OTEC environmental studies offshore Kahe Point, Oahu

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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CBC COLLECRON

OTEC ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
OFFSHORE KAHE POINT, OAHU

COASTAL ZONE

INFORMATION CENTER

VAYE OV HAW,,Ao,
KPARTMENT (LIF
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMIENT
P. 0. Pwx 2359
Honolulu, Hawall 96804

De,oartment of Planning and Economic Development

TD
195
.E4
083
1982

OTEC ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

OFFSHORE KAHE POINT, OAHU

U.S.DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICE CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

Prepared by

Parsons Hawaii
G. A. Chapman, Project Manager

In Association With

AECOS, Inc.

and

Professor D. L. Callies

U.H. School of Law

Prepared for Property of CSC Library

State of Hawaii
Department of Planning and Econimic Development

*The preparation of this report was financed in part by the
Coastal Zone Act of 1972, as amended, administered by the
Office of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce."

December 1982

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 1

SECTION 2 LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL
AND BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA PERTINENT
TO THE KAHE POINT OTEC SITE 5

SECTION 3 RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHING SURVEY
AND LITERATURE REVIEW 15

A. Commercial Fishing Activity 15

B. Recreational Fishing Activity 20

SECTION 4 IMPACTS OF OTEC DEVELOPMENT 25

A. offshore Fixed or Mobile Floating Platforms 26

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts 26

2. Visual/Aesthetic Impacts 29

B. Tower Type OTEC Facilities 30

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts 30

2. Visual/Aesthetic Impacts 31

C. Onshore OTEC Facilities 32

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts 32

2. Visual/Aesthetic Impacts 33

SECTION 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE
WORK AREAS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 34

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

KAHE OTEC STUDY AREA 4

2. BREAKING WAVE ROSES AT KAHE FOR TYPICAL YEAR 8

3. CURRENT PATTERNS AND VELOCITY IN THE KAHE AREA

4. LOCATION OF LARVAL FISH SAMPLING STATIONS AND
O'OTEC BENCHMARKSITE LOCATIONS 12

5* DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL
FISHING USES IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION 16

LIST OF TABLES

Page

1. TIDAL DATA FOR THE KAHE POINT AREA 7

2, RELATIVELY COMMON FISHES OF HIGH COMMERCIAL
VALUE FOUND IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION 21

3. AVERAGE SEASONAL CATCH (IN POUNDS) OF MAJOR
COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE MARINE LIFE IN THE KAHE
REGION 22

4. CATCH OF MENPACHI AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES (POUNDS)
BY ONE RECREATIONAL HANDLINE FISHERMAN KAHE
OTEC REGION 24

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION

In 1979 and early 1980, the State, through the Ad Hoc Committee on
the Advancement of OTEC for Hawaii, prepared and produced OTEC for
Oahu, a report on the Development of a Pilot Plant for Ocean Ther-
mal Energy Conversion (OTEC) at Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii. That
report provides the framework for this report and describes the
Hawaiian setting for OTEC and the rationale for selecting Kahe
Point as the optimal site for an OTEC plant. The report also
identifies the environmental studies that had been performed
through early 1980 and those that would be required for facility
design and environmental impact assessment purposes.

In brief, the Kahe Point area was selected as the optimal site off
Oahu in as much as (1) The Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO) Kahe
Generating Station provides an optimum point of interconnection
between an offshore OTEC facility and the island's electrical
distribution system; (2) the marine environmental characteristics
of the Kahe Point area are favorable to the siting of an offshore
OTEC facility; (3) electrical transmission cables interconnecting
the OTEC facility and the generating station can be brought ashore
through existing outfall discharge pipes, thereby negating the need
to further disturb the ecologically sensitive shoreline-surfzone
area; (4) the site is close to the center of Honolulu and the
infrastructural components, such as Honolulu International Airport,
Honolulu Harbor, the University of Hawaii, computing and communica-
tions centers, office space, and other support services, that will
be required; (5) environmental impacts (i.e., extensive buildings,
pavement or other disruptions) will not be significant on the
island of Oahu, thereby negating the need to change the existing
land characteristics of the Kahe Point area; and (6) an offshore
OTEC facility will add to the fishery resources of the area by

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acting as a fish aggregating device, thereby aiding both commercial
and recreational fishermen.

The OTEC for Oahu report identified several environmental areas
that required further study. The present study was performed to
fulfill three of the noted additional study requirements. First, a
comprehensive review of pertinent literature has been performed.
During the.performance of this work, over 175 scientific, technical
and popular literature sources specifically concerned with the Kahe
Point area, as well as with OTEC in general in Hawaii were reviewed.
A complete list of the physical, chemical and biological oceano-
graphic literature reviewed is provided in Section 5 (Conclusions)
of this report.

Second, the present study includes a literature review and field
investigations of the recreational and commercial fishing use of
the area offshore of Kahe Point. The fisheries literature reviewed
is also listed in Section 5. Field investigations included inter-
viewing sport fishermen and fishing clubs to determine the amount
of recreational fishing occurring in the area and to record the
species, sizes and numbers of fish caught in the Kahe OTEC facility
area. This portion of the present study provides an indication of
the species.of adult pelagic fish taken from the Kahe Point area,
for both recreational and commercial purposes.

Third, as recommended in the OTEC for Oahu report, a larval pelagic
fish survey was performed. This work provides an indication of the
ecological value of the Kahe Point area as a fis h nursery area and
the possible effects of an OTEC facility on the entrapment, impinge-
ment and entrainment of larval and juvenile fish. The data col-
lected during this part of the study is provided in Appendix B.

Fourth, although not specifically noted as an environmental area
requiring additional study, a brief investigation of the visual

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impacts of an offshore OTEC facility was conducted. It was deter-
mined through discussions with members of the Ad Hoc OTEC Committee
and other interested and involved individuals, that since the
offshore vista may be altered by the presence of an OTEC facility,
an initial investigation into the potential visual impacts should
be conducted., Appendix C contains the results of the visual impact
study performed for this report.

The following sections of this report describe the surveys and
investigations performed and present the results of that work.
Potential impacts, both positive and negative, also are discussed.
Finally, recommendations for future work areas are presented. The
bulk of this report has been prepared using nontechnical or simpli-
fied technical terms. However, Appendices A and B are the techni-
cal source reports upon which the oceanographic parameters dis-
cussed in this report have been based and are provided to assist
those interested and conversant in the technical terminology.

For the purposes of this report, it was determined that the Kahe
OTEC study area would be defined as the area between Barbers Point
and Pokai Bay and extending to a distance five miles offshore (see
Figure 1). The 3,280-foot contour occurs roughly at this five-mile
boundary. Therefore, data, information and studies collected
within this potential OTEC area are considered site specific, and
those outside the area have been termed "Hawaiian" (see Appendix A,
Part 2). Since the Hawaiian offshore oceanographic realm is rela-
tively similar physically, biologically and chemically, these
"Hawaiian" studies are still of use in establishing general base-
line environmental conditions.

-3-

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KAHE OTEC STUDY AREA S

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SECTION 2

LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL
AND BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA PERTINENT
TO THE KAHE POINT OTEC SITE

INTRODUCTION

A tedious, but nonetheless necessary task of any credible technical
investigation is a thorough review of existing literature. This
task involves searching not only technical publications but also
popularly written articles. During the course of the present work,
approximately 175 published articles were located, and are cited,
that pertain directly and indirectly to the marine biological,
chemical, physical oceanographic, fishery or visual impacts of an
OTEC facility being established offshore Kahe Point. The majority
of the technical literature regarding the Kahe Point area has been
prepared in relation to the Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO) Kahe
Point Generating Station and is concerned primarily with the near-
shore environment, that is, within one mile of the shoreline. A
larger body of information has been developed for areas outside the
Kahe OTEC study area.

The principle source of offshore site specific chemical, biologi-
cal and physical oceanographic information on the Kahe OTEC study
area is that collected during the recently completed Oahu OTEC
Environmental Benchmark Survey (Noda, et al, 1981). This baseline
environmental study consisted of a series of oceanographic cruises
over a one year period from May 1980 to May 1981.

As previously noted, other site specific studies have, for the most
part, concentrated on the area around the Kahe Generating Station;
have been concerned with the biological conditions of the area; and
have been confined to an area extending one mile or less offshore.

-5-

These studies (see Leis, 1978; Leis and Miller, 1976; Miller, 1974
and 1978; Environmental Consultants, 1974; Ziemann, 1977; and
AECOS, Inc., 1980) have investigated the effects of entrainment
through the Kahe Generating Station on resident zooplankton com-
munities, provided data on the taxonomic composition, relative
abundance and mortality rates and described in detail the bio-
logical and physical characteristics of the nearshore area and uses
of the area for commercial or recreational purposes. Additionally,
as part of an on-going data collection effort associated with the
development of a statewide system of fish aggregation devices (or
FAD's) by the Hawaii Division of Fish and Game, in conjunction with
the University of Hawaii Sea Grant Program, the State Marine Affairs
Coordinator and the National Marine Fisheries Service records are
being kept of commercial and recreational fishing activities within
the Kahe OTEC study area.

Physical oceanographic Characteristics and offshore Physiography

Kahe Point is approximately 20 miles west of Honolulu Harbor, the
principal National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) tidal gauge station. Water elevation measurements taken by
HECO at the intake structure of the Kahe Generating Station indi-
cate that Honolulu Harbor daily tidal predictions are adequate for
the Kahe area. Similarly, the U.S. Navy, Fleet Weather Central,
Pearl Harbor, Oceanographic Outlook, Waianae Coast of Oahu, indi-
cates that the tidal elevation predictions for Honolulu Harbor are
approximately 15 minutes ahead of the same tidal elevation for the
Kahe Point area. Table I provides tidal data for the Kahe area.

The wave climate characteristics off the Kahe Point area have been
described by Marine Advisors (1964) and those off Barbers Point by
Conoco-Dillingham (1972). In general, waves from the west and
west-southwest prevail during the winter months. This is also the
period of greatest wave heights as shown in Figure 2. During the

-6-

M@Mmm

TABLE 1

TIDAL DATA FOR THE KAHE POINT AREA

Position, Difference
Lat. Long. Time Height Ranges Mean
of 01 H.W. L.W. H.W. I L.W. Mean Diurnal Level
Location North West h.m. Feet Feet Feet

Honolulu 21-18 157-52 Daily Predictions 1.2 1.9 0.8

Waianae 21-27 158-12 +0 18 +0 15 .0.0 0.0 1.2 1.8 0.8

Kahe 21-22 158-08 +0 12 +0 10 0.0 0.0 1.2 1.8 0.8
(interpolation)

Kahe -0 30 +0.2 --- 2.0
(observations)

Kahe 0 00 0 00 +0.1 0.0 1.2 1.9 0.8

(suggested)

N
0 30
C 20
FREOuENCY OF. OCCURRENCE A
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 WINTER E WAVE HEIGHT
(fee
0 Or, A< 1.0
@AG
C S a 1.0-1.9

C 2.0-3.9

D 4.0-5.9

E 6.0-7.9

F 8.0-9.9

G 10.0-11.9
00

H 12.0-13.9

N
Note: There is no fixed correspondence
between the black-white scheme and the wave
height groups. Each ray begins with black FREOUENCY OF OCCURRENCE
at the central circle, regardless of whether
the initial height group is A, B, C, etc.; thereafter 70 60 50 40 30 20 @'O SUMMER --E
black and.white alternate continously along the
ray regardles@ of whether all height groups
are present or not. Letters along, or at the
end of, the ray indicate the sequence of
height groups present in that ray. S

Source: Marine Advisors, 1964

FIGURE 2. BREAKING WAVE ROSES AT KAHE FOR TYPICAL YEAR

summer, wave direction is from the southwest to south-southwest
sector and wave heights diminish. The predominant wave directions
are responsible for longshore transport toward the north in summer
and toward the south in winter.

Summer breaker heights due to tradewind generated waves are gener-
ally small. Breaker heights of other wave types ("Kona" or southerly
storm and North Pacific swell) are reduced at the shoreline since
Maili Point and Barbers Point (see Figure 1) act as wave barriers.
offshore, however, breakers may reach heights of six feet during
storm wave conditions.

The directions and characteristics of currents in the potential
Kahe OTEC area have been summarized by Bathen (1978). In general,
currents can be highly variable depending on the specific location
or season. Currents are generally weak along the leeward coast of
Oahu, except near Barbers Point and Kaena Point. Current varia-
tions are particularly evident at specific locations where the
influence of bottom topography, eddies and longshore currents
become significant. For example, off Barbers Point current veloci-
ties up to 0.8 knots have been measured and greater velocities have
been reported. From approximately 500 feet offshore of Kahe, water
circulation depends primarily on tidal-induced currents and wave-
driven ocean currents. The tidal-induced current component is
fairly consistently southward on flood tide and northerly on ebb
tide cycles.

In contrast to this offshore current pattern, Leis (1978) found the
opposite pattern for tidal currents within 500 feet of the shore-
line. Currents on ebb tides set toward the south and southwest and
reverse during flood tides. Inshore current velocities are greater
than offshore and reach a maximum during summer months (median
equal to 1.9 knots). The opposing patterns of tidally induced
currents for offshore and nearshore areas indicate an eddy system
of flow reversal off Kahe (Leis, 1978).

-9-

The effects of wind and wave action on currents are superimposed
over the tidal effects. Although a shallow layer of surface water
generally moves in the direction of the wind, the mass transport of
water is in the direction of propogation by waves and also causes
surface water motion. Marine Advisors (1964) found that in the
absence of strong winds, currents generally tend to flow parallel

to the bottom contours.

Littoral zone currents in the Kahe area are basically related to
wave action and wave approach to shore. The intermediate area
between the littoral and deep zones can be affected by either tides
or waves. During times when tidal changes are extreme and waves
are slight, water movement in the intermediate zone is affected
primarily by deep water currents. However, when the tidal effects
are small, the intermediate zone water movements are dominated by
the wave regime. Figure 3 represents current patterns and veloci-
ties observed under different tidal conditions with the wave approach
from different quadrants. As shown, different current directions
and velocities occur with different wind and wave conditions.
Detailed tidal, wave and current information is provided in Appen-
dix B and in Noda, et al (1981).

The Oahu OTEC Environmental Benchmark Survey (Noda, et al, 1 981)
provides biological, chemical and physical oceanographic data and
is as complete a baseline environmental study as possible within
the time and budgetary constraints imposed on the survey. During
the year-long Kahe OTEC Environmental Benchmark Survey, water
samples from 13 depths between the surface and approximately 3,280
feet were collected on each of three hydrocasts at each of two
stations, one off Kahe Point and one off Maili Point (Figure 4).

Water from these samples was analyzed for dissolved nutrients
(nitrate-nitrite, ammonium, phosphate and silicate), total nitro-
gen, phosphorous and carbon, dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH and

_10-

a6
.:nol
I)h

A2 Rio
.RS R4 R6 A's R9.
CURRENT PATTERN AND'VELOCITIES
WAVE APPROCH FROM THE
SOUTHWEST

RIO
R 2
3 R4 R5 R6 as R9 CURRENT PATTERN AND VELOCITIES
LEGENO WAVE APPROCH FROM THE
.1 June S. NORTHWEST JUNE 3.4,1964
c.l June 4 b

%-43

A
12';
1/4

P2 RIO
R3 A4 R6* R? RO R9 CURRENT'PATTERN AND VELOCITIES
MAY 20,1964
A @2' 31`4

'. @R2

-I- W, @Ylc

Source: Marine Advisors, 1964
FIGURE 3. CURRENT PATTERNS AND VELOCITY IN THE KAHE AREA

WRIHNnE

MIS..

MAILE

MAILE POINT

FORACS NORTH STnTION

0+--O'O*rEC 13ENCHMFIRK
SITE 2 ISLAND
OF
ORHU

KRHE POINT

-.0
2 10 Larval Fish Sampling Stations
2 ------ *- 0

O'OTEC BENCHMARK
3 0 SITE I

BRRBERS POINT
LIGHTHOUSE

Source: Noda, Set al., 1981

FIGURE 4. LOCATION OF LARVAL FISH SAMPLING STATIONS
AND O'OTEC BENCHMARK SITE LOCATIONS

alkalinity. Water samples from the upper 500 feet were also
analyzed for primary productivity, plant pigment concentrations and
levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

In addition to the water sampling program, net tows for zooplankton
and larval fish were taken at both sampling stations. Surface tows
were made with a surface sampling neuston net, while subsurface
oblique tows, covering four depth intervals, were taken using an
opening-closing plankton net. The zooplankton samples collected
were analyzed for species composition and abundance and biomass
(dry weight, ash-free dry weight, carbon* and nitrogen).

As noted in the introductory section of this report, larval fish
and plankton collections were made for the purposes of this study.
The results of these collection efforts are contained in Appen-
dix B. Other, primarily biological, surveys of the Kahe OTEC study
area have included those conducted as part of HECO's National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) monitoring program.
These studies and results therefrom are described in Leis (1978),
Leis and Miller (1976), Miller (1974 and 1978), Environmental
Consultants (1974) and Ziemann (1977). Additionally, McCain and
Peck (1972), Coles and McCain (1973), Coles and Fukuda (1975),
McCain (1977), Coles (1980) and Coles, Fukuda and Lewis (1981) have
described the effects of the Kahe Generating Station on the near-
shore biota.

For areas outside the immediate Kahe OTEC study area, the work most
able to afford directly comparable data to the above noted Noda, et
al (1981) OTEC Benchmark Environmental Survey, is the OTEC Bench-
mark Environmental Study conducted by AECOS (1979) and Noda, et al
(1980) off the island of Hawaii (Big Island) during the October
1978 to December 1979 period. This work was conducted at the then
proposed OTEC-1 test platform location, approximately 18 miles
seaward of Kawaihae Harbor. The surveys included water sampling

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for chemical and biological analyses purposes, as well as current
measurements. Additionally, there have been numerous studies on
the ecology of various groups of Hawaiian marine vertebrates and
invertebrates. For example, see Clarke (1973, 1974 and 1978) for
information on myctophid, stomiatoid, and other families of fishes.
Crustaceans have been studied by Walters (1976), Hu (1978), Riggs
(1977) and Ziemann (1975). Micronektonic fishes have been studied
by Amesbury (1975), Clarke and Wagner (1976) and the entire micro-
nektonic community off Oahu by Maynard, et al (1975). A complete
list of the physical, chemical and biological oceanographic litera-
ture reviewed for the purposes of this report appears at the end of
Section 5.

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SECTION 3

RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHING SURVEY
AND LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to asse ss the value of the Kahe OTEC study area for
fishing activities, field surveys of recreational fishermen and
interviews with fishing club members were conducted. Additionally,
the available literature was searched for data on historical fish-
ing activities and National marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and
State Division of Fish and Game (F&G) fish catch data were reviewed.

The literature reviewed is listed at the conclusion of Section 5.

The results of the literature reviewed indicate that the area
bounded by Barbers Point and Pokai Bay and extending five miles
offshore is a relatively heavily fished area. Both recreational
and commercial fishermen operate in the area, as do aquarium fish
collectors. The types of fishing gear used range from traditional
handline and pole and line methods to inshore netting, spearing,
commercial trapping for Kona crabs and commercial netting offshore.
It is estimated that at least 4,000 of Oahu's resident population
of fishermen frequent the inshore areas of the Kahe OTEC region.
Recreationally, the Barbers Point Barge Harbor is heavily fished,
as is the coastal area north of Kahe Beach Park. The distribution
of recreational and commercial fishing activities is shown in
generalized form in Figure 5.

A. Commercial Fishing Activity.

As described in Part 3 of Appendix A, the area between Maili
Point and Barbers Point and extending offshore to a distance of 20
miles produces average annual commercial fish landings of between
50,000 and 75,000 pounds, excluding skipjack tuna. The skipjack
tuna catch within this area averages between 250,000 and 500,000

_15-

KEY TO FISHING USES

A. N=IW. 1. Lay netting C. SPEARING 1. Diving
2. Crabbing 2. librchfishing
3. Throw netting 3. Squidding
4. Bait collecting
5. Aquarium fish collecting
D. TRAPPING,

B. HOOK AND I= 1. Shorecasting
2. Hand pole and line E. GAMERING 1. 'Opihi
3. Bottan handlining 2. Limu
4. Trolling 3. Wana
4. Lobster
5. shell cDllec
Waianae 6. miscellaneou

A 1 3 A-1,3 A- 1,2,,,
A-3 C-I--/ B-l
-C-1
C-1 A-1.
C-1,
cz)
';Z@> 'E-4,5
A-5 457 B-4

A-5

B-3

FIGURE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL F
USES IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION

KEY TO FISHING USES

A. NETTIW; 1. Lay netting C. SPFARING 1. Diving
2. Crabbing 2. Torchfishin
3. Throw netting 3. Squidding
4. Bait collecting
5. Aquarium fish collecting D. IPAPPIM

B. HOOK AND 1. Shorecasting
2. Hand pole and line E. GAU=NG 1. lopihi
3. Bottom handlining 2. Limu
4. Trolling 3. Wana
4. Lobster
5. Shell colle
6. miscellanea

J%ij
N 4@0, Lualualei licniestead
8-1
Nanakuli

C-1
A- 3

'C-2 C-1 A-1 4=7
E
6
-6 A-2
-B- 1, 2 A-5
C-1

B-3

FIGURE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL F
USES IN THE KAHE OTEC, REGION (CONTINUED)

KEY TO FISHING USES
A. IETTING 1. Lay netting C. SPFARING 1. Diving
2. Crabbing 2. qbrchfishin
3. T[ irow netting 3. squidding
4. Bait cy.31lecting
5. Aquarium fish cvllecting D. 03APPIW.

B. HWK AND 1. Shorecasting
2. Hand pole and line E. GATITM14G 1. 10pihi
3. Bottorn handlining 2. Limu
4. Trolling 3. Wana
4. Lobster
5. Shell colle
Nanakuli 6. miscellaneo

C-1 4 Lane
B-2-A-3
B- 1 1451
2 C-1 C-1. "-2,2 t.
C-A A-3
00 A-1 Izz,
A-5 A-2 A-3
1
@A-2 A-5
A-2 0
C- A- 3 '-2

B,3 o

c@
---113-3
B-3 A-5

A-2

B-1

B-3

FIGURE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL F
USES IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION (CONTINUED)

KEY TO FISHING USES

A. NETTING 1. Lay netting C. SPFARING 1. Diving
2. Cr@Wing 2. Tbrchfishing
3. Throw netting 3. Squidding
4. Bait collecting
5. Aquarium fish collecting D. TRAPP11C
B. HOOK AND 1. Shorecassting E. GATIEMNG 1. 'Opihi
2. Hand pole and line
3. Bottom handlining 2. Limu
4. Trolling 3. Wana
4. Iobster
5. Shell collect
6. Miscellaneous

I le PC1d
;@@,E-l 3 CaMP Malallole
\@B-1121
% (3 A-3 E-5 6
C- 1 Oil Refinery F,- 2
A B-1
-3 1,2 A -3
A-1 B-1,2 E-5 6
C-3 -A 11 B

A-1
C-1 (Z)
B-2

P,-2

B-3

B-4
@Iakole @Jbld

FIGURE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF RECREATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL F1
USES IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION (CONTINUED)

pounds per year. off Kahe, trapping of Kona crabs is a significant
commercial fishery over sand bottoms at depths between 50 and 300
feet. Table 2 lists the common fishes of high commercial value
found in the Kahe OTEC region. Table 3 indicates the average
seasonal catch of major commercially valuable marine life in the
Kahe OTEC region. As shown in Table 3 skipjack and yellowfish tuna
account for the largest catches per season. However, as noted
above, it is likely that a majority of the catch is taken outside
the immediate Kahe OTEC region. Also, it has been indicated by
appropriate data collection agencies that there is a tendency by
fishermen to under-report their catches.*

B. Recreational Fishing Activity

In addition to commercial trolling, recreational trolling is
also conducted offshore, primarily on weekends by vessels ranging
from 14 to 35 feet. This activity combines recreational fishing
with subsistence and commercial fishing. Catch per unit effort is
variable and the area trolled usually includes the Kahe OTEC region
as well as the rest of leeward Oahu. The primary target species
are yellowfin tuna and blue marlin. Other various billfish and
tuna species are also taken.

In general, recreational trolling is concentrated between Kahe
Point and Maili Point. On summer weekends, when ocean conditions
are favorable, it is common for 50 to 100 recreational trollers to
be fishing in the northern portion of the Kahe OTEC region. It is
estimated that over a given period of time, at least 300 sportfish-
ing vessels fish in the Kahe OTEC region. Overall, the shoreline
and inshore areas north of Pokai Bay (outside the OTEC study area)
provide more successful fishing than the specific study area. This
is reflected in terms of catch per hour, numbers of recreational
fishermen and. recreational fish catches.

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TABLE 2

RELATIVELY COMMON FISHES OF HIGH COMMERCIAL VALUE
FOUND IN THE KAHE OTEC REGION

General Usual Methods
Family Scientific Name Local Name Habitat -Of Capture

Squirrelfishes Myp@ppioli3 sp, 'u'u Surge Zone Spear
(menpachi) Sub-Surge Zone Hook and Line
Trap

mugilidae Neomyxus chaptaIii uouoa Surge Zone Throw Net

Kuhliidae KuhZia sandvicensis aholehole Surge Zone Throw Net
Hook and Line
Spear

Priacanthidae Priacanthus cruenatus aweoweo Surge Zone Hook and Line
Spear

Jacks Caranx sp. papio Surge Zone Hook and Line
Sub-Surge Zone

Decapterus macareZZus lopelu Sub-Surge Zone Hook and Line
Lift Net

Setar crumenopthaZmus Sub-Surge Zone Surround Net
Hook and Line
(juveniles)

Snappers Aprion virescens uku Sub-Surge Zone Hook and Line

Goatfishes MuZZoidichthyes weke la'a Surge Zone Net
ftavotineatus Spear
Hook and Line
(juveniles)

M. vanicoZensis weke 'ula Sub-Surge Zone Net
Spear
Hook and Line

Parupeneus kumu Surge Zone Spear
porphyreus Trap

Source: See Appendix A, page A.3-30

-21-

TABLE 3

AVERAGE SEASONAL CATCH (IN POUNDS)
OF MAJOR COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE MARINE LIFE
IN THE KAHE REGION

F I S H

Catch Per Season (lbs.)

Local/Common Name Scientific Name Jan.-June July-Dec.

Aku (Skipjack Tuna) Katsuwonus peZamis 128,110 178,080
Ahi (Yellowfin Tuna) Thunnus aZbacares 10,460 19,175
Akule (Bigeye Scad) Selar crumenophthaZmus 9,354 5,350
A'u (Black Marlin) Makaira indica 3,494 7,280
Hahalu (juvenile Bigeye Scad) SeLar crumenophthaZmus 2,283 4,905
Mahimahi (Dolphinfish) Coryphaena hippurus 3,673 2,947
A'u ki (-Striped Marlin) Tetrapturus audax 2,564 3,221
A'u (Blue Marlin) Makaira nigricans 2,096 2,710
Talape (Blue-Lined Snapper) Lutjanus kasmira 1,370 1,931
1011c, (Bonefish) Albula vulpes 1,416 731
Weke (Yellowstripe Goatfish) MuZZoidichthys fZavolineatus 1,179 1,639
Weke'ula (Red Goatfish) MuZZoidichthys vanicoZensis 789 1,401
"Opelu (Mackeral Scad) Decapterus macareZIus 336 1,375
Ulua (Jack) Caranx spp. 1,298 871
Kawakawa (Little Tuna) Euthynnus yaito 445 1,364
Ono (Wahoo) Acanthocybium soZandri 948 932
Kala (Unicorn SUrgeonfish) Naso unicornis 540 769
Palani (Surgeonfish) Acanthurus dussumieri 389 645
Menpachi ISquirrelfish) Myripri3tis sp. 262 560
Kumu (White-Spot Goatfish) Parupeneus porphyreus 431 281
A'u (Shortbill Spearfish) Tetrapturus angustirostris 426 89
Awa (milkfish) Chanos chanos 357 198
Mamo (Sargeant Major) Abudefduf abdominalis 257 206
Ahi (Bigeye Tuna) Thunnus obesus 36 233
Kahala (Amberjack) SerioZa dumeriZii 220 59
10pakapaka (Snapper) Pristimoides fiZamentosus 156 238
Pualu (Ringtailed Surgeonfish) Acanthurus xanthopterus 177 58
10milu (Blue Jack) Caranx melampygus 54 144
Uhu (Parrotfish) Scarus spp. 125 59

I N V E R T E B R A T E S

.Catch Per Season (lbs.)

Local/Common Name Scienti fic Name Jan.-June July-Dec.

Ula (Spiny Lobster) Panutirus spp. 161 113
Hele (Octopus) Octopus spp. . 99 381

L I M U

Catch Per Season (lbs.)

Local/Common Name Scientific Name Jan.-June July-Dec.

Limu (Seaweeds) All species 1,472 913

Source: Hawai'i State Division of Fish and Game records of commercial catch for statistical
area 402 (inshore) and area 422 (offshore). 1975 to 1980 average.

-22-

A second, but important, recreational fishery practiced from
small boats in the Kahe region is night handlining for menpachi.
This fishing activity is conducted in relatively shallow depths (30
feet) and generally on the darkest nights of the month. Since dark
nights produce the highest catches of this nocturnal feeder, fish-
ing activity is generally limited to two weekends per month when
the moon phase is suitable. Table 4 indicates the menpachi and
associated species taken by one recreational handline fisherman
over the 1974 to 1980 period.

As noted in the introductory section (1), larval fish survey
data collected as part of this study is included in Appendix B.

-23-

TABLE 4

CATCH OF MENPACHI AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES (POUNDS)
BY ONE RECREATIONAL HANDLINE FISHERMAN
KAHE OTEC REGION
1974 to 1980

Month 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

January -- 1 15 -- -- -- --

February 140 -- 30 1.5 --

March 45 100 50 -- 70

April 52 -- 30 80 75 165

May 178 130 80 -- -- 70
(8) (10)

June -- 30 20 35 30 --

July -- 180 100 100 --
(10) (8)

August 230 290 90 -- 155 -- --
(3)

September 210 35 40 155 50 50 325

October 5 45 -- -- 50 60 90
(16) (10)

November 78 -- 80 85 -- --
(7) (10)

December 35 -- -- -- -- -- --

Total Annual 973 711 585 435 445 110 720
(23) (20) (21) (8) (10)

Note: Ficfures in indicate catches of associated species.

Source: See Appendix A, page A.3-34

-24-

SECTION 4

IMPACTS OF OTEC DEVELOPMENT

In the previous two sections of this report, various physical,
chemical and biological oceanographic and fisheries investigations
pertaining to the establishment of an OTEC facility in the Kahe
Point study area have been reviewed. In this section, the various
potential oceanographic and visual/aesthetic impacts are discussed
in relation to four different types of OTEC facilities that appear
to be applicable to the Hawaiian setting-

The four types of OTEC facilities are: (1) an offshore vessel
design that is permanently moored in one location, with a long cold
water pipe extending 3,000 to 6,000 feet below the vessel (power
generated on-board is transmitted via a submarine cable system to
the shore); (2) an onshore OTEC facility similar to the present
Seacoast Test Facility (STF) located at Keahole Point, Hawaii.
This type of facility has a cold water pipe extending offshore to
the depth required to obtain the desired AT (1); (3) a "Texas Tower"
or derrick-t,pe facility as described in Appendix C; and (4) a
Y
mobile-type vessel that is capable of moving from location to
location seeking the optimum AT conditions (such a vessel could
produce fuels such as liquid hydrogen or ammonia or produce speci-
fic products from the sea water, such as fertilizers).

Each of these four potential designs would produce a variety of
impacts on the marine environment. Some of these impacts would be
common to all four designs, others would be specific to a specific
design. These impacts are discussed below for each of the four
different types of OTEC facilities.

(1)NOTE: AT refers to the warm water-cold water temperature dif-
ferential required to run an OTEC plant. See OTEC
For Oahu report for plant operation characteristics and
requirements.

-25-

To date, one of the least examined aspects of siting OTEC facili-
ties in Hawaii has been the visual or aesthetic impacts of either
an offshore or onshore plant. This lack of examination has been
justified to some extent in that only general descriptions of
future OTEC facilities have been available and their mooring or
onshore placement locations have not been specifically determined.
However, it appears prudent to consider the visual/aesthetic fac-
tors at this time to assure that they are as thoroughly considered
as other environmental factors.

In an effort to initiate a preliminary analysis of the visual and
aesthetic factors, it was determined that, at present, offshore oil
and gas exploration and drilling platforms most closely resemble
future OTEC facilities. This determination is reinforced by the
submission of a proposal by General Electric Company to the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), in response to DOE's OTEC 10/40 MW
Pilot Plant Program Opportunity Notice (PON). A "Texas Tower" type
facility is proposed to be established off the Kahe Point area.
This tower would presumably have a cold water intake pipe extending
offshore for some distance to attain the water temperature dif-
ferential (AT) required to generate electrical power. The power
would then be transported to shore via a submarine cable and fed
into the Oahu electrical grid system.

A. Offshore Fixed or Mobile Floating Platforms

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts

The principal potential marine environment impacts
resulting from mobile or moored platforms are those associated with
the cold and warm water effluents. In this regard there are two
basic potential impacts, (1) thermal and (2) chemical.

-26-

The potential thermal impact would be the effect of the
cold water discharge on tropical shallow-living marine organisms.
Although additional studies are required to fully quantify this
potential impact on marine organisms, a few studies have been
conducted on the thermal tolerances of tuna. For example, yellow-
fin tuna are fished in waters with surface temperatures ranging
from 73 to 90 degrees F, and skipjack tuna in waters ranging from
66 to 73 degrees F. During the experiments conducted on OTEC-1 the
discharge water was approximately 64 degrees F, which is below the
preferred limits of either yellowfin or skipjack tuna. However,
the cold water effluent effects would most likely be dependent upon
the volume of the effluent and the rapidity with which it mixes
with surrounding waters. Based on the catch data discussed previ-
ously for the OTEC-1 vessel, it would appear the effluent had no
negative impact on the distribution of tuna around the vessel.

Another potential thermal impact factor would be that
associated with the mixing rate of the cold water effluent with the
surrounding waters. The cold water, if not mixed rapidly, could
act as a thermal barrier to the recruitment of sessile organisms
and their attachment to either the fixed or mobile platform. A
major factor affecting this impact will be the areal extent and
depth of the effluent plume. Additional studies regarding thermal
effects appear to be required before the positive or negative
nature of these effects can b e stated with any degree of reliability.

The potential chemical impact would be that associated
with the chemical cleaning of the warm and cold water pipes and
the heat exchangers. Based on the latest available information
(HNEI, 1982) it appears that very low levels of chlorination (0.025
to 0.050 ppm chlorine for one hour per day) effectively controls
the growth of' fouling films on the warm water components while bio-
fouling does not appear, at present, to be a problem on the cold
water components. The introduction of bound or free chlorine in

-27-

the warm water effluent, since it does act as a biocide, could
potentially adversely affect the micro and macro biota in and around
the effluent plume. However, the extent of this potential effect in
Hawaiian or other subtropical and tropical areas is unknown at pres-
ent due to the lack of research. This situation is being corrected
with the initiation of research activities through the Natural Energy
Laboratory of Hawaii and Hawaii Natural Energy Institute. Addi- '
tional studies are required, however, before definitive statements
regarding the effects of chemical biofouling control methods on the
water chemistry and biota surrounding offshore fixed and/or mobile
floating OTEC plants.

Possibly acting as positive impacts, offshore fixed or
floating types of OTEC facilities, act as fish aggregating devices
(FAD's) and/or artificial reefs, as do oceanic flotsam, and could
serve to attract commercially harvestable crops of fish. FAD's and
artificial reefs have had a positive effect on both commercial and
recreational fishing activities in Hawaii. During the deployment
of both Mini--OTEC and OTEC-1 off the Big Island, both commercial
and recreational fishermen utilized these temporary FAD's and arti-
ficial reefs to economic advantage. For example, during operation
of OTEC-1, an average of ten small boats per day were observed
carrying out fishing activities (primarily handlining by commercial
vessels and trolling by recreational vessels) around the vessel
over a 75-day period. Catches of large, high value (i.e. $3.00 to
$5.00 per pound).tuna were estimated to be about 500 pounds per
vessel per trip to OTEC-1. Similarly the small-boat tuna handline
fleet out of Kona is estimated to have harvested a total of 2.5
tons per day of fishing. Assuming a wholesale (ex-vessel) value of
at least $3.00 per pound, the Kona handline fishery probably gener-
ated gross revenues of at least $15,000 per day as a direct result
of OTEC-1. The pre-OTEC-1 catch value is not known, however, the
size of the fishing fleet has increased from 30 to 40 boats to

about 120 boats.

-28-

Similar economic effects could be expected from a mobile
OTEC plant. For example, the Pacific Tuna Development Foundation
(PTDF) began exploratory surveys in 1976 in an effort to expand the
U.S. purse seine fishery to the central and western Pacific Ocean.
These surveys and similar type surveys conducted by Japanese
fishermen have indicated that the generally wildly erratic behavior
and far ranging schooling habits of pelagic tuna are tempered
considerably by the presence of flotsam. The schools congregate
around floating, drifting objects and are much more easily netted
and brought -to market. Purse seining in the vicinity of an OTEC
platform would be analogous to flotsam-associated purse seining
presently practiced by both U.S. and Japanese fishermen in the central
central and western Pacific or to the raft fishing practiced in the
Philippine Islands.

2. visual/Aesthetic Impacts

The visual/aesthetic impacts of either a mobile or moored
OTEC facility in Hawaii are likely to be minimal. In the case of
a mobile facility, it is probable that the plant would "graze" out
of sight of the islands. The products produced by the facility
would be transported to Hawaii by ships similar in appearance to
the numerous cargo or oil supply ships that regularly visit Hawaii.
In the case of a moored platform, it is possible that the platform
would be situated far enough offshore (five miles or more) to be
almost unnoticeable from the shore. Should the platform be moored
between three and five miles offshore and have a super-structure or
components extending 150 feet above the water, the entire facility
would be visible and components discernible. However, the plant
would appear much smaller than actual size and would probably be
perceived as a ship coming over the horizon. The closer to shore
the plant is moored, the more discernible the plant components will
be and the more visually intrusive the plant may appear.

-29-

B. Tower Type OTEC Facilities

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts

The impacts of the tower or derrick-type facility on the
marine environment would be similar to those described above. That
is, the tower would probably act as an artificial reef, drawing
both commercially and recreationally valuable marine organisms to
the immediate vicinity of the plant. However, since a similar type
facility has not been placed in Hawaiian waters, estimating the
species density and diversity associated with such a structure off
Kahe Point would be conjecture. An analogy may be possible from
oil platforms placed in subtropical water areas similar to Hawaii.
In the Gulf of Mexico, various researchers have found that there is
a definite fish aggregating effect of oil platforms.

