
crater lakes ha've become boggy.
d. Fisheries, recreation, breeding area for endangered bird
species, important resting and wintering area for numerous
waders and waterfowl, nature park with a large proportion
of protected landscapes,
f. - Industrialisation of near-shore areas
- intensive tourism on the shores of the lakes
- Increasing use of the lakes for aquatic sports and recreation
- Permanent influx of nutrients from farmland, in particular
to ologotrophic waters
- Heavy ship traffic
- EutrophicatiQn due to the discharge of domestic sewage
effluents (only for crater lakes) and the influx of mineral
fertilisers
- Unrestricted hunting activities
- Draining and peat extraction in adjacent bogs
- Large production of mud owing to the construction of dykes
- No regular flooding of adjacent areas because of the
construction of dykes
- Harbour installations, housing
- Change in scenic unity of crater lake rampart, resulting from
the extraction of pumice stone at the edge of the crater
g. - Restriction of water craft and recreational boating where
appropriate
- Establishment of more nature reserves in the area of
ologotrophic lakes
- Continuation of the endeavours to prevent pollution of the
waters of the lakes
- Harmonisation of different hunting regulations
- Designation of lake districts as "wetlands of international
importance"~
- Replanting of bushes and reeds
- Establishment of game reserves
- Restriction of peat extraction
- Reduction of the permanent large influx of nutrients,
(carried by river) by construction of sewage purification plants
- Continuation of the measures for the removal of sludge
- Cessation of the granting of permits for the construction
of harbour installations, piers and weekend houses
-Maintenance of traditional agriculture and forestry in the
areas surrounding the lakes, if necessary by governmental
subsidies,

- 55 -

GREECE

a. (i) 38 lakes of a total area of 52,300 ha
(ii) 7 mountainous (21,000 ha) and 31 plain (31,420 ha)
c. Agriculture, housing and recreation
d. No significant natural disasters
e. Pollution, agriculture, over-cutting, drainage, over-
grazing, housing
f. Forest management, pollution control, controlled tourism,
recreation

IRELAND

a. (i) 53 great lakes of a total area of 84, 462 ha
(ii) 10% mountainous and 90% plain
f. Agricultural reclamation, peat exploitation, drainage
and water pollution
g. Maintain the ecosystems in present ecological condition

ITALY

a. (i) 10 main lakes of a total area of 134,800 ha
(ii) Alpine, prealpine and volcanic
b. The activity of glaciers has brought about some evolution
of the prealpine lakes

LIECHTENSTEIN

a. 3 small ponds of a total area of 3.5 ha
d. The three ponds are protected

LUXEMBQURG No lakes

MALTA No lakes

NETHERLANDS

a. (i) 5 lakes of a total area of 2.11,045 ha
(ii) 1 salty, 1 brackish
b. Terrestrial ecosystems ; no hygrophilous forests,
80% thickets of reed, marshes and
wet meadows ; less than 5% bushes
Aquatic ecosystems : less than 20% with vegetation and
more than 65% without vegetation
c. The terrestrial ecosystems of most of the lakes have been
formed more or less on the basis of artificial measures.
The existence and development of aquatic ecosystems are
related to the artificial character of most of the lakes.
Heavy eutrophication in most lakes has caused the disappearance
of emergent and submerged water plants and the occurrence of
blooms of algae everywhere, especially during the last 20 years.

- 56 -

d. Commercial fishing and angling ;,harvesting reeds for thatch
e. Droughts (once every 10 - 20 years)
f. Angling, dredging for sand, lowering of the water level in
adjacent areas, pollution (including eutrophication),
intensive recreational use of all lakes and lake shores
g. Restoration and balanced use of areas is very important

NORWAY
3
a. 211,000 lakes of a total area of 1,640 x 10 ha
c. Changes in communities of plants and fish
d. Agriculture, industry, various recreational and conservation
purposes
e. Glacial activity
f. Acidification of the water by acid rain, pollution caused
by industry, agriculture and sewage
g. Pollution control measures (national and international)

PORTUGAL

a. (i) 54 lakes (ponds included) of a total area of 1,499 ha
(ii) Mountainous (14 lakes on the mainland, all those in the Azores)
b. Data available only for the Azores Autonomous Region
Terrestrial ecosystems : thickets of reed, marshes and wet
meadows
Aquatic ecosystems : with vegetation
c. Mainland : human activities (agriculture and urbanisation)
and the discharge of untreated effluents are the
main causes of eutrophication
Azores : degradation of lake shore ecosystems by grazing
d. Housing, tourism, agriculture, grazing
e. Droughts, floods, earthquakes
f. Eutrophication, housing, tourism
g. Complete studies of ecosystems

SPAIN

a. Natural lakes are rare ; 700 artificial lakes of a total
area of 200,000 ha

SWEDEN

a. (i) 50,000 lakel greater than I ha each, of a total area of
34,323 x 10 ha
(ii) Alpine, other mountainous and the majority Scandinavian
c. The accelerated production of biomass increases the growth
rate of the bottom sediments which means that the aging of
the lake is speeded up
d, Housing
f. - Pollution from household sewage, industrial waste water
- Eutrophication due to the high input of nitrogen and
phosphorus, mainly from sewage and agriculture
- Deposit of airborne emissions leading to continual acidifica-
tion (40-50% of the acid originates outside Sweden)
- Private holiday houses
- Erosion

- 57 -

SWITZERLAND

a. (i) 70 lakes greater than 10 ha each (28 of them greater than
50 ha each) of a total area of 4.08 x 10 ha
(ii) 29 alpine (123,085 ha), 3 other mountainous (1,000 ha) in
the Jura, 9 plain (86,390 ha)
b. Terrestrial ecosystems : only 5% of banks with hygrophilous
forests, thickets of reed, marshes
and wet meadows in an undisturbed state
Aquatic ecosystems : 75% of banks with vegetation of macro-
phytes
c. Change of water meadows and marshes into agricultural land.
Until 1902, cutting down of riverside forests. Degradation
of reed-beds because of regulating works, pollution and
navigation
d. Recreation, tourism
f. Recreation, housing, road and railway construction,
pollution from agriculture, erosion
g. Strict protection of nearly natural lake shores against
recreation, housing, navigation, pollution from agriculture.
Strengthening of local authorities. Studies on the evolution
of ecosystems

TURKEY

a. 48 lakes larger than 5 km2 each, of a total area of 889,700 ha
b. Terrestrial ecosystems : less than 1% hygrophilous forests
94% thickets of reed, marshes and
bushes
5% bushes
d. Protected areas, recreation, fishing, sources of drinking water
e. Floods, earthquakes, landslips, drought
f. Drainage
gs Physical planning studies for the lakes used as drinking water
sources, A number of lakes have been put under protection.

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

a. (i) 5,505 lakes and reservoirs (1,790 natural lakes in Wales ;
3,500 water bodies in Scotland)
(ii) Alpine, other mountainous, plain
d. Recreation, various hydraulic works
f. Eutrophication, recreation, reservoir construction and
hydroelectric schemes
g. High nature conservation interest

- 58 -

A PP EN DI X 4

LAGOONS - LAGOON SHORES

a. Number of main lagoons, total area (ha), length of lagoon shores (kmn),
area (ha) of their coastal zone
b. Number of lagoons and total percentage of length of their shores
with regulating works
C. Percentage of lagoon shore which is natural, semi-natural,
artificial
d. Present trophic status and evolution
e. Present uses (including protection)
f. Natural disasters
g. Present threats
h. Desirable (and possible) uses of lagoon ecosystems and ecological
balance of these ecosystems

AUSTRIA No lagoons

BELGIUM No lagoons

CYPRUS Data not available

DENMARK

a. 4 main lagoons of a total area of 91,000 ha and total length
of 500 kmn, 150,000 ha
b. 7 lagoons with regulating works (dykes, canals, sluices)
C. 90% natural and 10% artificial
e. Fishing, recreation, outlet of domestic sewage and industrial
waste water
f. Floods due to break-through of the dykes
g. Water level changes,, human activity

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. Large shallow-water areas near the Baltic coast
g. Pollution due to sewage discharge from neighbouring states of
the Baltic, increased recreational use
h. Construction of more sewage purification plants in all countries
bordering the Baltic
Construction of more recreational facilities - if at all - only
in agreement with the nature conservation authorities
Establishment of more nature reserves of reasonable size
Declaration of these shallow-water areas as a ''wetland of
international importance"'

- 59 -

FRANCE

a. 20 lagoons of a total area of 80,000 ha and total length of 600 km
e. Urbanisation, industry, shellfish growing area

GREECE

a. 24 lagoons of a total area of 24,500 ha and total length of 350 km,
3,500 ha
c. 10% natural, 85% semi-natural, 5% artificial
e. Aquaculture, agriculture, recreation
f. Floods (to a limited extent and not frequent)
g. Pollution, agriculture, instability of water level, wave action
and overgrazing
h. Controlled management of aquaculture, agriculture, grazing and
recreation

IRELAND

a. The total area of lagoons is approximately 2,500 ha and the
total length approximately 60 - 100 km
b. Some lagoons have regulating works
c. 100% natural
d. Oligotrophic or mesotrophic,;generally, but also some brackish
e. Wildlife, shooting, fishing
f. None
g. Drainage and agricultural reclamation works
h. Maintain in present ecological condition; mariculture

ITALY

a. The total area of lagoons is approximately 124,826 ha
e. Hunting,fisheries, nature reserves