Impacts also will result from the construction activities
related to the cold water pipe or the submarine electrical cable
connected to the tower, if they require dredging or blasting for
placement purposes. This construction activity could seriously
impact the biota in the immediate area. However, based on studies
conducted around the HECO Kahe Generating Station, it appears that
construction activities may have a transitory effect and that both
the motile and sessile biota return within a reasonable period of
time. This same effect appears to be occurring in and around the
Honolulu International Airport Reef Runway (Chapman, 1979).

Similarly there is the potential impact regarding the
effect of the cold and warm water effluents. If not mixed rapidly,
the cold water effluent could act as a thermal barrier to success-
ful recruitment of numerous coral reef dwelling and forming species.
The potential warm water effluent impact would be that associated
with chemical control of biofouling as described above. Also, as
with other OTEC facility types, the entrainment and impingment of
marine organisms will be an impact of the tower-type OTEC plant.

-30-

2. Visual/Aesthetic Impacts

A field investigation of offshore platform construction
activities an d in-place platforms was conducted in Scotland and
elsewhere in the United Kingdom (U.K.) as well as in the south-
western United States gulf coast states. Additionally, a litera-
ture review regarding the visual/aesthetic factors of offshore
platforms was conducted and interviews with cognizant public agency
and private organization personnel were held. The complete results
of this work are described in Appendix C to this report.

In general, it is thought that one of Hawaii's greatest
assets is the visual beauty of both our mountain and ocean vistas.
The erection of a platform that may be as much as 100 feet above
the surface of either the surrounding land or ocean area may result
in adverse reactions from both residents and tourists. Although it
is unlikely such a tower would be required on land, a tower would
be required offshore. The potential adverse visual impacts of
these towers can be partially mitigated through various archi-
tectural treatment schemes. However, the effectiveness of these
schemes would have to be reviewed by the Oahu community before
their value could be determined.

It is likely that the initial visual impact would occur
during the construction of a tower-type OTEC facility, assuming
construction were accomplished in Hawaii. It is likely that any
tower-type OTEC facility, if constructed in Hawaii, would be one of
the largest construction projects performed in the State and would
result in one of the larger visual impacts in the State. Tending
to offset the temporary visual impact of construction would be the
economic impact of such construction. For example, towers or
platforms similar to those described in Appendix C, are estimated
to cost approximately $1.5 billion (see Appendix C, Literature
Cited, Edmiston, 1981).

-31-

Once in place, such platforms as described above will be
visible from great distances. The visual impact would be greatest
from nearby beaches, headlands and mountains. Since the ocean
bottom off Oahu drops fairly sharply (for example, off Kahe, water
depths approximately one mile offshore reach 330 to 650 feet and
1.5 miles offshore the water depth reaches 1,600 feet), it is
likely that -the tower or platform-type facility would be within 0.5
mile of the shoreline and extend approximately 100 feet above the

water surface.

In an effort to mitigate many of the above noted poten-
tial adverse visual impacts, both during and after construction,
Scotland, for example, has adopted specific environmental guide-
lines. These guidelines specify those areas in which construction
and support activities may take place and those in which construc-
tion activities may not take place. Other areas have been desig-
nated for some support activities, such as pipeline terminal areas
or pump station areas, but limit these types of activities. An
environmental control system similar to that developed in Scotland
may be applicable to Hawaii. However, given the relatively few
suitable Hawaiian harbor locations, construction and/or support
activities may be limited to existing or presently planned harbors.

C. Onshore OTEC Facilities

1. Oceanographic and Fisheries Impacts

The effects on the marine environment of an onshore OTEC
facility will be primarily limited to the placement of the cold
water pipe and the cold and warm water effluent discharge. The
effects of bringing the cold water .pipe ashore would be similar to
those discussed for the derrick alternative. The cold water efflu-
ent, if discharged close to the plant and shoreline would, however,
probably have a greater impact than for the derrick-type facility.

-32-

Studies conducted on the effects of temperature on Hawaiian reef
corals indicate that a decrease in the natural water temperature
would be more harmful than a similar increase in temperature
(Jokiel and Coles, 1977). For example, a lower lethal limit of 64
degrees F, or the same as the OTEC-1 discharge temperature, has
been established for some Hawaiian corals. Additional studies of
thermal change effects on coral reef organisms appear to be re-
quired before definitive or quantitative answers can be given.
Similarly, the effects of chemical biofouling control and the
effects of those chemicals on the water chemistry and biota require
additional study.

One final potential impact on the marine environment of
any of the fixed-type OTEC facilities that should be researched
further is the potential for increased ciguatera incidences.
Several hypotheses have been offered regarding the causes of
ciguatera outbreaks. However, it does appear that marine con-
struction activities may trigger blooms of dinoflagellates that
have been implicated as being the source of the toxin. To date, it
is not possible to predict whether or not a given construction
activity in the marine environment will lead to increased inci-
dences of ciguatera. Therefore, it appears prudent to conduct a
ciguatera monitoring program during the construction period.

2. Visual/Aesthetic Impacts

The visual/aesthetic impacts of an onshore OTEC facility
most likely will be minimal. The OTEC facilities probably will be
colocated with existing power generating stations, similar to that
presently proposed by Ocean Thermal Corporation for the Kahe Gen-
erating Station. Land based OTEC facilities can be architecturally
designed to fit in with their surroundings and screened through the
use of landscaping.

-33-

SECTION 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE WORK AREAS

The preceding sections of this report have identified the litera-
ture reviewed and briefly discussed potential environmental para-
meters and impacts relevant to the establishment of an OTEC facility
in the Kahe Po int study area. These parameters and impacts have
included the existing chemical and physical oceanographic charac-
teristics of the area; the entrainment, impingement and entrapment
of marine organisms; the commercial and recreational fisheries of
the region; and the visual/aesthetic parameters relating to the
establishment of an OTEC facility both on and offshore the Kahe
region. From the foregoing it would appear that the following
preliminary conclusions can be drawn:

Physical Oceanography:

It is recognized that-there would be changes to the overall
characteristics of the physical oceanographic conditions in
the vicinity of OTEC facilities. However it appears that an
OTEC facility in the Kahe region would have minimal impact on
the physical oceanographic characteristics, except for poten-
tial effects of the cold water effluent as discussed below.
It would also appear that the physical oceanographic factors
will impact on the design and placement of the OTEC facility,
especially in view of the apparent highly variable current
patterns and wind and wave regime.

Chemical Oceanography:

The chemical oceanographic effects of an OTEC facility on the
surrounding waters do not appear to be fully understood at

-34-

this time. Various OTEC-1 and other laboratory investigative
programs indicate that the chemical oceanographic effects may
be limited in extent and may not produce serious short or
long-term problems. For example, it has been hypothesized,
for an inshore or onshore plant, that the cold water effluent,
which most likely will be nutrient rich, will have an adverse
effect on the surrounding area. However, the effluent effect
is dependent upon (1) the discharge depth, i.e. whether it is
within the upper "mixed" layer of the water column or below
the MiXE!d layer, and (2) whether the effluent contains cold
water only or is mixed with the warm surface water effluent.
If the cold water discharge is into the upper photic zone,
biostimulation, e.g. algae blooms, could occur. However,
there appears to be a quest ion of whether this biostimulation
would ever be measurable since dispersion and mixing would
probably occur rapidly. At present, most OTEC researchers
believe that measurable effects will not occur for small OTEC

plants, e.g. less than 100 MW capacity. Larger OTEC plants
may cause measurable effects, but the characteristics of these
effects are presently unknown. For an offshore plant, it is
possible that increased biostimulation could produce positive
effects through the increase of available food supplies for
highertrophic levels. However, at present these are hypothe-
ses only and additional biostimulation studies are underway
both in the Kahe OTEC study area and at the Natural Energy
Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH).

In the preceding discussion, it is assumed that means other
than chemical treatments will be utilized to clean heat

exchanger tubes or any other plant component. However, as
noted previously, based on the preliminary results of re-
search conducted on OTEC-1 and at NELH, it appears that
chemical. cleaning of heat exchanger tubes is the most effi-
cient and least costly cleaning method. The studies conducted

-35-

indicate that for the cold water system, very little cleaning
is required due to the lack of biofouling. In the warm water
system, cleaning is required more frequently than the cold
water system, but the levels of chemicals used (primarily
chlorination) are low.(0.025 to 0.050 ppm for one hour per day)
are just barely detectable in the effluent. However, addi-
tional laboratory and field research work is required to quan-
tify the effects of chemical biofouling control.

Biological Oceanography:

Based on the literature reviewed and field studies conducted
for this report, it appears that the greatest effects of
establishing an OTEC facility in the Kahe region will be on
the marine biota of the area. These effects will be evidenced
in both the construction and operation phases.

During construction, depending on the type of facility con-
structed, the biological impacts could range from transitory
to long term. Transitory effects could result from dredging
activities during placement of an offshore platform and/or the
placement of the cold water pipe and power transmission cable.
Dredging activities would result in the removal of inshore
organisms as well as increasing the levels of suspended solids
in the water column. Another effect could be increased inci-
dences of ciguatera poisoning. In general, a wide variety of
fishes (snappers, groupers, jacks, barracudas, surgeon fishes
and wrasses)@are the commonly caught species of fish that
people eat and from which they contract the poisoning.
Ciguatera does not affect the fish themselves.

Plant operation environmental effects could result from the
entrainment, impingement and entrapment of fish and larval
marine organisms in the warm and cold water systems; the

-36-

establishment of cold water "cells" near the cold water efflu-
ent discharge pipe and a resultant reduction in nearshore
species abundance and diversity through adverse thermal
effects; and potential alteration of the water chemistry
around the plant. Positive factors expected from moored,
mobile or derrick-type plant designs are the effects of
creating a fish aggregation device or artificial reef; increas-
ing the population levels of phytoplankton (fish and inverte-
brate food) in the water column through the biostimulation
effects of the cold water effluent as discussed above; and the
attendant potential increased commercial and recreational fish
catch possibilities. This latter factor may be negated if
overfishing reduces population stocks below the level at which
sustained populations can exist.

Visual/Aesthetic Factors:

The potential visual intrusion of an offshore OTEC facility is
difficult to assess at this time due to the lack of comparable
facilities in Hawaii. However, initial indications are that
construction activities of tower type facilities could be
viewed with adverse public reaction. Plant placement and
operation offshore of Kahe Point, similarly, may result in
adverse public sentiment. However, architectural treatments,
such as screens to hide OTEC plant components or landscaping,
may be possible, somewhat mitigating visual intrusion factors.

Onshore facilities, especially if they are colocated with
existing power generation facilities such as the Kahe Gener-
ating Station, are likely to have little, if any, visual/
aesthetic impact. Onshore facilities can be screened through
landscaping and architectural design should this be required.

-37-

As a result of the literature reviews and field investigations
conducted for this report, it appears that initial studies have
been performed for the major environmental effects that could
result from the establishment of an onshore or offshore OTEC facil-
ity in the Kahe region. There is a considerable body of informa-
tion available for the nearshore marine biological, chemical and
physical characteristics of the area. Similarly, two baseline
environmental surveys of the offshore area have been performed (see
Figure 4) and provide data that is probably more than that required
for environmental assessment purposes. However, it appears that
additional site specific information in all oceanographic fields as
well as additional regional information is required for environ-
mental impact statement (EIS) purposes for a specific OTEC facility
proposal. The following lists those areas that appear to require
additional study for EIS and decision-making purposes:

ADDITIONAL STUDIES REQUIRED RELEVANT TO
OTEC DEVELOPMENT IN KAHE POINT STUDY AREA

Environmental Study
Parameter Required Remarks

1. Meteorology Regional and site Data collected will
specific on and feed into and be
offshore wind data correlated with
collection. oceanographic data.

2. Physical (1) Regional and (1) Data should be
Oceanography site specific wave, collected for a one-
tidal and current year period, on in-
data. shore shelf, seaward
slope and at slope
break.

(2) Cold and warm (2) Data to be cor-
water effluent plume related with chemi-
dispersion modeling cal and biological
and field studies. data for impacts
analyses.

-38-

3. Chemical (1) Regional and (1) Data should be
Oceanography site specific water collected at least
quality data collec- three times per
tion for organic and year to identify
inorganic nutrients seasonal coverage,
and other water sampling should be
quality parameters conducted from sur-
listed in State face to 600 m depth.
Water Quality Regu- Results would be
lations. used for correla-
tion with existing
standards and to
identify construc-
tion and operation
impacts.

(2) Cold and warm (2) To be@ used to
water effluent assess impacts of
plume sampling. plume.

4. Biological (1) Regional and (1) To be corre-
Oceanography site specific phyto lated with physical
and zooplankton and chemical ocean-
ographic factors.

(2) Detailed site (2) To provide
specific larval baseline data.
fish surveys.

(3) Cold and warm (3) To be used to
water effluent plume identify operation
studies on micro and impacts.
macro marine organisms.

(4) Benthic biota (4) To be used to
surveys for site spe- identify construc-
cific cold water pipe tion impacts.
and power transmission
cable placement.

5. Fisheries (1) Adult commercial (1) To be used to
and recreational fish identify facility
population density placement impacts.
and diversity studies.

(2) Ciguatera Moni- (2) To be used to
toring Studies. determine correla-
tion between con-
struction/operation
of OTEC plant if
ciguatera outbreak
occurs.

-39-

6. Geotechnical Site specific sedi- To be used to iden-
Investigations ment sampling and tify construction
subsurface coring. impacts.

7. Visual/ (1) Land-Use Information col-
Aesthetics Studies lected to be used
to determine com-
(2) Community munity attitudes
Attitudinal and the positive/
Studies negative impacts of
OTEC development.
(3) Architectural Data would also be
Treatment/Design used to identify and
and Landscape Design establish institu-
Studies tional/legal frame-
work and possible
visual treatment for
on and offshore
facilities.

-40-

LITERATURE REVIEWED RELEVANT TO THE
SHORELINE AND NEARSHORE ENVIRONMENTS OF
THE KAHE OTEC STUDY AREA

(NOTE: Numbers to left of literature cited indicate reference
number citation in Appendix A, Part 1.)

16 - Bathen, K. H. 1978. Circulation Atlas for Oahu, Hawaii.
Sea Grant Misc. Rept., UNIHI-SEAGRANT-MR-78-05. 94 pp.

20 - Bretschneider, C. L., and P. G. Wybro. 1975. Inunda-
tions and Forces Caused by Tsunamis for the State of
,Hawaii. Tech. Suppl. No. 5. Hawaii Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Program, Honolulu, 88 pp.

25 - Campbell, J. F. 1972. Erosion and Accretion of Selected
Hawaiian Beaches, 1962-1972. Univ. Hawaii, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-
TR--72-92. (also Hawaii Inst. Geophys., HIG-72-20).
30 pp.

26 - Campbell, J. F., W. T. Coulbourn, R. Moberly, Jr., and B.
R. Rosendahl. 1970. Reconnaissance Sand Inventory Off
Leeward Oahu. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Geophys., HIG-
70-16 (also Seagrant, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-70-2). 14 pp. plus
figures.

38 Dept. Public Works. 1971. Water Quality Program
foi- Oahu With Special Emphasis on Waste Disposal. Final
Report, Work Areas 6 and 7: Analysis of Water Quality,
Oceanographic Studies, Part I. Prep. by Engineering-
Science, Inc., Sunn, Low, Tom, and Hara, Inc., and
Dillingham Corporation.

39 - Clark, J. R. K. 1977. The Beaches of Oahu. The Univ.
Press of Hawaii. Honolulu, 193 pp.

42 - Coles, S. L. and J. McCain. 1973. Effects of the Kahe
Generating Station on the Marine Environment. A report
of the 1973 monitoring program. Hawaiian Electric Co.
199 pp.

86 - Hawaii Surfing Association. 1968. Surfing Site Survey.
Prep. for State of Hawaii, Dept. Plan. Econ. Dev.,
Honolulu.

88 - Hawaii Water Resources Plan. 1979. Hawaii Water Resources
Regional Study, Dept. Land Nat. Resources, State of
Hawaii. 207 pp.

-41-

98 - Kanayama, R. K., and E. W. Onizuka. 1973. Artificial
Reefs in Hawaii. State of Hawaii, Dept. Land Nat.
Resources, Div. Fish and Game, Rept. 73-01, 18 pp.

108 - Kimmerer, W. J., and W. W. Durbin, Jr. 1975. The
Potential for Additional marine Conservation Districts on
Oahu and Hawaii. Sea Grant Tech. Rept. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-
TR--76-03, 108 pp.

110 - Kohn, A. J. 1959. The Ecology of Conus in Hawaii.
Ecol. Monogr., 29: pp. 47-90.

113 - Lamoureux, C. H. (in prep.). Examples of Land Ecosystems.
Unpubl. Ms. prep. for Natl. Park Serv., Native and
Natural Landmarks Program. 8 pp.

116 - Littler, M. M. 1971. Roles of Hawaiian Crustose Coral-
line Algae (Rhodophyta) in Reef Biology. Ph.D. disserta-
tion (Botanical Sci.), Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu. 384 pp.
Also: 1973. The Population and Community Structure of
Hawaiian Fringing Reef Crustose Corallinaceae (Rhodophyta,
Cryptonemiales). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol, 11(2): pp. 103-
120.
Also: 1973. The Distribution, Abundance, and Communi-
ties of Deepwater Hawaiian Crustose Corallinaceae (Rhodo-
phyta, Cryptonemiales). Pac. Sci., 27(3): pp. 281-289.

117 - Long, E. R. 1972. Marine Fouling Studies Off Oahu,
Hawaii. Veliger, 17(l): pp. 23-36.

124 - McCain, J. C., and J. Peck. 1972. Fish Survey - Kahe
Power Plant. Hawaiian Electric Co.

125 - 1973. The Effects of a Hawaiian Power Plant on
the Distribution and Abundance of Reef Fishes. Univ.
Hawaii, Sea Grant Advisory Rept., UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-73-
03, 15 pp.

126 - McVey, J. P. 1970. Fishery Ecology Off the Pokai Arti-
ficial Reef. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii.

128 - Macdonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. Volcanoes in
the Sea (The Geology of Hawaii). The Univ. Press of
Hawaii. Honolulu, 441 pp.

137 - Marine Advisors. 1964. Analysis of Littoral Processes,
Kahe, Oahu. Prep. for Hawaiian Electric Co., Honolulu,
Hawaii. 62 pp.

-42-

139 - Mendenhall, T. 1976. Snorkling and Diving Oahu.
Hawaiian Isles Publ. Co., Ltd. 36 pp.

146 - Moberly, R., Jr., J. F. Campbell, and W. T. Coulbourn.
1975. Offshore and Other Sand Resources for Oahu,
Hawaii. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Geophys., HIG-75-10,
and Sea Grant Tech. Rept., UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-75-03.

147 - Moberly, R., Jr. and T. Chamberlain. 1964. Hawaiian
Beach Systems. (Final report; revised and re-issued,
January 1968). Hawaii Inst. Gepphys., Univ. Hawaii, HIG-
64--2, 95 pp.

150 - Morris, D. E. 1968. Some Aspects of the Commercial
Fishery and Biology of Two Species of Spiny Lobster,
Panulirus Japonicus (De Siebold) and Panulirus Penicillatus
(Oliver), in Hawaii. M.S. thesis (Zoology), Univ.
Hawaii, Honolulu. 82 pp.

156 - Oceanic Institute. 1976. Proposed Waianae Boat Harbor,
Waianae, Oahu. February 6, 1976. Environmental Impact
Statement. Prep. for State of Hawaii, Dept. Transporta-
tion, Harbors Div. 51 pp. plus appendices.

157 - Oishi, F. G. 1973. Fish Survey at Pokai Bay, Waianae.
Unpubl. data, Hawaii Coastal Zone Data Bank (HCZDB),
OISF73A.

165 - Reed, S. A., E. A. Kay, and A. R. Russo. 1977. Survey
of Benthic Coral Reef Ecosystems, Fish Populations, and
Micro-Mollusks in the Vicinity of the Wai'anae Sewage
Ocean Outfall, O'ahu, Hawai'i - Summer 1975. Univ.
Hawaii, Water Resources Research Center. Tech. Rept.
No. 104, 34 pp.

168 - Richmond, T. de A., and D. Mueller-Dombois. 1972.
Coastline Ecosystems on Oahu, Hawaii. Vegetatio, 25(5-
6): pp. 367-400.

186 - State of Hawaii, Dept. of Health. 1978a. Municipal
Sewage and Household Waste Disposal Systems. Issue Paper
No. 5, Conference on Water Quality Management for Hawaii:
Issues and Options. Held August 23-24. Honolulu.
48 pp.

189 - ------ 1978. Proposed Public Health Regulations.
Chap. 37-A, Water Quality Standards. 42 pp.

191 - State of Hawaii, Dept. Land and Natural Resources, Div.
of Fish and Game. 1971. Fish Survey at Barbers Point,
Ewa. Unpubl. data, HCZDB, DIVF71B.

-43-

198 - 1974. Fish Surveys at Maunalua Bay and Waianae
Artificial Reef. Proj. No. F-9-4. Unpubl. manuscript.

209 - Stearns, H. T. 1966a. Geology of the State of Hawaii.
Pacific Books, Palo Alto, Calif. 266 pp.

211 - Stearns, H. T. 1974. Submerged Shorelines and Shelves
in the Hawaiian Islands and a Revision of Some of the
Eustatic Emerged Shorelines. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 85:
pp.. 795-804.

215 - Sterling, E. P. and C. C. Summers. 1978. Sites of
O'ahu. B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. 352 pp.

219 - Takasaki, K. J. 1974. Hydrologic Conditions Related to
Subsurface and Surface Disposal of Wastes in Hawaii.
U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Resources Invest. 1-74, open-
file Report. 5 pp-

223 - Timbel, A. S., and J. A. Maciolek. 1978. Stream Channel
Modification in Hawaii. Part A: Statewide inventory of
Hawaiian streams including survey of habitat factors and
associated biota. For: U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Stream Alteration Project. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Corp.
Fish. Res. Unit, Honolulu. 157 pp.

232 -U. S. Army Engineer Division, Pacific Ocean. 1971.
Hawaii Regional Inventory of the National Shoreline
Study. 110 pp.

236 - Wallin, D. Undated. Skin and Scuba Diving Guide for the
Hawaiian Islands. Dexter Press, West Nyack, N. Y.
Unnumbered pages.

244 - Wentworth, D. K. 1938. Marine Bench-Forming Processes
in Water-Level Weathering. J. Geomorph., 1: pp. 6-32.

306 - State of Hawaii, Dept. of Health. 1978. Nonpoint Source
Pollution in Hawaii: Assessments and recommendations.
Rept. of the Tech. Comm. on Nonpoint Source Pollution
Control. Tech. Rept. No. 2. 117 pp. plus appendices.

307 - State of Hawaii, Dept. of Health. 1978. An Ecosystem
Approach to Water Quality Standards. Rept. of the Tech.
Comm. on Water Quality Standards. Tech. Rept. No. 1.
48 pp. plus appendices.

309 - State of Hawaii, Dept. of Health. 1978. Water Quality
Management Plan for the City and County of Honolulu. DOH
and C&C Honolulu.

-44-

322 - Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1975. Marine Environ-
mental Assessment Barbers Point Barge Harbor, Oahu,
Hawaii. Prep. for Dept. of the Army, U. S. Army Engineer
Division, Pacific Ocean, Honolulu. 110 pp.

323 - Industrial Bio-test Laboratories, Inc. 1972. The
Refinery Site and Environs Ecology. Section 2 (258 pp.),
In: CONOCO-Dillingham Refinery, Barbers Point, Oahu,
R-awaii. Environmental Report.

324 - Jokiel, P. L. and S. L. Coles. 1974. Effects of Heated
Effluent on Hermatypic Corals at Kahe Point, Oahu. Pac.
Sci. , 28: pp. 1-18.

329 - Loomis, H. G. 1976. Tsunami Wave Runup Heights in
Hawaii. Hawaii Inst. Geophys., Univ. Hawaii, and Joint
Tsunami Research Effort, Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory, NOAA. HIG-76-5, NOAA-JTRE-161, 95 pp.

332 - Fielding, A., and B. Moniz. 1978. Coral, A Hawaiian
Resource (Draft). An institutional guidebook for teachers.
Prep. by Waikiki Aquarium, Hawaii.

334 - Coles, S. L. 1979. Annual Report. Kahe Generating
Station NPDES Monitoring program. Vol. I, Text. Hawaiian
Electric Co., Inc. Honolulu, Hawaii. 263 pp.

341 - Kimura, B. Y. and K. M. Nagata. 1979. The Coastal Flora
of Hawaii. Final Rept. to Sea Grant College Program,
Univ. Hawaii. 7 pp. plus notes and annotated list.

351 - URS Research Co. 1973. Marine'Environment Impact Assess-
ment Report for Hawaiian Electric Company, Incorporated,
Kahe Point Facility, Oahu, Hawaii. URS 7229-3. 280 pp.

371 - Auyong, J. S. H., J. I. Ford, T. Y. Iwai, D. K. Noborikawa,
F. G. Oishi, G. R. Higashi, et al. 1975. Final Project
Report of the National Science Foundation Student Organized
Studies Grant No. GY-10773 Study of the Colonization and
Development of Corals on an Artificial Reef Substrate
(Artificial Reef Project, Pokai Bay, Oahu, Hawaii), June-
August, 1973. 157 pp.

375 - Cross, E. R. 1964 to 1965. Shelling Areas on Oahu.
Hawaiian Shell News, 12(2): pp. 4-5, 13(l): pp. 4-5,8,
13(4): pp. 4-5, 13(fl: pp. 6-7, 13(6): pp. 4-5,6,
1-30): pp. 6-7, 8-F 13(9): pp. 4-5-F7, 13(11): pp. 4-

376 - Towill, R. M. Corp. 1974. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian
Electric Company. First Annual Report, July 1974,
12 pp.

-45-

Towill, R. M. Corp. 1977a. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian
Electric Company Second Annual Report, 11 pp.

1977b. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian Electric
Company Third Annual Report, November 1977, 13 pp.

1979. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian Electric
Company Fourth Annual Report, January 1979, 13 pp.

1980. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian Electric
Company Fifth Annual Report, Feburary 1980, 17 pp.

1981. Kahe Sand Survey for Hawaiian Electric
Company Sixth Annual Report, February 1981, 21 pp.

379 - Environmental Impact Study Corporation. 1977. Final
Report for Barbers Point Harbor Biological Survey. Prep.
for Dept. of Transportation, State of Hawaii and Archaeo-
logical Research Center Hawaii, Inc. 61 pp. plus appen-
dices.

380 - U. S. Army Engineer District, Honolulu. 1976. Final
Environmental Impact Statement for Barbers Point Harbor.

381 - Char, W. P. and N. Balakrishnan. 1979. 'Ewa Plains
Botanical Survey. Prep. by Dept. Botany, Univ. Hawaii
for Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. Interior.
119 pp. plus appendices.

382 - McMonagle, S. 1980. Wai'anae Coastal Heiau Being
Restored. Hawaili Coastal Zone News, 4(10): pp. 1, 4.

383 - Sea Engineering Services, Inc. 1975. Results of a
Marine Reconnaissance in the Area of Nanaikapono Stream
and Kalanianaole Beach Park, Nanakuli, Hawaii. Prep. for
Wilson Okamoto and Associates, Inc. 12 pp.

401 - Pers. Comm., Winona Char, Univ. Hawaii Botanical Sciences.

500 - Whang, D. 1981. Beach Changes on Oahu as Revealed by
Aerial Photographs. Prep. for State of Hawaii Dept.
Planning and Economic Development by Urban and Regional
Planning Program and Hawaii Inst. Geophysics, Univ.
Hawaii. In press (as Sea Grant publication).

501 - Coles, S. L., D. T. Fukuda, and C. L. Lewis. 1981.
Annual Report. Kahe Generating Station NPDES Monitoring
Program. Vol. I (text) and Vol. II (appendices). Environ-
mental Dept., Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc. 237 pp. plus
appendices.

-46-

502 - Stearns-Roger, Inc. 1973. Environmental Assessment,
Kahe Generating Station Units 5 and 6. Rept. to Hawaiian
Electric Co. 350 pp.

503 - Coles, S. L., and D. T. Fukuda. 1975. Reef Coral and
Algal Communities of the Kahe Nearshore Region of Oahu,
Hawaii. Environmental Dept., Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc.
89 pp.

504 - McCain, J. C. 1977. Final Report. Kahe Generating
Station, NPDES Monitoring Program. Vol. 1 (text).
Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc. 427 pp.

505 - Hawaiian Electric Co. 1976. Interim Report. Kahe
Generating Station Monitoring Program. Environmental
De't., Hawaiian Electric Co. 311 pp.
P

506 - B. K. Dynamics, Inc. 1971. Marine Environmental Impact
Analysis, Kahe Power Plant. Rept. to Hawaiian Electric
Co. 350 pp.

508 - Coles, S. L. 1980. Annual Report. Kahe Generating
Station NPDES Monitoring Program. Vol. I (text).
Hawaiian Electric Co. 277 pp.

509 - Bienfang, P. K. and R. E. Brock. 1980. Predevelopment
Reconnaissance of the Water Quality and Macrobiotic
Conditions Fronting the West Bench Coastline, Oahu,
Hawaii. Tech. Rept. submitted to Environmental Com-
munications, Inc. 119 pp.

510 - Tabata, R. S. In press. The Native Coastal Flora of
O'ahu, Hawai'i. 25 pp. Draft M.S.

511 - Ad Hoc Committee for the Advancement of OTEC for Hawaii.
1980. OTEC for Oahu. A report on the development of a
pilot plant for ocean thermal energy conversion at Kahe
Point, Oahu, Hawaii. Dept. Planning and Econ. Dev.
37 pp.

-47-

LITERATURE REVIEWED RELEVANT TO THE
GENERAL, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL, GEOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL
OCEANOGRAPHIC PARAMETERS PERTINENT TO OTEC DEVELOPMENT
AT KAHE POINT, OAHU

General Surveysand Information

AECOS, Inc. 1979. OTEC Benchmark Environmental Survey: Interim
Report. Prepared for Research Corporation, University of
Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. 30 pp.

1980.. Hawai'i Coral Reef Inventory, Island of O'ahu
Part B (text). Prep. for U. S. Army Engineer Division,
Pacific Ocean. AECOS Tech. Rept. No. 149, 552 pp.

Chapman, G. A. 1979. Reef Runway Post Construction Environ
mental Impact Report. Prep. for State of Hawaii Department of
Transportation, Air Transportation Facilities Division, 76 pp.
plus appendices.

Gordon, D. C., Jr. 1970. Chemical and Biological Observations
at Station Gollum, an Oceanic Station Near Hawaii. January
1969 to June 1970. Hawaii Inst. of Geophysics, Report No. 70-
22, University of Hawaii. 9 pp.

Graf, D. F. 1980. Literature Review Regarding Site Conditions,
Proposed OTEC Site, Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii. Letter to
Becker, Gibble & Quirim dated November 1980. 3 pp plus
attachments.

Gundersen, K., C. W. Mountain, D. Taylor, R. Ohye and J. Chen.
1972. Some Chemical and Microbiological Observations in the
Pacific Ocean Off the Hawaiian Islands. Limnol, Oceanogr.
17(4): pp. 524-531.

, J. S. Corbin, C. L. Hanson, M. L. Hanson, R. B. Hanson,
D. J. Russell, A. Stollar, and 0. Yamada. 1976. Structure
and Biological Dynamics of the Oligotrophic Ocean Photic Zone
Off the Hawaiian Islands. Pac. Sci. 30: pp. 45-68.

Noda, E. K., P. K. Bienfang and D. A. Ziemann. 1980. OTEC
Environmental Benchmark Survey Off Keahole Point, Hawaii.
Prep. for Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

Noda, E. K., P. K. Bienfang, W. J. Kimmerer, and T. W. Walsh.
1981. OTEC Environmental Benchmark Survey, Kahe Point, Oahu.
Mid-Contract Report. Prep. for Lawerence Berkeley Laboratory.

-48-

U. S. Department of Commerce. 1974b. Final Environmental Impact
Statement for the Proposed Expansion of Foreign-Trade Sub-
zone 9A (HIRI Oil Refinery). Foreign-Trade Zones Board, U. S.
Dept. Commerce, Washington, D.C. 108 pp. plus appendices.

Biological Oceanographic Studies

Amesbury, S. S. 1975. The Vertical Structure of the Micro
nektonic Fish Community Off Leeward O'ahu. Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, University of Hawaii. 176 pp.

Bienfang, P. K. 1980. Phytoplankton Sinking Rates in Oligo
trophic Waters Off Hawaii, USA. Mar. Biol., 61: pp. 69-77.

------ and W., Johnson. 1980. Response of Subtropical Phyto
plankton to Power Plant Entrainment. Environ. Pollut. Ser. A
22: pp. 1 & 5-178.

, and K. Gundersen. 1977. Light Effects on Nutrient-
Limited, Oceanic Primary Production. Mar. Biol., 43: pp. 187-
199.

Cattell, S. A. and D. C. Gordon, Jr. 1971. An Observation of
Temporal. Variations of Primary Productivity in the Central
Subtropical North Pacific. Unpublished manuscript. HIG
Contribution No. XXX.

Clarke, T. A. 1973. Some Aspects of the Ecology of Lantern Fish
(Myctophidae) in the Pacific Ocean Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull.
71 (2) : pp. 401-434.

------ 1974. Some Aspects of the Ecology of Stomiatoid Fishes
in the Pacific Ocean Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull. 72(2): pp. 337-
351*

. 1978. Diel Feeding Patterns of 16 Species of Mesopelagic
Fishes from Hawaiian Waters. Fish. Bull., 76(3): pp. 495-
513.

Clarke, T. A. and P. J. Wagner. 1976. Vertical Distribution and
Other Aspects of the Ecology of Certain Mesopelagic Fishes
Taken Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull. 74(3): pp. 635-645.

Doty, M. S. and M. Oguri. 1956. The Island Mass Effect. J. Cons.
Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 22: pp. 33-37.

Environmental. Consultants, Inc. Zooplankton Studies at Kahe,
Oahu. ECI Tech. Rept. No. 97. 24 pp.

-49-

Gilmartin,. M. and N. Revelante. 1,974. The "Island Mass" Effect on
the Phytoplankton and Primary Production of the Hawaiian
Islands. J. Expl. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 16: pp. 181-204.

Gundersen, K., J. S. Taguchi, R. F. Shuman, and A. E. Jahn. 1980.
Distribution of Plankton Stocks, Productivity, and Potential
Fishery Yield in Hawaiian Waters. University of Hawaii Sea
Grant Publication UNIHI-SEAGRANT-CP-80-17: pp. 191-203.

Hu, V. J. H. 1978. Relationships Between Vertical Migration
and Diet in Four Species of Euphausiids. Limnol. Oceanogr.,
23(2): pp. 296-306.

Leis, J. M. 1978. Distributional Ecology of Ichthyoplankton and
Invertebrate Macrozooplankton in the Vicinity of a Hawaiian
Coastal Power Plant. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Hawaii, Honolulu, 317 pp.

------ and J. Miller. 1976. Offshore Distributional Patterns of
Hawaiian Fish Larvae. Mar. Biol., 36: pp. 359-367.

Maynard, S. D., F. V. Riggs, and J. F. Walters. 1975. Meso-
pelagic Micronekton in Hawaiian Waters: Faunal Composition,
Standing Stock, and Diel Vertical Migration. Fish. Bull.
73(4): pp. 726-736.

Miller, J. M., 1974. Nearshore Distribution of Hawaiian Marine
Fish Larvae: Effects of Water Quality, Turbidity, and Cur-
rents. In: J. H. S. Blaxter. The Early Life History of
Fish. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Hiedelberg, New York. pp. 217-
231.

1978.. Nearshore Abundance of Tuna (Pisces: Scombridae)
Larvae,in the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci. 29: pp. 19-
26.

Ridge, V. (in prep.). Ecology of Midwater Hatchetfishes. Ph.D.
Dissertation. University of Hawaii.

Riggs, F. V. 1977. Ecology of Mesopelagic Penaeidae. M.S.
Thesis, University of Hawaii.

Walters, J. F. 1976. Ecology of Hawaiian Sergestid Shrimps
(Penaeidea-Sergestidae) U.S.F.W.S., Fish. Bull. 74(4):
pp. 799-836.

Ziemann, D. A. 1975. Patterns of Vertical Distribution, Vertical
Migration, and Reproduction in the.Hawaiian Mesopelagic
Shrimp of the Family Oplophoridae. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ.
of Hawaii. 122 pp.

-50-

Ziemann, D. A. 1977. Zooplankton Entrainment Studies, Kahe
Generating Station. Prepared for Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc.
37 pp.

Chemical Oceanographic Studies

Gordon, D. C.., Jr. 1971. Distribution of Particulate Organic
Carbon and Nitrogen at an Oceanic Station in the Central
Pacific. Deep Sea Research, 18(11): pp. 1,127-1,136.

Engineering Science, Sunn, Low, Tom and Hara, Inc., and Dillingham
Corporation. 1971. Water Quality Program for Oahu With
Special Emphasis on Waste Disposal. Work Areas 6 and 7;
Analysis of Water Quality and Oceanographic Studies, Pt. I.
Prepared for Department of Public Works, City and County of
Honolulu.

Geological Oceanographic Studies

Campbell, J. R., W. T. Coulbourn, R. Moberly, Jr., and B. R.
Rosendahl. 1970. Reconnaissance Sand Inventory Off Leeward
Oahu. Univ. Hawaii, Hawaii Inst. Geophys., HIG-70-16 (also
Seagrant, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-70-2). 14 pp. plus figures.

Pararas-Carayanis, G. 1965. The Bathymetry of the Hawaiian
Islands - Part I. Oahu. HIG-65-15. Hawaii Institute of
Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Stearns, H. T. 1974. Submerged Shorelines and Shelves in the
Hawaiian Islands and a Revision of Some of the Eustatic
Emerged Shorelines. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 85: pp. 795-804.

Physical Oceanographic Studies

Bathen, K. H. 1973. An Examination of the Oceanographic Condi-
tions Existing Along the West Ewa Beach Coastline, Oahu,
Hawaii. Unpublished report, Environmental Communications,
Inc.

Conoco-Dillingham Oil Co. 1972. An Investigation of Oceano-
graphic and Bathymetric Conditions North of Barbers Point,
Oahu. Prepared for Hawaiian Dredging and Construction Co.,
Honolulu, Hawaii. 37 pp plus appendices.

-51-

Glenn, A. H. and Associates. 1970. Meteorological Oceanographic
Conditions Affecting Planning and Design of Tanker Mooring
Facilities. 29 pp.

Intersea Reserach Corporation. March 1972. "An Investigation of
Oceanographic and Bathymetric Conditions North of Barbers
Point, Oahu." Prepared for Hawaiian Dredging and Construction
Company. 38 pp plus appendix.

Laevastu, T., D. E. Avery, and D. C. Cox. 1964. Coastal Currents
and Sewage Disposal in the Hawaiian Islands. HIG-64-1.
Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 99 pp.

Marine Advisors, Inc. 1963. Wave Characteristics for the
Hawaiian Refinery Submarine Pipelines Off Barbers Point, Oahu,
Solana Beach, California. 18 pp. Three tables, 18 figures.

Marine Advisors, Inc. 1964. Analysis of Littoral Process, Kahe,
Oahu. Prep. for Hawaiian Electric Co., Honolulu, Hawaii.
62 pp.

Wyrtki, K., S. Burks, R. Latham, and W. Patzert. 1967. Oceano-
graphic Observations in the Hawaii Archipelago. HIG-67-15.
Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii. 152 pp.

, W. Graefe, and W. Patzert. 1969. Current Observations in
the Hawaii Archipelago. HIG-69-15. Hawaii Institute of
Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. 25 pp.

-52-

LITERATURE RELEVANT TO THEGENERAL
IMPACTS OF OTEC DEVELOPMENT

Anonymous. 1976. Purse Seine Cruises to Western Pacific - 1976.
Summary of results and recommedations. Pacific Tuna Develop-
ment Foundation.

Anonymous. 1977. Pacific Tuna Development Foundation Report of
First Trip Jeanette C. Purse Seine Charter to the Western
Pacific, August 7, 1977 to October 18, 1977. Living Marine
Resources, Inc. San Diego. 33 pp.

Anonymous. 1979. Pacific Tuna Development Foundation 1980 Program.
122 pp.

Bardach, J. E. 1979. Economic Energy Use in Fish Production.
Preprint P-30-2, in Proc. XIV Pacific Science Congress,
Khabarovsk, Siberia, Aug. 20 - Sept. 5, 1979. (in press)
East-West Center Resources Systems Institute, Honolulu.
25 pp.

------ and Y. Matsuda. 1980. Fish, Fishing and Sea Boundaries:
Tuna Stocks and Fishing Policies in Southeast Asia and the
South Pacific. Geo. Journal 4: pp. 467-478.

Bienfang, P. K. and R. E. Brock. 1980. Predevelopment Recon-
naissance of the Water Quality and Macrobiota Conditions
Affronting the West Beach Coastline, 0'ahu, Hawai'i. Tech.
Rept. submitted to Environmental Communications, Inc. 1152
Bishop St., Honolulu, Hawai'i. 119 pp.

Broadhead, G. 1976. Present and Potential Benefits of PIDC/PTDF
Program. Living Marine Resources, Inc. San Diego, unpubl.
report. 9 pp.

Brock, R. E., C. Lewis and R. Wass. 1979. Stability and
Structure of a Coral Patch Reef Fish Community in a Stressed
Hawaiian Ecosystem. Mar. Biol. 54: pp. 281-292.

Brock, V. E. 1954. A Preliminary Report on a Method of
Estimating Reef Fish Populations. J. Wildlife Mgmt. 18:
pp. 297-308.

Coles, S. L. 1973. Some Effects of Temperature and Related
Physical. Factors on Hawaiian Reef Corals. Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, UniV. of Hawaii, Honolulu. 133 pp.

-53-

Coles, S. L. 1975. A Comparison of Effects of Elevated Temperature
Versus Temperature Fluctuations on Reef Corals at Kahe Point,
O'ahu. Pacific Sci. 29: pp. 15-18.

, and.J., C. McCain. 1973. Effects of the Kahe Generating
Station on the Nearshore Environment. A report of the 1973
monitoring program. Hawaiian Electric Co., Honolulu. 199 pp.

------ and D., T. Fukuda. 1975. Reef Coral and Algal Communities
of the Kahe Nearshore Region of O'ahu, Hawai'i. Environmental
Department, Hawaiian Electric Co., Honolulu. 89 pp.

, P. L. Jokiel and C. R. Lewis. 1976. Thermal Tolerance in
-----Tropical Versus Subtropical Pacific Reef Corals. Pacific Sci.
30: pp., 159-166.

------ compiler and editor. 1980. Annual Report Kahe Generating
Station NPDES Monitoring Program. Hawaiian Electric Co.,
Honolulu. 277 pp.

Clausen, C. 1). and A. A. Roth. 1975. Effect of Temperature and
Temperature Adoptation on Calcification Rate in the Hermatypic
Coral Pocillopora Damicornis. Mar. Biol. 33: pp. 93-100.

Dixon, A. E. and R. W. Brill. 1979. Thermoregulation in Tunas.
Amer. Zool. 19: pp. 249-265.

Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1975. Marine Environmental
Assessment Barbers Point Barge Harbor, O'ahu, Hawai'i.
Prepared for U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. 110 pp.

Gooding, R. M. and J. J. Magnuson. 1967. Ecological Significance
of a Drifting Object to Pelagic Fishes. Pac. Sci. 21:
pp. 486--497.

Greenblatt, 11. R. 1979. Associations of Tuna With Flotsam in the
Eastern Tropical Pacific. Fish. Bull. 77: pp. 147-155.

Grovhoug, J. G. 1978. Piti Power Plant Intake Survey November
1977. Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, CA. Tech. Rept.
No. 288 (NOSC TR 288), 58 pp.

Hastings, R. W., L. H. Ogren and M. T. Mabry. 1976. Observations
on the Fish Fauna Associated With Offshore Platforms in the
Northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Fish. Bull. 74: pp. 387-402.

Hawaii Natural Energy Institute. 1982. Successful Tests of Bio-
fouling Countermeasures at NELH, In HNEI Newsletter, Renewable
Energy in Hawaii, 5(2), pp. 3.

-54-

Hawaiian Electric Co. 1976. Environmental Assessment Kahe
Artificial Shoal (KAS). Environmental Department, Hawaiian
Electric Co., Inc., Honolulu, Hawaili. 152 pp.

Hester, F. and G. Broadhead. 1980. Pacific Tuna Development
Foundation Tuna Fishery Development Plan. Living Marine
Resources, Inc. 164 pp.

Hubbard, J. A. E. B. 1974. Scleractinian Coral Behavior in Cali-
brated Current Experiments: An Index of Their Distribution
Patterns. pp. 107-126. In: Proceedings of the Second
International Symposium oH--Coral Reefs, Vol. 2. (ed. by A. M.
Cameron,.B. M. Campbell, A. M. Cribb, R. Endean, J. S. Jell,
0. A. Jones, P. Mather, and R. H. Talbot). The Great Barrier
Reef Committee, Brisbane, Australia.

----- and Y. P. Pocock. 1972. Sediment Rejection by Recent
Scleractinian Corals: A Key to Paleoenvironmental Recon-
struction. Geol. Rundsch., 61: pp. 588-626.

Johannes, R. E. 1975. Chap. 2. Pollution and Degradation of
Coral Reef Communities. pp. 13-51, In: Tropical Marine
Pollution (ed. by E. J. F. Wood and K-. E. Johannes). Elsevier
Oceanography Series 12, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.,
New York.

Hunter, J. R. and C. T. Mitchell. 1967. Association of Fishes
With Flotsam in the Offshore Waters of Central America. Fish.
Bull. 66: pp. 13-29.

----- and C. T. Mitchell. 1968. Field Experiments on the
Attraction of Pelagic Fish to Floating Objects. Jour. Cons.
Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 31: pp. 427-434.

Jokiel, P. L. and S. L. Coles. 1974. Effects of Heated Effluent
on HermatypiC Corals at Kahe Point, O'ahu. Pacific Sci. 28:
pp. 1-18.

----- and E. B. Guinther. 1978. Effects of Temperature on
Reproduction in the Hermatypic Coral Pocillopora Damicronis.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 28: 786-789.

Kimmerer, W. J. and W. W. Durbin, Jr. 1975. The Potential for
Additional Marine Conservation Districts on O'ahu and Hawaili.
Univ. of' Hawaii, Sea Grant Program, Honolulu, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-
TR-76-03. 108 pp.

Klima, E. F. and D. A. Wickham. 1971. Attracting of Coastal
Pelagic Fishes With Artificial Structures. Trans. Amer. Fish
Soc. 100-: pp. 86-99.

-55-

Laevastu, T. and H. Rosa, Jr. 1963. Distribution and Relative
Abundance of Tunas in Relation to Their Environment. F.A.0.
Fish. Rep. No. 6, 3: pp. 1,835-1,851.

Marsh, J. A. and J. E. Doty. 1975. Power Plants and the Marine
Environment: Additional Observations in Piti Bay and Piti
Channel, Guam. Univ. of Guam marine Lab. Tech. Rept. No. 21.
44 pp.

and J. E. Doty. 1976. The Influence of Power Plant
Operations on the Marine Environment in Piti Channel, Guam:
1975-1976 Observations. Univ. of Guam Marine Lab. Tech. Rept.
No. 26. 57 pp.

, M. Chernin and J. E. Doty. 1977. Power Plants and
the Marine Environment in Piti Channel, Guam: 1976-1977
Observations and General Summary. Univ. of Guam Marine Lab.
Tech. Rept. No. 38. 93 pp.

McCain, J. C., and J. M. Peck, Jr. 1973. The Effects of a Hawaiian
Power Plant on the Distribution and Abundance of Reef Fishes.
Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, Sea Grant Advisory Report, UNIHI-
SEAGRANT-TR-73-03. 15 pp.

, compiler and editor. 1977. Kahe Generating Station,
NPDES Monitoring Program, Final Report. Environmental Dept.,
Hawaiian Electric Co., Honolulu. 427 pp.

McVey, J. P. 1971. Fishery Ecology of the Poka'i Artificial
Reef. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Mitchell, C. T. and J. R. Hunter. 1970. Fishes Associated With
Drifting Kelp, Macrocystis 2yrifera, Off the Coast of Southern
California and Northern Baja California. Calif. Fish and Game
56: pp. 288-297.

Murdy, E. 0. 1980. The Commercial Harvesting of Tuna-Attracting
Payaos: A Possible Boon for Small-Scale Fishermen. ICLARM
Newsletter 3: pp. 10-13.

Neudecker, S. 1976. Effects of Thermal Effluent on the Coral
Reef at Tanguisson. Univ. of Gaum Marine Lab. Tech. Rept.
No. 30. 55 pp.

. 1977. Development and Environmental Quality of Coral
Reef Communities Near the Tanguisson Power Plant. Univ. of
Guam Marine Lab. Tech. Rept. No. 41. 68 pp.

Rish, J. M. 1972. Fish Diversity on a Coral Reef in the Virgin
Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 153: pp. 1-6.

-56-

Roessler, M. A. and J. C. Zieman, Jr. 1969. The Effects of
Thermal Additions on the Biota of Southern Biscayne Bay,
Florida. pp. 136-145. In: Proc. Gulf Carib. Fish Inst. 22nd
Ann. Session.

Salomons, R. and D. Souter. 1980. Tuna Purse Seining Cruise
Report, June-September 1980, Island Princess - Prep. for
Pacific Tuna Development Foundation. Living Marine Resources,
Inc. San Diego, CA. 41 pp.

Sharp, G. D. 1978. Behavioral and Physiological Properties of
Tunas and Their Effects on Vulnerability to Fishing Gear.
Pages 397-350. In: Sharp, G. D. and A. E. Dizon (eds.),
Physiological ecZ@Togy of tunas. Academic Press, New York.

Suzuki, U., P. K. Tomlinson and M. Honma. 1978. Population
Structure of Pacific Yellowfin Tuna. IATTC Bulletin 17:
pp. 273--442.

URS Research Co. 1972. Marine Environment Baseline Report for
Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc., Kahe Point Facility, Olahu,
Hawai'i,. Environmental Systems Division, URS Research Co.,
155 Bovet Rd. San Mateo, CA. Rept. No. URS-7220-1. 145 pp.

------ 1973. Marine Environment Impact Assessment Report for
Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc. Kahe Point Facility, O'ahu,
Hawai'i,. Environmental Systems Division, URS Research Co.,
155 Bovet Rd., San Mateo, CA. Rept. No. URS-7220-3. 159 pp.

Wickham, D. A., J. W. Watson, Jr. and L. H. Ogren. 1973. The
Efficacy of Midwater Artificial Structures for Attracting
Pelagic Sportfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 1973(3): pp. 563-@
572.

Yasumoto, T. 1979. Recent Developments in Ciguatera Research.
In: Symposium on Coral Reefs. Univ. So. Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

-57-

LITERATURE REVIEWED RELEVANT
TO COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISHERIES

Anonymous. 1976. Purse Seine Cruises to Western Pacific - 1976.
Summary of results and recommedations. Pacific Tuna Develop-
ment Foundation.

Anonymous. 1977. Pacific Tuna Development Foundation Report of
First Trip Jeanette C. Purse Seine Charter to the Western
Pacific,, August 7, 1977 to October 18, 1977. Living Marine
Resources, Inc. San Diego. 33 pp.

Anonymous. 1979. Pacific Tuna Development Foundation 1980 Program.
122 pp.

Bardach, J. E,. 1979. Economic Energy Use in Fish Production.
Preprint P-80-2, in Proc. XIV Pacific Science Congress,
Khabarovsk, Siberia, Aug. 20 - Sept. 5, 1979. (in press)
East-West Center Resources Systems Institute, Honolulu.
25 pp.

------ and Y. Matsuda. 1980. Fish, Fishing and Sea Boundaries:
Tuna Stocks and Fishing Policies in Southeast Asia and the
South Pacific. Geo. Journal 4: pp. 467-478.

Broadhead, G. 1976. Present and Potential Benefits of PIDC/PTDF
Program. Living Marine Resources, Inc. San Diego, unpubl.
repor t. 9 pp.

Brock, V * E. 1954. A Preliminary Report on a Method of
Estimatj _ng Reef Fish Populations. J. Wildlife Mgmt. 18:
PP. 297--308.

------ C. Lewis and R. Wass. 1979. Stability and Structure
of a Coral Patch Reef Fish Community in a Stressed Hawaiian
Ecosystem. Mar. Biol. 54: pp. 281-292.

Clarke, T. A. 1973. Some Aspects of the Ecology of Lantern Fish
(Myctophidae) in the Pacific Ocean Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull.
71(2): pp. 401-434.

------ 1974. Some Aspects of the Ecology of Stomiatoid Fishes
in the Pacific Ocean Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull. 72(2): pp. 337-
351.

------ 1978. Diel Feeding Patterns of 16 Species of Mesopelagic
Fishes from Hawaiian Waters. Fish. Bull., 76(3): pp. 495-
513.

-58-

Clarke, T. A. and P. J. Wagner. 1976. Vertical Distribution and
Other Aspects of the Ecology of Certain Mesopelagic Fishes
Taken Near Hawaii. Fish. Bull. 74(3): pp. 635-645.

Dixon, A. E. and R. W. Brill. 1979. Thermoregulation in Tunas.
Amer. Zool. 19: pp. 249-265.

Gooding, R. 14. and J. J. Magnuson. 1967. Ecological Significance
of a Drifting Object to Pelagic Fishes. Pac. Sci. 21:
pp. 486--497.

Greenblatt, P. R. 1979. Associations of Tuna With Flotsam in the
Eastern Tropical Pacific. Fish. Bull. 77: pp. 147-155.

Hastings, R. W., L. H. Ogren and M. T. Mabry. 1976. Observations
on the Fish Fauna Associated With Offshore Platforms in the
Northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Fish. Bull. 74: pp. 387-402.

Hester, F. and G. Broadhead. 1980. Pacific Tuna Development
Foundation Tuna Fishery Development Plan. Living Marine
Resources, Inc. 164 pp.

Hunter, J. R. and C. T. Mitchell. 1967. Association of Fishes
With Flotsam in the Offshore Waters of Central America. Fish.
Bull. 66: pp. 13-29.

and C. T. Mitchell. 1968. Field Experiments on the
-----Attraction of Pelagic Fish to Floating Objects. Jour. Cons.
Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 31: pp. 427-434.

Klima, E. F. and D. A. Wickham. 1971. Attracting of Coastal
Pelagic Fishes With Artificial Structures. Trans. Amer. Fish
Soc. 100: pp. 86-99.

Laevastu, T. and H. Rosa, Jr. 1963. Distribution and Relative
Abundance of Tunas in Relation to Their Environment. F.A.0.
Fish. Rep. No. 6, 3: pp. 1,835-1,851.

McCain, J. C., and J. Peck. 1972. Fish Survey - Kahe Power Plant.
Hawaiian Electric Co.

, 1973. The Effects of a Hawaiian Power Plant on the
Distribution and Abundance of Reef Fishes. Univ. Hawaii, Sea
Grant Advisory Rept., UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-73-03, 15 pp.

McVey, J. P. 1970. Fishery Ecology Off the Pokai Artificial Reef.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

. 1971. Fishery Ecology of the Poka'i Artificial Reef.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.

-59-

Mitchell, C. T. and J. R. Hunter. 1970. Fishes Associated With
Drifting Kelp, Macrocy@tis pyrifera, Off the Coast of Southern
California and Northern Baja California. Calif. Fish and Game
56: pp. 288-297.

Murdy, E. 0. 1980. The Commercial Harvesting of Tuna-Attracting
Payaos: A Possible Boon for Small-Scale Fishermen. ICLARM
Newsletter 3: pp. 10-13.

Oishi, F. G. 1973. Fish Survey at Pokai Bay, Waianae. Unpubl.
data, Hawaii Coastal Zone Data Bank (HCZDB), OISF73A.

Reed, S. A., E. A. Kay, and A. R. Russo. 1977. Survey of Benthic
Coral Reef Ecosystems, Fish Populations, and Micro-Mollusks in
the Vicinity of the Wailanae Sewage Ocean Outfall, O'ahu,
Hawai'i - Summer 1975. Univ. Hawaii, Water Resources Research
Center. Tech. Rept. No. 104, 34 pp.

Richmond, T. de A., and D. Mueller-Dombois. 1972. Coastline
Ecosystems on Oahu, Hawaii. Vegetatio, 25(5-6): pp. 367-400.

State of Hawaii, Dept. Land and Natural Resources, Div. of Fish
and Game. 1971. Fish Survey at Barbers Point, Ewa. Unpubl.
data, HCZDB, DIVF71B.

------ 1974., Fish Surveys at Maunalua Bay and Waianae Artificial
Reef. Proj. No. F-9-4. Unpubl. manuscript.

Suzuki, U., P. K. Tomlinson and M. Honma. 1978. Population
Structure of Pacific Yellowfin Tuna. IATTC Bulletin 17:
pp- 273--442.

Wickham, D. A., J. W. Watson, Jr. and L. H. Ogren. 1973. The
Efficacy of Midwater Artificial Structures for Attracting
Pelagic Sportfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 1973(3): pp. 563-
572.

-60-

APPENDIX A

MET

Literature Review of the Shoreline and Nearshore
Environments of the Kahe OTEC Region

M. RT 2.

Literature Review of the Physical, Chemical
and Biological Oceanographic Parameters Pertinent to
OTEC Development at Kahe Point, Oahu

PAR

Literature Review Relevant to the
Impacts of OTEC Development

Prepared by AECOS, Inc. for Parsons Hawaii
August, 1981

PREFACE

The purpose of this review is fourfold: (1) to bring up to

date an existing compilation (01ahu Coral Reef Inventory) of the

known information describing shoreline and nearshore environments

between Kanelilio Point and Barbers Point (leeward 01ahu); (2)

to compile the known oceanographic and geophysical information

describing oceanic environments (at depths over 150 feet) off-

shore of the same area; (3) to estimate the impacts associated

with the development and operations of an OTEC plant on benthic

and pelagic fisheries; (4) to evaluate the adequacy of the

existing information within the context of environmental concerns

related to development of an OTEC facility within the area.

Dr. David A. Ziemann served as project manager and, with

Paul Bartram, was responsible for the review of existing

pertinent literatre. Dr. Richard E. Brock assisted in the

assessment of fisheries potential; Kal Ho assisted in the effort

to quantify the existing fisheries. Their technical assistance

is greatly apreciated.

The text of the report was written onto magnetic disketter

editedr formatted, and printed using Digital ResearchO CP/M and

MicroPro" WordStar software.

A-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

INTRODUCTION A-1

Kahe Power Generating Station A-3
Summary of Environmental Impacts A-5

PART 1. LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE SHORELINE
AND NEARSHORE ENVIRONMENTS OF
THE KAHE OTEC REGION A.1-1

Shoreline and Hinterland A.1-1
Nearshore A.1-3
O'ahu Coral Reef Inventory A.1-4
Map 61 - Pokali Bay A.1-8
Map 62 - Malili A.1-11
map 63 - Malili Point A.1-18
Map 64 - Pulu 0 Hulu A.1-23
Map 65 - Nanakuli A.1-26
Map 66 - Kahe A.1-30
Map 67 - Lanikuhonua Beach (West Beach) A.1-39
Map 68 - Barbers Point Harbor A.1-46
Map 69 - Barbers Point (Kalaeloa) A.1-52

PART 2. LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC
PARAMETERS PERTINENT TO OTEC DEVELOPMENT
AT KAHE POINT, OAHU A.2-1

Offshore Physiography A.2-1
Waves, Tides, and Currents A.2-2
Chemistry and Biology A.2-9
Site-Specific Studies A.2-10
Hawaiian Studies A.2-12

PART 3. LITERATURE REVIEW RELEVANT TO THE
IMPACTS OF OTEC DEVELOPMENT A.3-1

Offshore Vessel and Mobile OTEC Alternatives A.3-2
Derrick Alternative A.3-15
Onshore Alternative A.3-19
Potential for Ciguatera A.3-21
Current Status of Fisheries A.3-23

A-ii

LIST OF TABLES

1. Tidal data for the Kahe Point area. A.2-3
2. Estimated weights and wholesale value of fish
landings. A.2-7
3. Relatively common fishes of high commercial
value found off Kahe. A.3-30
4. Catch by species rom commercial fisheries in the
Kahe OTEC region. A.3-32
5. Catch of menpachi by one recreational handline
fisherman, Kahe OTEC region, 1974 - 1980. A.3-34
6. Environmental factors known or believed to
influence fisheries resource availability or
fishing success in the Kahe OTEC region. A.3-36

LIST OF FIGURES

la. OCRI sectional map 61 location. A.1-5
lb. OCRI sectional maps 62 - 66 locations. A.1-6
1c. OCRI sectional maps 67 - 69 locations. A.1-7
2. Breaking wave rose for Kahe. A.2-4
3. Current patterns and velocities at Kahe. A.2-8
4. Distribution of recreational and commercial
fishing in the Kahe OTEC region. A.3-24

A-iii

INTRODUCTIO

Part B (the text) of the Olahu Coral Reef Inventory (OCRI)

contains extensive descriptions of the coast, shoreline, and

offshore areas of the Island of O'ahu, arranged in a sequential

series based on the 93 sectional maps comprising Part C (The OCRI

Atlas in prep.). Thus, for each of the 93 maps encompassing the

coastline of' the Island of Olahur an accompanying description is

provided in Part B. Each description covers the topics of

physiography(geography and geology), flora and fauna (results of

biological surveys), water quality, historical and archaeological

sites, uses, and a listing of studies conducted in the coastal

section. Each map and MAP description is assigned a number and a

name, the latter based on a prominent place name within the area

covered by the map. MAP descriptions are arranged subsequential-

ly in the text, beginning with MAP 1 covering the Makapulu area

and running counter-clockwise around the coastline of the Island.

Placement of the maps is shown in figures in the text which

usually follow a general description of the coastline of each of

the six O'ahu Districts which border on the ocean.

The text of Part B is purposely brief on individual subjects

to allow maximum presentation of information; users interested

in detail on any particular point are encouraged to seek original

sources, including in some cases other Parts and Appendices of

the OCRI document. Sources are credited throughout the text by

numbers appearing in parentheses and listed in the References

Cited at the! end of Part B. One of the tasks of the OCRI Project

was to compile a listing of all recent studies conducted in

A-1

marine and coastal area s around Olahu. Much of this source

material consists of unpublished material and so-called "grey"

literature -- reports printed and distributed in limited numbers.

On the other hand, much valuable literature of a general nature

(that is, published studies which do not contain site-specific

information) may not be cited in Part B.

Each sectional MAP description was written using a standard

format which dictates where in the text specific facts and kinds

of information appear. It should be appreciated, however, that

the decriptions are intended to be site specific and therefore

gaps in the generally available knowledge about locations along

and off the coastline of the Isl and may appear as obvious omis-

sions. No concerted effort was made in the MAP descriptions to

extend knowledge about one area to general statements about some

larger section of the coast. Nonetheless, a certain amount of

extension by implication is unavoidable, and readers are cau-

tioned of this fact.

The Kahe OTEC study area is bounded by Kanelilio Point to

the northwest and Barbers Point to the southeast. This area is

described by portions of MAP 61 and MAP 62-69. The shoreline is

backed by residential areas at the northern extreme and by

industry at the southern extreme. The area between is in agri-

cultural use.

OCRI has been expanded and updated for this literature

,review and summarizes virtually all biological and other types of

studies of any relevance to assessment of shoreline and nearshore

environments (to a depth of approximately 150 feet) in the study

area. OCRI includes descriptive information from a major

A-2

popularized study of the natural history, current status and uses

of 01ahu beaches (Clark, 1977).

No single survey encompasses the entire study area. Marine

surveys have focused on four localities within the general area

of concern. By far the most comprehensive data base exists for

the area off Kahe Point, as a result of years of monitoring by

the Hawaiian Electric Co. of environmental impacts related to the

Kahe power generating plant.

Kahe Power Generatina Station

Since the beginning of operation of the Kahe power gener-

ating station in 1963, over 50 reports describing the marine

environment nearby have been prepared for or by the Hawaiian

Electric Company.

The general condition of the nearshore marine environment

off Kahe was described in reports by Marine Advisors (1964), B.K.

Dynamics (1971), and URS Research Co. (1973). Results of these

and other studies were summarized in an environmental impact

assessment prepared by Stearns-Roger, Inc. (1973) for the expan-

sion of the Kahe facility to 6 generating units.

Monitoring programs to establish baseline conditions for the

marine biological environment at Kahe were begun by the Hawaiian

Electric Company's Environmental Department in 1973 and have

continued to the present time. Baseline conditions preceding

expansion of the Kahe Station to five units and subsequent con-

struction and operation of the offshore outfall are described in

Coles and McCain (1973) and Coles and Fukuda (1975). An interim

A-3

report describing conditions resulting from outfall construction

was prepared by Hawaiian Electric Company in November 1976.

Because of the potential entrainment of nearshore sand indi-

cated by a impact assessment for Kahe Units 5 and 6 (URS Corp.r

1973; Stearns-Roger, Inc., 1973), a program monitoring beach

profiles and offshore sand reservoirs was established in 1973-74

by the R. M. Towill Corp. and continued from 1976 to present (R.

M. Towill Corp., 1974, 1977a, 1977b, 1979, 1980a, 1980b, 1981).

The results of these and other studi es related to the marine

environmental impact of the Kahe offshore outfall were analyzed

in the 1977 NPDES Final Report (McCain, 1977).

The quantity (and, in some cases, the quality) of informa-

tion declines in both directions from Kahe Point. Major surveys

have also been conducted for assessment of impacts due to the

barge harbor at Campbell Industrial Park, and the Standard Oil

Refinery at Barber's Point. An area fronting West Beach approxi-

mately one-third mile southeast of the Kahe power plant was

surveyed as a potential marin e life conservation district. Some

impact assessments have relied on data collected in previous

assessments and have added little new information. Many other

sources of information are useful for their general observations

but lack a quantitative data base.

Previous comprehensive literature reviews which considered

the marine environments of the Kahe OTEC study area are:

Bathenr K. H., and A.G. Cropperr 1971. Literature review of

available terrestrialr meterological, and oceanographic informa-

tion pertinent to the area around Barbers Point, Oahu, Hawaii.

Prep. for Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc. Northbrook,

A-4

Illinois. 142 p. + appendices.

Bienfang, P. K., and R. E. Brock, 1979. A review of perti-

nent literaure of the nearshore communities of macrobiota in the

Barbers Point to Kahe Point region on Oahu, Hawaili. 45 p.

Summar Df Environmental 31ap-ag-t-a

Although currently under stress from sand abrasion (resul-

ting from a major Kona storm in January 1980), the coral communi-

ties fronting the area between Kahe Point and the Campbell Barge

Harbor are well-developed and diverse. Very few other nearshore

areas around the island of Olabu equal the Kahe-Lanihokonua area

in terms of coral-rich bottom. Environmental impacts along the

coast between Kahe and the Campbell Industrial Park are localized

and minimal. Most of the hinterland is in agricultural use or is

lying fallow. Neither use has any obvious or long-term adverse

impact on nearshore environments. No perennial streams drain

into the oc ean, but an old stream bed between Kahe Beach Park and

Brown's Camp discharges after heavy rainfall. Runoff occurs from

a few other normally dry channels following episodic heavy rains.

Although storm-induced runoff causes inshore waters to become

noticeably turbid, the effect is temporary, and water clarity is

restored within a few days.

Previous biological assessments of impacts to the Kahe OTEC

study area have been limited to areas of industrial development

such as the Kahe power generating facility and the barge harbor

serving Campbe 11 Industrial Park. Information describing the

nature and magnitude of impacts arising from the Standard Oil

A-5

Refinery at Barbers Point does not appear to be available.

Conoco-Dillingharfl (1972) simply state that the refinery is not

expected to have any negative impacts on the nearshore marine

environment.

In the area fronting the Campbell Barge Harborr negative

impacts are confined to the dredged entrance channel and seaward

for a distance of about 100 m. The primary impact is a change in

the bottom from a limestone platform to rubble resulting from

dredging. Rubble bottoms are not favorable for coral recruitment

and growth, and associated marine life. Both fish diversity and

coral diversity and abundance are greater in areas adjacent to

the dredged channel than in the channel itself (Environmental

Consultants? Inc., 1975).

The Hawaiian Electric Company's facility at Kahe Point con-

sists of five oil-fired steam electric generation units. Cooling

water is obtained from a shoreline intake and heated effluent is

discharged through an offshore outfall. The areal extent of

thermal elevation above ambient water temperature varies with

meteorologic/oceanographic conditions. Kona winds appear to

enhance the longsh ore extent of the heated plume. The maximum

southerly longshore extent occurred during a period of ebb tide

and light south to southwest winds. General tradewind conditions
tend to push the plume offshore. All of the studies to date

suggest that the effect of the plume is limited in extent.

The Kahe facility does not use any biocides to control

biofouling through the system. The only chemical discharges to

the water consist of low-volume wastes such as boiler and evapor-

ator blowdownr and treated metal cleaning wastes; these wastes

A-6

are dischaged at concentrations less than 10-3 the concentrations

found to be toxic to several species of fish in the area.

The first environmental reports prepared for HECO described

the wave regime of the area, estimated the volumes of sand which

contribute to the active beach and offshore systems, and discus-

sed the dynamics of sand movement for the region (Marine Advis-

ors, 1964). This Marine Advisors study determined an average

volume of 994,000 M3 (1,300,000 cu. yd.) of sand to be contained

in a system between sea level and the 60-foot offshore contour.

Another 53,520 m3 (70,000 cu. yd.) were estimated to make up the

beach systems. Although most of the sand recirculates within the

system, net movement is to the south with a yearly loss of 1530-

2290 M3 /year escaping to deep water estimated by Marine Advisors

(1964). This estimate of annual net loss of sand from the undis-

turbed Kahe system was later revised upwards to 3520 M3 (4,600

cu. yd.) (UREII) Research Corp., 1973; Stearns-Roger, Inc., 1973).

Coastal sand surveys indicate that the total increase in the

volume of sand deposited off the Kahe Station outfall since 1976

was around 13,700 M3 (17,900 cu. yd.) During 1980, up to 7,424

m 3 of sand per year were deposited by the Kahe outfall and an

additional 6,117 m3 were transported to land (Coles, Fukuda, and

Lewis, 1981). These studies indicated substantial seasonal

shifts of sand within the area, subject to potential interception

or interference by shoreline structures associated with power

station development.

A-7

Since the operation of an offshore outfall began in late

1976, sand entrainment and deposition offshore of the outfall and

subsequent re-suspension and deposition on coral-rich areas to

the south of the HECO facility has been the major environmental

impact of the power plant (Coles, Fukuda, and Lewis, 1981).

A-8

RAU,1,- LITERATUR REVI M DE = SHORELINE AND
NEARSHOR ENVIRONMENTS DE
KAH OTE REGIO

SHORELINE AND HINTERLAND

The Kahe OTEC study area encompasses the southeastern end of

the Wailanae District (Kanelilio Point) and the northwestern

portion of the 'Ewa District. The Wailanae volcano, which is

very much older than the Kololau volcano of eastern Olahur has

been greatly eroded. Broad, coalesced valleys separated by nar-

row, discontinuous ridges characterize the western slopes of the

Wailanae Range. Great quantities of alluvium and colluvium fill

the valley floors. Upraised reef shelves,, probably formed at a

time when sea level stood approximately 25 feet above present sea

level (Waimanalo Stand), form terraces along the coast and extend

inland as the floors of larger valleys. The Wailanae District is

rather arid, and the streams which drain the land flow only

intermittently into the sea.

The great age of the volcanic base,, representing a long

geological period of erosion, the absence of sea level reefs,, and

the absence of late or secondary volcanics at or near the coast

have produced a coastline of broad indentations without offshore

islands and possessing few prominently projecting points of

coast.

The shoreline alternates between rocky and sandy sections.

Rocky sections include occasional basalt outcrops, but are pri-

marily limestone rock of the raised reef terraces. The latter

type of shoreline extends along the coast south of Pokali Bay,

A.1-1

including Kanelilio Point to around Pulu Malililili; around

Malili Point; and in front of Nanakuli.

Typically steep, calcareous sand beaches occur at Malili and

Nanakuli. Beach rock is prominent in the wave-washed zone along

most of the shore (excepting land points).

The 'Ewa District of 01ahu includes most of the south-

sloping portion of the broad saddle between the Kololau and

Wailanae Ranges and the s lopes which drain into the central and

southern plain.

An extensive plain south of Kahe Point (the 'Ewa Plain) is

an ancient reef structure which presumably formed during the +25

foot (Waimanalo) stand of the sea, although its geological his-

tory is complex. The 'Ewa plain gradually rises from sea level

to an elevation of nearly 100 feet (30 m) some 4 or 5 miles (6 to

8 km) inland f rom the coast. The plain is f lat except f or a f ew

isolated bluffs eroded by Honouliuli Stream. It is composed of

calcareous material which has been modified, consolidated, and

cemented by dissolution, rain, air, and other weathering proces-

ses to form a hard but extremely permeable surface. The karst

topography is characterized by small holes which have dissolved

out of the limestone and are interspersed with abrupt ridges and

irregular surf aces.

Nearly the entire shoreline of the 'Ewa Plain is limestone

of the upraised reef. Calcareous beach sand, beachrock, and low

cliffs and beaches out into reef rock characterize the coast. A

relatively small amount of Wailanae basalt rock occurs along the

shore at Kahe Point.

A.1-2

The coastline is relatively straightf without embayments or

prominent projecting points, and runs roughly south from Kahe

Point to Barbers Point. Barbers Point Harbor is a man-made

embayment constructed to enable barge service to Campbell Indus-

trial Park on the western portion of the 'Ewa Plain. There are

no small islets off this coast.

NEARSHORE

No fringing reefs occur along the Wai'anae Coast. A bottom

of consolidated limestone predominates in nearshore areas. How-

ever, limestone shelves occur off Ma'ili Point and at other

scattered locations, although these probably are remnants eroded

from older reef limestone rather than constructional features at

present-day sea level. North of Kahe Point to Nanakuli, the

submerged reef extends to a depth of 30 to 50 feet. Sand-

bottomed channels occur off most of the major beaches.

Beginning south of Kahe Point, an exceptionally broad, sub-

merged reef platform slopes gradually seaward. The 30-foot (9 m)

depth contour occurs between 2,500 and 6,000 feet (800 to 2,000

m) offshore. The submerged reef is mostly about 25 feet (8 m)

deep. Seaward of the 30 to 50-foot (10 to 15 m) depth, the

offshore slope steepens to a depth of 65 to 100 feet (20 to 30

m), terminating in a large sand body. A large sand channel cuts

through the reef and extends all the way to shore at the Kahe

outfall. This sand channel merges with the offshore sand bottom

that extends seaward from the reef. The uniformity of the reef

slope and smooth reef surface is interrupted by scattered shallow

pits filled with sand and limestone boulders.

A.1-3

O'AHU CORA REEF

The following is an updated version of the 01ahu Coral Reef

Inventory (OCRI) prepared for the Army Corps of Engineers by
AECOS, Inc. (1980). The text covers the shoreline of leeward

01ahu from Kanelilio Point to Barbers Point. The reg ion is

divided into nine sections, as shown in Figure 1. While there is

some overlap between sections, for the most part each section is

an independent compilation of existing information on the physio-

graphy, flora and fauna, and present uses.

A.1-4

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A. 1-7

MAP 61 - POKA'I BAY
(areas southeast of Kane'ilio Point)

- Waianae Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW, 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

COASTLINE

High surf and tsunami flooding are potential hazards along
this coast (88). The 1946 tsunami caused runup to 14 feet (4 m)
above sea level at Kane'ilio Point (329).

KANE'IILIO POINT - MIKILUA BEACH

Kane'ilio Point is a projection of the raised reef rock that
extends inland as a part of the broad plain at Wailanae. The
ancient reef has been attributed to the +25 foot (Waimanalo)
stand of the sea which occurred some 40,000 years ago (128;211).
Immediately north of the Point is a pocket beach (Poka'i Bay
Beach). The shoreline south of Kane'ilio Point was at one time
known as Mikilua Beach Park (now consolidated with Lualualei
beach Park - MAP 62). The shoreline is a continuous beachrock
formation, behind which there is sand (39;147).

OUTSIDE POKA'I BAY AND OFF KANE'ILIO POINT

A wide, sand-filled channel crosses a complex limestone
bottom into Poka'i Bay. Extensive sand deposits at depths greater
than 40 feet offshore are part of one of the largest nearshore
sand reserves found off the coast of O'ahu (26). Very little sand
occurs on the bottom in shallow water off Kane'ilio Point (156).

OFF LUALUALEI BEACH PARK
(See MAP 62)

FLORA AND FAUNA

OUTSIDE POKA'I BAY AND OFF KANE'ILIO POINT

Limestone bottom between -20 and -40 feet (-6 to -12 m) off
Kane'ilio Point supports less than 5% coral cover, with Porites
lobata and Pocillopora meandriana most frequently observed.
Fleshy algae cover 5% of the bottom. The sea urchin, Echinothrix
calamaris, is the most common macroinvertebrate. Seventeen spe-
cies of fishes are reported from shallow water (-20 feet).
Pervagor spilosoma is by far the most abundant, followed by
Acanthurus triostegus and Thalassoma ballieui. Only P. spilosoma
is recorded from -40 feet (165).

The pen shell, Pinna semicostata, is abundant in patches in

A.1-8

the extensive sand bottom areas extending between -80 feet (-24
m) and at least -120 feet (-37 m) off Poka'i Bay. Corals are
absent and fishes uncommon in this-habitat (165).