LIECHTENSTEIN No lagoons

LUXEMBOURG No lagoons

MALTA No lagoons

NETHERLANDS

a. 1 main lagoon (Wadden Sea) of a total area (Dutch part) of
approximately 225,000Q ha
b. 50% with hydraulic works (dykes), mostly important
c. Mostly natural, semi-natural
d. Mesotrophic, varying from oligotrophic (near the sea entrances)
to eutrophic (in the ends of the smaller arms of the sea)

- 60

The present ecosystem, formed by intrusion of the sea through a
dune coast 20 to 15 centuries ago, can be called "full grown"
now; terrestrial ecosystems are very rich in saline vegetation
and aquatic ones are rich in species, individuals and vegetation.
The very large area of shallow water is a feeding area for the
juvenile stages of sea organisms. Because of nature conservation
priorities, the building of dykes on the lagoon shores for
agricultural purposes has been almost entirely sopped.
The vegetation on the highest mud and sand flats is extensively
grazed by cattle.
e. Land reclamation of the border parts, fisheries, sand extraction,
digging of cockle shells, angling, recreation, military uses, gas
and oil drilling (occasionally)
f. Heavy storms and high floods
g. Pollution, orginating from industrial wastes
Sedimentation of coastal sea due to silt which carries heavy
metals and pesticides
Human activities
h. All activities must be carried out according to the existing
management plans, ensuring the conservation of the environment,
the habitats, the ecosystems and the landscape

NORWAY No lagoons of any significance

PORTUGAL

a. Mainland: 9 lagoons of a total area of 19,935 ha and total
length of 496.2 km
Azores Autonomous Region: 2 lagoons of a total area of 19,25 ha
and total length of 3 km
Madeira Autonomous Region: No lagoons

b. Mainland: 11% with regulating works (data available for
3 lagoons only)
Azores Autonomous Region: No regulating works
C. Mainland: 14.77% - 71% natural, 11.62%- 30% semi-natural,
61.91% - 14.1% artificial
Azores Autonomous Region: 75% natural, 25% semi-natural
d. Oligotrophic (Lagoon de Mira)

SPAIN

a. 51 lagoons, of a total area of 30,710 ha
f. Droughts
g. Drainage, pollution due to waste waters, urbanisation, lowering
of the bottom level

SWEDEN No lagoons of any significance

SWITZERLAND No lagoons

- 61 -

TURKEY

a. The total length is 190 km and the total area of coastal zone
is 21,000 ha
c. 95% natural, 4% semi-natural, 1% artificial
e. Recreation and commercial fishing
f. No natural disasters
g. Overfishing

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

a. Lagoons are a relatively rare habitat type in Britain

-62 -

AP PE N DI X 5

RIVER MOUTHS :DELTAS AND ESTUARIES

a. Total area (ha) of deltas and estuaries, total length and
width (km x kin) of each delta and estuary
b. Number of deltas and estuaries and percentage of their
total area with regulating works
C. Percentage of delta and estuary areas which are natural,
semi-natural, artificial
d. Present trophic status and evolution
e. Present uses

AUSTRIA No river mouths

BELGIUM

a.. No deltas
One estuary of a total area of 250 ha (3 km by 0.15 kin)
C. 40% natural, 20% semi-natural, 40% artificial
e. Yachting, military zone, nature reserve

CYPRUS No significant deltas or estuaries

DENMARK

a. No estuaries
One delta of a total area of approximately 4,000 ha (8 kmn x 6 kmn)
b. 97% have been drained
C. 3% semni-natural, 97% artificial
d. The delta area has been built up during periods of varying
sea levels which have affected the composition of sediments.
The delta consists of brackish sediments and freshwater
sediments
e, ~~ Agriculture, fishing, recreation

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. One delta and three estuaries
e. Deltas :establish nature reserves
designate the area as a "wetland of international
importance"
intensify the extension of sewage purification plants
settle the problem of waste water from the potash
mines in Alsace
Estuaries :establish more nature reserves
construction of more sewage purification plants
concentrate soil extraction
prohibit drainage of the land

- 63 -

FRANCE

a. One delta, three main estuaries of a total length of 766 km
d. All estuaries have been considerably modified by the
establishment of industrial zones and harbour constructions

GREECE

a. No estuaries. 8 deltas of a total area of 10,512 ha (15 km
x 8 km), (2 km x 4 km), (2 km x 3 km), (1.5 x 3.5 km),
(4 x 2,5 km), (10 x 5 km), (6.5 x 10 km), (6 x 9 km)
b. 10% of delta areas have regulating works (4 deltas only)
C. 60% natural, 34% semi-natural, 6% artificial
e. Agriculture, fisheries, grazing

IRELAND

c. Estuaries : 80% natural, 19% semi-natural, 1% artificial
d. Mildly eutrophic in upper reaches (for 5 studied estuaries)
e, Transport, harbours, amenity uses, nature conservation

ITALY

a. One major delta consisting of five active branches
d. Recently formed, consisting of a series of littoral sand
bars and abandoned river beds. Man's intervention upset the
general balance, causing mainly the lowering of the soil
level due to extraction of water and natural gas. During
the last century many areas of the deltas were taken for land
reclamation, The installation of a nuclear power station
caused perhaps the biggest ecological controversy.
e. Extraction of waters and oil, land reclamation, exploitation
of the water table, installation of nuclear power station

LIECHTENSTEIN No river mouths

LUXEMBOURG No river mouths

MALTA No river mouths

NETHERLANDS

a. 2 estuaries of an area of 450,000 ha (60 x 65 km), (40 x 12 km)
b, 7,5 % with regulating works
c. 100% artificial
d. All estuaries are eutrophic, Deltas contain several large
branches and arms of the sea,

- 64 -

d. (contd) Ecological evolution of
- freshwater parts of estuaries : these are the lower reaches
of large river systems. For many decades past the water has
been eutrophic with a rich growth of typical plants and other
organisms. The adjacent ground is very fertile (river clay
and river sand) and is used for agriculture. This process
started ten years ago and will last for the next 50 - 100 years.
- brackish parts of estuaries : because of their great width
cities have sprung up here, and industries since 1930.
Since 1950 all shores have become artificial so as to permit
shipping. They are heavily eutrophic and polluted.
- almost entirely saline parts of estuaries : two of them, with
long shorelines, are mesotrophic and have a function as
feeding grounds for juvenile stages of sea organisms
- sea arms : one large sea arm is less polluted than the above-
mentioned saline parts of estuaries
- enclosed sea arms : formed by the Delta works, 10 - 20 years
ago. Mesotrophic due to municipal and agricultural wastes,
and oligotrophic. Stratification occurs, due to salt content
and temperature differences.
e. Water management, navigation, industry, agriculture, recreation,
marine cultures.

PORTUGAL

a. 14 estuaries, of a total area of 52,026 ha (12 estuaries)
(28 x 2,300 kin), (4 x 0,620 kin), (2 x 0.120 km), (18 x 1,300 kmi),
(8 x 0.1 kin), (12 x 0.62 kin), ( x 0.1 km), (79 x 13 km),
(43 x 5 km), (19 x 0.45 km), (2.5 x 0.8 kin), (14 x 1 km),
(49 x 0.75 km)
b. All estuaries with regulating works
c. 0.19% - 38.85% natural
6.3% - 75,66% semi natural
1.7% - 88,7% artificial

SPAIN

a. 16 river mouth areas of a total area of 18,820 ha
e. Alteration of their morphology as a consequence of hydraulic
installations in the watercourses near the deltas

SWEDEN

a. One large coastal delta of a total area of 1,000 ha (5 x 4 km)
b. No regulating works in deltas and estuaries
c. Delta area ; 40% natural, 30% semi-natural, 30% artificial
Estuaries : 50% natural, 30% semi-natural, 20% artificial
(one estuary 100% natural)
e. Delta area : airport, roads, houses, recreation
Estuaries ; harbour, recreation, holiday houses

- 65 -

SWITZERLAND

a. No estuaries ; 4 lake deltas of modest dimensions, with
a total area of 4,200 ha

TURKEY

a. 4 deltas of a total area of 220,600 ha
(25 x 40 km), (25 x 40 km), (45 x 60 km), (40 x 50 km)
b. All deltas with irrigation systems
c. 2% natural (agricultural land)
3% semi-natural
95% artificial
d. Eutrophic
e. Farm lands

- 66 -

APPENDIX 6

OTHER WETLANDS : (I) PEATLANDS, (II) INLAND MARSHES, SWAMPS OR PONDS
(III) COASTAL MARSHES

a. Total area (ha) of 1, II and III
b. Number of I, II and III affected by hydraulic and
land reclamation works
c. Percentage of I, II and III which is natural, semi-natural,
artificial
d. Evolution of ecosystems
e. Uses (including protection)
f. Threats

AUSTRIA

f. Roads, watercourses, management works

BELGIUM

a. Peatlands ; 4,000 ha
b. No regulating works
c. 100% natural
e. Nature reserves
f. Excessive tourism

CYPRUS No wetlands of these types

DENMARK

a. Peatlands, inland marshes, swamps, ponds and coastal
marshes of a total area of 34,000 ha
b. A very large part of these areas is affected by hydraulic
and land reclamation works
c. I : mainly seminatural and artificial. Small part natural
II : semi-natural (major part)
III : 90% semi-natural or artificial
e, Agriculture, grazing and hunting
f. Drainage, lowering of water table caused by water use,
pollution and land reclamation for agriculture

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

a. Coastal marshes, inland marshes, peatlands, bogs, fens, ponds
e. Nature reserve, hunting ; resting, wintering and breeding area
for endangered species (eg waders, waterfowl), peat extraction
f. Floods, excessive peat exploitation, construction of dykes,
marine pollution, hunting, pollution resulting from insufficiently
purified domestic sewage or industrial waste water with high
content of heavy metals. Draining, large scale gravel and
sand extraction, excessive occurrence of mute swan, eutrophica-
tion

- 67 -

FRANCE

a. 900 peatlands
35 main swamps (greater than 100 ha each) ; total area
71,716 ha
c. Peatlands : natural or semi-natural
e. Forestry, agriculture
f. Conifer plantations, drainage

GREECE

a. Marshes and swamps (inland and coastal) of a total area
of 70,900 ha
d. Drainage, agriculture and grazing are the main causes of the
degradation of these ecosystems
e. Mainly grazing and, to a lesser extent, agriculture
f. Over-grazing, drainage, fires

IRELAND

a. Peatlands of a total area of 958,000 ha
Inland marshes cover 5% of surface area
Coastal marshes cover 2% of surface area
b. Peatlands : 50% affected by hydraulic and land reclamation works
Inland marshes : 4% affected by hydraulic and land reclamation
works
Coastal marshes : less than 1% being used as a dumping area
c. Peatlands : 5% natural, 55% semi-natural, 40% artificial
Inland marshes : 60% natural, 30% semi-natural, 10% artificial
Coastal marshes ; 80% natural, 19% semi-natural, 1% artificial
d. Peatlands : turf cutting and afforestation
Inland marshes ; arterial drainage and reclamation for
agriculture
Coastal marshes : pollution and refuse dumping
e. Peatland and inland marshes : some grazing, peat removal,
afforestation
Coastal marshes : some grazing and refuse dumping
f. Peatlands ; turf cutting, afforestation
Inland marshes : arterial drainage and reclamation for
agriculture
Coastal marshes : arterial drainage

LIECHTENSTEIN

a. Great part of the remaining 160 ha of wetlands is marshy
b. Due to land reclamation for agriculture, the 2,0Q0Q ha of
wetlands which existed in the 19th century have been reduced
to an area of 160 ha? which is now of great botanical and
zoological importance
e. Nature reserve

- 68 -

LUXEMBOURG

a. About 100 ha wetlands (reed-beds, marshes)
b. Some of these small wetlands are threatened by agriculture
or filling with dumped material
c. Natural or semi-natural state
e. Creation of nature reserves
f. Organic pollution, destruction of the natural environment

MALTA

a. Coastal marshes ; one major area of 7 ha and other very
small areas
c. 100% natural
d, In the past the major area was leased to private individuals
for hunting, Peripheral degradation was caused by the
gradual encroachment of agricultural activities. It is now
under legal protection
e, Nature reserve
f, No threats

NETHERIANDS

a, Peatlands ; approximately 20,000 ha
Inland marshes, swamps and ponds ; 125,000 ha
Coastal marshes : 8,QQQ ha
e. Recreation, conservation, nature reserve
f. Intensive recreation, land reallocation plans

NORWAY

a, Bogs : TQtal area of 3,010,000 ha
d. From 1966 to 1976, an average of 10,000 ha of bogland was
drained annually, In 1976 a total of 400,000 ha was reclaimed.
In recent years the rate of reclamation has declined
e. Pastures, forestry
f. Land reclamation

PORTUGAL

a. Mainland : peatlands - 1,040 ha ; coastal marshes - 28,449 ha
Madeira Autonomous Region data not available
Azores Autonomous Region data not available
c. Mainly natural and semi-natural
d. Degradation due to infrastructure works, drainage, trans-
formation for agricultural purposes
e. Agriculture
f. Sedimentation, deposition of refuse, pollution, infra-
structure, transformation for agricultural purposes

- 69 -

SPAIN

a. 31 marshes (mostly swamps) of a total area of 108,530 ha
d. Degradation due to draining for agricultural purposes
e. Agriculture (rice culture), establishment of human settlements
f. Drainage. Establishment of human settlements. Pollution due
to fertilisers, pesticides, domestic sewage and industrial
waste waters

SWEDEN

a. At least 3.600 wetland areas with a total of 800,000 ha.
Their size varies from less than 10 ha to approximately
100,000 ha (Scandinavian mountain regions not included).
d. In some agricultural districts in southern and central
Sweden, many of the wetlands have been drained and used
for other purposes. This has been going' on since the early
19th century
e. Forestry, agriculture, energy production, hunting, fishing,
bird-watching, educational and scientific purposes
f. Plantations, regulating works, intensive ditching and
fertilising, peat cutting

SWITZERLAND

a. Peatlands : 300 - 500 in number with a total area of 500 ha
Marshes ; 2 in number with a total area of 450 ha
c. Peatlands ; 5% natural, 95% semi-natural
d, Peatlands : intensive exploitation up to World War I caused
the disappearance of most of the peatlands, Together with
drainage, this caused the degradation of 91% of the peatland
area,
Marshes : most have been drained for agriculture and only about
10 - 15X of those existing in the period from the 10th to the
14th century still remain
e. Peatlands ; peat exploitation
Marshes ; agriculture
f. Peatlands : drainage, peat exploitation
Marshes : drainage

TURKEY

a. No peatland or coastal marshes ; one inland marsh
c. 95% natural, 4% semi-natural, 1% artificial
d. Land reclamation, over-grazing, over-fishing and
hunting are causes of degradation
e, Grazing, fishing, recreation, agriculture
f. Drainage, fishing, sedimentation, over-fishing, pollution

- 70-

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

a. The total area of fen, bog and river meadows habitat is
86,500 ha; Salt marshes cover a total area of 4,500 ha
d. The total area of the above biotopes has been extensively
reclaimed in the past, mainly for agricultural purposes.
Nowadays, reclamation is for industrial, urban and defence
purposes
e. Drainage, dams, pollution

- 71 -

APPENDIX 7

BIOTOPES AND PROTECTED AREAS

AUSTRIA

Five sites have been declared "wetlands of international
importance", according to the Ramsar Convention.

BELGIUM

- Marine dunes : Westhoek nature reserve (La Panne)
- Brackish water areas ; Zwin nature reserve (Kuokke-Heist)
- Freshwater areas : Blankaart nature reserve (Woumen) and
Kalmthout nature reserve
- Peatlands : Hautes Fagnes and Plateau des Tailles nature reserves

CYPRUS

20 acres of green turtle breeding habitat (sandy beach on the west
coast) are protected.

DENMARK

There are 593,500 ha of potentially valuable humid areas, 24,657 ha
of which are protected and 11,589 ha are game reserves. In addition, there
are 67,450 ha of other protected sites (bogs, dunes, streams, lakes,
marshes, reeds, etc). Some biotopes are included in the Ramsar Convention.

FRANCE

There are numerous biotopes of importance in rivers, lakes, lagoons,
etc. There is also a number of nature reserves mainly for the protection
of birds. The following list gives the sites which are official wetland
nature reserves :

Lac Luitel
Tourbiere de Mathon
Etang Noir
Marais du Bout du Lac d'Annecy
Camargue
Les Sagnes de la Godivelle
Roque Haute
Etang de l'Estagnol
Mare de Vauville
Etang du Cousseau
Saint-Denis du Payre
Etang de Saint-Ladre
Domaine de Beauguillot
Delta de la Dranse
Pinail
Lilleau des Niges (Fiers d'Ars)
Remoray
Grand Lieu
Marais d'Yves
Courant d'Huchet
Marais d'Isle

- 72 -

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

The total protected area (nature reserves) covers 235,941 ha,
including part of the Wadden Sea (216,298 ha). The species protected
are birds (mainly aquatic), plants, amphibians and reptiles. 17 sites
have been declared "wetlands of international importance" according to
the Ramsar Convention and 18 others can be considered potential "wet-
lands of international importance".

Coastal regions : nature reserves of a total area of 219,000 ha
and two game reserves with a total area of 60,000 ha, as follows

North Sea cost of Schleswig-Holstein (nature reserve, 165,000 ha)
North Sea coast of Niedersachsen (nature reserves, 60,000 ha)
Baltic coast - Schleswig-Holstein (9 nature reserves - 1,500 ha
and 2 game reserves - 52,500 ha)

Bodies of running water : 71 nature reserves of a total area of
13,612 ha as follows

Elbe river (12 nature reserves, 2,800 ha)
Weser river (5 nature reserves, 135 ha)
Ems river (4 nature reserves, 220 ha)
Rhine river (27 nature reserves, 7,750 ha)
Main river (9 nature reserves, 297 ha)
Danube river (7 nature reserves, 709 ha)
Isar river (6 nature reserves, 972 ha)
Inn river (1 nature reserve, 729 ha)

Natural lakes : 45 nature reserves of a total area of 10,144 ha and
one game reserve of 1,178 ha, as follows

Steinhuder Meer (4 nature reserves, 748 ha)
Ostholsteinische und Lakenburgische (12 nature reserves, 120 ha)
Dummer ( nature reserves, 880 ha and 1 game reserve 1,778 ha)
Maarseen der Eifel (12 nature reserves, 2,370 ha)
Bodensee (7 nature reserves~ 2,028 ha)
Mindensee (7 nature reserves, 310 ha)
Sudbayerische Seenplatte (7 nature reserves, 3,388 ha)

Artificial water bodies : 9 nature reserves of a total area of
1,810 ha, as follows :

Meibeudorfer Teiche (1 nature reserve, 750 ha)
Riddaghauser Teiche (1 nature reserve, 475 ha)
Mohuesse Teicher (2 nature reserves, 300 ha)
Weisterwalder Fischteicher (5 nature reserves, 285 ha)

GREECE

There are 31 biotopes of importance, 12 of which are protected
(6 aesthetic forests, 3 national forests ; Lake Prespa, Evros delta and
Lesbos petrified forest).