OFF MIKILUA BEACH
(See MAP 62)

HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL

KUIILIOLOA HEIAU

The remains of Kulilioloa heiau are present on the extreme
tip of Kane'iliO Point. Much of the site was destroyed during
World War 11 (215), but is currently being restored by the
Wailanae Hawaiian Civic Club (382).
USES KANEIILIO POINT OFF POKAII BAY

The entire coast from Mauna Lahilahi Beach Park (MAP 60) to
Lualualei Beach Park is readily accessible and receives heavy
fishing pressure. Pokali Bay - the breakwater and small boat
harbor - is a focus of fishing activity. Spearfishing and pole
fishing are intensive throughout the area. Net fishing is very
common, tbrow-netting less so. A wide variety of fishes are
caught, particularly smaller reef species.

As elsewhere along the Wailanae coast, ornamental fish col-
lecting is an important activity offshore. Trapping for reef
fishes and crustaceans takes place in deeper waters. The bottom
off Pokali Bay is regarded as productive by shell collectors
(375). Commercial dive shops run charters to areas offshore.
.This coast may have potential for offshore sand mining because of
major deposits of sand found at depths less than 60 feet (26).

In the summer, the surf break off Kanelilio Point is
occasionally good for board surfing by experts. The rocky shore
and strong currents are hazards reported by surfers. Sharks are
sometimes sighted in waters in and around Pokali Bay (86;236).

LUALUALEI BEACH PARK - MIKILUA BEACH

The former Mikilua Beach Park is now consolidated with
Lualualei Beach Park (MAP 62). Mikilua Beach is poor for swim-
ming because of a low cliff -along the shoreline. Unlike Pokali
Bay and Mauna Lahilahi (MAP 60) Beach Parks, Mikilua is exposed
to dangerous surf and currents-when winter swells approach from
the North Pacific. The park is used primarily by fishermen (39).

A.1-9

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): p. 62-64, figs. 15,,16,26,27. Compilation
and analysis of offshore water circulation data. Addi-
tional references.

126 - McVey (1970): Table IV. Summary of fish abundance and
number of species at 3 of nine sites (-50 to -85 feet
deep) between Wailanae and Maipalaoa Beach Park (MAP 63).

156 - Oceanic Institute (1.976): App. B. Sta. 5 of seven
(Summer, 1974) off the Wailanae coast at which physical,
chemical, plankton, and bacteria surveys were conducted.
Sta. 4 of six at which fishes, corals, and benthic in-
vertebrates were surveyed in August 1974. Samples 13 and
14 of ninety sediment samples collected along Wailanae
coast analyzed for grain size distribution.

165 Reed,. Kay, and Russo (1977): Transect B of five off
Wailanae. Substratum types, algae, coral, fishes, macro-
invertebrates, and micromolluscs surveyed at five depths
along each transect line.

A.1-10

MAP 62 - MA'ILI

(MA'ILI, MA'ItVILI STREAM, LUALUALEI BEACH PARK, MA1ILI BEACH
PARK)

- Waianae Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW, 1:

PHYSIOGRAPH31

'WAIIANAE AND LUALUALEI VALLEYS

A much eroded and isolated remnant (Pulu Malililili) of the
Wailanae range forms the point called Kalaeokakao, which sepa-
rates the broad, alluvial filled valleys of Wailanae and
Lualualei (near the coast). The floors of these valleys are
comprised of marine sediments and ancient reef formations. Re-
sidential areas of Wailanae occur behind the shore north of Pulu
Malililili, and the t ,own of Malili occupies much of the coastal
lands across the mouth of Lualualai Valley. (Also MAP 61).

LUALUALEI BEACH PARK

The shoreline of Lualualei Beach Park is beachrock and reef
rock along its entire length between Kanelilio Point (MAP 61) and
Kalaeokakao (Point). The backsbore, behind the beachrock, is in-
active dune sand and old beach ridges (146;147).

MAIILI BEACH

Malili Beach, one of the longer sand beaches on Olahu,
extends from the outlet of Malililili Stream to the mouth of
Maipalaoa Stream (MAP 63). Malili Beach has been ranked second
of Olahu beaches in sand volume. Low dunes occur behind the
beach. This wide sand beach is broken into three sections by
outcrops of beachrock (147). Most of the shoreline is fringed by
reef rock at the water's edge. The beach is held at the northern
end by a jetty, constructed in 1966 as part of a major stream
channelization project to prevent sand from blocking up the mouth
of Ma'ili'ili Stream (39).

This section of coast experiences high surf and tsunami
flooding (88). Winter storm waves sometimes severely erode and
steepen the beach. Sand usually returns during the summer months
(39). Storm waves in the winter of 1968-69 caused the most
severe incidence of beach erosion in modern times. The vegeta-
tion line on the backbeach has receded about 30 feet over the
last 20 years (232). The tsunami of 1957 reached a height of 18
feet (5 m) above sea level at Malili Beach (20;329).

A.1-11

OFF LUALUALEI BEACH PARK

The bottom offshore of much of Lualualei Beach Park consists
of low relief limestone formations separated by sand pockets of
various sizes. The larger sand patches occur off the center of
the beach in the vicinity of a sewer outfall. Consolidated
limestone predominates between -20 and -40 feet (-6 to -12 m).
The proportion of sand bottom increases with depth and sand
covers almost half the bottom at -60 feet (-18 m). At -80 feet
(-24 m), the bottom is entirely sand (165;OCRI-62Tl-).

OFF MAIILI BEACH

As off the Lualualei section to the north, the bottom off
Malili Beach reaches a depth of 12 feet. (4 m) not far from shore,
then deepens gradually offshore. Near shore'the limestone bottom
is interrupted by sand channels, includipg a large channel which
comes in to shore south of the jetty at Malililili Stream. At
depths over -25 feet (-8 m) there is little or no sand. The
bottom generally lacks relief except for the drop to the sand
channel that meets Malili Beach. Two major drop-offs, one from
-50 to -60 feet (-15 to -18 m) and the other from -85 to -120
feet (-26 to -37 -m), occur offshore (126;OCRI-62T2).

WAIIANAE ARTIFICIAL "REEF"

In order to create an artificial "reef" habitat on an other-
wise featureless bottom, concrete sewer pipes and old car bodies
.were dumped in deep water one mile south of Pokali Bay (MAP 61)
beginning in 1964 (98;126). The artificial habitat is scattered
over an area of around 25 acres (10 ha) between -45 and -95 feet
(-14 to -29 m). Heavy winter swells-cause the pipes to shift
position and collisions between pipes have reduced many to rubble
(126;371). The natural bottom in the area of the artificial
substrata is smooth limestone and sand with little relief (165).

FLORA AND FAU14A

OFF LUALUALEI BEACH PARK

Coral cover is sparse off most of Lualualei Beach Park.
Coral cover off the old Mikilua Beach Park (northern section of
Lualualei Beach Park) is around 17% at a depth of 10 feet Q to 4
m) and 30% at a depth of 40 feet (12 m). Ten species of coral
are represented in shallow water and 15 species occur offshore,
making this one of the more diverse coral communities off the
coast between Makaha (MAP 60) and Malili Point (MAP 63). Porites
lobat is by far the most abundant species. MDm�jp
Q@ verrucQsa
is common at -10 feet, uncommon at -40 feet.
meandrina ranks second in abundance offshore. An uncommon coral,
Porites pukgensia, is reported from -40 feet offshore (156;OCRI-
62Bl).

Off the middle of Lualualei Beach Park and in the general

A.1-12

vicinity of a sewer-pipe alignment coral cover is only around 6
to 8 % at -10 feet (-3 to-4m), 3 to l2 % at -40 feet (-12 m),
and 1% at -60 feet (-18 m)(156;165). However, at a station in
shallow water along the outfall alignment, one survey recorded
30% coral cover (nearly all Porites lobata) (156). The dominant
coral species at all depths is Porites lobata (156;165;OCRI-
62Tl). Many dead heads of Pocillopora meandrina occur off this
section of coast (165).

Fleshy algae are sparse throughout most of the nearshore
bottom, although a mat of closely-cropped species is present on
hard substrata (165). The brown alga, Dictyopteris australis, is
reported as prominent at a depth of approximately 30 feet off the
Mikilua Beach section (OCRI-62Bl). Fleshy algae (mostly Sargas-
sum sp.) cover 11% of the bottom at a depth of 40 feet near the
outfall diffuser. Coralline algae cover 5% of the bottom at -60
feet (~-18 m) off the sewer outfall. Elsewhere, cover by coral-
line algae is reported at 1% or less off the Beach Park (165).

Sea urchins are conspicuous, especially
~qgratilla, with densities exceeding one per square meter in shal-
low water. Other species present are Echino~4qmetr ~0qL~nathaei, Echi~q=
no~qthrix dia~2qde~0qm~0qa, ~0qF~q, ~8qpau~qgis~8qpinu~8qm, Echinostre~0qphus aciculatus, and
~qJ~q1 j~qe _~qt ~6qg ~0qI_~qQ ~6qr~. ~j~qe ~6qn _t ~0q1~6~-~6qQ _t u~qa ~0qLn ~0qp- ~0qL~n ~0qL~n ~0q1~2q1~2q2 -a _t ~0qg~6qa (15 6 ; 16 5 ; 0 C R I - 6 2 B 1 r T 1 ) . ~qE~_~0qQh~qj~0qn~_~0qQ=
~0qz~j~qt~0qj~_~qep~2qh~qj~0qm is most common in deeper water (156). The octocoral,
Anthelia ed~qi~qDondsoni, occurs throughout the-northern area (156~q).

Fishes are not particularly abundant in the waters off
Lualualei Beach Park (OCRI-62T~2qD. The fauna around ledges on the
limestone bottom off, the northern end of the Beach Park is mod-
erately diverse. At least forty-nine species are recorded from a
depth of 10 feet (3 to 4 m) and at least 57 species occur at a
depth of 40 feet (12 m)(156). A survey in the general vicinity
of the latter station-foun~2qd 49 species, of which fourteen are
common. Among t~6qhese are Stethojelis balteat , Suffla~0qm~qj~0q= bursa,
~4qT-h~6qa~ql-~qa~.~qa~0qm~0qm~0qa ~qj~qd~0qu~2qP~_~qe~0qr~4qu_~0qe~.~6qYi, _~8qC~0qi~0qX~0qX~2qh~6qi~6qI~_~qQ~6qP~_~qQ ~2qf~-~_~0qa~4qZ~_~0qQ~-~qi~0qA~_t~qI~qI~J~q9~_r ~_~8qC~_~0qQ~qJ~q:~.i~.~q9 ~qj~qU~0qA~0qi~0qM~4qA.~qL~qi~qd~0qi,
Chaetodon ~4qmiliaris, Canthic~iast~qe~qc ~4qg~0qD~4qm~0qa~0qn~0qA~8qI~4qA, Halichoere~8qs ornatis~q=
~.~0qa~6ql~qI~qD~qI~qI~.~qa~., Ana~0qm~2qps~0qu ~qrhr~0qysoce~qphalu , ~qParu~2qpeneu~qE~qj ~0qmultifasciatu~qs, and
Less common, but of special interest,
are the cleaner wrasse, ~0qPb~Jtb~0qi~4qx~_~4qQ~6qvb~4qA~2qq~_~qu~4qa, the boxfish,
ostr~qacion I~qgeleagris, and t~6qhe deep water specieSr Chaetodon kleini
(OCRI-62Fl~q)

Surveys of fishes off t~6qhe middle of t~6qhe Park have noted up
to 40 species in shallow water (depths of approximately 10 feet
or 3 to 4 m) and as many as 70 species at depths of 40 ft (12 m).
~44qP~q,~qj~6qe~20qj~q.~q.~0qy~q.~0qa~q,~28qg~q@~6qQ~20qj ~0qa~40qV~6qj~2qj~q.~q_~20qQ~16qL~24qg~20qn~16qa and ~40qIb~20qA~52qI~20qA~24qa~4qg~20qw~20qa~24qa are most abundant
inshore; ~40qZ. ~4q1~4q2.~20qa~0qa~16q@ b~24q"~20qA~q_~20qQ~16qa~20qn~44qIb~6qi~20qq~0q5, ~0q1~0q2~20qA~4qa~q-~20qC~32qY~56q1~56q1~20q" ~20qA~52ql~52qh~64qi~24qm~0qe~52ql~52ql~q_~20qd~q,
Adio~4qrvx xantherythrus, ~48qChaetodon j~6qBiliaris, and Chro~12qmis verator
are most common offshore (156~2qY. The assemblage along the sewer
outfall alignment is heavily dominated by the filefish, ~40q2~20q&~20qx~20qy~q_~6q4_~0qq~6q&~6qL~0qt
s~08qpiloso~20qa~20qa (165). ~48qNelichthy~8qs vidua, Thalass~04qo~20qLn~20qa du~4qi~qpe~4qrre~04qv~6qi, ~52qL~6qJ~0qj~0qZ~q_~0qQ~20qLn~0qj~4qa
_~16qy_~6qQ~12qj~q.~6qa_~0qt_~6qQ~16qj~q.~q, ~40qA~8qj~6q2~qj~12qU_~48qd_~2qQ~2qf~0qj~6qJ_~16qU~48qj _~12qd~8qj~2q2_~52qd_~16qQ~2qj~2qD~2qj~16qn~12qa~2qj~56qj~16qa (OCRI-62Tl~0q)~q, and ~40qA~q_~16qQ~16qA~20qn~q_~44qt~52qh~q_~16qU~16qj~q'~q_~16qU~20qa
oliv~4qaceu~4qa a~0qre common offshore (165)~q.

A.1-13

OFF MA'ILI BEACH

Coral cover does not exceed 2% of the bottom in shallow
water (-10 to -15 feet or -3 to -5 m) off Ma'ili Beach (OCRI-
62T2). Coral cover is reported as 24% at -20 feet (-6 m), 7% at
-40 feet (-12 m), and 10% at -60 feet (165). On the smooth
limestone and sa-nd bottom surrounding the artificial "reef" at
depths below 80 feet (24 m) corals cover no more than 2%
(116;126;165) or less (371) of- the bottom. Porites lobata is the
dominant species at all depths, followed in abundance by Pocillo-
pora meandrina (126;165). The sea urchins, Echinometra mathaei
and Echinothrix calmaris, are abundant in shallow water and to -
4 0 f e e t (- 12 m) ( 16 5) . T h e s e a u r c h i n gratilia, i s
common at -50 feet (-15 m) (OCRI-62T2).

Algal cover is estimated at 15% in. water 10 to 15 feet (3 to
5 m) deep nearshore. Nine species of algae are noted.
Asparagopsis taxiformis is the most abundant, followed by
Laurencia sp., Halimeda discoidea, and Ulva reticulada (OCRI-
62T2). Much of the limestone bottom offshore to -100 feet (-30
m) is carpeted by a mat of closely cropped algae (165). Princi-
pal forms in the mat are Amansia, Symploca, Herposiphonia,
Dictyota , Dictyosphaeria, Caulerpa, and Schizothrix (116; also
Wai'anae Artificial "Reef"). Cover by coralline algae
(principally Hydrolitho breviclavium) is around 30% at depths of
40 to 90 feet (12 to 27 m; 116; 126).

The fish fauna at depths between 20 and 60 feet (6 to 18 m)
is more diverse and fishes are more abundant than elsewhere along
the Wailanae coast. Thirty-six species are recorded. Pervagor
spilosoma heavily dominated the assemblage in 1975. Other abun-
dant species are Chaetodon miliaris, Chromis verator, Plectro-
glyphidodon imparipennis, and Myripristis and sp. (165). More
recent observations noted as common the surgeonfishes, Acanthurus
nigroris and A. triostegus, and the wrasse, Thalassoma duperrevi
(OCRI-62T2).

WAI'IANAE ARTIFICIAL "REEF"

Oysters (Ostrea hanleyana), bryozoans (Phidelopora sp.), and
tunicates (Didemnum candidum) predominate on the inner surfaces
of concrete pipes of the artificial "reef" at depths of 45 to 95
f e e t (14 t o 2 9 m) o f f M a I i 1 i. V e r m e t i d s (Dendropoma platypus),
limpets (Hipponix pilosus), and corals (Pocillopora meandrina and
Porites lobata) are conspicuous attached organisms on the outer
surfaces. Fishes selectively graze the algal growth, leaving
mostly blue-greens (such as Schizothrix calcicola and Lyngbya
majuscula) (126).

At least 167 species of fish are recorded from around the
artificial substrata. Consistently most abundant are Acanthurus
olivaceus, Mulloidichthys flavolineatus, Naso hexacanthus, Myrip-
ristis berndti, Parupeneus multifasciatus, Chromis verator, and
Dascyllus albisella (98;126;198). A sunken barge has attracted at
least 39 species of fish, including large schools of Decapterus

A.1-14

olivaceus, Aprio virescens, and Scarus perspicillatus (198).

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Coastal waters are classified "A" in Department of Health
water quality regulations (189). Some houselots behind the shore-
line are served by cesspools-, although portions of Malili are
connected into the Wailanae sewage treatment system 486). Sev-
eral injection wells are utilized as well for sewage disposal
(219). The outfall for the Wailanae STP is located 3000 feet
(915-m) offshore of Lualualai Beach Park in 34 feet (10 m) of
water.- The discharge rate is approximately 1.72 mgd of primary
treated domestic sewage. High concentrations of bacteria of
fecal origin are present in the zone of mixing. Planning is
underway to add secondary treatment and to increase the total
length of the outfall to 6000 feet.-The discharge would then be
at a depth of 150 feet (46 m) (156).

Underwater visibility is about 60 feet fronting Lualualei
Beach Park. Directly off Malili Beach Park, underwater visibil-
ity is only 25 or 30 feet (OCRI). Visibility of 80 feet or
better is reported in offshore waters (236;OCRI).

MAIILIIILI STREAM

Malililili Stream flows only after heavy rains, but at these
times, sediment plumes may enter the ocean and discolor nearshore
waters for a day or more. Malililili Stream is given an ecologi-
cal quality rating of III: moderate to low natural and/or water
quality (well exploited, modified, or degraded) (223).

USES

LUALUALEI BEACH PARK

Lualualei Beach Park includes the former Mikilua Beach Park
and extends along the coast from Pokali Bay Beach Park (MAP 61)
to the mout 'h of Malililili Stream. Beachrock creates problems of
access to the water along much of the shoreline. Waves and
currents become dangerous when winter swells approach Hawaili
from the North Pacific. The park is, however, popular with beach
campers and pole fishermen (39). Throw-netting occurs off rocky
sections of the coast. Board and body surfing occurs offshore of
the sewage treatment plant.

Fishing is moderate to heavy along the coast from Lualualei
Beach Park to the south end of Malili Beach Park. Pole fishing
and spearfishing are the most intensive activities. The jetty
south of Kalaeokakao Point is a focus for pole fishermen, but the
entire shoreline is fished.

A.1-15

MA'ILI BEACH PARK

Ma'ili Beach Park includes the former Malililili Beach Park
and extends along the coast from the mouth of Ma'ililili Stream
to Ulehawa Beach Park (MAP 63). Waters are generally calm in the
summer. The most popular swimming area is off the wide sand
beach near Malililili Stream. Deep waters are reached close to
shore. Winter swells create strong backwashes and powerful rip
currents in nearshore waters all along the beach (39). Throw-
netting occurs off rocky shore areas. This coast is visited
extensively by public school classes on marine education field
trips.

Construction of a jetty to keep sand from barring the mouth
of Malililili Stream intruded on a once popular surfing spot
(39). Board surfing is no longer possible at this site, although
body surfing and belly-board (paipo) surfing remains good (86).
Off the center of the beach is a body surfing site.

OFF MAIILI - WAVANAE ARTIFICIAL REEF

The concrete pipes and old car bodies dumped to create
habitats for marine organisms abound with fishes that are an
attraction to sport divers. Lobsters Q_An_uJj1.11.a sp.) are abun-
dant. Anglers in boats drift over the artificial "reef" and hook
goatfishes (126). Trapping and ornamental fish collecting are
important activities in deep waters offshore. The Wailanae Arti-
ficial Reef has been extensively studied to determine th 'e advan-
tages and disadvantages of enhancing fish productivity by dumping
various items in areas characterized by low bottom relief and low
abundance of fishes.

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): p. 63, figs. 15,26. Compilation and analy-
sis of-offshore water circulation data. Additional ref-
erences.

25 - Campbell (1972): p. 11, tables 3,4. Width and sand volume
for Malili Beach (as "Maile") measured several times in
1962/63 and 1971/72.

98 - Kanayama and Onizuka (1973): Survey of fishes around arti-
ficial "reefs" off Olahu; Wailanae site off Malili.

116 - Littler (1971): p. 26-35, 41, figs. 11 51 tables III -VIII.
Study and survey of crustose coralline algae off Malili
(vicinity of Wailanae artificial "reef") and Waikiki.
Variation in bottom cover, density, and frequency of sev-
eral species.

A.i-16

(MAP '61) and Maipalaoa Beach Park (MAP 63). Extensive
species.list of algae,, invertebrates, and fishes on and
around concrete pipes and natural substrata nearby. Fish
grazing studies. Plankton and physico-chemical factors
sampled in water column.

147 - Moberly and Chamberlain (1964): p. 68-9, fig. 50. Sand
sorting and composition-of the north end of Malili Beach.
Beach and offshore profile. Seasonal changes in beach
sand volume and width, 1962-63.

156 - Oceanic Institute (1976): app. B. Sta. 5,6,7 of seven off
the Wailanae coast-at which physical, chemical, plankton,
and bacteria surveis were conducted in Summer 1974. Sta.
4,5,(5 of six at.which fishes, corals, and benthic inverte-
brates were surveyed in August 1974. Samples 20-31,56-
59,82,83 of ninety sediment samples collected along
Wailanae coast analyzed for grain size distribution.

157 - Oishi (1973): Survey of fishes around Wailanae artificial
"reef".-

165 - Reed,r Kay, and Russo (1977): Transects C and D of five off
Wailanae coast. Substratum types, algae, coral, fishes,
macroinvertebrates, and micromolluscs surveyed at five
depths along each transect line.

198 - DIVF&G (1974): Fish survey at the Wailanae offshore arti-
ficial "reef" located off Malili.

371 Auyong, et al. (1975): Studies on corals, algae, and
fishes Uncluding- gut-contents analysis) on and around
both artificial and natural substrata at the Wailanae
artificial "reef" off Malili. Some physico-chemical para-
meters measured.

500 Whang (1981): Study of Malili Beach width spanning a 30
year period (1949-59, 1965-71, 1975-79) using aerial
photographs to-assess beach stability. Fig. IV-4, Table
IV-4.

A.1-17

mAP 63 - WILI POINT

(MA'ILI, MAIPALAOA STREAM, MA'ILI BEACH PARK, MAIPALAOA BEACH,
MA1ILI POINT, ULEHAWA BEACH PARK, PUT 0 HULU BEACH)

- Waianae Quadrangle
- POD , 1:6000 BW, 1:
PHYSIOGRAPHY LUALUALEI VALLEY - MAIILI

The residential area of Malili stretches along the coast
between Pulu Malili'ili (MAP 62) and Pulu o Hulu Kai (MAP 64).
These are mostly homestead lands. (Also MAP 62). M-aipalaoa
Stream drains a relatively small area- of Lualualei Valley- north
of Pu'u o Hulu Kai. This stream flows only following periods of
heavy rainfall.

MAIILI BEACH

Malili Beach extends south from the mouth of Malililili
Stream (MAP 62) to near the mouth of Maipalaoa Stream. The
backshore is composed of old beach ridges and inactive dunes
(146). Offshore of Malili Beach, the bottom deepens sufficiently
to allow high waves to break on shore, causing large seasonal and
year-to-year shifts in beach sand (500). Surveys in 1962-63
indicate that northern Malili Beach has a seasonal variation of
about 75 feet. During the winter, the foreshore slope is rela-
tively steep, whereas in the summer, it is flat (147). The
middle section of Malili Beach has grown but the two 'ends of the
beach have experienced chronic erosion over a long-term period.
Ercsion of a 2,500 foot length of north Malili Beach appears to
be continuous. During the 1949 to 1979 period, the vegetation
line receded by as much as 72 feet. The major erosion was con-
centrated during the 1949-1959, 1965-1971, and 1975-1979 inter-
vals. The middle section of Malili Beach accreted between 1949
and 1979. The vegetation line advanced seaward by as much as 99
feet in this period. The source of sand is possibly from the
eroding ends of the beach (500).

At the southern end of Malili Beach, the vegetation line
receded 32 feet over a 30-year period. Shoreline retreat appears
to be continuous over time and may eventually cause residential
areas along the backshore to become susceptible to winter storm
waves (500).
Erosion in the winter of 1968-69 'was particularly severe
(232). This coast is subject to storm wave and tsunami flooding.
Runup from the 1946 tsunami reached'16 feet (5 m) above sea level
at Maipalaoa Beach (329).

A.1-18

MA'ILI POINT - PU'U 0 HULU SHORELINE

A spur of the Wailanae Range known as Pu'u o Hulu forms
Ma'ili Point, one of two prominent points along the Wai'anae
Coast. A long coastline of raised reef curves around Ma'ili
Point. The raised reef is attributed to the +25 foot stand (Wai-
manalo) of the sea estimated as occurring roughly 40,000 years
ago (128;211). A low cliff extends along the entire shore from
Maipalaoa Stream to Ulehawa Stream (MAP 64)(39).

OFF MA'ILI BEACH

Smooth limestone broken by small depressions containing sand
is the predominant bottom type in waters between -10 and -20 feet
(-4 to -6 m) off Ma'ili Beach. Little sand is present on the
limestone bottom between -40 and -60 feet (-12 to -18 m)
(165;OCRI-63Tl). The proportion of sand bottom is greater below
-80 feet (-24-m)(165).

OFF MAIPALAOA BEACH AND MA'ILI POINT

Old reef limestone extends seaward off Ma'ili Point as a
submerged shelf interrupted by surge channels with sand bottoms
(OCRI). A cove off Maipalaoa Beach is protected by the shallow,
offshore reef and has a bottom of sand and scattered limestone
outcrops (39).

FLORA AND FAUNA

OFF MAIPALAOA BEACH AND MA'ILI POINT

Corals reach a maximum bottom cover of 13% at a depth of 40
feet (12 m) offshore of Maipalaoa Beach Park. In shallow water
(-20 feet or -6 m), only five percent of the bottom is covered by
live coral. Coral cover is 8% at a depth of 60 feet (18 m) and
corals contribute no more than one percent cover at depths of 80
and 100 feet (24 and 30 m)(165). Pocillopora meandrina and
Porites lobata (growing as massive coral heads) are nearly equal
in abundance at-20 feet and Poc. meandrina is dominant at -40 to

-60 feet. Leptastrea purpurea is fairly common in patches
throughout the area. Dead and pale heads of Poc. meandrina are
common (165;OCRI-63Bl).

Fleshy algae (mostly Sargassum sp.) are abundant in deep
water offshore. Algal cover is 13% at -80 feet (-24 m), increas-
ing to 20% at -100 feet (30 m). Coralline algae cover 4% of the
bottom at -80 feet and 8% of the bottom at -100 feet (-30 m)
(165).

The pincushion star, Culcita novaeguineae is fairly abun-
dant, and a variety of other echinoderms (including Heterocentro-
tus mammillatus, Acanthaster planci, Diadema paucispinum, Echino-
thrix diadema, Echinostrephus aciculatus, and Holothuria cf.
pervicax) occur in low abundance offshore (OCRI-63Bl). Echino-
A.1-19

metra mathaei and Echinothrix calamaris are the only echinoderms
reported in one survey (165).

Juvenile fishes are present near shore. Large schools of
Acanthurus olivaceus and A. triostegus occur in waters less than
20 feet deep (OCRI-63Tl). A fairly diverse fish assemblage is
found in deeper water (-50 ft or -15 m) off Ma'ili Point. Sixty-
three species are recorded, of which 21 are rated common. Among
the most common are Dascyllus albisella, Zebrasoma flavescens,
Chaetodon miliaris, C. multicinctus, C. kleini, Thalassoma
duperrevi, Forcipiger flavissimus, Acanthurus olivaceus, Cteno-
chaetus strigosus, Chromis verator, Anathias thompsoni, and
Bodianus bilunulatus. Heniochus diphreutes and Chromis hanui are
especially abundant (OCRI-63Fl). A survey in the same general
area recorded 24 species of fishes from depths ranging between 20
and 100 feet (6 to 30 m). Pervagor spilosoma predominated in 1975
(165).

WAI'ANAE ARTIFICIAL "REEF"

The variety and abundance of fishes associated with old
pipes, cars, and barge sections dumped offshore of Ma'ili Beach
as an "artificial reef" are much higher than found over the
surrounding limestone bottom (98;126;198). Some of the more
commonly encountered species are Mulloidichthys vanicolensis, M.
flavolineatus, Parupeneus macarellus, Aprion virescens, and
Scarus perspicillatus (126). (Also MAP 62).

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Coastal waters are rated "A" in Department of Health water
quality regulations (189). Cesspools are used for sewage dispo-
sal in coastal communities. A small volume of domestic sewage
(0.2 mgd) is discharged into coastal waters south of Ma'ili Beach
Park from the Naval ammunition depot at Lualualei (186).

Although Maipalaoa Stream flows only a few times a year
after heavy rains, plumes of stream-borne sediment may enter the
ocean and discolor nearshore waters for a day or longer. The
waters surrounding Ma'ili Point are within one of five areas off
0'ahu designated as major post-storm red water areas by the
Department of Health (306). This particular area extends from
Kepuhi Point (MAP 59) southeast to Kahe Point (MAP 66). Under-
water visibility is limited to about 20 feet near shore but
improves to 50 feet in water over 40 feet deep (OCRI).

USES

MA'ILI BEACH PARK

The opportunities and limitations for uses along the south-
ern-most section of Ma'ili Beach Park are the same as for the

A.1-20

northern port@ion (see MAP 62). Beaches and old beach ridges were
formerly exploit-ed as a commercial source of sand at Malili
(146). Body surfing is practiced off the beach at the south end
of the Park.

ULEHAWA BEACH PARK - MAIPALAOA BEACH

The sand and limestone shoreline south of Maipalaoa Stream
to Malili Point was formerly called Maipalaoa Beach Park, but has
been combined with Ulehawa Beach Park. A shallow cove is formed
by a reef shelf in f ront of Maipalaoa Beach. This cove is pro-
tected from dangerous currents even during periods of high surf
and is one of the safer areas for swimming along the Wailanae
coast (39).

The surf break offshore of Maipalaoa Beach Park is excellent
for board and paipo board surfing during the summer. The strong
currents generated by large surf, the shallow reef shelf, and
occasional shark sigbtings are potential hazards (39;86).

ULEHAWA BEACH PARK - PU'U 0 HULU BEACH

The raised reef shoreline around Malili Point is an unde-
veloped park (formerly called Pulu o Hulu) now combined with
Maipalaoa and Ulehawa Parks into Ulehawa Beach Park. The surf
pounds this shoreline almost continually and is especially haz-
ardous in winter months. Pole fishermen are the principal users
of the park (39).

OFF MAPILI POINT

The coast from the south end of Malili Beach Park and around
Malili Point receives moderate to heavy fishing use, largely by
pole and spear fishermen seeking papio, ulua, goatfish, and
surgeonfish off the shoreline. Some net fishing and throw-
netting is practiced off the rocky coast of Malili Point. Trap-
ping and ornamental fish collecting are the most important off-
shore fisheries.

Summer waves provide good board and paipo board surfing at
two sites off Malili Point. The shallow bottom and sharks are
hazards reported by surfers (86). Divers frequent the waters
offshore of Ma'ili Point, presumably attracted by a diverse fish
assemblage and caves eroded in a submarine cliff. Commercial dive
shops run charters to these caves. Currents are reported as
unpredictable and sometimes strong around Malili Point (236).

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): P. 63-64, figs. 15,26. Compilation and
analysis of offshore water circulation data. Additional
references.

98 - Kanayama and Onizuka (1973): Survey of fishes around arti-
ficial nreefs" off Olahu; Wailanae site off Malili.

A.1-21

116 Little r (1971): p. 26-35, 41, figs. 1, 5f tables III-VIII.
Study and survey of crustose coralline algae off Malili
(vicinity of Wailanae artificial "reef") and Waikiki.
Variation in bottom cover, density, and frequency of seve-
ral species.

126 McVey (1970): Ecology of fishes attracted to enhanced
substratum relief of an artificial "reef" off Malili.
Table IV. Summary of fish abundance and number of species
at 5 of nine sites (-50 to -85 feet deep) between Wailanae
(MAP 61) and Maipalaoa Beach Park (MAP 63). Extensive spe-
cies list of algae, invertebrates, and fishes on and
around concrete pipes and natural substrata nearby. Fish
grazing studies. Plankton and physico-chemical factors
sampled in water column.

156 Oceanic Institute (1976): app. B. Samples 58-61,81 of
ninety sediment samples collected along Wailanae coast
analyzed for grain size distribution.

157 - Oishi (1973): Survey of fishes around Wailanae artificial
"reef".-

165 - Reed, Kay, and Russo (1977): Transect E of five off
Wailanae coast. Substratum types, algae, coral, fishes,
macroinvertebrates, and micromolluscs surveyed at five
depths along each transect line.

168 Richmond and Mueller-Dombois (1972): p. 386, fig.s 2.11A
2.11B, table 1. Transects 11A and 11B of twenty-three
around Olahu in study of coastal plant assemblages.

198 -DIV F&G (1974): Fish survey at the Wai'anae offshore arti-
ficial "reef"-located off Malili.

371 -Auyong, et al. (1975): Studies on corals, algae, and
fishes (including- gut-contents analysis) on and around
both artificial and natural substrata at the Wai'anae
artificial "reef" off Malili. Some physico-chemical para-
meters measured.

500 Whang (1981): Study of Malili Beach width spanning a 30
year period- (1949-59, 1965-71, 1975-79) using aerial
photographs to-assess beach stability. Fig. IV-4, Table
IV-4.

A.1-22

MAP 64 - PU'U 0 HULU

(MA'ILI POINT, PU'U 0 HULU BEACH, ULEHAWA BEACH PARK, ULEHAWA
STREAM)

- Waianae Quadrangle
- POD, !:6000 BW1 1:

PHYSIOGRAPH'Y

MAIILI POINT

Malili Point is one of two prominent projections along the
Wailanae coast. The Point occurs at an isolated spur from the
Wailanae Range called Pulu o Hulu.

NANAKULI - ULEHAWA STREAM

The residential area (homestead lands) of Nanikuli lies
South of Pulu o Hulu across a portion of Lualualei Valley drained
by Ulehawa Stream. (Also MAP 62). Ulehawa Stream flows only
infrequentl, following periods of -heavy rainfall.

PUIU 0 HULU COAST

The entire shoreline of Pu'u o Hulu Beach extending from
Malili Point to Ulehawa Beach is a low cliff fronting a raised
reef platform (also MAP 63).

ULEHAWA BEACH

A pocket beach (substantially narrowed by winter surf) oc-
curs near the mouth-of Ulehawa Stream. However, the rest of
Ulehawa Beach north and south of the.pocket beach is a narrOWr
steep, sandy shore having alternating sections of sand and beach
rock edged by extensive outcrops of beachrock. Over a 30-year
period, the beach has generally been stable, with some evidence
of localized accretion (500). The coastline is subject to storm
wave and tsunami flooding (88). The 1946 tsunami caused runup to
an elevation of 19 feet (6 m) south of Ulehawa Stream mouth
(329). -

OFF ULEHAWA BEACH

A narrow, submerged shelf of pitted limestone lies off
Ulehawa Beach Park. From the seaward edge of this shelf (at a
depth of about 12 f eet or 4 m) the bottom drops away into deeper
water as smooth limestone v-eneered with sand. A sand-bottom
channel crosses the limestone and comes in to shore at the mouth
of Ulehawa Stream (OCRI-64Bl).

A.1-23

FLORA AND FAUNA

OFF ULEHAWA BEACH

The submerged limestone shelf off Ulehawa Beach is heavily
populated by the sea urchin, MA-tbap..j. Coral and
algal cover are sparse. Coral cover increases to 20 or 30% on the
flat limestone at a depth of 25 feet (8 m).
(occurring as large heads) and x_eAnjdxing are most
common, although a Montipola sp. is also common. The sea urchin,
Trinneustes gratilla, is abundant here. Ten species of fish are
recorded from depths of 6 to 40 feet (2 to 12 m). Fish abundance
increases with depth. Most common are Naso hexacanthus, Chaatodon
jBiliaris, Dascyllus albisella, and Helichthys vidua (OCRI-64Bl).

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Department of Health water quality regulations classify
these coastal waters as "A" (189). Underwater visibility is
limited to around 20 feet in the shallow waters fronting Ulehawa
Beach Park, but improves to 40 or 50 feet farther offshore
(OCRI).

ULEHAWA STREAM

Although Ulehawa Stream flows only a few days to a few weeks
a yearr plumes of fine sediment can be discharged after heavy
rains and discolor nearshore waters for a day or more. Ulehawa
Stream is given an ecological rating of III: moderate to low
natural and/or water quality (well exploited, modified, or de-
graded)(223Y.

USES

ULEHAWA BEACH PARK - PUIU 0 HULU BEACH

Ulehawa Beach Park now includes the former Maipalaoa (MAP
63) and Pu'u o Hulu Beach Parks. Entry and exit from the raised
reef shoreline of the Pulu o Hulu Beach section is dangerous,
especially in the winter months, because of the constant shore-
break. This section of coast is mostly frequented by pole
fishermen (39). Limu is frequently collected off this section of
Ulehawa Beach-Park.

ULEHAWA BEACH PARK - ULEHAWA BEACH

Ulehawa Beach is the most utilized section of the long,
shoreline park extending from the mouth of Maipalaoa Stream (MAP
63) to Nanakuli Beach Park (MAP 65). Except where the beach
slopes into a sand channel off*Ulehawa Stream, the sand shoreline
meets beachrock or jagged reef rock at the waterline. Deep water
occurs close to shore except in front of Ulehawa Stream. Inshore
waters are relatively calm and safe for swimmin g in the summer

A.1-24

months. When heavy surf conditions occur in the winter months,
powerful rip currents develop and, combined with the large shore-
break, make swimming dangerous (39). Longshore currents moving
towards the northwest are moderate- under small surf conditions.
This section of coast receives moderate fishing use by pole
fishermen and spear fishermen, the latter entering the water from
sandy sections of the shoreline. Net fishing occurs here.

OFF ULEHAWA BEACH PARK

The constant shorebreak along Ulehawa Beach Park offers good
belly-board and body surfing, especially in the winter months
(3 9; 86). Ornamental fish collecting is a major fishery offshore.

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 Bathen (1978): p. 65, figs. 15,26. Compilation and analy-
sis of-offshore water circulation data. Additional ref-
erences.

500 Whang (1981): Study of Ma'ili Beach width spanning a 30-
year period (1949-59, 1965-71, 1975-79) using aerial
photographs to-assess beach stability. Fig. IV-4, Table
IV-4..

A.1-25

MAP 65 - NANAKULI

(NANAKULI, NANAKULI STREAM, NANAIKAPONO STREAM, ULEHAWA BEACH
PARK, NANAKULI BEACH PARK, PILI 0 KAHE)

- Waianae Quadrangle
- Schofield Barracks Quadrangle
- Ewa Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW1 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

ULEHAWA BEACH.