- 73-

IRELAND

21 biotopes of importance have been protected. These include
19 statutory nature reserves and 4 national parks. in addition, 70 wild-
fowl sanctuaries have been created where the hunting of protected wild
birds during the open season is prohibited.

ITALY

A long list of proposals has been submitted for approval to the
national and regional authorities. Final decisions depend on the adoption
of the Outline Law on national parks and nature protection, which has been
submitted to Parliament with a list of 25 national parks, covering wetlands
(including 15 marine parks). Some biotopes have been declared "wetlands
of international importance"1 according to the Ramsar Convention.

LIECHTENSTEIN

160 ha of wetlands and 35 ha of ponds are fully protected. The
government acquires privately owned land for optimum protection.

LUXEM~BOURG

60 wetlands, all small (I - 5 ha) have been noted for designation
as nature reserves. Wherever possible, the State purchases private
property situated in wetlands.

MALTA

Ghadira (brackish-salt water wetland) is legally protected since
1979 and a physical rehabilitation scheme was started in 1980 with the
aim of converting it into a permanent nature reserve.

NETHERLANDS

The Wadden Sea, the eastern Schelde and Lake Grevelingen. Other
areas (76,500 ha) are protected by integrated planning with emphasis on
ecology (eg North Sea coastal waters, Lake Ijssel, Lake Veluwe).

NORWAY

A total of 273 sites related to coastal areas, lakes and wetlands,
covering an area of 842500 ha, are protected. In addition, birds are
protected in 50 lighthouse areas and in the Jaeren protected landscape
area. A number of lakes,, river systems and wetlands are also protected
within existing national parks.

- 74 -

PORTUGAL

There are many areas of importance for rare or threatened species
of flora and fauna, on the mainland and in the Azores and Madeira archi-
pelagos.

Protected sites - protected biotopes

A. Mainland - Arrabida nature park (10,821 ha)
- Estuary of Tejo nature reserve (14,563 ha)
- Sado estuary nature reserve (22,890 ha)
- St Jacinto dunes nature reserve (666 ha)
- Coastal marshes of Sapal di Castro Marin (2089 ha)
- Ria Formosa nature reserve (1600 ha)
- Berlengas nature reserve (island) (78 ha)

Forestry areas along the coast enjoying special protected status
- permanent hunting reserves on coastal cliffs (16,200 ha)
- Sintra-Cascais protected area (23,275 ha)
- state forests (82 km)
- forest outskirts (51 km)
- natural forest (11 km)

Inland areas
- Boquilobo marshes nature reserve (529 ha)
- Monte da Barca and d'Argolada sluice-gates (388 ha)
- Mata di Medos botanical reserve (338 ha)

Fauna protection areas
- Rio Mondego, Tuela and Baceiro fishing area
- Lago Comprida fishing area and small lagoons of Serra da Estrela
- Fishing area of the catchment basin of the Rio Lima
- Rio Tamega fishery reserve
- Fishery reserve of the Rio Sever and of the Riviere das Trutas
- Permanent hunting reserves on coastal cliffs (16,200 ha)

B. Azores Autonomous Region - coasts
- Monte Brasil protected area (Terceira island)
- Vila Franca de Campo nature reserve (St Miguel island)

C. Madeira Autonomous Region
- Selvagens Islands nature reserve (200 ha)
- Madeira natural park (20,000 ha)

SPAIN

There are three national parks (including 2 integral reserves) of
about 100,000 ha and five nature parks. In addition, 36 sites are proposed
as nature parks and controlled nature reserves when the appropriate legis-
lation comes into force, There are also 17 areas of controlled hunting.

- 75 -

SWEDEN

There are hundreds of areas protected as nature reserves or animal
sanctuaries. Some are national parks and some are nature conservancy
areas. The largest protected wetlands are the Sjaunja animal sanctuary
(approximately 100,000 ha), the mires of Muddus national park (approxi-
mately 49,000 ha)and the Store Moss with Lake Kavsjon, J6nk6ping country
(approximately 7,500 ha). Most reserves have a combined ecological and
social purpose.

SWITZERLAND

Important biotopes are included in the inventories :

- IFP (first series of 65 sites, all of which are included in the
CPN inventory)
- CPN (125 sites, including 47 wetlands, covering 10% of the country)
- Leuzinger (includes 12 wetlands of international importance according
to the Ramsar Convention)
- Riverside landscapes of national and international importance
(9 sites of international and 21 of national importance).

The sites which are included in the CPN inventory and contain
mainly wetlands are listed below :

Rivers, gorges falls :
Rhine at Laufen
Pichoux gorges
Doubs valley
Moutier gorges
Aar and Thielle backwaters
Valley of the Allodon and Moulin de Vert
Rhine falls
Thur
Reuss
Aar between Thun and Bern
Singine de la Schwarzwasser gorges
Rhine at Rh'azuns
Rhine gorges at Ruinaulta
Rh8ne at Finges
Maggia at Someo

Peatlands :
Ponts-de-Martel valley
Brevine valley
Haute-Versoix marshes
Neeracher Riet
Kaltbrunner Riet
Paludi del San Bernardino

- 76 -

Lake shores, ponds :
Bonfol and Vendlincourt ponds
Klingnau lake
Joux and Haut-Jura valley
Isle of St.Pierre/Bienne lake
Right bank of Lake Neuchatel
Left bank of Lake NeuchAtel
Slopes of Cortaillod and Bevaix (Lake Neuchatel)
Untersee (Lake Constance)
Chatzensee
Phaffikersee
Litzelsee
Frauenwinkel (Lake Zurich)
Nuoler Ried (Lake Zurich)
Halwilersee
Burgaschisee
Amsoldinger and Uebeschisee
Lauerzersee
Vierwaldstattersee
Left bank of the Brienzerzee
Weissenau (Lake Thuner)
Les Grangettes (Lake Lemand)
Lake Zuger
Tanay lake
Oberengadinerseen
Bolle di Magadino (Lake Maggiore)

TURKEY

There are three categories of protected areas ; wetlands of
international importance, coastal areas and lake shores,

Existing national parks : Kuscenneti, Yedigoller, Diler Peninsula,
Munzur Valley, Olimpos Beydaglara (coastal), Koprulu Canyon. All the
drinking water dams are also regarded as protected areas,

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

A large number of lakes and other wetlands are protected as National
Nature Reserves (NNR) or Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Some
of the largest protected areas are the tidal mudflats or wetland areas of
the Dee, Severn and Dyfi estuaries.

Protection of rivers generally falls into two categories :

Protection category 1 concerns areas of great importance for the
preservation of nature
Protection category 2 concerns areas of lesser importance

The following percentages of main river length belong to
Protection category 1 ;

- 77 -

In England 1.5 % of main river length
In Wales 8.8 %
In Scotland 1.8 %

The following percentages of main river length belong to
Protection category 2 :

In England 1.3 % of main river length
In Wales 3.9 %
In Scotland 0.3 %

Apart from the above, the following percentages of river length
belong to the SSSI category

In England 1.7 % of main river length
In Wales 4.7 %
In Scotland -

- 78 -

APPENDIX 8

SELECTED PLANS AND PROGRAMMES

BELGIUM

Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

CYPRUS

- Contribution to Mediterranean Action Plan, MED POL (series of projects)
- Establishment of a protected turtle breeding area (see Appendix 7)

DENMARK

Establishment on 50% of Danish coasts of the "Larger national nature
areas" by the National Agency for the Protection of NatureMonuments
and Sites (Ministry of Environment)
Establishment of other protected areas (see Appendix 7)
The "Nature Conservation Plans" prepared by the regional authorities,
showing how recreation activities may take place without damaging
the natural environment of coastal areas

FRANCE

"Picard report" (1972), proposed a series of measures to secure sound
coastal management and to regulate use of a number of spaces open to
the public, Five measures were set forth :
(i) The creation of the "Conservatoire du littoral" (Coastal and
lake conservation agency, Act of 10 July 1975), with the task
of carrying out a land policy of coastal protection respecting
the natural and ecological balance
(ii) The protection of "sensitive perimeters" so delineated by the
DWpartements, first priority of which were coastal areas
(iii) The development of coastal areas for leisure and nature as
model cases following the principle of integrated management.
These are :
east of Dunkirk in the north
Escaut in the Pas-de-Calais
Sallenelles in Calvados
Combrit in Finistere
(iv) Marine resource and seawater use plans, SAUM (Schemas d'apti-
tude et d'utilisation de la mer) are an extension to the
marine environment of the General plan for land use.

The following SAUM were decided upon as pilot projects
Bay of Brest
Petruis Charentais
Morbiham Gulf
Bay of Hy~res
coast of Picardy
delta of the Seine river
St Briene Bay
Arcarchon Bay

The two first plans have been completely carried out.