The shoreline fronting the Ulehawa section of Lualualei
Valley is a seasonally wide sand beach which extends south from
near the mouth of Ulehawa Stream (MAP 64) to a rocky headland
near the mouth of intermittent Nanaikapono Stream. Winter storm
waves significantly cut back and steepen the beach profile. The
coast is subject to storm wave and tsunami flooding (88). Runup
from the 1946 tsunami reached 20 feet (6 m) above sea-level at
Nanakuli (20;329).

NANAKULI BEACH

Nanakuli Beach (also known as Kalanianalole Beach) is a
pocket beach 500 feet (150 m) long and 125 feet (40 m) wide
situated between two points of raised reef. Nanakuli Stream meets
the beach at its southern end (which is sometimes called Zablan's
Beach), but the stream mouth is usually blocked by sand. The
beach- front is quite steep (147). Nanakuli beach experiences
seasonal variations in width of -as much as 50 feet (15 m). The
southern end accretes in the winter and erodes back in-the summer
(334). The southern section of the beach appears to have a 26-
year history of accretion (500). The northern beach has the
opposite seasonal pattern. Nana:kuli Beach remained relatively
stable during the January 1980 storm that severely eroded other
leeward O'ahu beaches (501).

PILI 0 KAHE BEACH

The southern portion of Nanakuli Beach Park, formerly called
Pili o Kahe Beach Park, is situated on a low point of raised
reef. (Also MAP 66).

OFF ULEHAWA AND NANAKULI BEACHES

Seaward of Ulehawa and Nanakuli Beaches there is a low
relief limestone bottom with a sand veneer. A large sand channel
crosses the.limestone bottom just north of the point occupied by
Nanaikapono Elementary School and merges with Ulehawa Beach in
the vicinity of an unnamed stream mouth. An even larger sand

A.1-26

channel cuts through the limestone bottom seaward of the mouth of
Nanakuli Stream. The drop-off to deep water is fairly abrupt off
of Ulehawa Beach, but is more gradual in front of Kalani'ole
Beach Park (OCRI-65Tl)

FLORA AND FAUNA

OFF ULEHAWA BEACH

The limestone bottom some 300 to 400 feet (90 to 120 m)
seaward of Ulehawa Beach supports a sparse (2% cover) growth of
the coral, Porites. Live coral covers 5% of- the bottom 30 feet
off the mouth of Nanaikapono Stream and 14% of the bottom 300
feet seaward. Porites, Montipora, and Pocillopora are present
(383;OCRI-65Tl).

NANAKULI SOLUTION BENCH

An algal turf on the solution bench north of Nanakuli
(Kalaniana'ole) Beach is dominated by Valonia aegagropila. Jani
capillacea, Saragassum sp., and Padina sp. are common (110).

OFF NANAKULI (KALANIANA'OLE) BEACH

The low relief limestone fronting Ulehawa and Nanakuli
Beaches has a rather barren appearance. Coral cover (mostly
Pocillopora meandrina) does not exceed 5% of the bottom- (OCRI-
65Tl) . Twenty feet off Nanakuli Stream, coral cover is nearly
20% in an area of high relief. Porites and Pocillopora are most
common. Fishes and sea urchins are abundant. Farther offshore
the bottom is barren (383).

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Coastal waters are class "A" in Department of Health water
quality regulations (189). Beachside homes have cesspools. Prior
to 1978 the DOH conducted monthly microbiological monitoring of
waters off Nanakuli Beach Park. Mean concentrations of total and
fecal coliform bacteria never exceeded DOH or EPA designated
maximum levels for recreational waters (188). Underwater visi-
bility off Nanakuli Beach is 25 to 30 feet (OCRI), but improves
offshore (139).

NANAKULI STREAM

Although barred by the beach most of the year, Nanakuli
Stream breaches the sand and empties into the ocean following
heavy rains. For a day or more after high discharges, nearshore
waters may be discolored by suspended sediments. The upper reach
of Nanakuli Stream is given an ecological quality rating of II:
moderate to high quality water or natural values (223).

A.1-27

USES

ULEHAWA BEACH PARK

Ulehawa Beach Park encompasses the former Maipalaoa (MAP
63), Pu'uohulu (MAP 64), and Ulehawa Beach Parks extending from
Ma-lili Beach Park (MAP 63) to Nanakuli Beach Park. Only the
Ulehawa portion is d-eveloped. The wide sand beach centered around
the comfort station is the most popular section of Ulehawa Beach
Park. (Also MAP 64). Elsewhere the beach is narrow, steep, and
edged by extensive -beachrock outcrops that interfere with access
to the water (39). Strong longshore currents sometimes occur off
the beach. The-shorebreak provides good body and belly-board
surf ing (86) . Sand f rom this area was exploited at one. time for
commercial purposes (146).

The southern section of Ulehawa Beach Park and Kalanianalole
Beach (Nanakuli Beach Park) receive moderate fishing pressure
from pole fishermen seeking- ulua, papio, lolio, and goatfish.

NANAKULI BEACH PARK - KALANIANAIOLE BEACH

Nanakuli Beach Park extends southeast along the coast from
Ulehawa Beach Park and encompasses the former Kalanianalole Beach
Park and Piliokahe Beach Park (see MAP 66). A wide pocket beach
in the Kalanianalole Beach section offers -camping and swimming.
High surf conditions, especially in the winter months, produce a
large shorebreak on the steep face of the beach and strong rip
currents near shore. At such times these waters become very
dangerous. The section of beach in front of Nanakuli Stream is
known as Zablan Beach and is considered the safest part of the
Beach Park (39). Body surfing is occasionally good in the winter
at several sites off Kalanianalole Beach. Surfers report occa-
sional shark sightings (86). Novice SCUBA divers frequently
follow the large sand channel fronting Zablan Beach to deeper
water offshore (39). Beach sand was formerly exploited for con-
struction purposes -at Nanakuli (146).

OFF ULEHAVIA AND NANAKULI BEACH PARKS

-Zablan Beach and the adjacent sand channel are an entry/exit
point for SCUBA divers. Commercial dive shops utilize these
waters for both beginning and advanced SCUBA classes and dive
charters. The major attractions for sport divers occur farther
south along the coast (see MAP 66). Offshore waters are subject
to tidal currents runaing alongshore that can be quite strong
(OCRI).

Spearfishing occurs offshore but it is concentrated south of
this section. Net fishing occurs in the large sand channel
fronting Nanakuli (Zablan) Beach. Pole fishing from boats is
common offshore and*ornamental fish collecting is widespread off
this coast.

A.1-28

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 -Bathen (1978): p. 65, figs. 15,26. Compilation and analy-
sis of offshore water circulation data. Additional refer-
ences.

25 -Campbell (1972): p. 11, tables 3,4. Width and sand volume
for Nanakuli Beach measured several times in 1962-63 and
1971-72.

42 - R.M. Towill Corp. (1973 and later surveys; see MAP 66 for
dates). App. A. Offshore sand depth and beach profiles
(8 &- 9 of nine between Kahe Point and Kalanianalole
Beach). (034) in Coles, Fukuda, and Lewis, 1981)

110 - Kohn (1959): Brief description of biota on solution bench
at Nanakuli.

147 - Moberly and Chamberlain (1964): p. 68 ' fig. 49. Composi-
tion and sorting of Nanakuli Beach (Kalanianalole section)
sand, and beach profile. Seasonal changes in beach sand
volume and width, 1962-63.

168 - Richmond and Mueller-Dombois (1972): p. #87, fig. 2.10.
Transect 10 of twenty-three and Study area 22. Study of
coastal vegetation around Olahu.

383 - Sea Engineering Services, Inc. (1975). Sites A,B,C of
three in survey off Ulehawa and Nanakuli Beaches. Near-
shore current and circulation observations; limited bio-
logical survey.

500 Whang (1981): Study of Malili Beach width spanning a 30-
year period (1949-59, 1965-71, 1975-79) using aerial
photographs to-assess beach stability. Fig. IV-4, Table
IV-4.

501 Coles, Fukuda, and Lewis (1981): Summary of data collec-
ted relevant to the impact of the Kahe generating station
on the marine environment. Description of the power sta-
tion, temperature studies, beach and offshore sand pro-
files, benthic surveys of algae, corals, reef fishes,
coral growth studies.

A.1-29

14AP 66 - KAHE

(NANAKULI BEACH PARK, PILI 0 KAHE, KAHE BEACH, HECO BEACH PARK,
KAHE POINT)

- Ewa Quadrangle
- Schofield Barracks Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BWr 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

PILI 0 KAHE BEACH

The southern section of Nanakuli B each Park, formerly called
Pili o Kahe Beach Park, is situated on a low promontory of raised
reef. The only sand along the shoreline of the Pili o Kahe
section is a 150-foot (45 m) long pocket beach ("Middle Beach")
in a cove at the south end of the park. The beach is relatively
stable and protected from north-west swell (39;334). This coast
is subject to high surf and tsunami flooding (88).

KAHE BEACH

A wide sand beach known as Kahe Beach extends some 2r5OO
feet along the shore north of the HECO power station. The beach
is bounded by rocky points to the north and a jetty to the south.
Its width is 50 to 150 feet (30 to' 45 m) and the face is general-
ly quite steep. The beach-is subject to large variations in
width as seasonal changes in the wave regime cause sand to shift
from one end of the beach to the other (334).

Kahe Beach has a history of chronic e rosion (500). Over a
-30-year period, the former sandy shoreline has been replaced by
exposed rock and cobbles. Between 1949 and 1979, the shoreline
retreated about 40 feet. Off the middle and southern sections of
the beach are sand channels where seawar.d movement of sediment
may occur (500). A severe Kona storm generated large waves on
the southern and western shores of O'ahu during January 8-10,
1980. Storm damage to Kahe beach and reef environments produced
the most dramatic alterations that have occurred since monitoring
studies began in 1973 (334,501).

The Kona storm in January 1980 caused severe erosion of Kahe
Beach and noticeable sand accretion in nearshore areas. A verti-
cal scarp was eroded in the backshore, and the southern half of
the seawall bordering Kahe Beach Park collapsed several months
after the storm. Although some sections of the beach recovered
to their normal volume after the storm, the average volume of
sand on the entire beach was considerably less than the year
before.

The January 1980 storm affected most.of the beach. After

A.1-30

that time, the area of erosion shifted, depending upon seasonal
wave climate and littoral cycle (42).

Transfer of the Kahe Power Station effluent discharge off-
shore in 1976 appears to have altered the pattern of nearshore
sand movement resulting in a loss of sand from the beach. About
55% of the sand transported into the Kahe cooling system is lost
offshore by way of the outfall. The remainder is trapped in the
intake basin, from which it is periodically dredged and trucked
to the beach north of the basin and to temporary storage sites
(501). A large volume of sand has accumulated off the outfall
sinc-e commencement of offshore outfall operations in December
1976. Most of the deposit occurs within 150m of the outfall.
Sand from Kahe Beach is transported south into the intake basin
during the winter months. Sand trapped in the intake basin is
removed from the seasonally reversing littoral cycle (501). Twen-
ty foot high dunes which back the north (manners Beach) end of
the beach have resulted from HECO's practice of dumping sand
dredged from the intake basin of the Kahe power facility (42).
Runup from the 1946 and 1957 tsunamis reached 12 and 11 feet (4
m) respectively above sea level at Kahe Beach (329). -

HECO POWER STATION

The Hawaiian Electric Company operates an oil-fired, power
generating station north of Kahe Point, the largest power station
on Olahu. Two short boulder groins extend from shore to form a
protective basin for the ocean water intake of the plant's cool-
ing system. Heated water is dicharged into the ocean through a
pipe to a depth of 27 feet (8 m) over sand bottom approximately
250 feet offshore (334). The discharge pipe extends off a small
beach directly north of Kahe Point (324).

KAHE POINT

Kahe Point lies off a spur of the Wailanae Range. The
shoreline is a cliff 15 feet (5 m) high, cut in an emergent,
solution-pitted reef. A small cove is located along the south
side of the point (39;324).

OFF PILI 0 KAHE

Offshore of Pili o Kahe there is a low relief limestone
bottom with sand channels and, in places, a sand veneer. A sand
body extends south from the pocket beach at the south end of the
beach park (137).

OFF KAHE BEACH AND HECO POWER PLANT

A large sand channel runs offshore at the HECO discharge
pipe merging with an extensive body of sand offshore. Sand
thicknesses in the nearshore deposits range from 3 to 15 feet (1
to 5 m) (137;351). Sand volume has increased since operation of
the offshore outfall (334). North and south of the sand channel
there are narrow, seaward sloping shelves with sand in pockets

A.1-31

(324). The shelves of limestone are of two distinct types: that
to the north has low relief and is mostly covered by a veneer of
sand. Sand pockets and small channels are interspersed
(42;351;334;OCRI-66Tl). Off Manners Beach the low relief shelf
slopes offshore to a depth of about 40 - 50 feet (15 m) where
there is a bottom of rubble and sand (OCRI-66Bl). Off the power
station, limestone bottom extends seaward between 200 and 300
feet (60 to 90 m) to a depth of around 35 feet (10 m) (324). All
the reef areas are terminated seaward at various depths by an
extensive sand body (501).The limestone shelf south of the sand
channel is narrower and displays more relief in the form of
depressions and limestone mounds (42;137).

FLORA AND FAUNA

OFF PILI 0 KAHE

The nearshore bottom is relatively barren off Pili o Kahe.
Pocillopora meandrina is the principal coral, but cover does not
exceed 5% of the bottom. The sea urchin, Diadema paucispinum, is
common. Algae are present as low-growing mats on hard surfaces.
Anthias thompsoni and Melichthys niger are most abundant and
schools of Decapteris macarellus are common (OCRI-66Tl).

OFF KAHE BEACH

Coral cover was formerly high in patches off the north end
of Kahe (Manners) Beach (OCRI-66Tl). Prior to January 1980 storm
damage, cover ranged between 10 and 60 % of the bottom off Kahe
Beach (334). Total cover is presently less than 10% (501). The
principal species is Porites lobata (-9 m). Second in abundance
is Pocillopora meandrina (501). The sea urchin, Tripneustes
gratilla, is abundant around heads of P. lobata and P. compressa.
Diadema paucispinum is abundant around heads of Pocillopora mean-
drina (OCRI-66T2).

A ledge at a depth of 50 feet (15 m) is dominated by Porites
lobata, followed by Pocillopora meandrina. Coral cover approaches
40% of the bottom. Algae are present in a low-growing mat (OCRI-
66Bl). The steep drop-off below the ledge provides relief and
large numbers of fishes are found there. The fish fauna is
diverse, totaling at least 69 species. Twenty-two of these are
common, with Chaetodon miliaris and Acanthurus thompsoni es-
pecially abundant. Among the more common species are Sufflamen
bursa, Thalassoma duperreyi, Acanthurus dussumieri, Cirrhitops
fasciatus, Chromis hanui, C. verator, Parupeneus multifasciatus,
Pseudocheilinus octotaenia, Centropyge potteri, Ctenochaetus
strigosus, Apogon sp., Melichthys vidua, Chaetodon klieni, Hola-
canthus arcuatus, and Acanthurus mata (OCRI- 66Fl).

OFF HECO POWER PLANT - OFF KAHE POINT

Algal cover is highest in nearshore areas of high
turbulence. Algal abundance increased slightly between 1979 and
1980, although diversity decreased.

A.1-32

Surveys of algae off Kahe have revealed 112 species, al-
though algae are far less abundant in terms of bottom cover than
corals. Red algal predominate. Most frequent are Lithothannion
spp.r J-an-iA Dagilla-t-Q1.1.4 spp., sp.,
Lyngbya sp., Umploca bvdnoideg, Peyssonelia, rubra, Siphagelari
2. 3KgxZ1J1.Ya.U' N-e-Qla-ex1a
annulata, Di.ctvota friabilis, and Ralfsai Pangoensis (501).

Inshore areas appear sand-scoured and are devoid of corals.
Outside the surf zone bottom relief increases and coral heads
occur on elevated limestone surfaces. Numerous dead skeletons of
M_Q2nLx1nA nearshore, along channel margins, and a-
round the outfall suggest occasional periods of unfavorable con-
ditions (probably shifting sand during infrequent storm-wave
events). - Damage due to heated effluent (prior to relocation of
the outfall) was localized (324). Corals tend to be more abundant
south of the sand channel off the Kahe power plant than north of
the channel. Prior to January 1980 storm damage, maximum coral
er above -30 feet (-10 m) was 60% (334). At present, total
cover ranges between 10 and 30% (501). Porites lobat is the most
cov

abundant species throughout the area.- Bontivora verrucosa and
p.a_t_u,1.a are locally abundant at a depth of 6 feet (2 m) off Kahe
Point. Porites f,_QLnpress is co-dominant with 2, Jobata at a depth
of 25 feet (7.5 m) directly seaward of the intake basin (42;334).

Coral coverage in the Kahe area has been decreasing since
1973 (501). An area of approximately 3.5 acres (1.4 ha) of live
coral,growth was destroyed directly or indirectly-by construction
of the offshore outfall for the Kahe plant. Further, overall de-
clines in coral coverage in the Kahe area of 7% per year during
1973 to 1975, and 13% per year from 1975 to 1977 have been
measured. The pronounced decline in coral coverage between 1975
and 1977 was believed to have resulted from disturbances associ-
ated with outfall construction and not operation of the offshore
outfall. No significant decrease in coral cover occurred between
1977 and 1978 (334). Decreases in coral cover between 1978 and
1979 approached the high values of earlier perods when thermal
effluent directly impacted on nearshore areas. However, during
no time was there any indication of a spatial relationship be-
tween coarl mortality and proximity to the Kahe outfall (501).

A large decrease in total coral cover (nearly 60%) occuired
between 1979 and 1980. The greatest coral-damage occurred on
deeper portions of the reef in areas subject to high wave energy
and rates of sand deposition during January 1980 storm. High
coral mortality also occurred north of the outfall along the
margins of a sand channel in an area of relatively low coral
cover. A large volume of sand (20 m3 per day in 1980) has been
deposited offshore of the outfall since 1976. Storm wave action
spreads sand over reef areas south of the outfall causing de-
creases in coral affected by sand resuspension and deposition
(501).

The primary cause of the dramatic coral decline off Kahe is

A.1-33

undoubtedly wave disturbance from the powerful Kona storm which
affected the area in early January 1980 (501). Following the
storm, P-,- -c-ompress fingers were almost entirely sheared off and
p-, lobata heads up to 1 m diameter were broken and overtur*ned at
intermediate depths. Little or no damage was noted in nearby
shore areas, except north of the outfall where wave energy prob-
ably penetrated through a reef channel (334).

The fish fauna in waters near the Kahe power station have
been surveyed extensively. A total of 183 species are recorded
f rom the area (42). Species per transect are usually. between 20
and 55 -- diversity (HI) ranges f rom 0.61 to 3.01 (typically
2.5)(334). Among the most common are Thalass mA duperrevi, Acan=
thurus nigrofuscus, f1=1aia,vanderbilti, Ctenochaetus strigosus,
_Chj_Qjm1a _y_Qj,.a_t_Qx, and Yani=
(125). Additional frequently. sighted species include
Canthigazter tanthinonterus, Chaetodon Lniliaria, _QL Lnulticinctus,
CirrhitOTDS fa5piatu5, ParacirrhitQs arcatus, Parupeneus Lnultifas=
ciatus, 2ervagor spiloaoma, and Sufflamen bursa (334).

Substantial decreases in reef fish populations occurred in
the reef areas most heavily impacted by the January 1980 storm.
Post-storm surveys indicate that the natural castastrophe affec-
ted the reef fish community over a much wider area than did the
Kahe outfall. Sand deposition continues to decrease the coral
reef habitat available to reef fish. Decreases in fish popula-
tion south of the outfall may continue through 1981 if sand moved
inshore during the 1980 Kona storm accummulates on the bottom.
However, recent observations indicate that sand deposited after
the storm is being washed away from some areas.

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Nearshore waters are class "A" in Department of Health water
quality regulations (189). Underwater visibility is usually very
poor (5 to 10 feet) in shallow water fronting the sand beaches.
Visibility improves only to around 25 or 30 feet offshore due to
resuspension of sediments by waves. In water deeper than 40
feet, visibility is in the range of 60 to 80 feet (OCRI;139).
However, visibility may be 100 feet or better at depths of 60
fe'et off the coast between Pili o Kahe and HECO Beach Park
(139;236).

HECO THERMAL EFFLUENT DISCHARGE

Although the design depth for the heated water used for the
cooling system of the Kahe power generating station was 27 feet
(9 m) , the present depth of discharge off Kahe Point is about 20
feet (7 m), as a result of sand deposited at the outf all. The
discharge -averages 861 mgd. The deep thermal diffuser was con-
structed to reduce the adverse effects of the heated water on
inshore reef life, especially corals. HECO initially used a
shoreline intake and outfall. The thermal plume flows west

A.1-34

southwest under most weather conditions (501). The maximum areal
extent of the.rmal alteration of surface temperatures (1.5*F;
0.830C above ambient) in 1980 was approximately 190 acres (77
ha). The zone of mixing permit was modified by the Department,of
Health in 1980 to confirm with the maximum extent of the thermal
plume (1125 acres) measured in 1976-1977 (504). In 1980, benthic
temper*atures more than 100C above ambient (the NPDES permit
limit) were limited to the immediate area of the discharged point
source and seldom impinged on reef areas (501).

There is no indication of a relationship between coral
mortality in the Kahe region and proximity to the outfall. Coral
growth experiments demonstrate no adverse effects of thermal
plume impingement (501). Thermal impingement above ambient along
the rocky shoreline at-Kahe Point does influence the composition
and distribution of littoral assemblages. The effect is not
considered adverse per se. Removal of the outfall to its offshore
location has resulted in a restoration of the algal community in
areas formerly receiving thermal discharge to a composition more
closely resembling adjacent (unaffected) areas. However, the
distribution and abundance of algal species in the immediate area
of the outfall are influenced by thermal effluent. The total
abundance of fishes near the outfall remains below pre-opera-
tional levels and the fish fauna off Kahe is influenced by proxi-
mity to the outfall. Nekton impingement by the Kahe Generating
Station is generally inconsequential (334). Most fish species
and age classes which enter the intake" basins become entrapped.
The most abundant fish in the intake forebays are Prenesus inz-um
larum and Kuhli sandvichensia (501).

STREAM DISCHARGE

Several intermittent stream channels enter the ocean between
Zablan's Beach (MAP 65) and Kahe Beach. Although these streams
only flow a few times a year following heavy rains in the
mountains, it is not unusual for nearshore waters to be dis-
colored by red sediment for sometime afterwards.

USES

NANAKULI BEACH PARK - PILI 0 KAHE BEACH

Nanakuli Beach Park is split into two sections by an area of
Hawaiian homestead land situated on a winding coastline of raised
reef. The southern section was formerly known as Pili o Kahe
Beach Park. It is connected to the former Kalanianalole Beach
Park by a narrow right-of-way along the water's edge. The entire
shoreline of the Pili o Kahe section is raised reef except for a
small sand pocket in a cove at the south end of the park (39).
This cove, called Pohakunui Beach (also "Muddy Feet") after-a
nearby street (139), is a good place for swimming when -the ocean
is calm. Sport divers regularly use the cove to gain access to
offshore waters. However, winter swells create a turbulent
shorebreak and strong currents that make the cove dangerous (39).
Body surfers ride large winter and summer waves (86).

A.1-35

Net fishing occurs off Kahe (Manners) Beach and Pili o Kahe.
Throw-netting for surgeonfishes, aholehole and other reef fishes
is practiced from the raised reef terraces that dominate the
coast toward Pili o Kahe.

KAHE (MANNERS) BEACH

The coastline behind Manners Beach is privately owned, but
the beach is accessible by following the shoreline north from
HECO Beach Park. The beach and water conditions are similar to
those at HECO Beach to the south (39).

KAHE BEACH - HECO BEACH PARK (KEONE'OIIO)

A beach park north of the power plant, although owned and
operated by HECO, is open to the general public. The wide sand
beach continues offshore as a sand bottom, and the shorebreak is
usually gentle. Nearshore waters are generally safe for swimming,
although winter swells may at times result in large waves and
attendant strong currents (39).

This coast is heavily fished, particularly at the HECO Beach
Park and areas adjacent to the power plant intake and discharge
basins. Pole fishing is the most popular method, with reef
fishes, papio, ulua, and goatfish the major catches. In
addition,, a small fishery using poles and special tackle exists
here for large awa.

KAHE BEACH PARK (BROWNS CAMP)

Kahe Beach Park is on a low terrace of raised reef south of
the HECO power plant. The area was once known as "Browns Camp"
There is no easy access to the ocean for swimming except by fol-
lowing a narrow path along the rock ledge to a small rocky cove
150 yards south of the improved park area. Swimming and diver
entries and exits are possible in this cove on calm summer daysr
but the arrival of winter swells brings potentially dangerous
surf and currents to this coast. Campers and shore fishermen use
this park (39).

OFFSHORE WATERS

The major attraction for sport divers is the rich coral
growth offshore between Pili o Kahe Beach and the HECO power
plant. Commercial dive shops run charters to the waters off
Nanakuli Beach Park. The bottom slopes gradually from shore and
the area is a good place for novice divers and snorkelers. Two
sunken airplanes lying offshore of Pili o Kahe Beach attract
SCUBA divers and dive charters organized by commercial dive
shops. Conditions for underwater photography are excellent in
deep water offshore. At distances beyond 600 feet from shorer a
strong surface current, called the "Barbers Point current", re-
quires caution by divers (139;236).

A.1-36

The surf break off the Pili o Kahe section of Nanakuli Beach
Park infrequently provides good paipo board and body surfing for
young people @86). A surf break ("Tracks") off Kahe Beach offers
consistently g-ood board and body -surfing. The shallow bottom is a
potential hazard. The small waves off Kahe Point,, although not
particularly good for board surfing, offer good paipo board and
body surfing most of the year. Sharks are sighted by surfers in
these waters, but the major conflict has been construction of a
deep thermal diffuser offshore from HECO's power plant (86).
Construction required installation of a temporary sheet piling
offshore of the facility. Shallow waters along this coast are
popular with shell collectors (375).

Spearfishing occurs off the entire coast. Ornamental fish
collecting is a major offshore fishery. Lobster (Panulirus sp.)
is trapped commercially offshore (150).

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): p. 64-5, fig. 15. 26 Compilation and
analysis of-offshore water circulation data. Additional
references.
-42 - Coles and McCain (1973): Baseline environmental conditions
preceding expansion of Kahe plant to five units and
construction of offshore outfall. Sta. 4A-10D of thirty-
nine between Manners Beach and south of Kahe Point. Water
temperature and turbidity, sedimentation, corals, micro-
molluscs, zooplankton, and fish (transects, trapping,
pathology). (034))

124 - McCain and Peck (1972): Visual fish survey transects off
Kahe Generating Station. ((42))

125 - McCain and Peck (1973): Fish surveys off Kahe Generating
Station. ((42))

137 - Marine Advisors (1964): Littoral processes (sand move-
ment), offshore -bathymetry, bottom conditions off Kahe
Point to Pili o Kahe.

168 - Richmond and Mueller-Dombois (1972): p. 386, fig. '41.9.
Transect 9 of twenty-three around Olahu in study of coast-
al plant assemblages.

324 - Jokiel and Coles (1974): 1971/72 surveys of coral coverage
and condition off (former) HECO Kahe thermal discharge.
(034))

331 - URS (1973): Impact studies for Kahe Poweb Plant discharge
on the marine environment. Summaries of environmental
baseline data.

A.1-37

334 Coles (1979a): Summary of data collected relevant to the
impact of the Kahe Generating Station on the marine en-
vironment. Description of dhe power station, temperature
studies, beach and offshore sand profiles, benthic surveys
of algae, corals, reef fishes, coral growth studies.

351 URS (1972): Survey of marine areas off Kahe Power Plant.
Water temperature, sediment distribution, beach descrip-
tion, heavy metals analyses, biological surveys including
plankton and benthos, and foraminifera distribution.
((331;334)).

376 R.M. Towill Corp. (1974, 1977a, 1977b, 1979, 1980): App.
A. Program monitoring beach profiles and offshore sand
reservoirs. Offshore sand depth and on-going beach pro-
files U to 7 of nine between Kahe Point and Kalanianalole
Beach). ((334))

381 Char and Balakrishnan (1979): Botanical survey of the 'Ewa
Plain.

500 Whang (1981): Study of Kahe Beach width over 30-year span
using aerial photographs (1949-1959, 1965-1971, 1975-
1978). Fig. IV-1, Table IV-1.

501 Coles, Fukuda, and Lewis (1981): Summary of data
collected relevant to the impact of the Kahe Generating
Station on the ma *rine environment. Description of the
power station, temperature studies, beach and offshore
sand profiles, benthic surveys of algae,....corals, reef
fishes, coral.growth studies.

502 - Stearns-Roger, Inc. (1973): Environmental impact
Assessment for expansion of the Kahe power plant to 6 gen-
erating units.

503 -Coles and Fukuda (1975): Baseline environmental condi-
tions preceeding expansion of Kahe power plant to 5 units
and construction of offshore outfall.

504 -McCain (1977): 1977 NPDES final report analyzing marine
environmental impact of Kahe offshore outfall.

505 - Hawaiian Electric Co. (1976): Interim report describing
conditions resulting from offshore outfall construction.

506 -B.K. Dynamics (1971): Marine environmental impact
analysis, Kahe Power Plant.

508 - Coles (1979b): Annual Report. Kahe Generating Station
NPDES Monitoring Program.

A. 1-38

MAP 67 - LANIKUBONUA BEACH (WEST BEACH)

(KAHE POINT, KAHE BEACH PARK, LANIKUHONUA BEACH)

- Ewa Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW, 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

'EWA PLAIN

The broad coastal plain south and east of Kahe Point to
Pearl Harbor (MAP 76) is the 'Ewa Plain, composed of emergent
reef and marine sediments deposited during a previous higher
stand of the sea (128;209). Sinkholes occur in some areas along
the coastr formed by dissolution of the limestone exposed to
fresh water. Irregular masses and abrupt ridges of fossil reef
are common (381).

KAHE POINT

The coast at and south from Kahe Point is a ledge which lies
15 to 20 feet (3 to 5 m) above sea level and is topped in places
by a rampart of-large reef boulders, presumably thrown up to this
height by exceptional storm waves. Inland from the rampart is an
old storm beach about 20 to 25 feet above present sea level,
sparsely vegetated and elevated in places by wind-blown dune sand
(244;324). The only beach along this stretch is a pebble beach
found in-a small cove south of the improved portion of Kahe Beach
Park.

LANIKUHONUA (WEST) BEACH

The coast south of Kahe Beach Park is property of the Camp-
bell Estate. This section is called Lanikuhonua, after the name
of the the nearby beach estate of the late Alice Kamokila Camp-
bell. A developer has renamed the area "West Beach". The coast is
generally similar to that around Kahe Beach Park: a terrace of
raised reef formed when sea level was higher than at present.
The platform is interrupted by three well-protected coves. Large
boulders form ramparts across the mouths of the coves, backing up
sea water in "lagoons". The waters are renewed by waves spilling
over the low, seaward ramparts. Sand beaches occur along the
heads of these coves (108). There appears to be no long-term
erosion of one of the pocket beaches at north Lanikuhonua between
1949 and 1971 (Whang, 1981). The tsunami of 1960 caused runup to
an elevation of 9 feet (3 m) at Lanikuhonua (329).

OFF KAHE POINT

A major sand channel seaward of the HECO discharge basin
(MAP 66) connects with an extensive sand body offshore. A second

A.1-39

sand channel lies offshore to the sout h. Between the channels
there is a narrow sloping shelf of limestone (334).

OFF LANIKUHONUA BEACH

A broad, submerged reef platform between Kahe Point and
Lanikuhonua has high vertical relief and little sand cover
(108;351). Within 100 m of shore, this bottom merges with an area
dominated by sand and sand-scoured limestone (water depth 2 to 3
m). Sand pockets are more common toward Kahe Point, where they
extend seaward in a broken maze that coalesces as one large sand
deposit near the 18 m depth contour. The shallow inshore portion
of the platform is pitted with potholes (to 1 m across). Seaward
are surge channels which run perpendicular to shore. -Nearshore,
channel walls rise steeply from depths of 4 to 10 m to within 2 m
of the surface. Offshore, channels are as deep as 5 m (509).
Coral rubble, mostly from Pgrites compressa heads, is conspicuous
in deep water (321). The submerged limestone shelf extends from
1800 to 4200-feet (600 to 1400 m) offshore, varying in depth
between 10 feet (3 m) near shore to only 50 feet (15 m) along the
outer edge. The shelf terminates offshore as a ledge and drop-off
that descends steeply to depths of 65 to 80 feet (20 to 25 m).
Below the drop-off the bottom consists of sand, scattered rubble,
and isolated limestone outcrops (108).

South of Lanikuhonua Beach toward Barbers Point Harbor (MAP
68), the bottom is featureless limestone often covered by a
veneer of rubble and sand in small depressions. The bottom is
strewn with occasional large limestone slabs (108;509).

FLORA AND FAUNA

KAHE POINT BEACH PARK

The rare coastal plant fAqD_ax_ia sandwichiana var. Zubaris
(maila pilo) is reported in only 2 locations in Olahu, including
Kahe Point Beach Park (510).

OFFSHORE SOUTH OF KAHE POINT

Coral growth on the submerged reef shelf off Kahe Point is
luxuriant, particularly in shallow waters fronting Kahe Point
(MAP 66)(108;324) and at depths greater than 12 feet (4 M) over
most parts of the shelf prior to a major storm in January- 1980
Cover ranged from 30 to 60 % and, in places in water below -2;
feet (-8.5 m), approached 100% cover (42;334). At present, total
cover- is between 10 and 30 % (501). - The coral assemblage is
dominated by Porites lobat .- Large heads occur nearshore,
grading to smaller heads offshore (108). Pocillgpora meandrina
is abundant and occasionally dominant in water 6 to 12 feet (2 to
4 m) deep, as well as on the deeper limestone bottom adjoining
the large sand deposit offshore (42). Numerous dead Poc, mean-
drina heads occur in some areas. -Leptastrea p_urZUx_e_a, Payon
duerdeni, and Montipora verrucos.4 are reported as common in
localized patches in shallow water and MontipQra patula is

A.1-40

locally abundant farther offshore (42). Amansia glomerata is
common in addition to the ubiquitous-species listed off Kahe (see
MAP 66)(334).

OFF LANIKUHONUA

The shallow (less than 2 m) limestone and sand covered
bottom fronting Lanikuhonua Beach-has only moderate coral cover
(13 to 18%). The dominant species is Porites lobata growing in
small encrusting or prostrate forms (509). Pocillopora meandrina
is also conspicuous. The soft coral, Palythoa tuberculosa, is
locally abundant in shallow water. At depths between 15 and 30
feet (4 to 10 m) where there are fewer sand pockets and more
bottom'relief, coral cover varies between 20 and 50% (42;108;501;
509). Although conspicuous invertebrates are not- especially
abundant, the sea urchins, Tripneustes gratill and Echinometra
mathaei, and the tubeworm, Spirobranchus sp., are common (108).
Algae are inconspicuous, except for the encrusting corraline,
Lithothamnicm sp. At least 30 fish species occur, the most
abundant being the surgeonfishes, Acanthuru-s niarofuscus,
Ctenochetus strigosus, and the wrasse, Thalassom duperrevi.
Species which are locally abundant include zebrasoma flavescens,
Melighthyes niger, and Chaetodon multicinctus (509).

Below -30 feet (-10 m), Porites compressa is dominant,
although lob ta is still very abundant. Many heads of P.,
COMpressa are broken, apparently extensively damaged by storm
waves. Macroinvertebrates are very abundant in the areas domi-
nated by P. compressa. Most common are the sea urchins, Trip-
neustes gratill Elucidaris metularia, and Echinometr mathaei.
Porolithon sp. dominates the algal assemblage, followed in abun-
dance by AmAnsia glomerata, Desmia sp., and Galaxaura sp. (108).

A diverse and abundant fish assemblage is found in associa-
tion with the lush coral bottom south of Kahe Point. In areas
dominated by P. lobat , the most abundant species-are Acanthurus
nigrofuscus and Ctenochaetus strigosus (108). Thallasoma trio-
stegus is sometimes abundant (509).- Common fishes include
Chaetodon multicinctus, Pervagor spilosoma, Parupeneus multi-
fasciatus, and Myripristis sp. Two uncommon species of butterfly-
fishes (Chaetodon ephippium and C. reticulatus) are reported
(108;509). The fish fauna is better developed around P. com-
Pressa-dominated bottoms. Ctenochaetus strigosus is most
abundant, but a variety of other species are common including
Zebrasoma flavescens, Ventropyge potteri, Chromis verator, C.
ovalis, and several smaller damselfishes (Chromis verator, C.
derbilti, and Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus). Two uncommon
reef fishes observed here are Forcipeger longirostris and Centro_-
pyge loriculus (108).

OFFSHORE SOUTH OF LANIKUHONUA BEACH

The shallow limestone bottom south of the Lanikuhonua Beach
area has coral cover varying from 9% (1,08) to 17 to 25% (509).
Porites lobAta predominates. The uncommon Montipora verrilli also

A.1-41

occurs here (509). Corals, invertebrates, an d associated fishes
are most numerous in shallow pockets or depressions in the flat
limestone bottom. Conspicuous invertebrates are moderately abun-
dant, particularly the starfish, Linckia multifora. The lace
coral, Triphylozoon hirsutum is reported as common. Thalassom
duprerreyi, Chromis vanderbilti, and Ctenochaetus strigosus domi-
nate a moderately abundant assemblage of fishes. The hawkfish,
Paracirrhites arcatus, is abundant.'Halimeda discoidea, Amansia
glomerata, and Martensia sp. are the most frequently observed
algae on the flat limestone surface (108). At least 26 species
of fish inhabit shallow waters (2 m). - Most abundant are the
surgeonfishes, Ctenochaetus strigosus-and Acanthurus nigrofuscus,
the wrasse, Thalassom duperreyi, and the damselfish, Stegastes
fascialatus.

Numerous green-sea turtles are reportedly present at depths
between 30 and 50 feet south of Lanikuhouna Beach (509;511).
Coral cover is high (55 to 80%) at depths of 5 to 10 m.- Porites
lobata and Montipora Patula are the most common species. Other
macroinvertebrates are not abundant. At least 44 fish species
are recorded from this depth range. Most common are the surgeon-
fish, Acanthurus dussumieri, A. triostegus, A. nigrofuscus, A.
olivaceous,A. striciosus, Ctenoghaetus strigosus; the butterfly-
fish, Chaetodon multicinctus; the damselfishes, Abudufduf Ab-
dominalis, Chromis vAnderbilti, and Stegastes fasciolatus.