- 79 -

(v) Preparation of regional coastal plans for areas under a
special interministerial management scheme.
The following five coastal regional plans have already been
approved by the interministerial Committee for Regional Plan-
ning
coast and islands of Britanny
coast of lower Normandy
coast of central western Atlantic
upper Normandy coast
Corsican coast

The "Sea Development plans" optional in coastal areas, are drawn up
by the State in cooperation with all interested occupational groups
and associations, They establish the basic principles governing the
protection, use and development of the coastline

Permanent inventory of the littoral, data bank of the evolution of
land use and its causes

Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

The Wadden Sea special programme
- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)
Determination of semi-natural areas in the densely populated
Rhine Valley
Integrated management programmes for the biotopes of the former
"Techgut Wallnau/Fehmarm"
Management of the Wollmatinger Ried-Untersee-Gnadensee nature reserve

GREECE

- Contribution to the Mediterranean Action Plan MED POL
- National coastal management programme
- Quality of coastal waters of Saronikos and Evoikos Gulf
- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

IRELAND

The National Coastline Study by An Foras Forbathar (National Institute
for Physical Planning and Construction Research), which includes
detailed guidelines for the protection and management of coastal areas.
Establishment, since 1976, of an independent tribunal (An Bord
Pleanala), which adjudicates on appeals from the decisions of
planning authorities, according to the Local Government Act. It also
deals with appeals under the Water Pollution Act (1977)
Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

- 80 -

ITALY

Full inventory for the purpose of selecting suitable coastal sites
for nuclear power stations (1973)
Contribution to the Mediterranean Action Plan, MED POL
Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

LUXEMBOURG

The first part of the Declaration of general intention of the plan
for partial development concerning nature in Luxembourg was
adopted by a Decision of the Government in Council (24 April 1981)
The following are under consideration for the application of the
relevant directives

i. a law on the protection of the natural environment,
completed by detailed provisions concerning nature parks,
landscapes requiring protection, etc
ii, a special service, but with reduced staff
iii. the provision of the funds required for forests and nature
reserves

NETHERLANDS

The Water Action Programme
The Wadden Sea special programme
The eastern Schelde special programme
The Delta-plan programme
The Zuiderzeeproject, to determine whether the construction of
another large polder would be worth the ecological damage caused
Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)
Specific authorities or bodies specifically for coastal planning
and management do not exist. There has been a gradual adoption of
a system of water management by public and semi-public authorities.
At the basis of this system is the "waterschap" which is a legal
cooperation of landowners and tenants. These management authorities
are under the supervision of the provincial governments "Provinciale
Waterstaat". These are supervised at the national level by the Chief
Directory of Waterstaat, assisted by the Rijkswaterstaat, which is
in charge of the execution of major water defence and local reclama-
tion projects.

NORWAY

Comprehensive programme for reducing pollution, in particular the
discharge of phosophorus into lakes and watercourses
Detailed action plan adopted by the State, municipalities and oil
companies, for an oil pollution control emergency system
Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

PORTUGAL

- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)
- Studies on the characteristics of coastal areas for their planning
- Studies on the reclamation of the most degraded areas according
to the principles of the European Coastal Charter

SPAIN

- The network for monitoring and observing the marine environment
(ROM) was set up in 1976 to survey the quality of coastal waters
- The indicative plan for the use of the littoral (PIDU) for all the
country with the exception of the Basque country
- Studies on the dynamics of the littoral (for all the Spanish coasts)
- National plan for ports for pleasure and sport
- Plans for the use of beaches and coastal areas
- Defence works and those for improving and renewing the coastline
and beaches
- Statistical survey of the microbiological quality of coastal waters
in the Malaga and Tarragona provinces
- Evaluation of the phenomena of dilution, dispersion and inactivitation
of bacteria in the waste waters discharged into the sea by submarine
pipelines
- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

SWEDEN

The Swedish Marine Resources Commission has the task of

i. coordinating and studying the results of marine resources
management ;
ii. initiating experiments dealing with marine questions in
physical planning of four larger sea areas (Gothenburg and
Behus coast, the Oresund area, the area north of the island
of Gotland and the archipelago areas in the counties of
Stockholm and S~dermland)
iii. drafting an overall programme for marine resources activities
- The special programme for fighting oil pollution in coastal waters
is the task of the Swedish Customs.
- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)
- Monitoring of water quality in rivers
- Monitoring of water quality in the great lakes
- Monitoring of water quality along the coast
- The Fjeld Study

SWITZERLAND

Two studies concerning the shores of a Swiss lake
Plan for the protection of the south-east shore of Lake Neuchatel
by the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature (LSPN) and the
WWF-Switzerland, financed by Pro Natura Helvetica 1980
Study of the south shore of Lake Neuchatel and the shores of Lake
Morat
Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)

- 82-

TURKEY

- Establishment of protected areas (see Appendix 7)
- Research and monitoring projects in coordination with the MED POL
activities

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

- "The Heritage Coast" special programme aims to protect and
preserve outstanding coasts. It now covers about 40% of the total
undeveloped coastline of England and Wales.

- "Enterprise Neptune" special programme aims to bring into the
ownership of the National Trust (a voluntary body operating in
England and Wales) important unspoiled areas. Today the
National Trust has about 50Q miles of coast, much of it of great
scientific as well as scenic interest,

- The National Trust for Scotland owns some 35 miles of the mainland
coast of Scotland and 60 miles on the Scottish islands, in addition
77 miles are protected by management agrements.

- Three national governmental agencies also play a significant part
both in advising Government and in the management of the unspoiled
coastline

i. The INature Conservancy Council, a statutory agency operating
throughout Great Britain. it is consulted on development
proposals and itself manages, or advises on the management of,
reserves and protected areas. It also carries out detailed
biological research and surveys
ii. The Countryside Commission, a statutory agency operating in
England and Wales, Its main tasks are to promote conservation
and enhancement of landscape beauty, It also has responsibility
for providing for informal recreation in the countryside.
iii. The Countryside Commission for Scotland, a statutory agency
operating in Scotland with tasks similar to those of the
Countryside Commission.

- The management and protection of inland waters and of river banks
or lake shores is the responsibility of Water Authorities

- Local authorities and voluntary organisations both manage some
protected areas at the water's edge.

- 83 -

APPENDIX 9

SELECTED LEGAL MEASURES(1) DIRECTLY CONCERNING THE COASTAL OR RIPARIAN AREAS

AUSTRIA

- Federal Water Act
- Federal Navigation Act
- Nature Conservation Acts at the "L~nder" level

BELGIUM

Wallonia's Order (1982)

CYPRUS

Shore Protection Act

DENMARK

Governmental circular on the planning and development of holiday
centres and summer house districts (referring to the delineation
of coastal and riparian zones) 1981
- Conservation of Nature Act (1937, 1969)
- The above-mentioned circular and the Conservation of Nature Act
are part of the overall Danish planning system that is mainly based
on the National and Regional Act, the Urban and Rural Zones Act
(1969) and the Municipal Planning Act.

FRANCE

The development of coastal areas is the subject of a directive on
regional planning, approved by the Decree of 25 August (1979)
- The Nature Protection Act (1976)
- With regard to land-use plans, the littoral is governed by
three types of law 2
i. that concerning the sea
ii. that concerning the state and local municipalities
iii. that concerning private property
Decentralisation Act (1983)

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Federal Nature Conservation and Landscape Management Act
(Bundesnaturschutzgesetz, 20 December 1976)
Regional nature conservation and landscape planning acts of
the Federal Lander
- Regulations on protected areas, which are issued by the Lander
on the basis of the pertinent acts

(1) International conventions or Protocols ratified by each country,
bilateral or other agreements are not included

- ~4 --

GREECE

- The Shoreline and Coastal Zone Act (2344/1940)
- City and Country Planning Act (1337/1983)
- Marine Environment Act (743/1977)
- Different governmental circulars, etc.

IRELAND

- Foreshore Act (1933)
- Coastal Protection Act (1963)
- Oil Pollution of the Sea Acts (1956, 1977)
- Fisheries Acts (1959, 1962)
- Wildlife Act (1976)
- Local Government (Water Pollution) Act (1977)
- Local Government (Planning and Development) Acts (1963 to 1983)

ITALY

- A bill for the ProtectiQn of the Sea (1982)
- Regional DevelQpment Act (1971)
- Nature Parks and Reserves Bills (1979, 1982)

LUXEMBOURG

Decision of the Government in Council of 24 April 1981, regarding
the partial planning project for the natural environment and bearing
in particular on the first part entitled "Declaration of general
interest"
Act of 11 August 1982 on the protection of nature and natural
resources
- Act of 28 June 1976 on regulation of fisheries in inland waters
- Act of 16 May 1929 on cleaning, maintaining and improving watercourses
- Grand Ducal Regulation of 21 March 1980 to ensure sanitary
protection of the dam near Esch-sur-Sare
Act of 20 March 1974 on regional planning

NETHERLANDS

- Coastal Defence Act
- Environmental Protection Act (1980)
- Nature Conservation Act
- Delta Act (1958)
- The Pollution of Surface Waters modified Act (1970, 1981)
- The Pollution of Seawaters Act (1977)

- 85 -

NORWAY

- Building and Planning Act (1965)
- Shore and Mountain Planning Act (1971)
- Open-air Recreation Act (1957)
- Act relating to motorised traffic in marginal land and watercourses (1977)
- Nature Conservation Act (1970)
- Act concerning waste and protection against pollution(requires also
the environmental impact assessments in the case of planned activities
of a certain size which may have a pollution impact) (1981)

PORTUGAL

- Legislative Decree on the legal definition of various types of
protected areas (1976)
- Creation of the national agricultural reserve (1982)
- Creation of the national ecological reserve (1983)
- Regional planning norms (1983)
- Regulation on fisheries in inland waters allowing for the creation
of fishing reserves (1962)
Hunting regulation allowing for the creation of permanent hunting
reserves (1967)
- Norms for the definition and creation of bird reserves (1979)
- Prohibition of extracting sand in coastal areas (1980)
- Regulation on extracting sand or gravel in rivers and on river
banks (1982)
- Outline-law on the environment (bill) (1983)

SPAIN

The Spanish constitution ; the sea/land area, the beaches, are
declared as belonging to the State
- The Coast Act (1969)
- The River Fishing Act (1942)
The Water Act (1879)
- The Protected Natural Areas Act (1975)
- The Mountain Protection Act etc. (1908)
- The Law which set up the National Institute for Nature Conservation
(ICONA) (1971)
General Environmental Act (1983)

SWEDEN

On the basis of the proposals outlined in the Government Bill on-
national physical planning (1972), Parliament laid down specific
guidelines for land 4nd water management in coastal areas also,
where severe competition for physical resources was already or
would soon be a reality, These guidelines in the form of a govern-
mental circular have been addressed to all national authorities and
they are to be followed in all decisions having a bearing on the
management of Sweden's aggregate land, water resources, energy and
wood-fibre raw material
- Nature Conservancy Act (1964)
- Nature Conservancy Ordinance (1976)

- 86 -

Environmental Protection Act and Environmental Protection
Ordinance (1969)
- Dumping Ordinance (1971)
- Act and Ordinance on measures against water pollution from
vessels (1980)
- Building Act (1978)
- Water Act (1918)
- Water Association Act (1976)
- Forest Conservation Act (1979)
- Ordinance on forest conservation (1979)
- The Government Bill on the future national physical planning
(1981) emphasised the central role of local authorities in future
national planning.

SWITZERLAND

- Federal Act on the protection of nature and landscape (1966)
- Federal Act on regional planning (1979)

TURKEY

- Water Products Law (1973)
- Revised Law of Reconstruction (1975)
- The Protocol for the Protection of Surface Water Resources
Use for Domestic Purposes against Pollution (1976)
- National Parks Law (1983)
- Environmental Law (1983)
- Foundation Act for the State Hydraulic Works Institution

UNITED KINGDOM (MOSTLY GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

- National Planning Guidelines for the Coast (1974)
- Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981)
- Nature Conservancy Council Act (1973)
- National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act (1949)
- Coastal Protection Act (1949)
- Water Act (1973)
- Control of Pollution Act (1974)
- Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act (1975)
- Protection of Wrecks Act (1973)
- Land Drainage Act (1976)
- Countryside (Scotland) Act(1967)
- Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Acts(1945 to 1972)
- Local--GoVernment--(Sc6tlahnd-Act(1973)
- Various Government circulars

-87 -

AP P EN DI X 10

DELINEATION AND PROTECTION OF COASTAL AREAS, RIVER BANKS AND LAKE SHORES

CYPRUS

in certain cases, all building along the coast is prohibited by the
Cabinet. Such prohibitions may apply to land between the high-water mark
and a point between 200 and 300 metres inland.

DENMARK

- Almost all areas within a distance of 3 km from the coast are in-
cluded in the coastal area (Government circular,, 1981)
- Establishment of new summer house districts in the coastal area
is not allowed (Government circular, 1981)
- The free access to almost all beaches, even to beaches bordered
by privately owned land, is secured (Conservation of Nature Act,
1968)
- Construction of houses, alteration of the ground, planting, etc
within a distance of 100 m of the coastline is subject to
approval by local conservation board (Conservation of Nature Act, 1937)
- Possible limitation of yatching along threatened coasts, especially
for motor boats (Conservation of Nature Act)

FRANCE

- The shore (limited by the highest tidemark of the year), the fore-
shore (since 1963), the salt water lakes communicating with the
sea, ports and roadsteads are included in the "Domaine public
maritime (DPM)"
- Private property is'extended over the DPM
- Public access to the coastal strip, only for pedestrians, is
secured by a way 3 metres wide and parallel to the shore that
runs the full length of the DPM
- Building is prohibited outside existing built-up areas or land
earmarked for development, in a currently valid planning document,
for the preservation of yet unspoilt landscapes and agricultural land
- In areas earmarked for development, land within 100 metres from
the shoreline must be fully protected and building is prohibited,
with the exception of public service facilities and activities
that have to be sited on the sea or lakes (harbour facilities,
power stations)
- The previous prohibition refers also to camping and caravan sites
and to simple recreational accommodation
- Control of extraction of sand and gravel
- Prohibition of new routes of the road network within at least
2000 metres from the shoreline

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

- Provisions on the utilisation of protected river banks, lake
shores and coastal areas are contained in the Federal and Lander
acts on nature conservation and landscape management, as well as
the regulations on protected areas (see Wadden Sea report).

GREECE

- Shoreline (aegialos) is defined as that land area adjacent to the
sea which at high tide and normal weather would be covered by the
seawaves
- Coastal zone (paralia) is defined as that zone of unbuildable land
up to 20 metres inland, starting from mid-level of the shoreline
(as defined above). This is added in circumstances where the geo-
morphy of the adjacent land makes acces to the sea and vice versa
difficult or impossible
- The shoreline is of public interest, belongs to the State and its
protection and management is secured by it
- In, areas outside the boundaries of towns and smaller settlements
before 1923, and within a zone of 500 m width from the sea shoreline
or the lake shoreline, fencing is not allowed
- For the benefit of the public, the expropriation of land is permitted
in order to secure access to the beach for the public, as well as
for the provision of the necessary parking spaces
- The removal of sand from the beaches is allowed at selected points
with the permission of the Local Authorities concerned

IRELAND

Under planning legislation, local authorities may make provision
in their development plans for the protection of rights of way to the
seashore, lakes, rivers and other places, of natural beauty and recreational
utility, Rights of way may also be created by agreement or compulsorily

ITALY

No building permit will be granted until local development plans
of certain regions (eg Friul-Venezia-Giulia) have been approved.

NETHERLANDS

- Due to its geophysical structure, the greater part of the Nether-
lands is considered as coastal area, It is evident that a general
prohibition, concerning building or other activities in the coastal
area, would be an unrealistic policy since this country follows a
land reclamation policy for urbanisation. However, most elements
of coastal planning against storm surges, beach protection, water
management and land reclamation are embedded in the "normal"
system of planning.
- The greater part of the land bordering the coastline is already
under governmental possession or control
- Sand extraction is only allowed (because of possible erosion of
the coast) outside the 20 metre isobath, except where navigation
channels have to be dredged
- Dredging is not allowed within one mile of submarine cables and
is restricted in shipping lanes

- 89 -

NORWAY

All new construction lying closer to the shoreline than 100 metres
is excluded (Shore and Mountain Act, 1971)
All citizens have the right to move freely to the coast, regardless
of ownership (Open-air Recreation Act, 1975)
There are regulating provisions for the use of motorised vehicles
(Act relating to the Motorised Traffic in marginal land and
watercourses, 1977)

PORTUGAL

Creation of permanent reserves on coastal cliffs, first of 250 - 300
metres large, more recently of up to 1,000 metres, for the protection of
game in these areas (see Appendix 7)

SPAIN

Free access to the sea is secured by ways perpendicular to the shore.

SWITZERLAND

The vegetation of the banks must not be pulled up, covered over or
destroyed in any other way ; some exceptions may be authorised, but
only in the public interest (Art. 21 and 22 of the 1966 Federal Act
on the protection of nature and landscape)

Any authority responsible for regional planning must respect the
principle of leaving the shores of lakes and the banks of water-
courses free and facilitating public access to them ; plans for
land use must delineate watercourses and lakes, and their banks,
among the areas to be protected (Art. 3 and 17 of the 1979 Federal
Act on regional planning)

SWEDEN

"Protected shore" is a zone up to 300 metres inland and 100 metres
into the water from the shoreline of coasts, lakes and watercQurses
(Nature Conservancy Act, 1964)
New development is generally prohibited within 100 metres inland and
offshore along all the coastline and for long stretches of the coast-
line this prohibition extends to 300 metres (Nature Conservancy Act)

TURKEY

In order to secure public access to the sea, lake, river within a
zone of 30 metres in the direction of land from the natural contour line,
indicating the level zero, determined as part of the country-wide surveying
network, structures or barriers such as walls, hedges, railings, ditches,
etc. are not permitted on coasts and on coast strips which are narrower
than 30 metres (Revised Reconstruction Lax, 1975)

- 90-

UNITED KINGDOM (GREAT BRITAIN ONLY)

The width of the protected coastal area is defined in England and
Wales by the Cbuntry and local planning authorities and in Scotland by
the Regional and District planning authorities in their physical planning,
based on some fundamental criteria such as the land area visible from the
coast, the land use, the ecological character and value.