At greater depths (9 to 12 m), coral cover decreases and is
dominated by Porites lobata growing in large heads (5 m across)
which are spaced far apart. Most other species are small. A
number of commercially important fish species inhabit this area.
Spiny lobsters (Panulirus penicillarus) and slipper lobsters
(Paribaccus antarticus) are relatively common. Large P. lobata
colonies provide shelter for diverse macroinvertebrates and at
least 44 species of fishes, the most common of which are the
surgeonfishes Acanthurus nigrofuscus and Ctenochaetus strigosus,
the wrasse, Thalassoma duperreyi, and the goatfish, Parupeneus
multifasciatus.

Coral cover is low (2 to 5%) on th e sand-scoured surfaces
near the seaward edge of the limestone platform (12 to 18 m
depth). Pocilloigra meandrina is most common; poc. eydouxi is
also present. Other macroinvertebrates are rare but include the
commercially valuable Octopus Cyanea and Panulirus marginatus.
Fishes are not abundant (509).

BOTTOM BELOW -50 FEET

Fishes are numerous along the steep drop-off between -50 and
-70 feet (-15 to -25 m), but Porites lobata is the only coral and
cover is low. The starfish,Linckia multifora, is common and
commercially important invertebrates (i.e., lobster, Panulirus
sp., and octopus, Octopus cyanea) are present in moderate abun-
dance. The fish fauna is dominated by species associated with
deeper water (e.g., Chromis hanui,Chaetodon kleini, and Anthias
thomsoni). -Small jacks (ulua) frequent the area. Several

A.1-42

unusual species occur, including an unnamed Anthias sp. and
Malacanthus brevirostKis (108).

WATER QUALITY

NEARSHORE WATERS

Nearshore waters are classified "An in Department of Health
water quality regulations (189). Water clarity is generally
excellent, and coastal waters may be described as pristine, well-
flushed and minimally affected by terrestrial runoff. Storm
events no doubt increase runoff into coastal waters (509).
Underwater visibility is quite variable, depending on surge and
possibly tidal currents. Average visibility is reported as 55
feet (17 m)(108).
USES KAHE POINT BEACH ,PARK

Pole fishermen are the primary users of the long shoreline
of raised reef and especially at Kahe Point Beach Park (formerly
known as "Brown's Camp"). The only easy access to the ocean for
recreational swimming -or diving is at the back of a small cove
south of the improved park. Campers frequent the backshore area
of Kahe Point Beach Park (39). Although nearshore waters are
usually safe, water conditions-become hazardous when southwest or
northwest swells bring high surf to this coast (108).

LANIKUHONUA - WEST BEACH

There is no public access to the Campbell beach estate south
of Kahe Point Beach Park and access to the shoreline is difficult
(except at the "lagoons") because of an elevated reef rock forma-
tion. Limited shoreline access is possible from the north by
following the shoreline from Kahe Beach Park and by following
canefield roads which can be entered through locked gates for
which certain plantation emloyees may obtain keys. The most
commonly used entrance is the road to Campbell barge harbor from
the south. However, this section of coast is presently under-
going development.

Limited access to the Lanikuhonua Beach section of coast
reduces fishing activity. Pole fishing is the predominant fish-
ing method along the coast south of Kahe Point, with reef species
as the main catch. The shoreline is noted as a good area for moi.
Throw-net fishermen visit the raised reef shoreline. Swimming in
the "lagoons" along the shore is popular with young people be-
cause of the protection provided by the outer rock walls (39).

OFFSHORE - KAHE POINT TO LANIKUHONUA

Diving conditions in the waters off Kahe Point and south
past Lanikuhonua Beach are excellent throughout most of the year.
Commercial dive shops run advanced SCUBA classes and charters in

A.1-43

the waters off Kahe Beach Park. This area is being considered as
a marine life conservation district because of the lush coral
growth offshore (206). Although inshore waters are usually very
safe, currents are predominantly tidal and can be strong in deep
water. Novice divers should use caution beyond 200 yards from
shore (108;236). Spearfishermen find an abundance of fish around
the coral bottom offshore, as well as along the face of the drop-
off below -50 feet (-15 m).. Squidding is undertaken and lobster
(Eanulirus sp.) are trapped commercially in deep water (150).
Pole fishing from boats is common offshore.

Surf breaks offshore of the Brown's Camp section (south of
Kahe Point) and Lanikuhonua offer good board and belly-board
surfing potential in the winter but are rarely used because of
poor access (86). Shallow water off this coast is noted for shell
collecting (375).

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 -Bathen (1978): p. 65, fig. 15. Compilation and analysis of
offshore water circulation data. Additional references. - 1
42 -Coles and McCain (1973): Sta. 1A-4B of thirty-nine between
Manners Beach and-south of Kahe Point. Data on water temp-
erature and turbidity, sedimentation, corals, micromol-
luscs, zooplankton, and fish (transects, trapping, path-
ology). (034))

108 Kimmerer and Durbin (1975):, p. 51-56, figs. 16, 17,
various tables and graphs- Averaged results of benthic
survey transects in five zones offshore of Kahe Beach Park
and Lanikuhonua. Substratum types, corals, macroinverte-
brates, fishes. Area use considerations.

137 Marine Advisors (1964): Littoral processes (sand move-
ment), offshore -bathymetry, bottom conditions off Kahe
Point.

321 URS (1972): Survey of marine areas off Kahe Power Plant.
Water-tempL@rature, sediment distribution, beach descrip-
tion, heavy metals analyses, biological surveys including
plankton and benthos, and foraminifera distribution.
(031)).

334 Coles (1979): Summary of data collected relevant to the
impact -of the Kahe Generating Station on the marine en-
vironment. Description of the power station, temperature
studies, benthic surveys of algae, corals, reef fishes.

351 - URS (1973): Impact studies for Kahe Power Plant discharge
on the marine environment. Summaries of environmental
baseline data. (034))

500 - Whang (1981): Study of Lanikuhonua Beach width over 30-
year span using aerial photographs.

A.1-44

509 - Bienfang and Brock (1980): Quantitative benthic sampling
to a depth of 18 m at stations 4-6, 8, 11-17 (of seven-
teen). Measurement of 8 water quality parameters at sta-
tions 2-6, 8-9 (of nine).
510 - Tabata, in press: The native coastal flora of 0'ahu,
Hawaili.
511 - Ad Hoc Committee on the Advancement of OTEC for Hawaii
(1980):

A.J@-45

MAP 68 - BARBERS POINT HARBOR

(BARBERS POINT BARGE HARBOR, CAMPBELL INDUSTRIAL PARK)

- Ewa Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW, 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

BARBERS POINT'HARBOR

Barbers Point Harbor (Campbell Barge Harbor, Malakole Har-
bor) is a 9-acre body of water which *was quarried out of the
raised reef that forms the broad 'Ewa plain (see MAP 67). Boul-
ders accumulated around the perimeter of the harbor as a result
of the dredging form a rubble slope of considerable relief at
depths of 15 to 20 feet (5 to 7 m). The central harbor basin, 25
feet (8 m) deep, is covered by a 2-f oot layer of mud. The harbor
experiences considerable wave surge (322).

OFF BARBERS POINT HARBOR

A flat pavement of consolidated reef rock extends from shore
to a depth of about 20 feet (7 m). The limestone bottom increases
in relief below -25 feet (-8 m) as a result of patches of dead
and living coral. At around -30 feet (-10 m) there is a ledge
above a steep-sloping limestone cliff that drops 12 to 15 feet (4
to 5 m) to accumulated rubble talus over a limestone surface
thinly covered by sand. Beyond -45 feet (-15 m) there is a
gradually sloping bottom of thick sand deposits, interrupted by
.patches of rubble and occasional large boulders (322).

Directly seaward of the harbor entrance is a rubble bottom
created by channel dredging and extending to a depth of about 26
feet (8 m). Beyond the marked channel, the limestone bottom has
generally-high relief and is veneered by small, scattered patches
of sand and rubble (322). A small area north of the barge harbor
is differentiated from the rest of the bottom by the presence of
winding ridges of dead coral (2ol
,1_t_e.a which project
vertically about 1 m and are between 2 and 10 m- in width. The
ridges, which lie between 80 to 170 m offshore, are seperated by
depressions 1 to 5 m in width (509).

FLORA AND FAUNA -

COASTAL PLAIN

The 'Ewa Plain harbors a type of brackish water environment
termed "anchialine" -- pools fed by ground water in highly perme-
able limestone strata. In this area the pools occur in sinkholes
near the coast. Fossil evidence of prehistoric, flightless birds
(now extinct) has been recovered from one sinkhole near the

A.1-46

harbor. Populations of a small, red shrimp (Halocaridina rubra)
occur in the anchialine pools (379).

Several coastal strand plants proposed as endangered species
are found growing in undeveloped areas in the vicinity of Barbers
Point Harbor. Achyranthes splendens var. rotu datum is present
on military lands south of the harbor.
var. kalaeloana,once thought to be extinct, is found in three
major colonies the proposed harbor expansion area. The largest
colony is located along the margin of a limestone quarry near the
barge harbor. Gossypium sandvicense occurs with the other spe-
cies in kiawe forest areas (379;381). Plans are underway to
propagate the rare variety of Euphorbia in other areas.

NORTH OF BARBERS POINT HARBOR

Coral cover averages 6% in shallow waters (2 to 3 m) north
of the barge harbor. Porites lobata is most abundant. The sea
urchins,Echinometra mathaei and e oblongata are conspicuous.
At least 17 species of fish are present, the most common being
the surgeonfishes, Acanthurus nigrofuscus, A.triostegus, Naso
unicor is, and the damselfish, Chromis vanderbilti (509).

At greater depths (9 m), coral cover is variable, ranging
from 23 to 65%. Porites lobata is most abundant, followed by P.
compressa. At least 45 fish species occur, the most abundant
being the surgeonfish, Acanthurus nigrofuscus, Ctenochaetus stri-
gosus, and Zebrasoma flavescens; the damselfish, Chromis vander-
bilti, Stegastes fasciolatus, and Plecrtoglyphodon johnstonianus;
the wrasse, Thalassoma duperreyi; and the goatfish, Parupeneus
multifiasciatus.

Coral cover ranges between 16 and 30% near the seaward edge
of the limestone platform (15 m depth).Porites lobata is most
common, and the deep water button coral, Cycloseris vaughani is
present. Other macroinvertebrates are locally abundant, particu-
larly the sea urchin, Echinostrephus aciculatum. The fish fauna
consists of at least 23 species (509).

A small area distinguished by winding ridges of dead coral
is overgrown by encrusting coralline algae. Live coral cover
ranges from 28 to 57%. Porites lobata is most common. P. ever-
manni, P. pukoensis, P. compressa, and Montipora patula are
locally abundant. At least 23 species of fish inhabit the area.
Only Acanthurus nigrofuscus, thalassoma duperreyi, and Stegastes
fasciolats are common (509).

BARBERS POINT HARBOR

The upper 2 meters of the harbor's quarried walls supports a
well developed algal turf. Corals occur on the rubble slope
around the harbor margin at depths of 15 to 20 feet (5 to 7 m).
Total cover is 8 to 16 %. Small colonies of Pocillopora dami-
Cornis and Montipora verrucosa are the most prevalent species.
Cyphastrea ocellina is the most common species on boulders in the

A.1-47

more silted In general, coral colonies inside the
harbor tend to be larger than those on limestone substratum
outside the harbor (322).

The abundance of filter -feeding invertebrates such as tuni-
cates, sabellid worms, sponges, vermitids, and oysters increases
with the degree of protection and siltation in the harbor.
Numerous sea urchins (especially Echinometra mathaei) are present
on the harbor walls and ophiuroids are common. However, no con-
spicuous macroinvertebrates are seen on the mud floor of the
harbor (322).

Thirty-five species of fish are recorded from inside the
harbor, but the assemblage is dominated by juveniles, especially
those of Thalassoma duperreyi, stethojulis balteata, and Stegas-
tes fasciolatus (322).

OFF BARBERS POINT HARBOR

The limestone pavement extending from shore has coral cover
ranging from 8 to 20 %. Where bottom relief increases below -25
feet (-8 m), corals are more abundant and bottom cover ranges
f rom 25 to- 46 %. Along a ledge at -30 feet (-10m) coral cover
is around 9 to 20 % of the bottom, decreasing to 6-10 % on the
face of an adjacent escarpment. Coral cover on the sand and
rubble plain below the submarine cliff is generally less than 2%,
although corals are locally abundant in the centers of large
rubble patches. The dredged channel entering Campbell Harbor has
very sparse coral cover (less than 1%). In all locations,Por-
ites lobata is the dominant species, ocurring in very large
heads in areas of high relief. Montipora spp. are also very
common. The soft coral, Anthelia edmondsoni, is abundant on the
pavement south of the barge harbor. The sea urchin,
mathaei, is common throughout the area, but is most numerous on
high-relief. bottoms and on the rubble bottom created by channel
dredging at the entrance to Campbell Harbor (322).

An abundance of fishes occurs along the ledge and over the
coral-rich bottom below -25 feet. Some 65 species are recorded
from these areas compared to 34 species associated with the flat
limestone bottom in shallow water and only 17 species associated
with the rubble bottom entrance channel. The most numerous
species in these waters are Chromis vanderbilti, thalassoma
duperreyi, Acanthurus nigrofuscus, A. nigroris, Pervagor spilo-
soma, Crenochaetus strigosus, and Stefastes fasciolatus, At
least 57 species are found near the base of the drop-off at -45
feet (-15 m), but this fish assemblage is associated with large
boulders strewn on the otherwise featureless bottom. Pseudo-
juloides cerasinus, Pervagor spilosoma, and Chromis vanderbilti
are most abundant (322).

OFF CAMPBELL INDUSTRIAL PARK

A lengthy list of fish species is recorded in waters to
depths of 85 feet (26 m) offshore of Campbell Industrial Park.

A.1-48

Inshore waters no deeper than 5 feet have a fish fauna generally
dominated by sand-bottom species. Mugil cephalus, Neomyxus
leuciscus, Acanthurus triostegus, Polydactilus sexfilis, Stetho-
julis balteata, and Kuhlia sandvicensis are most abundant from a
list of 41 species. Although fishes are less abundant offshore
at depths between 15 and 55 feet (5 to 17 m), a fairly diverse
fauna totaling at least 53 species-is present.Acanthurus trio-
stegus, Myripristis sp., Adioryx xantherythrus, and Apogon Kal-
lopterus are common species. At depths of 70 to 85 feet (21 to 26
m), the fish assemblage totals 53 recorded species, but these are
deeper water forms, such as Sufflamen bursa, Cantherbines vere-
cundus, and Canthigaster jactator (323).
WATER QUALITY
BARBERS POINT HARBOR

Water quality deteriorates rapidly approaching Barbers Point
Harbor, where groundwater influence on coastal water is evident.
Turbid waters occurring nearsbore can be observed moving north
from the industrial park area during ebbing tide conditions
(509). Present DOH water quality regulations designate Barbers
Point (Campbell) Harbor waters as class "B" (189).Proposed
revisions to these regulations promulgated in accordance with
"208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management" planning would reclass-
ify the harbor as a class "A" embayment, and the bottom subtype
would be "artificial basin" (307). Water quality in the harbor
is generally good as a consequence of the excellent flushing
characteristics of the basin and infrequent barge traffic. Low
salinity groundwater flowing through the porous limestone of the
'Ewa Plain seeps through the walls of the harbor and a constant
seaward surface flow is present. Springs carry nutrient-enriched
tailwaters from upland canefield irrigation, although the rapid
dilution minimizes biostimulatory impacts. Barge traffic stirs
up soft bottom sediments, but the rapid flushing dissipates the
turbidity within a tidal cycle (322).

NEARSHORE WATERS

Coastal waters are classified "A" in DOH water qualidy
regulations (189). Chevron Refinery discharges 4.24 mgd of indus-
trial wastewater into the waters west of Barbers Point (186).
Nutrient-enriched ground water flowing from irrigated sugar cane
fields on the 'Ewa Plain seeps into the ocean through the walls
of Barbers Point Harbor (322). Drainage from a feedlot operation
in the industrial park may be a source of nutrient-laden runoff.

USES

BARBERS POINT HARBOR

Barbers Point (Cambell) Harbor, quarried into the plain of
emergent reef rock, is primarily a privately-owned barge harbor
serving Campbell Industrial Park. Fishing boats use the harbor
to some extent and it serves as an emergency refuge for small

A.1-49

boats during -stormy weather. Use of the private barge harbor and
launching ramp by fishermen is restricted to permit holders.
Enlargement of the basin and other construction is proposed that
would convert the present harbor into a deep-draft port. Bait-
fish are collected in the harbor. Fishing activity is heavy
around the harbor, especially around the pier and entrance chan-
nel. A permit from the Campbell Estate is required. The pre-
dominant method employed is pole fishing and ulua, papio, ahole-
hole, 'olio, goatfish, surgeonfish, and snapper are the primary
targets.

SHORELINE

The raised reef shoreline south of the harbor i s recommended
as a nature study area for public schools (332). Access to the
shoreline is somewhat limited but possible via tracks leading off
the main highway through Malakole Military Reservation. The barge
harbor provides the best access to the ocean shore along Malakole
Military Reservation and Kamokila Campbell Estate. Fishing acti-
vity is light to moderate along most of the coast, except at the
barge harbor where fishing is heavy. Shorecasting for reef fishes
occurs along the coast but it is limited by access and diminishes
in intensity away from the barge harbor. Some throw-netting
occurs near the harbor.

OFFSHORE

A surf break offshore Camp Malakole has excellent potential
for board and paipo-board surfing but it is seldom surfed because
of the restrictions on access along this sectio.n'of coast. The
rocky shoreline poses a potential hazard (86).

Spearfishing and net fishing are infrequent in these waters.
Pole fishing is undertaken from boats in offshore waters. Commer-
cial trapping for lobster is carried out in the area of the
offshore drop-off and ledges (150). octopus are caught in deep
water. The area around the outer margin of the submerged reef, at
depths between -20 and -50 feet, is regarded as excellent for
shell collecting (375).

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): p. 65, figs. 15 & 26. Compilation and
analysis of offshore water circulation data. Additional
references.

117 Long (1972): Site 2 of three off leeward coast of Olahu in
fouling study using test panels suspended beneath a buoy
in 108 feet (33 m) of water, 1.3 km. offshore, from March
1969 to May 1972.-((65))

A.1-50

322 - ECI (1975): Water quality, water circulation, salinity,
-temperature, and benthic transects (corals, macroinverte-
brates, fishes) in and offshore of Barbers Point Barge
Harbor in October 1975.

341 - Kimura and Nagata (1979): Description of strand vegeta-
tion.

380 - Herbst (1976): app. B-2. Terrestrial vegetation survey.

381 - Char and Balakrishnan (1979): Botanical survey of the 'Ewa
Plain.

509 - Bienfang and Brock (1980): Quantitative benthic sampling
to a depth of 18 m at stations 1-3, 9-10 (of seventeen).
Measurements of 8 water quality parameters at stations -1
and 7 (of nine).

.A.1-51

MAP 69 - BARBERS POINT (KALAELOA)

(BARBERS POINT, BARBERS POINT BEACH PARK)

- Ewa Quadrangle
- POD, 1:6000 BW, 1:

PHYSIOGRAPHY

COASTLINE

The shoreline passing around Barbers Point (Kalaeloa) is
almost entirely a shelf of solution-pitted emergent limestone.
(Also MAP 66). The 1946 tsunami caused run-up to 12 feet at
Barbers Point- (329).

OF F BARBERS POINT

The bottom offshore is a submerged reef extending 1,500 to
2,000 feet (450 to 600 m) before dropping through a series of
terraces to deep water. The reef is predominantly consolidated
limestone with scattered potholes and sand pockets. In deep
water, rubble slopes bank against the lower portions of steep
dropoffs. The nearly level terraces are sand with scattered
patches. of rubble (323).

FLORA AND FAUNA

'EWA COASTAL PLAIN

A coastal strand vegetation, characterized by a shrub form
of Myoporum sandwicense (naio), capparis sandwichiana var.
Zoharvi (maiopilo), Chenopodium oahuens var. rotundatae, and
Achyranthes splendens probably once occupied much of the coastal
plain around Barbers Point. Today this vanishing assemblage is
found on a few acres behind the lighthouse and in scattered
locations in the industrial area (113;341). Rare or endangered
plants found here include Euphorbia scottsburgii var. kalaeloana ,
Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata, myoporum sandwicense var.
stellatum (recommended for endangered species designation),
Eragrostis paupera, and scaevola coriacea (380;381;401). Other
strand species present are Sesuvium protulacstrum ('akulikuli),
Lycium sandwicense ('ohelo kai), and Fimbristylis pycnocephala
(381). Barbers Point is one of two locations from which the rare
Capperis sandwichiana var. Zoharyi is reported (510).

OFF BARBERS POINT (WEST)

Pocillopora sp.,Porites sp., and Montipora spp. are re-
ported to be the more common species of corals off Barbers Point.
Cover is sparse (323).

A.1-52

WATER QUALITY'

NEARSHORE WATERS

Coastal waters are rated "A" in Department of Health water
quality regulations (189). The Chevron Refinery discharges 4.24
mgd of industrial wastewater west of Barbers Point (186).
Hawaiian Milling Corp. has a DOH permit for emergency discharge
of stormwater runoff (309). The Hawaiian Independent Refinery
treats refinery wastes-via-an oxidation pond system and disposes
of the treated water in an injection well. Some cesspools are
present along the coast (219). Nutrient-enriched ground water
from upland sugar cane fields seeps into coastal waters through
springs in the porous raised reef that forms the 'Ewa coastal
plain (322).
USES BARBERS POINT - 'EWA .PLAIN

The coastal plain north and east of Barbers Point is occu-
pied by Campbell Industrial Park. A lighthouse is located at the
Point.

BARBERS POINT - BARBERS POINT BEACH PARK

Access to much of the shoreline around Barbers Point is
difficult because of the industrial park occupying the coastal
plain. Although far from Farrington Highway, Barbers Point Beach
Park is a point of access used mostly by fishermen. Because of
limited access, fishing activity is light along most of this
coast - Barbers Point Beach Park being the exception. Pole
fishing is the predominant fishing type, although some throw-net
fishing and spearfishing occur off the shore.

Barbers Point Beach Park is a poor swimming area: the only
sand shore is a short stretch located west of the park. Inshore
waters are generally safe during the summer months, but occa-
sional southwest swells cause high surf and dangerous currents in
the winter (39). Consistent surf breaks offshore of the oil
refinery and cement plant in the industrial park offer good
surfing. The rocky shore is a potential hazard and use is
limited by poor access (86).

OFF BARBERS POINT

Divers, particularly spearfishermen, frequent offshore
waters. The main attraction is an abundance of fish associated
with deep ledges and drop-offs. Generally sparse coral cover and
a flat, featureless bottom near shore provide few attractions for
recreational diving.

Pole fishing for reef fishes offshore is undertaken from
boats. Steep drop-offs harbor lobster which are trapped commer-
cially in this area (150). Octopus are also caught in deep water

A.1-53

from boats.

A restricted anchorage has been established offshore for
exclusive use of tanker vessels unloading oil through a submarine
pipeline to Campbell Industrial Park.

STUDIES AND SURVEYS

16 - Bathen (1978): 64-6, figs. 15 & 26. Compilation and
analysis of-offshore water circulation data. Additional
references.

168 - Richmond and Mueller-Dombois (1972): p. 387, figs. 1, 2 &
8. Transect 8 of twenty-three around Olahu in study of
coastal plant assemblages.

323 Industrial Bio-test Laboratoriest Inc. (1972): Currentsil
water chemistry, zooplankton, chlorophyll a,- algae (in-
cluding solution bench samples), invertebrates (littoral
and sublittoral), and fishes. Observations made mostly in
Nov.-Dec. 1971 and April 1972 off proposed refinery site.

341 Kimura and Nagata (1979): Description of strand vegeta-
tion.

380 Herbst (1976): app. B-2. Terrestrial vegetation survey.
38.1 Char and Balakrishnan (1979): Botanical survey of the 'Ewa
Plain.

510 Tabata (in press):, The native coastal flora of 0'ahu,
Hawai'i.

A.1-54

RAU 2,- LITERATURE REVI DE M PHYSICAL, CHEMICA AM
BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHI RARAMETERS PERTINENT M OTE
DEVELOPMEN AT KAH POINT, OAHU

OFFSHORE PHYSIOGRAPHY

General bathymetry of the Kahe OTEC region is described in

Pararas-Carayannis (1965). Water depth increases gradually to

approximately one mile offshore, where depths reach 100 to 200 m

(330 to 650 feet). Depth then increases rapidly, as a relatively

steep scarp extends down to about 500m (1,600 feet) at about 1.5

miles from shore. Beyond the 500m depth, the bottom slope of the

Lualualei Shelf is more gradual, increasing 100m with every 0.4

to 0.5 mile increment of distance from the shore.

Two submarine shelves, the Lualualei Shelf (-1,200 to -1,800

feet) and the Waho Shelf (-3,000 to -3,600 feet) are apparently

present further offshore. The Lualualei shelf is about one mile

in width. A moderate slope drops down to the Waho Shelf at about

-3,000 feet depth, approximately 3.5 miles offshore (Graf, 1980).

Sediment thicknesses of 250-300 feet have been reported for the

Lualualei Shelf (Stearns, 1974), and similar thicknesses are

likely on the Waho Shelf (Graf, 1980).

From just north of Kahe Point to about one mile south of

Maile Point, a depth of 914 m (3,000 f eet) is reached approxi-

mately 3 miles from shore. North and south of this area,

greater distances are required to reach this depth.

The characteristics of the bottom have not been described

beyond a depth of 100 feet. However, the Kahe area is likely to

be similar to the offshore area between Kepuhi Point and Kalena

Point. Here, nearly level plateaus at depths of 20-30 m and 120-

A.2-1

150 m are connected by a steep escarpment. In the Kepuhi-Ka'ena

area, the escarpment is penetrated by numerous wide sand channels

that grade from one terrace to the other. The amount of offshore

sand increases markedly toward the southern end of the Kepuhi-

Kalena area, because of the southerly offshore transport of sand

from nearshore beach systems. A similar southerly and seaward

transport of sand from the Malili-Kahe littoral cell is believed

to result in thick sand deposits seaward of Kahe. Sand bodies at

depths between 100 and 300 feet (30 to 100 m) have been surveyed

using a seismic reflection technique. Sand is widespread in the

depth interval between 120 and 180 feet (40 and 60 m) and covers

virtually the entire bottom in the 180 to 300 foot (60 to 100 m)

depth range. Interpretation of seismic penetration of' sediment

resulted in an estimate of 85 million cubic yards of sand off-

shore of the coast between Malili Point and Barbers Point. Near-
ly half of this sand volume is in the 120' to 180 foot (40 to 60

m) depth range (Campbell, et. al., 1970).

WAVES, TIDES AND CURRENTS

Kahe is located approximately 20 miles from the Honolulu

tidal station for which NOAA publishes daily predictions. Water

elevation measurements made by HECO at the intake structure of

the Kahe generating station indicate that Honolulu daily tidal

predictions are adequate for the Kahe area (see Table 1).

Characteristics of the wave climate off Kahe have been

described by Marine Advisors (1964). Breaking wave roses derived

from a typical year are reproduced as Figure 2. Waves from the

A.2-2

TABLE 1. Tidal data for the Kahe Po int area.

Location Position Differences Ranges Mlean
Lat. L Time .1,,.Height Mean Ul- ILevel
u.-nat-
H--W. I L-11

r
0 0 h.m. h.m. Feet Feet eet
lorthl Vlest
Honolulu 21-*18 157-52: Daily Pr Idictions 1.2 1.9 0.8
Waianae 21-27. j-58-12!+O 18 +0 15 0.0 0.0 1.2 1.8 0.8

Kahe
(interpolation) 21-22 158-,08k+0 12 +0 10 0.0 0.0 11.2 1.8 0.8

Kahe
jobscrvations 0 30 +0.2 - 2.0.
Kahe 0 00 0 00 +0.1 0.0 1.2 1.9 0.8
(suqqcsted)

A.2-3

N
0
30 20
FREOUENCY OF. OCCURRENCE'(%1 C A 7P
D
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50
WINTER E
WAVE HEIGHT
(feel)
NAO-@
C S A < 1.0
8 1.0-.1.9

C 2.0-3.9

D 4.0-5.9

E 6.0-7.9

F 8.0-9.9

G 10.0-11-9

N H 12.0-13.9

FREOUENC'@ OF OCCURRENCE
70 60% 50 40 30 20 10 8,1 SUMMER E

S S

... FIGURE 2. Breaking wave roses at Kahe for typical year.' (Note:... There is no fixed
correspondence between the black-white scheme and the wave height
C

groups. Each ray begins with,.black at the central circle, regardless of
whether the initial height group is A, B, C, etc. ; thereafter black and
White alternate continuously along the ray regardless of whether all height
groups arc prescnt or not. Lcttcrs along, or at the end of, the ray
@cajMc @enjW h@t g@s @ent@11;lMy.)IIJWm Ve JW,e@ftJ96jom

west and west-southwest prevail during the winter months, when
waves reach their greatest heights. Predominant wave heights are

one to three feet. During the summer, wave direction shifts to

the southwest to south-southwest sector, and wave height dimi-

nishes. The predominant wave directions are responsible for

longshore transport toward the north in summer and toward the

south in winter (Marine Advisors, 1964).

Breaker heights of summer, tradew ind-gene rated waves are

small. Breaker heights of other wave types ("Kona" storms,, North

Pacific swell) are reduced at the shoreline because Malili Point

and Barbers Point act as wave barriers. However, the breaker

line further offshore may attain heights of six feet during storm

wave conditions (Marine Advisors, 1964).

Characteristics of the wave climate off Barbers Point have

been studied by A.H. Glenn and Associates. Wave height frequen-

cies from eight octants were measured for four months. These

measurements and a summary of annual conditions for Barbers Point

are reported in Conoco-Dillingham (1972).

General directions and characteristics of currents in the

Kahe OTEC area have been summarized by Bathen (1978), using data

from a variety of sources (Engineering Science, et al, 1971;

Wyrtkij et al, 1967, 1969; Laevastu, et al, 1964; Bathen, 1973;

Conoco-Dillingham, 1972).

Discontinuity in the available data is caused by variations

in investigators' techniques and conditions under which observa-

tions were made. The general impression is that currents can be

highly variable depending upon specific location or season. Cur-

rents are generally weak along the leeward coast of 01ahu, except

A.2-5

near Barbers Point and Kalena Point. Variations are particularly

evident at locations where the influence of bottom topography,

eddies, and longshore currents become important. Off Barbers

Point, velocities up to 0.8 knots have been measured and larger

velocities have been reported.

From approximately 500 feet offshore of Kahe, circulation is

quite uniform in velocity and depends mainly on tidal-induced

currents and wave-driven ocean currents. The current component

induced by tidal exchange is consistent, going to the south on a

flood tide and to the north on an ebb tide (Marine Advisors,

1964).

In contrast to this deepwater pattern of tidally induced

currents, Leis (1978) found the opposite pattern for tidal cur-

rents within 500 feet of the Kahe shoreline. Currents on,falling

tides set to the south and southwest toward Barbers Point and

reversed northward toward Malili point with rising tide during

March - September or at time of high tide during October

February. Inshore current velocities were substantially greater

than offshore and were maximal during summer months (median = 1.9

knots). Opposing patterns of tidally induced currents for off-

shore and nearshore areas indicate an eddy system of flow rever-

sal to be present off Kahe (Leis, 1978).

Superimposed on tidal effects on currents are the effects of

wind and wave action. A shallow layer of surface water generally

moves in the direction of the wind, but mass transport in the

direction of propogation by waves also causes surface water

motion. In the absence of strong winds, currents tend to flow

A.2-6

generally parallel with the bottom contours (Marine Advisors,

1964).

Currents in the littoral zone at Kahe are basically related

to wave action and wave-approach to shore. However, the inter-

mediate area between the littoral and deep zones can be affected

by either current source or only one. At times when tidal

changes are extreme and waves are slightj the water movement in

the intermediate zone is induced largely by deepwater currentsr

but when the tidal change is small, the intermediate littoral

zone is dominated by the wave regime (Marine Advisorsr 1964).

The general current pattern and velocities shown in Figure

3a represent those observed under different tidal actions and

when the wave approach is from the southwest quadrant. Patterns

Linder these conditions were somewhat irregular, depending on the

wave and wind conditions. When currents were slight, there were

several small rip currents, where surface water flowed seaward

for several hundred feet. These seaward-flowing currents are

generally quite narrow (100 to 150 feet wide) but they shift

laterally along the shore several hundred feet during the day.

Sometimes these rip currents were also found off small protru-

sions from the beach and off the coolant water discharge.

Figure 3b shows the current pattern and velocities under

different tidal conditions when the wave approach is from the

northwest quadrant. Velocities vary greatly, from less than 0.1

to 0.5 knots, and depend upon meteorological conditions. Cur-

rents up to 0.5 knots were measured when wind gusts reached 25

mph and waves with periods of between six and eight seconds and

heights of three to five feet approached from the northwest. In

A.2-7

M,- J,

RIO
R5 A4 R5. R6 R? AS
CURRENT PATTERN AND VELOCITIES
WAVE APPROCH FROM THE
SOUTHWEST

20 --------------

Z5
010

At
RZ RIO
R3 R4 R5 R16 R7. AS R9 CURRENT PATTERN AND VELOCITIES
LEGENO WAVE APPROCH FROM THE
I June 3
NORTHWEST JUNE 3.4,1964
-cA Jun6 4
b

20'

12'
114

CITIES
A @l
RI

MAY 20,1964

c
WINI)
NWICM 3MCu@t Wte@anaWlCNWY **hegWe =a. NWr4=AdjWrsvjWl4j=

contrast, when there was almost no wind and waves were only one

to two feet highr currents set ting so uthwest were less than 0.1

knot.

Figure 3c represents the currents observed when the wind was

blowing offshore with gusts up to 25 mph and the wave approach

seemed to be parallel with the central portion of the beach. The

wave approach to the beach formed an open angle to the northwest

towards HECO Beach park and an open angle to the south towards

Kahe Park. The current pattern consequently was somewhat dif-

ferent that no ted at other times; currents set northwest and

offshore from the intake basin to HECO Beach Park, but currents

set offshore and to the south from the basin to the Kahe Beach

Park bath house (Marine Advisors, 1964).

CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY

The presently available oceanographic information relevant

to an OTEC plant in the Kahe area has been divided into two

groups. The first group has been termed "site specific"; while

not necessarily specific to the actual proposed OTEC 10/40 site

(roughly three miles offshore of the Kahe generating station),

the site specific area has been defined as that area bounded by

lines perpendicular to the shoreline at Pokai Bay and Barbers

Point, and extending to 5 miles offshore. The 1000 m contour

occurs roughly at this 5 mile boundary. Studies which occurred

wholly or partly within this potential OTEC area are considered

"site specif ic."

A larger body of information exists for areas outside the

potential OTEC area described above. Because the offshore

A.2-9

oceanographic realm is relatively uniform physically, chemically

and biologically, these studies, while not specific to the OTEC

site, are still of use in establishing baseline environmental

conditions in a general sense. These studies have been termed

"Hawaiian"; the majority of these studies however, have been done

around Oahu.

Sitp Sipecific Studies

The major (in fact, only) source of offshore site specific

chemical and biological oceanographic information for the OTEC

10/40 potential area has been genera ted by a project funded by

the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (University of California) - the

Olahu OTEC Environmental Benchmark Survey (Noda et. al., 1981).

This baseline environmental study consisted of a series of six

oceanographic cruises over a 1 year period from May 1980 to May

1981. Two sampling sites were visited: one site was approxi-

mately 5 miles offshore from the Kahe generating station. The

other site was located approximately 5 miles offshore from Maili

Point, to the north of Kahe. On each cruise, a series of three

hydrocasts were- made at each station collecting water samples

from 13 depths between the surface and lrOOO m. Water from these

samples was analyzed for dissolved nutrients (nitrate-nitriter

ammonium, phosphate, and silicate), total nitrogen, phosphorus,

and carbon, dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH and alkalinity. Water

samples from the upper 150 m were also used for analysis of

primary productivity, plant pigment concentrations and levels of

ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

A.2-10

Net tows for zooplankton and larval fish were taken at both

stations. Surface tows were made with a surface sampling neuston

ne t. Subsurface oblique tows covering four depth intervals (0-

25, 25-200, 200-600, 600-1,000 m) were taken with an opening-

closing plankton net. Zooplankton samples were analysed for

species composition and abundance, and biomass (dry weight, ash-

free dr, weight, carbon and nitrogen).
Y

The remaining oceanographic studies which have been done

within the site specific area have been for the most part biol-

ogical in natu re. All have been done in the near-shore area. A

series of studies centered around the Kahe generating station and

extending not more than one mile offshore concentrated on the

vertical and horizontal distribution of larval fish and the

possible effects of the generating station on these animals

(Leis, 1978; Leis and Miller, 1976; Miller, 1974; 1978). Two

zooplankton studiesr also related to the Kahe station and also

nearshore, have been done (Environmental Consultants, 1974;

Ziemann, 1977). The objective of these two studies was to deter-

mine the effects of entrainment through the Kahe station on

resident zooplankton communities. Data on taxonomic composition,

relative abundance, and mortality rates were generated. A study

of entrainment effects on phytoplankton (Bienfang and Johnson,

1980) has also been done.

A.2-11

Hawaiia Studies

. Because of the paucity of site-specif ic chemical and biolo-

gical data presently available for the proposed OTEC 10/40 site

of Kahe Point, and because the offshore environment of Hawaii is

relatively uniform, a significant portion of the work effort in

this literature review was directed at areas outside the site

specific area, but within a reasonable distance (200 miles) of

the Hawaiian Islands.

The study most likely to afford directly comparable data to

the Olahu OTEC Benchmark Environmental Survey is the OTEC Bench-

mark Environmental Survey (AECOS, 1979; Noda et.al., 1980) which

occurred off the island of Hawaii during the period October 1978-

December 1979. Six oceanographic cruises were taken to the site

of the proposed OTEC-1 test platform, approximately 18 miles from

Kawaihae Harbor. In general, four hydrocasts were taken on each

cruise, two during the day and two at night. One of each of the

day and night hydrocasts consisted of 12 widely spaced samples

from the surface to 1000 m. The other day and- night hydrocasts

consisted of 12 closely spaced samples covering the interval from

the surface to 300 m. Water samples from each hydrocast were
analysed for dissolved nutrients (nitrate-nitrite, ammonium,

phosphate, silicater urea), total nitrogen and phosphorus, dis-

solved oxygen, salinity, pH and alkalinity. Water samples were

also analysed for primary productivity, plant pigments, and ATP.

Zooplankton tows covering several depth intervals (0-25r 25-200,

200-600, 600-1,000 m) were also taken.

A number of pertinent studies have been done off the leeward

A.2-12

coast Of 0'ahu but outside the "site specific" OTEC 10/40 area.

Several of these have examined the ecology of various groups of

mid-water nektonic organisms. Studies of fishes include those

coverings myctophids (Clarke, 1973), stomiatoids (Clarke, 1974)r

hatchet fishes (Ridge, in prep.) and a group of 15 families of

rare to moderately abundant fishes (Clarke, 1978). Crustaceans

also studied include the midwater sergestids (Waltersp 1976)r

euphausiids (Hu, 1978) penaeids (Riggs, 1977) and carideans

(Ziemann, 1975). These studies have examined the vertical dis-

tributions, patterns of vertical migrations and life histories of

these widely diverse groups of organisms. Additional studies

which were concerned with the structure of the micronektonic fish

communities (Amesbury, 1975), feeding patterns of micronektonic

fishes (Clarke and Wagner, 1976), and the whole micronektonic

community off 01ahu (Maynard et.al., 1975) have also been done.

Studies which were done even further offshore, but which are

still applicable to the Kahe OTEC region, have included surveys

of the chemistry, phytoplankton, microzooplankton, bacteria and

fungi in the photic zone (Gundersen et. al., 1976), the chemistry

and microbiology of several leeward Hawaiian locations (Gundersen

et. al., 1972), the temporal variability of primary productivity

at a station north of 0'ahu (Cattell and Gordon, 1971; Muller,

1971), and the distribution of particulate carbon and nitrogen at

the same station (Gordon, 1970; 1971). other studies have des-

cribed the changes in primary productivity which occur as the

distance from an oceanic island changes (Doty and Ogori, 1956;

Gilmartin and Revelater 1974). A resource-oriented study which

examined the hydrography, distribution of plankton stocks, levels

A.2-13

of primary productivity, and potential fishery yields in the

epipelagic zone in the Hawaiian Islands between Midway Island and

the island of Hawaii found strong uniformity and low variability

in the parameters measured over the whole extent of the Hawaiian

chain (Hirota et. al.r 1980). Relatively specialized studies

examining phytoplankton sinking rates (Bienfang, 1980) and the

effects of light on primary production (Bienfang and Gundersen,

1977) also have been done.

The water column offshore of the Hawaiian Islands is rela-

tively constant in structure and may be divided into three

layers: a warm, shallow, variable depth mixed layer in which

nutrient concentrations are low and where the majority of the

biological activity occurs; a cold, deep layer where nutrient

concentrations are high and biological activity is relatively

low; and an intermediate gradient layer where changes in tempera-
ture (from warm to cold) and nutrinet concentrati on' (f rom low to

high) occur wih increasing depth.

The depth of the mixed layer varies with and is dependent on

the amount of insolation and the degree of wind mixing.

Generally the mixed layer reaches its maxinmum depth (100 m) in

summer and is sha 1lowest (50 m) in winter. Due to the active

uptake of nutrients by the phytoplankton and the slow rate of

regeneration and renewal by diffusion from below, the nutrient

levels in the mixed layer are low, often reaching non-detectable

levels for some chemical species. The majority of the plankton

biomass occurs in this layer and the upper 50 to 100 m of the

intermediate layer below. The maximum levels of chlorophyll

A.2-14

generally occur between 90 and 120 mr while the maxima for ATP

and productivity occur at depths of 50 m and less.

Zooplankton biomass is greatest in the upper 25 m, and

decreases with depth. Numerically the copepods are the most

abundant group of zooplankton. Larval fish are relatively low in

abundance in offshore waters.

The deep layer (below 400 m) is characterized by low temper-

atures, little or no light during the day, relatively high nut-

rient levels due to the bacteriological breakdown of organic

material from the upper layer, and relatively uniform conditions.

The major biological groups of fishesr crustaceansr and cephalo-

pods generally all undergo extensive diurnal vertial migrations,

moving upward to shallower depths at night.

A.2-15

PAR LITERATURE SEVI RELEVAN ZQ
IMPACTS DE OTE DEVELOPMEN

This section discusses the potential environmental impacts

on marine communities and fisheries effects associated with the

deployment of an OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) plant of

four designs in the waters offshore of Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii.

The four alternative designs are: (1) the offshore vessel design

(which -would be similar to the successful Mini-OTEC and OTEC-1

where the vessel is emplaced over the deep, cold water that is

pumped to the surface); (2) the onshore OTEC station (similar to

the Keahole Point Facility) where the deep, cold water is pumped

via pipe to shore, is used and discarded; (3) the derrick con-

figuration where a derrick supporting the OTEC plant is deployed

in waters about 90 m in depth and the cold water is pumped to the

plant via pipe, used and discharged nearby; and (4) the mobile

OTEC plant which is similar to the first design but is not tied

to any single geographical locality. The mobile OTEC would have
the capability to move across the central and western Pacific
centered on the belt of warm equatorial waters in search of

appropriate thermal conditions for the ultimate production of

portable energy such as liquid hydrogen or ammonia.

Each of these alternative designs would have a variety of

impacts on the marine communities in which they operate. This

document will consider the impacts on the macrobiota of these

marine communities, that is, in coastal ecosystems, the fish,

corals and other larger invertebrates, and in the offshore realm,

the larger pelagic fish species. Due to the large number of

unanswered questions in this undertaking (e.g., unknown physical

A.3-1

characteristics and behavior of the cold water discharge in an

unknown current system, volume of the thermal effluent, the

unknown effects of cold water on tropical inshore and pelagic

marine species), the impacts (both positive and negative) noted

below could be enhanced or totally negated depending on temporal

and spatial conditions. Thus, the portrayal of these impacts is

subject to re-evaluation as data become available.

The impacts associated with each of these alternative de-

signs are discussed below.

OFFSHORE VESSEL AND MOBILE OTEC ALTERNATIVES

As stated above, these OTEC designs would be similar to

either OTEC-1 or Mini-OTEC, where the vessel is held on station

and the deep, cold water is pumped via a pipe to the surface

where it is used in developing an energy source. The cold water

is then passed overboard. In the offshore vessel design, elec-

tricity would be generated and in this scenario, passed via

cables to shore (here Kahe Point). In the mobile OTEC alterna-

tive the vesel would not be tied to a particular geographical

locality but could move about seeking the appropriate site in the

belt of warm equatorial waters. A number of the impacts asso-

ciated with either of these designs would be analogous, thus they

are discussed together.

Impacts

An extensive and efficient searching operation is usually

necessary to locate and harvest migratory tunas in the central

A.3-2

and western Pacific. However, tunas and other pelagic fishes are

known to congregate around floating objects in the ocean. In-

creased catches are frequently made by commercial and sport

fishermen around such flotsam (Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Hunter

and Mitchell, 1967, 1968; Greenblatt, 1979; Murdy, 1980). Seve-

ral theories have been suggested to explain the aggregating

effects of flotsam. However, no single hypothesis can completely

explain such associations. The presence of small fishes which

find shelter in the floating debris may attract and hold larger

predatory fishes (Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Mitchell and Hun-

ter, 1970; Wickham, et. al., 1973). Pelagic fishes may gather

around floating objects because these structures can provide

spatial references for individual orientation in an otherwise

unstructured pelagic environment (Klima and Wickham, 1971). In

less than one month from the time of emplacement of a floating

object, the population of large fishes increases to a maximum and

thereafter fluctuates with the arrival and departure of indivi-

duals and schools (Hunter and Mitchell, 1968; Murdy, 1980).

Floating objects in Hawaiian waters are capable of aggre-

gating fishes of economic importance. In 1977-1978, the National

Marine Fisheries Service Honolulu Laboratory deployed a series of

experimental anchored buoys in Hawaiian waters which proved suc-

cessful in aggregating economically valuable fish. Commercial

pole-and-line vessels caught a large percentage of their total

skipjack tuna landings around the experimental buoys. Although

the average catch rate of buoy-associated pole-and-line fishing

(2,140 kg per vessel trip) was similar to the average catch rate

from normal school- searching operations (2,000 kg per vessel

A.3-3

trip), the aggregation s ystem provided the following advantages:

(a) Fish schools attracted to the buoys remained at the buoy
site for several days and often as long as two weeks.

(b) The buoys reduced the time lost scouting for tuna schoolsf
thus reducing fuel and operating expenses.

(c) successful fishing trips were made to buoy sites even with
inferior baitfish Ppecies and with baitfish in weakened
condition.

(d) Less bait than would normally be used for fishing free
swimming schools was required around buoys. Therefore,
vessels were able to make more fishing trips per week.

(e) Many boats which were accustomed to remaining in port during
the winter months were enticed to fish more often because of
the presence of the buoys (PTDF, 1979).

Trolling and hand-line fishing developed around the buoys in

'addition to commercial skipjack fishing efforts.

The immediate success of the buoys and the demand for addi-

tional systems prompted the development of a statewide system of

26 fish aggregation devices (or FADs) by the Hawaii Division of

Fish and Game. The FAD's were deployed in spring 1980 between

4.8 and 40 km offshore and were anchored in waters as deep as 1.8

km. Commercial and sport fisheries catches during the first year

of the program were monitored through the use of a voluntary

report card system. In addition a joint research program was

initia.ted by the University of Hawaii Sea Grant Program, the

State of Hawaii Marine Affairs Coordinator, NMFS, and the State

Division of Fish and Game to document the establishment, growth,

and continuity of fish populations associated with the buoys.

The Hawaii fish aggregation devices are physically small

(1.8 m or 6 feet across), yet may attract large quantities of

commercially valuable fish. Buoy performance varies both in time

A.3-4

and space but aggregation devices anchored in deeper waters (be-

tween 0.9 km and 1.8 km) produce significantly greater catches

than do their shallower counterparts. FAD's were purposely de-

ployed in a pattern that will allow comparisons of how differen-

ces in bottom depth, profile, and oceanographic conditions affect

fish abundance hence fishing success. In practice, however, buoy

positions represented a compromise between project interests,

local politics, and restrictions imposed by the U.S. Coast Guard

and Navy to reduce hazards to surface navigation and submarine

traffic.

In the first year of the Hawaii FAD program, commercial

pole-and-line vessels harvested an estimated 364 metric tons of

skipjack and other tuna in approximately 180 fishing trips to 9

of the aggregation devices. About 65% of the total pole-and-line

tuna catch came from the vicinity of one buoy. This buoy yielded

over 227 metric tons of surface tuna. If this tonnage is repre-

sentative of a productive buoy, the annual resource potential of

a well-positioned aggregation device (such as an offshore OTEC

vessel) may be on the order of 227 metric tons.

About 80% of the skipjack fish effort was expended at 4

buoys, where average catch rates ranged between 820 and 3,730 kg

per trip. Pole-and-line fishing in the vicinity of FAD's yielded

about 2 metric tons per trip. At cannery prices ($1.10/kg), each

fishing trip of this type produced gross revenues of $2,200.

A commercial handline fishery has expanded and developed

around the fish aggregation devices which were deployed off the

Kona coast of the Island of Hawaili. This fishery is conducted

using small boats and a minimal amount of fishing gear. The

A.3-5

target species are large, deep-swimming yellowfin tuna (Thunnua

albacares) and bigeye tuna (T., gbesus), which command high prices

in the fresh (raw fish or sashimi) fish market in both Hawaili

and abroad. The fish aggregation devices have provided an oppor-

tunity to substantially expand the traditional Kona handline

fishery. The number of boats has increased from 30-40 to about

120. The total Island of Hawaili catch of high value tunas

reported in 1980 was approximately 318 metric tons but under-

reporting is prevalent and actual production is probably much

more, perhaps as much as 1800 metric tons. Total annual revenues

f rom this industry may be as much as $10 million.

Catch data from several Kona-based tuna handline fishermen

who use the buoys extensively were analyzed for thi s study.

Catches of their target species, large yellowfin and bigeye tuna,

averaged between 29 and 120 kg per trip for individual fishermen

(mean = 61 kg/trip). Under-reporting of these catches is a

common occurrence as noted above because of the large revenues

accrued by commercial handline fishermen. The actual catches of

buoy-associated large tuna are believed to range between 90 and

320 kg per fishing trip. The fishermen reported a combined catch

of over. 3.6 metric tons in a one-month period f rom the vicinity

of one FAD. This figure may be low by a factor of three. if

Kona handline catches provide an indication of the full resource

potential of a single FAD, annual landings of high-value tuna may

approach 4,550-136,360 kg per device.

In addition to the commercial baitboat and handline

fisheries, an additional 20,000 kg of fish caught in the vicinity

A.3-6

of the Hawai'i FAD's during the first year of operation were sold

for an estimated $137rOOO. Six of the bouys received about 70%

of the fishing effort. Mahimahi accounted for approximately 40%

(by weight) of the total catch. Marlin and skipjack tuna fol-

lowed in abundance. Table 2 summarizes the estimated weight and

wholesale value of comme rcial landings around the FAD's, exclud-

ing the commercial baitboat and handline activities.

Table 2. Estimated weight and wholesale value of other
commercial fish landings (excluding baitboat and
handline fisheries) near Hawaili fish aggregation
devices during first year of operation.

Weight Jh_q) WIm 1 e s a I e Y-alim
per #(l) total

Mahimahi 17,050 $2.17 $81,000
Marlin 11,500 0.80 20,000
Skipjack tuna 8,000 1.08 19,000
Ono 1,730 2.09 8,000
Kawakawa 550 0.89 1,000
Opelu 500 1.27 1,000
Miscellaneous 2,400 1.36 7,000

Total 41,820 $137,000

(1) Based on average of January - June 1980 ex-vessel price
reported by Hawaii Division of Fish and Game.

The deployment of an OTEC platform results in aggregation of

commercially-valuable fish in the same manner as a buoy or any

other floating object. The aggregation effect is enhanced by the

larger submerged surface of an offshore OTEC vessel. Observa-

tions made from the OTEC-1 vessel when in operation suggested

that commercial handline fishing activity conducted in the vici-

nity of the device was highly productive. on the average, about

10 small boats per day were observed carrying out fishing activi-

ties around OTEC-1 over a 75-day period (D. Crear, pers. comm.).

A.3-7

Catches were yellowfin and bigeye tuna having an ex-vessel

(wholesale) value ranging from $3 to over $5 per pound. Catches

of large, high-value tunas averaged about 230 kg per vessel

fishing trip to OTEC-1 (J. Kinney, pers. comm.). The small-boat

tuna handline fleet probably caught a total of 2.3 metric tons

per day of fishing. Assuming a wholesale (ex-vessel) value of at

least $3.00/lb, the Kona handline fishery generated gross reve-

nues of at least $15,000 per day as a direct result of the OTEC-1

project.

Non-commercial sport fishermen also benefit from the Hawaii

FAD system and can be expected to receive similar recreational

benefits from deployment of an offshore OTEC vessel. In the

first year of the Hawaii FAD project, char ter-f ishermen and

recreational trollers caught an estimated 21 metric tons of

yellowfin tunar 14 metric tons of mahimabi.(CoryphcUnd hiippu"a),

and 12.7 metric tons of marlin in over 1,000 "fishing trips.

Sport fishermen also caught more than 6 metric tons of skipjack

tuna (Katsuw-Qnus and other pelagic species. Catch per

trip averaged 21 kg of yellowf in tuna, 13 kg of mahimahi, 12 kg

of marlin, and 6 kg of skipjack and other species. Five buoys

received about 65% of the fishing effort and produced 60% of the

total catch. Average catch rates varied from 23 kg per trip to

86 kg per trip at the most popular buoys.
The rapidly-changing status of worldwide oil supplies will

force continual updating and reassessment of the fossil fuel

requirements and energy costs of fisheries. Escalating fuel

prices will cause previously acceptable fishing methods and

technologies to be no longer attractive and will force adoption

A.3-8

of fuel-conserving fishing methods. Energy concerns will ulti-

mately result in fisheries development programs which combine the

goals of increased catch and fuel conservation, rather than

seeking to maximize yiel3s at any cost of energy (Bardach, 1979).

Standard trolling and school-searching operations are costly

in terms of fuel consumption. FAD-associated fishing is rapidly

gaining recognition as a more economical alternative method of

harvesting. Buoys not only aggregate fish, but they also allow

fishermen to locate fishery resources without wasting time, fuel,

and money. offshore OTEC vessels have major implications for

energy conservation in harvesting pelagic fisheries resources o

Thus the deployment of an OTEC structure offshore of Kahe Point,

Oahu would be expected to aggregate commercially valuable fish

for potential harvest. This aggregation process would commence

at the time of deployment and the usual assemblage of species and

biomass of fish would be present within 2 to 5 weeks from that

time.

A mobile OTEC device could be expected to magnify the fish

aggregation effects that drifting logs are known to have in the

equatorial waters of the western Pacific, hence such a platform

would likewise function in the same fashion as do the FAD's or

permanently stationary OTEC devices. Fishing activities around a

mobile OTEC platform could follow the methods employed in the

vicinity of the Hawaiian FADs or use longline and purse seine

techniques.

Purse seining is the least labor and most capital intensive

of the tuna fishing methods. However, it is less fuel-efficient

A.3-9

than other commercial tuna f ishing methods. Combining the har-

vesting efficiency of purse seining with the fuel-efficiency of

utilizing fish aggregation devices would represent a major oppor-

tunity for fisheries development in the central and western

Pacific.

The Pacific Tuna Development Foundation began exploratory

surveys in 1976 in an effort to expand the United States purse

seine fishery to th e central and western Pacific Ocean (Anon,

1976). To date, surface tuna availability and vulnerability to

purse seine gear have been surveyed in a series of 7 charters.

After many years of exploratory fishing, Japanese fishing in-

terests now consider purse seine operations in the western

Pacific to be commercially feasible and are adding larger and

more sophisticated vessels to the present fleet of 15 vessels

(Anon, 1977). Experience of U.S. and Japanese tuna seiners has

established that surface tuna schools in the western Pacific

exhibit wild and erratic behavior and are difficult to capture

using purse seine gear. Fish behavior, coupled with the deep

thermocline and clear water of the central and western Pacific

Ocean, lowers the vulnerability of surface schools to existing

purse seine technology (Salomons and Souter, 19 80).

The most successful method of purse seining tuna in the

western Pacific has been pre-dawn sets on tuna aggregated beneath

or close to drifting logs, which currents tend to concentrate in

certain areas of the western Pacific. Pre-dawn "log" sets ac-

counted for the major portion of the catch by PTDF purse seine

charters until the 1979-1980 lalAnd Pain-caaa cruises. For the

past 14 years, Japanese seiners operating in the equatorial

A.3-10

waters of the western Pacific have concentrated their efforts

almost entirely on log sets begun before sunrise. Japanese

seiners catch about 11 metric tons per fishing day using this

technique. U. S. seiners average 8 metric tons per day when they

concentrate on early morning sets around floating logs (Anon,

1976). Catches as large as 100 metric tons per day have been

made using these techniques in Papua New Guinea waters.

Purse seining combined with moored floating objects began

and has evolved into a highly productive fishery in the Philip-

pines. Rafts are made of oil drums and bamboo, are 10 to 15 m in

length, and are set 30 to 60 km offshore. They attract tuna

(skipjack and yellowfin) which are caught using a modern purse

seining techniques (Bardach and Matsuda, 1980). Rafts are usual-

ly deployed and left for 3 to 4 weeks. Catches may range up to

35 metric tons per set (Murdy, 1980) and harvesting may occur

every 5 to 6 days (Bardach and- Matsuda, 1980) but normally once

every 3 weeks (Murdy, 1980). About one-half of the catch is

comprised of fish less than I kg in body weight, a small size for

skipjack, which constitute about 60% of the landings. Yellowfin

contribute about 25 percent to the purse seine catches and bigeye

tuna, about 15 percent (Bardach and Matsuda, 1980).

It is generally well known in the tropical Pacific that

rafts or FADs provide an efficient means of aggregating tuna for

harvest. These devices have been deployed in the Trust Terri-

tory, the western Pacific (Philippines, Papua New Guinea) and

scattered eastward to the Hawaiian Islands. Both Japanese and

American fishing interests have deployed fish aggregating devices

A.3-11

on the high seas for their own use. Fiji has recently begun an

ambitious fisheries program with the deployment of 60 PADS in

their waters. In most localities where they have not broken free

of their moorings, these FADS have efficiently aggregated fish

for harvest, and their popularity has continued to grow.

Moored floating objects serve to attract small and medium

sized tuna (0.5 to 10 kg) in almost every locality that they have

been deployed. Efficient harvest techniques such as purse

seining coupled with the aggregation pow ers of a FAD or a Philip-

pine raft could pose a threat to tuna stocks by the overexploita-

tion of small fish that have not participated in the spawning

process. These juvenile fish will aggregate around an OTEC

platform (moored or mobile) and if they are similarly subjected

to overfishing, a decline in the landings of the larger fish

could result.

Data f rom the Japanese longline f ishery f or '-yellowf in tuna,

covering nearly the entire range of the species, indicate that an

increase in fishing intensity would damage the stock and depress

total yield. After an initial increase in yield, yellowfin

catches have reached a plateau from which they have not risen

despite increasing fishing effort. Thereforer yellowfin are

considered fully exploited as far as longline fisheries are

concerned, with some additional potential, perhaps, in the cen-

tral Pacific sub-population where, the fish caught are largerp on

the average, than those taken in the western and eastern Pacific

(Suzuki, et. al., 1978; Bardach and Matsuda, 1980).

Skipjack tuna catches, o n the other hand, have generally

risen with increasing fishing pressure, although there are large

A.3-12

fluctuations from year to year which appeared to be linked to

variations in oceanographic and meteorological conditions. Skip-

jack represent the largest underexploited fishery resource of the

central Pacific. Potential additional yield from the Pacific is

believed to be in excess of 100,000 metric tons (Heste r and

Broadhead,, 1980).

Purse seining in the vicinity of an OTEC platform would be

analogous to log associated purse seining practiced by the U.S.

and Japanese purse seiners in the western Pacific or to the raft

fishing in the Philippines. Three U.S. purse seiners are cur-

rently operating in the western Pacific. These vessels plus 6

other super-seiners (1,000-2,000 + GT class) participate in the

seasonal purse seine fishery for skipjack tuna off New Zealand.

Recent Japanese success with purse seining in the equatorial

waters of the western Pacific offers encouragement for additional

U.S. seiners to extend operations. There are approximately 130

purse seiners under U.S. flag, of which 95 are capable of exten-

ded trips to the central and western Pacific (Anonr 1979).

With problems in gaining access to and maintaining previous

levels of catch in the traditional eastern Pacific tuna fishing

grounds, between 25 and 50 U.S. purse seine vessels might-be

expected to divert activities to a central and western Pacific

fishery (Broadhead, 1976). Thus, with our advancing technology

of FADs and OTE C structures serving to aggregate tons of tuna

coupled with modern purse seiners for their capture, the proba-

bility of sustained yeilds will be reduced without appropriate

international management of this resource.

A.3-13

A major negative impact from either a moored or mobile OTEC

is created by the cold water effluent. The effects of relatively

cold water impinging on tropical shallow water marine forms has

received little scrutiny in the scientific literature; nor have

such studies been carried out on pelagic organisms. It is known

that tunas have rather narrow thermal tolerances and are able to

thermo-regulate (Dizon and Brill, 1979). Yellowfin tuna are

fished in waters with surface temperatures between 23* to 32*C

(Sharp, 1978) and skipjack between 190 to 230C Maevastu and

Rosa, 1963). Skipjack however, are found in waters with a sur-

face temperature range between 170 to 280C Maevastu and Rosa,

1963).

The effects of a cold water OTEC effluent on tunas aggre-

gating about such a platform would be dependent upon the volume

of effluent, its temperature differential relative to the surface

waters, and the rapidity with which it mixes with the warmer

receiving waters. The latter is strongly influenced by the

strength of the surface water movement and hence by the wind.

if a thermal situation similar to that at OTEC-1 were to

exist near the proposed platform, then there would probably be

little influence on the aggregating fish. In the case of OTEC-1,

the cold water effluent was approximately 180C (650 F; D. Crear,
pers. comm.) which is close to the lower limit of preferred

skipjack temperatures and 10C below the lower limit of yellowfin

temperatures. At OTEC-1, fish (yellowfin primarily) apparently

swam through the surf ace- released effluent w ith impunity. The

effluent was probably very rapidly mixed, hence its effects were

dissipated within meters of the point source. Thus it is prob-

A.3-14

able in offshore waters that such a cold water effluent on rela-

tively small scale would have little impact on sub-adult and

adult fish. Likewise, with this rapid dilution and dissipation,

the negative effects on the thermally more susceptible larvae of

these important marine fish would probably be negligible.

Presumably with the offshore vessel alternative, there would

be some means of transmitting the electricity from the platform

to shore. This transmission would probably be via undersea

cable. The laying of a cable through shallow marine communities

adjacent to shore could have a number of impacts. These overlap
wit'h impacts that would be created by use of the derrick config-

uration and will be discussed below.

DERRICK ALTERNATIVE

In this design, a permanent OTEC plant would be placed on a

derrick platform (similar to an oil rig) in waters about 90 m in

depth. The plant would draw the cold deep water by pipe from

somewhere seaward of the platform, generate electricity, dis-

charge the cold water effluent adjacent to the derrick and trans-

mit the end product (electricity) to shore via cable.

Assuming an emplacement along the 90 m isobath, the platform

would be about 1.8 km from shore at Kahe Point, 0'ahu. A derrick

situated in waters of these depths may serve to aggregate fish,

but probably not the more pelagic, commercially important tunas,

etc. Fishes attracted to such a structure would most likely be

more benthic in nature; the most economically important might be

the lutjanids or snappers.

A.3-15

Substratum is an important parameter governing the struc-

ture, diversity and density of organisms in any shallow benthic

community. Areas of considerable structural relief (habitat

heterogeneity) will harbor a more d-iverse and greater standing

crop of fishes and invertebrates than relatively featureless

bottoms (Brock, 1954; McVey, 1971; Risk, 1972; Brock et. al.r

1979). Generally in shallow waters corals are a major structural

element of this third dimension. The emplacement of vertical

legs reaching the seafloor and supporting the OTEC platform would

add considerably to the third dimension, thus attracting fish.

Platforms in shallower (20-35 m) Gulf of Mexico waters serve to

attract numerous fish (Hastings et. al., 1976). Additionally,

thehabitat complexity created by the cold water pipe coming from

greater depths and the transmission cables running shoreward from

the platform would probably enhance its fish attracting quali-

ties. Artificial structures are usually well marked and readily

accessible, so they are easily relocated using modern electronic

gear and may be more susceptible to over-fishing than natural

bottoms. Fisheries associated with artificial structures are

subject to the same ecological constraints as those associated

with natural bottoms of complex relief.

The species composition and abundance of the fish community

resulting from structure emplacement off Kahe Point is a matter

of conjecture. No data exist for artificial structures placed in

Hawaiian waters at similar depths. In the Gulf of Mexico,

Hastings et. al., (1976) found 101 species of fishes distributed

between two structures; Klima and Wickham (1971) reported that

small midwater structures attracted up to 25 metric tons of fish

A.3-16

in the same areas. In all probability the fish community devel-

oping around the Hawaiian platform would be a mix of coral reef

species, more pelagic wandering species (jacks, etc.) and some of

the deeper benthic forms (snappers: ukur opakapaka, etc).

The deployment of the deep, coldwater intake pipe and the

electrical transmission cables could create a number of negative

impacts. If dredging or blasting has to be undertaken for the

laying of these lines, a large amount of silt could be produced.

This silt and detritus could have a negative influence on nearby

benthic communities.

The shallow benthic communities of the Kahe-Barber's Point

region are known to be diverse. These communities have received

considerable attention in the environmental literature due to the

presence of the Hawaiian Electric Company generating facility at

Kahe Point. Many of these studies have recorded more than 100

species of fishes occurring in waters less than 20 m in depth.

This has been documented at Kahe by URS Research Co. (1972

1973), McCain and Peck (1973), Coles and McCain (1973-more than

180 species), and Hawaiian Electric Co. (1976)r to the south by

Kimmerer and Durbin (1975), and offshore of the Barge Harbor by

Environmental Consultants, Inc. (1975). Apparently, these varied

fish populations are a relatively continuous element along the

coast and are related to the diverse coral communities in the

area. In the most recent survey, Bienfang and Brock (1980) semi-

quantitatively inventoried the benthic communities found between

Kahe and Barber's Point. They noted more than 100 species of

fishes and more than 50 percent of the known Hawaiian coral

A.3-17

species were recorded in their survey.

Silt and detritus serve to cut down the transmission of

light through the water column, thus decreasing productivity. In

its extreme, silt can cause the smoothering or burial of sessile

benthic organisms. If currents do not carry this particulate

material out of. these benthic communities, it can effectively

bury the hard substratum that serves as the foundation on which

coral communities are built. In general, the impact of the

construction activities associated with emplacement of the

derrick platform on surrounding benthic communities would be

dependent on the amount of silt generated as well as the strength

of currents at the time.

Other negative impacts associated with the derrick alterna-

tive center around the cold water effluent. The negative effects

of such an effluent would be largely dependent on the temperature

of the impinging effluent, its mixing, and on the'-local current

systems. If cold water from the OTEC plant is carried shoreward,

it could affect the diverse coral communities of the Kahe Point

region. These impacts will be discussed further under the shore

based OTEC alternative.

The cold water discharge, if not rapidly mixed, could form a

thermal barrier to successful recruitment of numerous species.

In most marine organisms, larval forms are more susceptible to

fluxes in physical parameters and many tropical marine species

(both fishes and invertebrates) have larval phases that are

planktonic and spend some time in the offshore pelagic realm. If

a cell of cold water discharged from the derrick were to lie

offshore but paralleling shore, it might hamper larval

A.3-18

recruitment to the shoreward communities. If continued through

time, the result might be a localized change in species

composition in the affected nearshore benthic communities.

The cold water effluent could have a negative effect on

fishes attempting to aggregate around the derrick's underwater

structure. If the thermal regime were inappropriater fishes

would probably avoid the affected area. However, all of these

scenarios and presumed negative effects depend on the volume of

the cold water effluent, location of discharge, its temperature

differential below ambient, and the strength and direction of

advective currents.

ONSHORE ALTERNATIVE

This proposed alternative would place an OTEC plant on the

Kahe Point shoreline. Cold water used in the facility would be

brought from the depths via a pipe laid on the bottom to the

plant; this pipe would probably extend seaward for about 2 km.

The cold water would be used in the OTEC process, mixed, and

discharged back into the ocean in the vicinity of the plant. All

of the negative effects created by this method of electrical

generation have been discussed under the other alternatives;

however, the impact of these on nearshore benthic communities

would probably be greatest under this plan.

Studies conducted on the effects of temperature on Hawaiian

reef corals suggests that a decrease in the natural water tem-

perature would be more harmful to corals than a temperature

increase of the same magnitude (Jokiel and Coles, 1977). These

A.3-19

authors established a lower lethal limit of 180C for a number of

Hawaiian corals; the discharge of OTEC-1 was about 180C. Other

than this study, the effects of relatively cold water impinging

on tropical marine forms has received little attention in the

scientific literature. Heated effluents, on the other hand,

being a product of oil fired electrical generatorst have been

studied by biologists working on coral reefs (for example, see:

Coles, 1973, 1975, 1980; Coles and McCain, 1973; Coles and

Fukuda, 1975; Coles, et.al., 1976; Clausen and Roth, 1975;

Grovhoug, 1978; Jokiel and Coles, 1974; Jokiel and Guinther,

1978; Marsh and Doty, 1975, 1976; Marsh et.al., 1977; McCain,

1977; Neudecker, 1976, 1977; Roessler and Zieman, 1969).

With no dominating advective forces, cold water discharged

into warmer receiving waters will sink (due to density dif-

ferences). In the coral reef system a discharge of cold water

would mix with the receiving waters but also would probably sink

to the bottom where damage to corals and other sessile biota

could occur. With sufficient discharge and time, the magnitude

of this impact on the coral reefs off Kahe Point could be great.

Under these altered circumstances, motile biota would be expected

to change.

The placement of the intake pipe for the shoreside facility

could create a number of negative impacts to the shallow benthic

communities which it traverses. Again, dredging associated with

pipe deployment could create high water column particulate levels

thus imposing a negative influence on adjacent coral communities.

Although data are not available on how much sedimentation

Hawaiian reef corals can withstand under either acute conditions

A.3-20

or prolonged deposition, corals are capable of surviving in

locations where the rate of sediment deposition is less than the

rate of sediment removal by agents such as secretion of mucus,

movement of cilia, extension of polyps, water currents, gravityl

and/or fish grazing. Death of coral tissue from sedimentation is

believed to result from smothering or oxygen depletion in the

anoxic environment which develops beneath the sediment surface.

Burial under 2 to 3 cm (1 inch) of sand for more than 48 hours is

likely to cause death by suffocation (Hubbard and Pocock, 1972;

Hubbard, 19".74). The detrimental effects of sediment deposition

appear to be most serious when the rate is extremely rapid, such

as might occur during or after heavy seas.

Although most species of coral can survive a veneer (a few

mm) of sediment - even when sedimentation is prolonged - most

cannot live for long if heavily coated or completely buried

(Johannes, 1975). Certain resistant species are able to endure

smothering for short periods when completely buried by sediment,

whereas other less tolerant species die quickly when covered.

New surfaces of the pipe and those created by construction

activities may serve as a source for the development of cigua-

teric food chains, and the presence of a large diameter pipe

crossing through the diverse coral communities of the Kahe Point

region may not be aesthetically pleasing to users of the area.

POTENTIAL FOR CIGUATERA

Ciguatera is a form of fish poisoning caused by ingesting a

wide variety of fishes (snappers, groupers, jacks, barracudas,

A.3-21

surgeonfishes and wrasses) whose tissues contain a paralytic

neurotoxin. Recentlyr the widely distributedr tropical

dinof lagellate, -G-ambi-er-dia-c-uz I-Qxi-C-aa (Adachi and Fukuyo) , has

been implicated as the source of ciguatoxin in the Pacific

(Yasumoto, et. al., 1977; Yasumoto, Nakajima, Oshima, and Bagnis,

1979). This microscopic, unicellular alga grows primarily as an

epiphyte on certain brown and red seaweeds on reef flats with

population densities varying greatly over short distances

(Yasumoto, Inoue, Bagnis, and Gercon, 1979). There are several

other epiphytic dinoflagellates which produce effects similar to

ciguatoxin. Once the toxins of other species accumulate in the

food chain, they become difficult to differentiate from the

effects of fz, loxicus (Yasumoto, 1979).

Blooms of the dinoflagellate apparently initiate the process

of transfer of toxic material through the food chain. The envi-

ronmental conditions which trigger massive blooms of the dino-

flagellate are not known, although conditions which have been

repeatedly associated with ciguatera are dredging of reef areas,

sunken ships, and rainfall-runoff patterns.

Incidences of ciguatera poisoning in Hawaili have frequently

been connected with construction activities which have exposed

new submerged surfaces through dredging. A small bloom of f2-,-

occurred at Pokai Bay in August 1978, coincident with

dredging of a small boat harbor nearby and with an outbreak of

ciguatera in fish from that area (Withers, et. al., 1980).

The potential does exist for an increase in toxicity of

edible fishes residing in waters around the site of marine con-

struction. The on-shore alternative for construction of an OTEC

A.3-22

facility at Kahe may involve considerable dredging in shallow

waters. The red alga, Jania sp., which is commonly colonized by

.Cu- toxicus (Yasumotor 1979) is relatively common in the nearshore

area. To dater no one can predict whether or not a given con-

struction activity in the marine environment will lead to in-

cidences of ciguatera.

CURRENT STATUS OF FISHERIES

The area bounded by Malili Point and Barbers Point and

extending offshore to a distance of 20 miles produces average

annual commercial fish landings of between 50,000 and 75,000 lbs,

excluding skipjack tuna. Skipjack tuna catch within this region

averages between 250,000 and 500,000 lbs per year. Inshore areas

between Kanelilio Point and Kahe Point are heavily fished, but

fishing pressure drops off markedly south of Kahe Point to

Barbers Point. The only site in the latter area where fishing is

concentrated is the Campbell Barge harbor. At least 4,000 of

Olahu's population of resident fishermen frequent inshore areas

of the Kahe OTEC region at one time or another. Pole fishing is

the primary activity, although spearingp lay netting, and hand-

lining (from boats) are common near shore. Aquarium fish col-

lecting is a major commercial activity at depths between 30 and

60 feet. Commercial trapping of Kona crabs takes place on sand

bottoms at depths between 50 and 300 feet. The distribution of

recreational and commercial fishing uses is mapped in a general-

ized form in Figure 4.

Shorefishing in the area between Kahe Point and Kanelilio

A.3-23

FIGURE 4

Key to Fishing Uses

A. NETTING 1. Lay netting
2. Crabbing
3. Throw netting
4. Bait collecting
15. Aquarium fish collecting

B. HOOK AND LINE 1. Shorecasting
2. Hand pole and line
3. Bottom handlining
4. Trolling

C. SPEARING 1. Diving
2. Torchtishing
3. Squidding

D. TRAPPING

E. GATHERING 1. 'Opihi
2. Limu
3. Wana
4. Lobster
5. Shell collecting
6. Miscellaneous (coral heads, other)

A.3-24

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Point yields a relatively low catch per hour of effort (0.3

lb/hr). Pole-and-line fishing is somewhat more productive south

of Kahe Point (0.4 lb/hr) and much more productive north of the

Kahe region (0.9 lb/hr). Net fishing results in highly variable

catches, averaging 1 to 5 lb/br throughout the inshore area.

Spearing typically yields about 0.9 pounds per hour of fishing

effort in the nearshore area of the Kahe OTEC region and tends to

be less productive north of the Kahe region (0.5 lb/hr). The

seasonal pole-and-line fishery for olama which is conducted

during the late summer periods of juvenile goatfish abundance

produces catches of 0.7 to 0.8 pounds per fishing day between

Campbell Barge Harbor and Malili Point, but only half that (0.3

to 0.4 pounds per day) between Malili Point and Kanelilio Point.

Fishes of high commercial value which are relatively common in

the Kahe region are 'uu, uouoa, aholehole, aweoweo, akule,

lopelu, uku,, papio, and weke.. The scientific and local names of

these species, general habitat, and usual methods of capture are

summarized in Table 3. Overall, the shoreline and inshore areas

north of Pokali Bay provide more successful fishing (in terms of

catch per hour of fishing) than the study area itself. This is

reflected in larger numbers of recreational fishermen and larger

recreational catches in the Pokali area.

The section of coast between "West Beach" (Lanikuhonua) and

Barbers Point receives relatively little fishing pressure in

comparison to the coast north of Kahe Beach Park. Fishing acti-

vity in the nearshore area is estimated to be about 10 hours per

sq km per day (Bienfang and Brock, 1980). Portions of the near-

shore area (to depths of 60 feet) are known to harbor populations

A.3-29

Table 3. Relatively common fishes of high commercial value found
in the Kahe OTEC region.