- 91 -

A P P E N D I X 11

EDUCATION, INFORMATION, RESEARCH AND MONITORING

EDUCATION
COUNTRY Primary, Higher INFORMATION RESEARCH MONITORING
Secondary

AUSTRIA E, C E, C I R S

BELGIUM E E, C I R S

CYPRUS S

DENMARK N N N N N

FRANCE E, C E, C I R S
FED.REP OF E E, C I R S
GERMANY

GREECE C E, C R S

IRELAND E, C E, C I R S

ITALY E E, C I R S

LIECHTENSTEIN C C I

LUXEMBOURG C I N N

MALTA C I R S

NETHERLANDS E, C E, C I R S

NORWAY E E, C I R N

PORTUGAL E E, C I R S

SPAIN E E, C I N N

SWEDEN E, C E, C I R S

SWITZERLAND E E, C I R N

TURKEY C E, C R S
UNITED
KINGDOM
E. Advanced Environmental Education
C. Special Courses
I. Advanced Information Systems
R. Advanced Research Programmes
S. Advanced Monitoring Systems
N. Not available

A PP EN D I X 12

ACTIONS AND AGREEMENTS AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

1.Global actions taken by European institutions

- Council of Europe Resolution (73) 29 of the Committee of Ministers
on the protection of coastal zones (26 October 1973)

I st Conference of European Island Regions (CLRAE) April 1981

- 6th session of CEMAT (Torremolinos, 1983). The planning of
European coastal regions

- 4th European Ministerial Conference on the Environment (Athens,
April 1984) on coastal areas, river banks and lake shores

- OECD Recommendation of the Council of 22 October 1976 on the
principles relating to the administration of coastal zones

- EEC Summary of the studies undertaken on the improvement and
administration of the coastline

- Support of the European Coastal Charter, Resolution 201, 23 June 1982
of the European Parliament

2. Detailed action of the EEC

- Decision of Council of 3 March 1975 on the prevention of pollution
of the sea from land-based sources

- Directive of 4 May 1976 concerning pollution caused by dangerous
substances dumped at sea

- Directive of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of water for
bathing

- Decision of Council of 25 July 1977 on the protection of the
Mediterranean

- Directive of 20 February 1978 relating to waste from the dioxide
of titanium industry

- Resolution of Council of 26 June 1976 instituting an EEC action programrme
concerning control and reduction of pollution caused by the dumping
of hydrocarbons at sea

- Recommendation of Council of 26 June 1976 relating to the ratifica-
tion of the Marpol and Solas agreements (of IMO)

- Directive: on the quality of fresh waters needing protection or
improvement in order to support fish life

- Directive of Council of 21 December 1978 relating to the piloting
of ships in the North Sea and the English Channel

-93 -

*Protection of the Baltic Gdansk, 13 September 1973
Helsinki, 22 March 1974

*Protection of the Mediterranean Barcelona, 16 February 1976
Athens, 17 May 1980

- Directive of Council of 21 December 1978 relating to minimum
conditions demanded of oil tankers entering the ports of EEC

- Recommendation of Council of 21 December 1978 relating to the
ratification of the London agreement of July 1978 on the standards
for the training of seamen, awarding of certificates and for
monitoring

- Directive of Council of 30 October 1979 relating to the quality
required in shellfish breeding waters

- Regulation on the common rules for imports of whales or other
cetacean. products

- Decision establishing a Community information system for the control
and reduction of pollution caused by hydrocarbons discharged at sea

- Decision concerning the conclusion of the Convention on the conser-
vation of European wildlife and natural habitats

- Directive of 22 March 1982 on limit values and quality objectives
for mercury discharges by the chlor-akali electrolysis industry

- Decision on the conclusion of the Convention on the conservation
of migratory species of wild animals

- Regulation on the implementation in the Community of the Convention
on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora

- Resolution of the Council of the European Communities and of the
Representatives Qf the Governments of the Member States meeting
within the Council on the continuation and implementation of a
European Community policy and action programme on the environment
(1982 - 1986)

- Resolution concerning the combating of water pollution

- Decision concluding the Protocol for the protection of the
Mediterranean Sea against pollution from land-based sources

- Directive concerning the importation into Member States of skins
of certain seal pups and products derived from them

- 94 -

3. Principal international agreements relating to the preservation
of the marine environment

3.1 At international level (summarised theme) Agreement of

- Pollution by hydrocarbons London, 12 May 1954
- Codification open sea Geneva, 19 April 1958
- Codification continental shelf Geneva, 29 April 1958
- Nuclear vessels Brussels, 25 May 1962
- Pollution by hydrocarbons Brussels, 29 November 1969
- Action on open sea in case of tanker accident Brussels, 29 November 1969
- Extension to other substances of the
Brussels agreement of 29.11.69 Draft of London, 2 Nov. 1973
- Dumping by ships Oslo, 15 February 1972
- Dumping of waste London, 29 December 1972
- Telluric pollution Paris, 4 June 1974
- Safety on vessels Marpol,(IMCO) 1973 revised 1978
- Qualification of crew members Solas,(IMCO) 1974 revised 1978
- Standards of work on ships ILO 147,1978
- Training of seamen, certificates and
monitoring London, July 1978
- Protection of wetlands Ramsar, 2 February 1971
- World Cultural and Natural Heritage UNESCO, Paris, 16 Nov. 1972
- International trade in threatened species Washington, 1973
- Protection of migratory species Bonn, 23 June 1979
- Conservation of European wildlife Bern, 19 September 1979
- Law of the Sea Montego Bay, 10 December 1982

3.2 Regional level (summarised theme) Agreement of

- Protection of the North Sea Bonn, 9 June 1969
Copenhagen, 16 September 1971
Protection of the Baltic Gdansk, 13 September 1973
Helsinki, 22 March 1974
Protection of the Mediterranean Barcelona, 16 February 1976
Athens, 17 May 1980

4. Other international texts

World Charter for Nature Adopted by the UN General
Assemhly on 28 October 1982

- 95-

A PP EN D IX 13

LAND POLICIES

List of selected tools and policies related to the management of land

1. Planning instruments

- public planning
- building prohibitions, restrictions

2. Taxation Instruments

- property taxes on real estate
- annual site value taxes
- taxes on the increment in land value
- taxes on building rights
- exemption from taxes when land is sold to public authorities
- development charges

3. Market Instruments

- land acquisition in the open market
- exchange of land
- selling of land
- making use of private, semi-public development companies

4. Financial Support Instruments

- land acquisition loans or subsidies to local authorities
- special conditions for loans for land acquisition
- compensation payment by state or municipal bonds

5. Administrative Instruments

- nationalisation or municipalisation of land
- compulsory handing over of public areas to the local authority
without compensation
- recapture of unearned increment in expropriation
- limitation of land acquisition rights
- regulation of land prices
- pre-emption rights
- compulsory replotting
- laws to protect areas of natural beauty and of historic value
- land banks (at national, regional, local levels)
- land pooling
- land leasing
- land register
- proper valuation of land
- competent staff and effective administration in land questions
- land policy programmes for local authorities
- research in the field of land policy

-96 -

A P P E N D I X 14

COAST DEPENDENT ENERGY FACILITIES

1. Facilities which use the indigenous energy resources of the
coastal zone

2. Facilities which serve as a transfer point between sea and land

3. Facilities which transmit or transport energy from a transfer
point of another energy facility located in the coastal zone to
an inland site or another coastal site

4. Facilities which store energy necessary for transshipment, for
surge storage, or to supply coastal energy facilities and
maritime industries

- 97 -

A P P E N D I X 15

NUTRIENT STATE OF LAKES AND WETLANDS (1)

Nutrient status Alkalinity Water colour Productivity
(ppm CaCOt)

Dystrophic 0-2 Brown, peat stained Extremely low, plants limited
by lack of nutrients and lack
of light penetration

Oligotrophic 0-10 Clear Low, plants limited by lack
of nutrients

Mesotrophic 10-30 Slightly green algal Moderate to high, some oxygen
coloration in summer depletion may occur in the
hypolimnion of deeper examples

Eutrophic >30 Often discoloured by High, both for algae and
algae macrophytes. Oxygen depletion
occurs in hypolimnion of deep
examples

Marl (calcareous) >100 Extremely clear Extremely low phytoplankton
production, but high macro-
phytic production

Brackish (Conductivity Usually clear Variable but phytoplankton
> 500mnhos. generally sparse
Sodiummain
cation)

(1) Handbook for the identification and evaluation of wetlands with a view
to their protection, Council of Europe, revised version

- 9 8 -

A PP EN D I X 16

LIST OF SOME THREATENED EUROPEAN TAXA AND SPECIES IN COASTAL AND RIPARIAN AREAS

PLANTS

Coastal strip

*Anchusa crispa F (Corsica), I (Sardinia)
Armeria solei'rolii F (Corsica)
*Astragalus maritimus I (Sardinia)
*Astragalus verrucosus I (Sardinia)
*Brassica macrocarpa I (Sardinia)
*Calendula suffruticosa spp maritima I (Sicily)
*Centaurea heldreichii GR
*Centaurea horrida I (Sardinia)
*Euphorbia hierosolimitana GR
*Galium littorale I (Sicily)
*Kochia saxicola I
Limonium paradoxunm IRL.GB*
Linaria hellenica GR
Muscari dionysicum GR
*Salicornia venata I
Silene velutina F (Corsica), I (Sardinia)
*Symphytum cycladense GR

Freshwaters

Aidrowanda vesiculosa CH, F*, D*, I
*Angelica heretocarpa F
*Aster pyrenaeus F
Eleocharis carniolica I
*Leontodon siculus I (Sicily)
*Oenanthe conioides B, D

ANIMAL S

FRESHWATER FISHES

*Acipenser sturio F, E, Danube basin area
*Albur-no ides bipuntatus B, NL, D, F, A, CH, GR
*Alosa alosa alosa From Norway to the Mediterranean
*Aspius. aspius D, 5, GR
*Corregonus albula F, D," GB, IRL, N, S
*Corregonus lavaretus CH, DK, I, CB, N, S
*ortegonus nasus DK, N, S
*Corregonus peled DK, F, S
Cyprinus carpio Danube basin area
*Gymnocephalus schraester A (Danube basin area)
*Hucho hucho Danube basin area
*Huso huso I (Po river), GR
*Lampetra fluviatalis GB, I, ILt, N
*Leuciscus idus 5, B, DK, Nt, GB, CHI?, A?
*Leuciscus souffria D, CHI, A, I
Pararutilus frisii meidinegri
*Salmo salar B, DK, E, F, GB, GR, N, NL, S
*Salmo trutta lacustris CHI, CB, IRL, Scandinavian
countries

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Salmo trutta trutta E, N, 5, D, DK, NL, B, GB, IRL, F-
*Salvelinus alpinus N, 5, GB, IRL, F, I, A
*Umbra krameri A, Danube basin area
*Zingel asper F, D
Zingel streber D, A
*Zingel zingel A (Danube basin area)

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Proteus anguinus I
B-oibina-variegata A, F, D, I, L; FL, NL, S
*Pelobates fuscus insubricus I, CH
Bufo calamnita B, DK, F., D, E, P, CH, GB*
*Rana latastei CH, I
Emys orbicularis CY, F, D, I, P, E, 5, CH
Mauremys caspica leprosa P, E
Caretta caretta caretta F, GR, I, TR, GB, E
Elaphe longissima longissima. F, I, E, CH
Vipera aspis aspis F, E, CH

BIRDS

*Acrocephalus palucidola A, D
Anas strepera D, DK, F, GB, GR, I, IRL, NL
*Anser erythropus GR, N, 5, TR
*Arenaria interpres D, DK, F, NL
*Aquila clanga F, GR, I
*B~uteo rufinus GR, TR
*Egretta alba A, GR, TR
*Falco peregrinus All Europe except B, DK, NL
*Fulilca cristata P, E
Halcyon smyrnens is TR
*Heliateus albicilla A, DK, F, I, ISL, IRL, N, S
*Hieraetus fasciatus F, GR, I, P, E, TR
Holopterus spinosus GR
*Geronticus eremita A, TR
*Larus audounii CY, F, GR, E, TR
*Oxyura. leucocephala F, GR, I, TR
*Pelecanus. crispus GR, TR
*Pelecanus onocrotalus GR
*Phalacrocorax pygmeaus GR, TR
*Plegadis falcinellus A, F, GR, I, TR
*Porphyrio porphyrio GR, E
*Pterocles alchata F
*Pterocles orientalis P, E, TR
*Sterna dougallii D, F, GB, GR, IRL
*Tadorna ferruginea GR, E, TR

Legend
*Species characterised as endangered

A Austria F France L Luxembourg
B Belgium FL Liechtenstein N Norway
CH Switzerland GB United Kingdom NL Netherlands
CY Cyprus GR Greece P Portugal
D Federal Republic of Germany I Italy S Sweden
DK Denmark IRL Ireland TR Turkey
E Spain ISL Iceland

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A PP EN D IX 17

Definition of coastal areas, river b~anks and lake shores

The terms "coastal area", "river bank" and "lake shore" cover marginal
waters (including the land they cover or contain), and the adjacent land
(including the water it contains or encloses) and between which there is an
important interaction (Clark, 1977).

One can distinguish intertidal zones, transitional areas, salt marshes,
lagoons, beaches, estuaries, deltas, freshwater marshes, wetlands, rocky
coasts, dunes and flood plains, plus canals and reservoirs.

Aquatic and terrestrial areas are defined by the extent of the
characteristic coastal ecosystems which are significantly modified by human
activities (construction of ports, leisure pursuits, fishing, discharge of
domestic waste waters and industrial effluents, etc) or by physical phenomena
(deposit of earth, sand, rocks, etc, floods, wave action, and so on).

G LOS S AR Y

Anadromous.:
Oceanic or estuarine fish species that enter fresh waters to spawn.

Aquaculture:
is the use of a permanently inundated water area, whether saline or fresh for
the purposes of growing and harvesting plants or animals in a way to promote
more rapid growth, reduce predation, and increase harvest rate.

Aquifer:
A geologic stratum that contains water that can be economically removed and
us~ed for human purposes.

Back dune:
A stabie dune behind the shifting frontal beach dune, often characterised by
heavier vegetation.

Bay'.
A large estuary with a relatively high degree of flushing.

Baseline:
1. A survey line the length and position of which is very accurately measured,
used as a basis for subsequent triangulation surveys.
2. In the case of an estuary or bay, a line joining low water marks at the
extremity of opposite headlands and from which the limits of the territorial
sea are measured.
3. Applied to an investigation of the dynamics of an ecosystem in its
(a) natural or (b) existing state to establish the conditions against which
changes due to man's interference can be measured.

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Benthos:
The community of bottom-dwelling life.

Brackish water:
Fresh water diluted with a small amount of salt water.

Buffer area:
A limited use area separating a developed area from a protected area.

Coastal:
Of or pertaining to the seacoast; specifically, the waters, margins or
shorelands of estuarine basins, and the nearshore ocean.

Coastal waters:
As. a management definition, territorial or interior waters that contain a
measurable quantity or percentage of seawater.
(eg more than 0.5 parts. per thousand)

Coastal watershed:
A drainage basin that drains directly into coastal waters; excludes drainage
basins that drain wholly into freshwater channels tributary to coastal waters.

Dams and impoundments:
Dams and impoundments are structures that obstruct natural water flow patterns
for the purpose of forming a contained volume of water. Impoundments include
dikes with sluice gates and other structures to control the flow of water.

Diffusion:
General transport of pollutants or other by turbulence.

Drainage hasin:
The entire area of shorelands drained by a single watercourse and its
tributaries.

Dredging - new:
New dredging is the removal of sediment from the bottom of a water body that
has not been previously dredged or excavated, for the purpose of increasing
water depth, or the widening or deepening of navigable channels to a newly
authorised depth or width.

Dumping (solid waste or sludge):
The dumping of solid waste or sludge is the discharge of solid or semi-solid
waste material from industrial or domestic sources or sewage treatment
operations into a water area.

Dunes:
Accumulations of sand in ridges or mounds landward of the beach berm formed by
natural processes and usually parallel to the shoreline.

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Dystrophic:

A term applied to water bodies containing a high concentration of organic
matter such as humic acid, but which are poor in nutrients.

Erosion:
The weathering and displacement of rock and soil by the force of moving water,
wind and gravity.

Estuary:
A confined coastal water with an open connection to the sea and a measurable
quantity of salt in its waters.

Eutrophic:
A term applied to waters rich in plant nutrients which are characterised by
high primary productivity.

Eutrophication:
The enrichment of natural waters, especially by compounds of nitrogen and
phosphorus, resulting in increased productivity.

Filling:
The deposition of inorganic material (sand, soil, earth, dredge spoils, etc)
into water areas for the purpose of raising water bottom elevations.

Floodplain:
The area of shorelands extending inland from the normal yearly maximum
stormwater level to the highest expected stormwater level in a given period
of time (ie 5, 50, 100 years).

Inter-tidal zone:
Zone between high and low tide marks, often referred to as littoral zone.

Lagoon:
A relatively shallow estuary with very restricted exchange with the sea and
no significant freshwater inflow.

Littoral:
Of or pertaining to the shore, especially of the sea; coastal.

Littoral drift:
The movement of sand by littoral (longshore) currents in a direction parallel
to the beach along the shore.

Littoral zone:

The part of the ocean immediately adjacent to the shore.

Marshe s:
Wet areas with predominantly grasslike vegetation.

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Mesotrophic:
Applied to waters which are in the middle range of nutrient enrichment and
productivity between oligotrophic and eutrophic.

Nursery area:
A place where larval, juvenile, or young stages of aquatic life concentrate
for feeding or refuge.

Plankton:
Small suspended aquatic plants or animals that passively drift or swim weakly.

Photic zone:
The zone of the sea where light penetration is sufficient to allow photo-
synthesis. The euphotic zone is the zone in which light penetration is
sufficient to allow photosynthesis production to exceed respiratory breakdown.

Runoff:

Runoff is that portion of precipitation on the land from rain, snow or human
activity that ultimately reaches water bodies.

Salinity:
A measure of the quantity of dissolved salts in sea water, in ppt, parts per
thous~and of water.

Salt marsh:
A tidal wetland supporting salt-tolerant vegetation.

Saltwater intrusion:
A movement of salt water inland through soils into freshwater aquifers.

Sediment:
Material (such as clay, silt, sand, gravel, organic matter, and debris)
deposited by water, wind or glaciers.

Sedimentation:
A process involving the settling or deposition of particles of material such
as eroded soils- that are suspended in water or being moved by it.

Shorelands:
The terrain of the coastal watershed down to the upper margin of the wetlands
(lower margin of coastal floodplain).

Soil erosion and sedimentation:
Erosion is the detachment and movement of soil or rock particles by water,
wind, ice or gravity, while sedimentation is the action or process of depositing
soil or rock particles.

Suspended solids:
Particles of material suspended in water, including plankton, organic detritus,
and sediment.

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Tide:
The gravitational effect of the moon, and in a lesser degree of the sun, on
the waters of the earth, by which they tend to become heaped up at the point
below the moon, and at the opposite point to this on the earth, so that twice
in each lunar day there is an alternate inflow and outflow on the shores,
modified by local configuration. Ebb tide: a falling or low tide. Flood
tide: the incoming or rising tide, the tide at its highest point.

Tideflat:
An unvegetated intertidal area.

Tide rip:
A shearing of two adjacent currents causing a noticeable surface discontinuity.

Trophic:
Of or pertaining food or feeding.

Turbidity:
Reduce water clarity resulting from the presence of suspended matter.

Waterfowl:

Of the family Anatidae; includes smana, geese, ducks, brant; the "game birds".

Watershed:
That portion of landscape from which drainage supplies a waterway.

Wetlands:
Wet vegetated areas. Coastal : naturally vegetated areas between mean high
water and the yearly normal maximum flood water level.