FMIILY SCIENTIFIC NAME LOCAL NAME GENERAL USUAL METHODS
HABITAT OF CAPTURE

Squirrel- Myripristis sp. fulu Surge zone; Spear, hook
fishes (menpachi) sub-surge and liner
zone trap

Mugilidae Neomyxus chantalii uouoa Surge zone Throw net

Kuhliidae Kuhlia sandvicensis aholehole Surge zone Throw net,
hook and
line, spear

Priacanthidae Priacanthua cruenatus aweoweo Surge zone Hook and
line, spear

Jacks Caranx sp. papio Surge zone; Hook and
sub-surge line
zone

Decapterus macarallus lopelu Sub-surge Hook and
zone line, lift
net

Selar crumenophthalmus Sub-surge Surround net
zone hook and
line
(juveniles)

Snappers Lprion virescens, uku Sub-surge Hook and
zone line

Goatfishes Mulloidichthyes weke la'a Surge zone Net, spearr
flamlineatus hook and
line
(juveniles)

.M. yanicolensis weke lula Sub-surge Netr spear,?
zone hook and
line

Parupeneus kumu Surge zone Spear, trap
pQriphyreus

Source: AECOS, Inc. 1980. Oahu Coral Peef Inventory, Island of Oahu.

A.3-30

of commercially valuable spiny lobsters or lula (anJLJj111,s_ p2D_i=

Octopus or hele (.Q_ct_QZ?_ua gyanje.Q) are taken by spear

and the traditional cowrie shell lure technique.

The abundance of commercially valuable fish species in the

nearshore region fronting West Beach and the Campbell Industrial

Park was much greater ten years ago than at present. Species

such as ulu, aweoweo, and aholehole were common, as were lob-

sters. At greater depths offshore, uku was previously more

common. Development of the Campbell Industrial Park improved

accessability and led to increased fishing effort, which has

presumably reduced the stocks of desirable species (Bienfang and

Brock, 1980).

Inshore waters in the general vicinity of Barbers Point are

known among fishermen as harboring an abundance of juveniles of

many species of commercial interest.

The primary recreational fishery in offshore waters is

trolling, which is conducted primarily on weekends by vessels

ranging from 14 to 35 feet in length. Off Kahe, trapping of Kona

crabs is a significant fishery over sand bottoms at depths

between 50 and 300 feet. Akule are netted in offshore waters by

commercial f ishermen. Commercial pole-and-line vessels harvest

skipjack tuna at greater distances (20 nautical miles) offshore.

Average annual commercial landings of various species in the

inshore and offshore waters of the Kahe OTEC region are tabulated

in Table 4.

Recreational trolling blends recreational, subsistence, and

co mmercial purposes for fishing. Catch per unit effort is so

A.3-31

Table 4. Catch by species (in pounds) from commercial fisheries
in the Kahe OTEC region.

F I S H

Catch Per Season (lbs.)
Local/Common Name Scientific Name Jan.-June July-Dec.
Aku (Skipjack Tuna) Katsuwonus pelamis 128,110 178,080
Ahi (Yellowfin Tuna) Thunnus albacares 10,460 19,175
Akule (Bigeye Scad) Selar crumenophthalmus 9,354 5,350
A'u (Black marlin) Makaira indica 3,494 7,280
Hahalu (Juvenile Bigeye Scad) Selar crumenophthalmus 2,283 4,905
Mahimahi (Dolphinfish) Coryphaena hippurus 3,673 2,947
A'u ki (Striped Marlin) Tetrapturus audax 2,564 3,221
A'u (Blue Marlin) Makaira nigricans 2,096 2,710
Ta'ape (Blue-Lined snapper) Lutjanus kasmira 1,370 1,931
0 lo (Bonefish) Albula vulpes 1,416 731
Weke (Yellowstripe Goatfish) Mulloidichthys flavolineatus 1,179 1,639
Weke'ula (Red Goatfish) Mulloidichthys vanicolensis 789 1,401
"Opelu (Mackeral Scad) Decapterus macarellus 336 1,375
Ulua (Jack) Caranx spp. 1,298 871
Kawakawa (Little Tuna) Euthynnus yaito 445 1,364
Ono (Wahoo) Acanthocybium solandri 948 932
Kala (Unicorn Surgeonfish) Naso unicornis 540 769
Palani (Surgeonfish) Acanthurus dussumieri 389 645
Menpachi (Squirrelfish) Myripristis sp. 262 560
Rumu (White-Spot Goatfish) Parupeneus porphyreus 431 281
Alu (Shortbill Spearfish) Tetrapturus angustirostris 426 89
Awa (Milkfish) Chanos chanos 357 198
Mamo (Sargeant Major) Abudefduf abdominalis 257 206
Ahi (Bigeye Tuna) Thunnus obesus 36 233
Kahala (Amberjack) Seriola dumerilii 220 59
'Opakapaka (Snapper) Pristimoides filamentosus 156 238
Pualu (Ringtailed Surgeonfish) Acanthurus xanthopterus 177 58
'0milu (Blue Jack) Caranx melampygus 54 144
Uhu (Parrotfish) Scarus spp. 225 59

I N V E R T E B R A T E S

Catch Per Season (lbs.)

Local/Common Name Scientific Name Jan.-June July-Dec.

Ula (Spiny Lobster) Panulirus spp. 161 113
He'e (Octopus) Octopus spp. 99 381

L I M U

'Catch Per Season (lbs.)

Local/Common Name Scientific Name Jan.-June July-Dec

Limu (Seaweeds) All species 1,472 913

Source: Hawaii Division of Fish and Game Catch Statistics for
Area 402 (Inshore) and Area 422 (offshore).

A.3-32

variable and the area trolled is usually so large that it is

difficult to segregate the Kahe OTEC region from the rest of

leeward Olahu. The primary target species are yellowfin tuna

(ahi) and blue marlin, but various other billfish are also taken.

Recreational trolling is concentrated between Kahe Point and

Malili Point, the latter site being a traditional area of concen-

tration. On summer weekends when ocean conditions are favorable,

it is not uncommon for 50 to 100 recreational trawlers to operate

in the northern portion of the Kahe OTEC region. Recreational

trolling declines considerably south of the Kahe-Brown's Camp

area as rougher waters (caused by the "point effect" of Barbers

Point) are encountered. At one time or another, at least 300

sport fishing vessels fish in the Kahe OTEC region.

The second most important recreational fishery practiced

from small boats in the Kahe region is night handlining for

menpachi at shallow depths (30 feet). Because dark nights pro-

duce the highest catches of this nocturnal feeder, fishing acti-

vity is limited, on the average, to two weekends per month when

the phase of the moon is suitable. Decreasing abundance of

menpachi off Kahe has caused a decline in total catch and fishing

effort of this type in recent years. Table 5 summarizes the

catches of menpachi and associated species which were made be-

tween 1974 and 1980 by one recreational fisherman who is active

in the night handline fishery. Although catch per month and per

year declined after 1975, recent (1980) fishing has been nearly

as productive as earlier years. In general, the highest catches

were made during the July - September period.

The major Kona storm of January 1980 moved large quantities

A.3-33

Table 5. Catch of menpachi and associated species (lbs) by
one recreational handline fisherman, Kahe OTEC region,
1974 - 1980.

MONTH 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

January - 1 15 - - - -

February 140 - 30 15 -

March 45 100 50 - - 70

April 52 - 30 80 75 - 165

May 178 130 80 - - - 70
(8) (10)

June - 30 20 35 30 - -

July - 180 100 100 - -
(10) (8)

August 230 290 90 - 155 - -
(3)

September 210 35 40 155 50 50 325

October 5 45 - - 50 60 90
(16) (10)

November 78 80 85 - -
(7) (10)

December 35 - - - - -

Total Annual 973 711 585 935 455 110 720
(22) (20) (21) (8) (10)

Note: Figures in indicate catches of associated species.

Source: AECOS, Inc. Personal communication with licensed commercial
fisherman, name withheld on request, June 1981

A.3-34

of sand into shallow waters, covering areas of hard bottom. This

change in bottom habitat is reflected in a marked increase in

menpachi and other sand bottom feeders noted by spearfishermen

who have used the Kahe area for years.

The major environmental factors whichrecreational fishermen

identify as affecting fisheries resource availability or fishing

success in the Kahe OTEC area are summarized in Table 6.

A.3-35

Tabl e 6. Environmental factors known or believed to influence
fisheries resource availability or fishing success in
the Kahe OTEC region.

FACTOR EFFECT

Season loama - usually run between July and September

akule (hahalu) - usually reach peak abundance in
the period March through May.

menpachi - most abundant in the period July through
September

tunas and other offshore species - most abundant in
the period May through September.

Tide Inshore fishery improves during full moon or new
(moon moon phases associated with large tidal exchange.
phase) Fishing for akule, lopelu, menpachi is best on dark
nights. Trolling is most productive 7 to 10 days
following a full moon. Inshore fishing improves
with a rising tide. Tide phase is apparently not
important in the offshore trolling fishery.

Water The availability of nocturnal feeding fishes (red
turbulence fish, akule, lopelu) is greatdst during calm condi-
tions and light winds. Water turbulence stirs up
bottom sediments. Increased turbidity apparently
interfers with feeding by species which eat small
invertebrates inhabiting sand bottoms (menpachi).

Water Offshore surface tuna fisheries improve with warmer
temperature ocean temperatres.

Runoff No major drainage channels enter the ocean off the
southern portion of the Kahe OTEC region. Howeverr
the remnant of an old stream bed between Kahe Beach
park and Brown's Camp discharges turbid water after
heavy rainfall. High turbidity reduces inshore
catches to virtually nothing.

Biological Fishermen are concerned that the introduced snapper
interaction or talape (Lu-t_J-an1m ",amlxA) is displacing popular
food fish, particularly weke (Mulloidichtbvs sPP-)-

A.3-36

a
I
I
I
I
I
I APPENDIX B
I Kahe OTEC Larval Fish Survey
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Prepared by AECOS, Inc. for Parsons Hawaii
I August 1981
1
1
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION B-1

METHODS 'B-2

RESULTS B-4

DISCUSSION B-11

LIST OF TABLES

1. Larval fish abundance - Station 1 - July 1981 B-5
2. Larval fish abundance - Station 2 - July 1981 B-6
3. Larval fish abundance - Station 3 - July 1981 B-7
4. Larval fish abundance - Station 1 - August 1981 B-8
5. Larval fish abundance - Station 2 - August 1981 B-9
6. Larval fish abundance - Station 3 - August 1981 B-10
7. Mean larval fish abundances B-12

B-i

INTRODUCTION

Operation of an OTEC facility in a nearshore marine environ-

ment has the potential for negative impacts on the planktonic

biota of the area due to entrainment through the plant and ther-

mal effects resulting from the discharge of water which is below

ambient temperature as the result of mixing warm surface water

with cold deep water. In areas where fish of commercial import-

ance are known to reproduce, the operation of an OTEC plant has

the potential for negative impacts on an important commercial

resource. In order to assess the impact of proposed OTEC facil-

ity operations in the waters off Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii, it is

necessary to have some estimate of the species composition and

abundance of the larval fish in the area. In order to generate

this information, a series of samples were taken with surface and

sub-surface plankton nets to generate species lists and estimates

of larval fish abundances in the proposed OTEC operating region.

B-1

METHODS

Plankton tows designed to sample the larval fish in the

surface waters off Kahe Point, Oahu, were made on 27 July and 27

August, 1981. Triplicate tows were made at each of three loca-

tions: 1.5, 3.0, and 5.0 miles offshore from the Hawaiian

Electric Company Kahe Point generating station. All tows were

made during the morning and early afternoon, in directions

parallel to the shoreline, and at speed.of 1.5 to 2 knots.

Two types of tows were made at each station. Oblique tows

were made with a 1 m diameter, 500 u mesh net fitted with a

General Oceanics digital flowmeter. Oblique tows which sampled

between the surface and 50 m were made by lowering the net at 5 m

increments while the boat was underway. The net remained at each

depth increment for 1 minute. After the net had sampled the last

depth increment, the boat was slowed and the net was rapidly

re trieved with an electric line hauler. Total tow duration was

approximately fifteen minutes.

Surface tows were made with a specially designed neuston

net. The net consisted of a standard 1 m diameter, 500 u mesh

plankton net attached to a special surface sampling frame. The

f rame was rectangular, 1 m x 0.5 m on a side. Float/skis were

mounted halfway along the 0.5 m sides, so the lower 25 cm of the

frame was below the water surface and the upper 25 cm was above

the surface. A General Oceanics digital flowmeter was located at

approximately 12 cm below the water surface. The neuston net was

towed for 10 minutes for each sample.

B-2

At the end of each sample tow, the zooplankton sample was

removed from the cod end of the net, placed in a 1 quart glass

jar, preserved with a 5% formalin-sea water solution,, and

returned to the laboratory for analysis. In the labp all larval

fish were removed from the samples, identified under a dissecting

microscope (to species where possible), and enumerated. The

volume filtered was calculated from the flow meter data for each

sample, and this data was used to convert the numbers of larval
fish per sample to numbers per standard volume (1000 m3).

B-3

RESULTS

The results of the larval fish sampling program are presen-

ted in the following tables. At each station data are listed by

net type and replicate number. The total number of larval fish 0
per 1000 m3), the number of specimens actually found in each

sample, the number of species in each sample, the volume of water

filtered in taking the sample, and the volume correction factor x
(where 1 individual per sample per 1000 m 3) are also

presented.

B-4

TABLE B-1

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 1 - July 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTEC STATION: 1 DATE: july 27, 1981

TOW TYPE NEUSTON OBLIQUE
Replicate 1 2 3 1 2 3

Famil-/: Snecies

Apogonidae: Apogon sp* 20.2
Epigonus occidentalis 27.3
Foa brachygramma 18.2
unid. 10.1

Atherinidae: F'ranesus insularum 18.3 67.1 84.5

Blenniidae: EncheLyurus brunneoZus 30.5 .6.1 52.0 91.0 56.7 20.2
PZagiotremus sp. 10.1

Chiasmodontidae: FseudocopeZus sp. 9.1

Coryphaenidae: Coryphaena hippurus 9.1

xocoetidae: 6.1

Gobiidae: Bathygobius fuscus 9.1 8.1
Eviota epiphanes 109.2 24.3
Asterropteryx semipunctatus 8.1

Gonostomatidae: CycLothone sp. 45.5 40.5

Hemiramphidae: sp. 1 6.5

Myctophidae: Benthosema sp. unid. 9.1
BoZinichthys sp. 9.1 8.1 10.1
Ceratoscopelus warmingi
Diaphus spp. 27.3 8.1
Diaphus pacificus 9.1

Pomacentridae: Abudefduf abdominalis 27.3 48.6 20.2
S. fascioZatus 8.1
P-5 9.1
Damaged 9.1

Scombridae: Thunnus albacares 8.1
Unid. <3.5mm 18.2 8.1

Unidentified 9.1
Yolk Sac 9.1 8.1
Unidentified damaged

TOTAL 54.9 73.2 143.0 427.7 262.2 90.9

Individuals 9 12 22 51 29 9
pecies 3 2 3 18 12 6

Volume Filtered (M3) 165 163 153 110 124 99
S

Volume Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 6.1 6.1 6.5 9.1 8.1 10.1

B-5

TABLE B-2

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 2 - July 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTCC STATION: 2 DATE: July 27, 1981

TOW TYPE' NEUSTON OBLIQUE
Replicate 1 2 3 1 2 3

Fam i I .,: Soccies

Apogonidae: Apogon sp. 3.6 4.8 4.9
Rpigonus occidentalis 9.6 4.9

Atherinidae: Pranesus insuZarum 18.3 4.9 18.9

Blenniidae: Enchelyurus brunneolus 6.1 3.6 4.9

Carangidae: Unid. 3.6 4.9

Exocoetidae: 24.4 29.4 44.1 3.6 4.9

Gonostcmatidae: CycZ othone sp. 25.2 24.0 44.1

He-niramohidae: sp. 1 6.1 233.1 3.6 19.2

Myctophidae: Ceratoscopelus warmingi 3.6
Viaphus spp. 3.6 4.8 14.7
Lampadena sp. 3.6 1 9.8

Noceidae; Cubiceps pauciradiatus 4.8
Cubiceps caeruZeus 4.9

Po.nacentridae: Abudefduf abdominaZis 13.2
Abudefduf sordidus (jun) 6.3

Scombridae: Thunnus sp. 3.6 9.8
Unid. 4.8
Thunnus a4bacares 3.6

Tetradontidae: 3.6

Damaged 13.2 4.9
Yolk Sac 6.1
K3 (Hemiramphidae sp. 2) 4.9 6.3

TOTAL 61.0 44.1 308.7 91.2 72.0 107.8

individuals 10 9 49 21 15 22
Species 5 4 5 14 7 10

volu;ne Filtered (M3) 163 203 158 280 209 206
Volunic Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 6.1 4.9 6.3 3.6 4.8 4.9

B-6

TABLE B-3

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 3 - July 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTEC STATION: 3 DATE: July 27, 1981

TOW TYPE NEUSTON OBLIQUE
Replicate 1 2 3 1 2 3

Family: Species

Apogonidae: Apogon sp. 6.6
Epigonus occidentatis 3.3 3.5

Blenniidae: ExalZias brevi s 3.5
Carangidae SerioZa sp. 3.3 3.6
SeZar crumenophthaZmus
Chlorophthalmidae: Chlorophthalmus proridens 3.3 3.6
Coryphaenidae: Coryphaena hippurus

Exocoetidae: 51.3 67.1 69.6

Gonostomatidae: CycZothone sp. 56.1 100.8 98.0
DipZophos taenia 3.3 7.2
Hemirwmphidae: sp. 1 23.1 3.5
Itiophoridae: Itiophorus angustirostris

Melanocoetidae: MeZanocoetus johnsoni 3.3

myctophidae: Unid. 7.0
Bolinichthy3 sp. 6.6 7.0
Ceratoscopelus warmingi 3.3 18.0 3.5
Diaphus spp. 33.0 25.2 56.0
Lampadena sp. 6.6 3.5
Triphoturus nigrescens 3.6

Nomeidae: Cubiceps pauciradiatus 7.0

Pomacentridae: Abudefduf abdominatis 3.3

Scombridae: Thunnus sp. 13.2 5.0 7.0
Unid. 3.5
Thunnus albacares 6.6 3.6 7.0
Katsuwonus PeZamis

Damaged 6.1 3.3 3.5
Yolk Sac 3.6 3.5
Kl 3.3 38.5
Unid. 9.9 7.2 3.5
K2 5.7 12.2 11.6
K3 (Hemiramphidae sp. 2) 12.2 23.2

TOTAL 57.0 97.6 104.4 188.1 181.4 259.0

Individuals 10 16 18 58 54 64
Species 2 4 3 18 11 18

Volume Filtered (M 3) 175 164 174 299 278 290
Volume Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 5.7 6.1 5.3 3.3 3.6 3.5

B-7

TABLE B-4

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 1 - August 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTEC STATION: 1 DATE: August 27, 1981

TOW TYPE NEUSTON OBLIQUE
Replicate 1 2 3 1 2

Familv: Snecies

Apogonidae: Epigonus occidentaZis 10.4

Atherinidae: Pranesus insularum 67.1 64.9 84.0

Blenniidaet Enchelyurus brunneolus 6.1 10.4

Carangidae: SeZar crumenophthaZmus 10.4 8.1
<1. 5 nun 16.2

Chiasmodontidae: 7.9

Coryphaenidae: Coryphaena hippurus 7.9

Exocoetidae: 17.7 49.0

Gobiidae: Eviota epiphanes 31.2 8.1 7.9
Asterropteryx Semipunctatus 10.4

Gonostomatidae: CycLothone sp. 10.4 8.1
Diplophos taenia 8.1

Hemiramphidae: Sp. 1 5.9 7.0
MyctopIhidae: Diaphus spp. 20.8
Triphoturus nigrescens 8.1
Damaged 8.1

Pomacentridae: Abudefduf abdominaZis 7.9

Scombridae: Euthynnus affinis 10.4
Katsuwonus pelamis 7.9
Aconthocybium solandn 8.1

Unidentified leptacephalus 10.4

Unidentified 6.1 20.8 23.7
Unidentified .7438
Damaged 12.2 7.0 10.4 8.1
K6 (Hemiramphidae sp. 3) 24.4 5.9 21.0
K3 (Hemiramphidae sp. 2) 6.1 5.9

TOTAL 122.0 100.3 168.0 156.0 81.0 63.2

Individuals 20 17 24 15 11
Species 6 5 5 11 10 6

Volume Filtered (M3)
164 171 142 96 124 127
Volume Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 6.1 5.9 7.0 10.4 8.1 7.9

B-8

TABLE B-5

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 2 - August 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTEC STATION: 2 DATE: August 27, 1981

TOW TYPE NEUSTON 0BLIQUE
Replicate i 2 3 1 2 3

Family: Species

Apogonidae: Epig onus occidentaZis 13.6 14.2 6.8

Atherinidae: Pranesus insularum 97.2 29.8 95.0 7.1

Blenniidae: EncheLyurus brunneolus 13.9

Carangidae: SeZar crumenophthaLmus 20.4 14.2
Unid. 6.8 14.2 6.8

Chlorophthalmidae: ChLorophthaZmus proridens 13.6

Coryphaenidae: Coryphaena hippurus 6.8

Exocoetidae: 229.0 285.6 170.9 13.6 14.2 6.8

Gobiidae: Eviota epiphanes 6.8 21.3
Gobiidae (K7) 13.6 14.2 13.6

Gonostomatidae: Cyctothone sp. 20.4 56.8

Holocentridae:
6.8

Mullidae: 6.8

Myctophidae: Bolinichthys sp. 7.1
Ceratoscopelus warmingi 6.8
Diaphus spp. 20.4 7.1 6.8
Lampadena sp. 34.0 14.2

Nomeidae: C. parciradiatus 6.8

POMacentridae: Abudefduf abdominalis 7.1
<3 mm. 13.6

Scombridae: Auxis sp. 6.8
T. aLbacares 6.8
Katsuwonus pelamis 7.1

Tetraodontidae: 7.1 6.8

Damaged 6.9 14.2
Unidentified 7.1
K6 (Hemiramphidae sp. 3) 5.9 12.7
K3 (Hemiramphidae sp. 2) 5.9

TOTAL 347.0 327.2 278.6 204.0 234.3 68.0

Individuals 50 55 44 31 32 10
Species 4 4 5 15 16 9

Volume Filtered (M3) 144 168 158 147 141 147
Volume Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 6.94 5.95 6.33 6.80 7.09 6.80

B-9

TABLE B-6

Larval Fish Abundance
Station 3 - August 1981

SITE: KAHE/OTEC STATION: 3- DATE: August 27, 1981

TOW TYPE NZUSTON OBLIQUE
Replicate 1 2 3 1 2 3
Familv: Saecies 24.4 10.1 5.21
Acanthuridae:

Apogonidae: Epigonus occidentalis 32.5 60.6 15.6
Unid. 16.3

Atherinidae: Praneaus insuZarum 50.0 41.9 74.6

Carangidae. Selar crumenophthalmus 24.4 10.1
Decapterus sp. 24.4
Unid. 20.2 5.2

Caraoidae: Carapus sp. 8.13

Exocoetidae: 75.0 83.9 22.4

Eel: Unid. leptocephalus 8.13 5.2

Gobiidae: Eviota epiphanes 32.5 10.2 5.2
K7 10.4

Gonostonatidae: CyoZothone sp. 105.7 111.1 41.6
Vinciguerria nimbaria 10.1

Hemiramphidae: sp. 3 29.8

Mullidae: 8.13 10.1 10.4

Myctophidae: CeratoscopeZus warmingi 20.2 5 2
Diaphus spp. 73.2 30.3 31:2
Triphoturus nigreseens 8.13

Nomeidae: C. parciradiatus 5.2

Pomacentridae: Abudefduf abdominaZis 10.1 5.2
Pomacentrus jenkinsi 8.13
Unid. 8.13 10.1

Scombridae: Auxis sp. 10.1
T. obesus 10.1 10.4
Serranidae: Thunnus albacares 8.13 10.1

Stomiatoid: 40.4 10.4

Tetraodontidae: Crystallodytes cookei 20.2 5.2

Unidentified 8.13 10.1 36.4
Unidentified .11 8.13 10.4
Unidentified #6 7.46
K2 7.46
K3

TOTAL 125.0 125.8 141.7 406.5 414.2 218.8

Individuals is 21 19 51 42 42
Species 2 2 5 18 19 17

Volume Filtered (M3) 120 167 134 123 99 192
volume Factor (1 per sample X per 1,000 m3) 8.33 5.99 7.46 8.13 10.10 5 .21

B-10

DISCUSSION

In general, there was very little overlap in species caught

between the surface neuston tows and the oblique tows. The

common surface-caught larvae belonged to the families Atherinidae

(Rr.anaaua inaulAium, liao), Blenniidae (blennies), Gobiidae

(gobies), Exocoetidae (flying fish), and Hemiramphidae (half

beak), none of which are of direct economic importance. The large

variations in numbers caught in successive replicate tows, be-

tween the three stations, and on the two dates attest to the

great variability in space and time of the distributions of these

larvae.

The oblique tows caught many more species than the surface

tows. While the maximum number of species present in any surface

tow was six, the oblique tows usually contained more that ten

species, and on several occasions as many as eighteen species.

Many of these species were either mesopelagic (Myctophidae,

Melanostomiatidae, Gonostomatidae) or common reef species

(Apogonidae). The larvae of the species of direct commercial

importance (Carangidae - jacks; Scombridae - tuna) generally were

most abundant at the offshore station, and while the numbers of

scombrids did not change significantly between the two sampling

dates, the number of carangids caught increased by a factor of

ten between July and August samplings. Mean abundances (and

standard deviations of the means) for the Carangidae'and

Scombridae at each station for the two sampling dates are

presented below.

B-11

Table 7. Larval fish abundance per 1000 m3 (mean � I standard
deviation)

2-uti" 2combLi-dae _C..U;AnZjdae

7/27 8/27 7/27 8/27

1 11.5 8.2 8.8 1.13 0 11.6 9.9

2 7.3 2.0 9.3 6.6 2.8 2.1 20.8 9.9

3 15.3 4.8 13.6 12.6 2.3 1.6 28.1 17.8

B-12

FINAE

mot..
rrr,TT 171

HAILE
-25

HAILE POINT

FORFICS NORTH STATION

o*--o,o*rEC DENCHmnRK
SITE 2
NRNFIKULI ISLRND
OF
ORHIJ

KSHE POINT

2 10 Larval Fish Sampling Stations
-20, 2 --t 0
o,@O'OTEC BENCHMRRK
3--rO SITE I

BARBERS POINT
LIGHTHOUSE

1580

Figure B-1. Location of larval fish sampling stations and 010TEC
Benchmark Site locations (Noda, et al., 1982).

APPENDIX C

ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Offshore Impacts, Their Mitigation
and Regulation

Prepared by D. L. Callies for Parsons Hawaii
August 1981

MEMORANDUM

TO: Parsons Hawaii

FROM: David L. Callies
Professor of Law
University of Hawaii at Manoa
IN RE: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Onshore Impacts, Their
Mitigation and Regulation

I. INTRODUCTION

This memorandum fulfills a commitment to the State of Hawaii Depart-
ment of Planning and Economic Development via Parsons Hawaii to produce a
draft report on certain issues regarding the impact of the construction and
operation of OTEC facilities in Hawaii's coastal waters. The contract with
Parsons (Purchase Order No. 6174-3-PRO01) is based upon a proposal made to
Mr. Kent Keith, Deputy Director of the Department of Planning and Economic
Development setting out the potential relevance of oil/gas platform develop-
ment and deployment in Scotland and, to a lesser extent, in Houston and New
Orleans to Hawaii's potential OTEC program. This memorandum is therefore
organized around the issues raised in the noted proposal and deals pri-
marily with the land use impacts of the various phases of oil/gas explora-
tion, platform construction and development of resources. It is based on
the assumption that Hawaii will go to an offshore as opposed to a shore-
based facility or facilities for the development of OTEC as an alternate
energy resource. Therefore, it deals primarily with the visual impact of
platforms during construction and the plans and regulations promulgated in
an attempt to reduce impacts as much as possible. No attempt has made to
assess the visual impact of such platforms in place (at a drill site) as
the closest was a nearly invisible 17 miles offshore. Technical environ-
mental data are beyond the scope of this investigation.

As detailed in the attachments and references, this memorandum is
based upon interviews conducted and materials gathered in June and July of
1981, principally in Scotland and elsewhere in the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and through extensive correspondence and preliminary literature
survey conducted in March, April and May 1981, in contemplation of and
preparation for the trip. Citations and references follow the format of
informal academic papers: last name of author or interview source. Full
references are listed in the Bibliographic Reference at the end of the
memorandum.

A. Assumptions and Scope

1. OTEC and the Likelihood of Adverse Visual Impact.

The OTEC process relies primarily on the temperature dif-
ferences between warm surface water and cold deeper water to produce elec-
tric energy by using the warm water to vaporize a fluid which then drives a
gas turbine. The vapor is then condensed by the cold deep water and re-
cycled back to be vaporized again by the warm water. This so-called closed
cycle form of operation (open cycle uses sea water), the one utilized in
Hawaii, may apparently be either shore-based or offshore based, but the
primary - indeed the only, to the author's knowledge - method of using this
technology appears to be offshore based, either bottom-resting, floating,
or moored to the bottom. Presumably the bottom-resting type, which is most
similar to present oil/gas platform types, will perforce be located in
water which is shallower than a moored facility. The latter may not,
however, be able to sustain the same amount of equipment or men. Both
types require a reasonably long vertical shaft, but it is the author's
understanding that this shaft will most likely be shorter than either the
supports for the bottom-resting type or the moored type of OTEC plant. In
any event, Hawaii's principal experiments have been conducted from a barge
or boat which most closely resembles the moored type, though it is possible
that significant development of this resource will rely on the bottom-
resting type, which looks very like an oil exploration or production plat-
form (Harms/Gutshall).

In either event, while pollution concerns associated with
oil and gas exploration and production are not likely to be issues, it is
clear that considerable visual impact may be foreseen in both the construc-
tion and "production" phases of OTEC power generation, though it is possi-
ble that a moored facility might require less visual disruption than a
platform resting on the bottom of the seabed. As described in some detail
below, the primary concern of such impact would be on the quality of view
disruption for residents and tourists from Hawaii's famous beaches and
other coastal areas and, to a lesser extent, from its mountains. If it
seems appropriate to construct an OTEC platform of either type in Hawaii
(because of the number of platforms needed either for Hawaii or as part of
a new OTEC facility-producing industry or because of the costs to produce
one elsewhere and tow it to Hawaii) then, as described in more detail
below, it will be necessary to identify a protected bay-like environment
for such a construction site. Although there are substantial employment
and commercial advantages, potentially, for so doing, even an exploration
rig for the oil industry is usually several hundred feet in height, owing
to the need for a structure that both reaches (or in the case of a moored
facility, reaches part way) the ocean floor and extends above the surface
far enough so that the largest of the recorded waves in the area of expected
operation will pass beneath the working platform itself (once estimated to
be in excess of 60 feet in Hawaii). Therefore, also as set out in more
detail below, depending upon whether the platform is likely to be made of
concrete - which is constructed in an upright fashion - or steel - which is

-2-

constructed on its side and then tipped upright at the operation site - an
OTEC platform construction site, during at least part of any construction
period (which may range from a few months to several years depending upon
the size of the platform) will be several stories high - and therefore
highly visible for long periods of time.
Once in place, such platforms will almost certainly be
visible from great distances, though the visual intrusion may be greatest
from nearby beaches, headlands, cliffs and.mountains (see photographs of
steel platform at Nigg Bay). Owing to the relatively steep falling away of
the ocean bed and the tremendous depths of the ocean just a short way from
most of Hawaii's coast, it is likely that such platforms, once in place,
will be relatively close to the shore, where the energy produced can be
quickly, easily, and less expensively transmitted to shore for use. It is,
of course, conceivable that an entirely shore-based OTEC facility can be
constructed that, while having about the same visual impact as a conven-
tional power plant (Harms/Gutshall), would nonetheless be less visually
prominent and from many fewer places. However, the author is not aware of
any experience with such shore-based OTEC facilities. While such platform
construction became a tourist attraction in Scotland, where most tourists
come for inland rather than coastal amenities, it is difficult to conceive
of anyone coming to Hawaii, where most tourism is directed toward beach and
beach views, to see an offshore platform.

There are, finally, a series of secondary coastal impacts
that will flow from offshore OTEC technology, the degree of which will
largely depend upon the level of construction and number of OTEC production
sites ultimately developed. As noted in more detail in the discussion of
the Scottish experience, the construction phase, which may be quite long
depending upon whether platforms are constructed for Hawaii only or for a
Pacific Basin market, should one develop, is reasonably labor-intensive.
Often, subsidiary fabrication and storage facilities spring up nearby. The
labor force must be housed, families fed, and children educated. This may
entail a shift in population centers during this phase. Moreover, during
the production phase, the platforms must be manned and maintained. This
means boats, crews and terminals, that may not presently be available in
the right place or in sufficient quantity.

2. The Oil/Gas Industry Analogy and Lack of OTEC Experience.

Except for the pilot projects that have proved so highly
successful in demonstrating electrical energy production, there does not
appear to be any significant OTEC development elsewhere to which one can
turn for guidance on visual coastal land-use impacts of the OTEC energy
production process, in either the construction or the production phase.
This is largely confirmed by conferences with various governmental and
academic departments dealing with alternative energy as well as oil/gas
exploration in Scotland and elsewhere in the United Kingdom. However, that
part of' the oil/gas development industry that relies primarily on ocean
exploration and production facilities is analagous, as reading (Lewis and

-3-

McNicoll) and interviews (Mackenzie, Pickett, MacLeary, Henderson, Cameron)
confirm. Both require a construction (whether of exploration or production
platforms) phase, to produce the main structure to be utilized. Then, both
contemplate a production phase, to tap the energy resource, in or over
ocean water of reasonable depth. In both, construction is usually reason-
ably near the eventual site of production. In both, some servicing, moni-
toring and maintenance will be necessary so long as the platform is in
place. It is interesting to note in passing that whereas an OTEC plat-
form's "life" is probably measured in terms of its ability to "last," an
exploration or production platform's life is sharply curtailed by the
quantity of oil and gas produced from the site. Surprisingly, there are
apparently no plans for the multiple use of these platforms. They are
designed to be blown up and sunk at the end of their useful life, despite
the fact that they cost tens of millions of dollars each to fabricate and
set in place, and that, at least in theory, the steel variety could be cut
loose and towed elsewhere (though corrosion may be a factor in such deci-
sions). . 1

3. Oil/Gas Technology in Brief.

As noted above, the principle points of analogy between OTEC
and oil/gas technology is in the construction, placement, use for produc-
tion and monitor-service-maintenance of an ocean platform. There is nothing
analagous to the exploration phase of the oil/gas industry for OTEC in
terms of time and equipment, except to the extent that a small rig of the
type normally used for exploration rather than a production platform might
be sufficient for a level of OTEC energy production.

4
For the rig, capable of operating, say, in depths of up to
300 feet (more if it is of the semi-submersible variety) a crew of 50 to 60
men with a variety of equipment to permit it to be moved about and drill is
typical. Modifying it for OTEC, one could presumably still expect the
following equipment aside from the structure itself to be needed: (Lewis
and McNicoll)

Accommodation modules
Derricks/cranes for bringing on supplies and equipment
Heliport and/or docking facility
Radio/radar equipment
Miscellaneous pipes and valves
Miscellaneous electrical and pumping equipment

Personnel that would be needed from the usual list: (Lewis and McNicoll)

Engineer
Control room operator
Derrick/crane men
Electrician
Plumber
Radio operator
Maintenance man
Roustabouts
Galley man
Welder

-4-

The more a moored-type of structure were used, which would
be similar to new oil/gas platform technology of the tethered bouyant
platform (TBP) variety, the more it would resemble the above description of
the exploration rig, without the motors and ability to move about. The
larger rigs, capable of operating at greater depths, would involve, pre-
sumably, only a marginal increment in crew for maintenance, but would be
longer in the construction phase. These operate presently in the North Sea
at depths up to 700 to 800 feet. Examples follow in Part II in the discus-
sion of Scotland. (Lewis and McNicoll; Henderson; MacKenzie).
The construction phase is the most labor-intensive and
consists of the design, construction and delivery and erection of the
platform itself. While its outfitting (see list above) may spin off suf-
ficient subsidiary commercial ventures to have an onshore impact, most of
the equipment is readily available elsewhere in the world and is of suffi-
cient high technology that it may be difficult to commercially justify
similar operations in Hawaii. The construction phase would entail the
laying out and building of a yard adjacent to a well-protected bay suffi-
cient to construct platforms. If concrete, which rest on the seabed when
in place usually by virtue of their own weight, then considerable depth to
test (2200 up to 600 feet) and set them up for towing is needed. As they
are constructed vertically, the concrete platforms are, unless screened by
mountains, usually visible from great distances as they will be 20 stories
or more in height in the last phases of construction (though far less
visible when in place). If steel, less depth of bay is required (about 50
feet) as these are both constructed and towed to the site horizontally
though much longer horizontal area is accordingly needed to assemble t@e
larger ones, (as will appear from the discussion below on the behemoth
being constructed at Nigg Bay in the Scottish Highlands), as compared to
the concrete ones once assembled at Loch Kishorn in a popular coastal area
on Scotland's scenic west coast (Nigg Bay is on the less scenic, east
coast). As noted before, the latter became a tourist attraction of some
repute, and was in addition fairly well-shielded visually by steep moun-
tains from much visual disruption. It is also worth pointing out that some
backup facilities and services will be needed in the form of roads, water
and sewer hookups, electricity and the like.

4. The Choice of Sites.
readinc The choice of sites was largely dictated by the author's
1 and writing contacts as well as some earlier travel plans to which
this project was joined. Scotland in particular has a wealth of experience
with the fabrication and placing of dozens of rigs, from the mammoth (700-
plus feet) production platforms at Nigg (steel) Lock Kishorn (concrete) and
Cruden Bay, to the smaller production and exploration rigs at Cruden Bay
and Ardesier. There is also much experience with onshore terminal facil-
ities in the Shetland and Orkney Islands. All have experienced consider-
able secondary impacts - development of housing, related commercial enter-
prises, some infrustructure strain. While much of the work force eventu-
ally came from outside the immediate community for the construction phases

-5-

(most of which have now been ongoing for ten years or so), the workers are
for the most part Scottish or, at worst, northern English or Irish, so that
the jobs created did benefit the regional population which had construc-
tion-related skills. Much of the special equipment, on the other hand,
came not only from outside Scotland but outside Great Britain altogether.
Nevertheless, as appears below, the local populations nearest the construc-
tion sites were by and large favorably disposed to their location, pri-
marily because of the expected and realized employment and other economic
benefits, even in the areas partially dependent upon tourism. Indeed, one
expert remarked in the course of our conversation that OTEC platform con-
struction seemed to him to be a potentially "nice industry for Hawaii"
(Mackenzie). As noted above, however, Scotland has no experience with
permanently affixed platforms offshore as the nearest is barely visible at
12 miles offshore Helmsdale. However, what was done to explore, discuss
and mitigate the substantial impact of such structures in the fabrication
stage, (where they are often far more visible being often totally out of
the water which otherwise covers at least 80 percent of their bulk), is
well worth the analysis that follows in Part II. The following is a sum-
mary of salient points that surfaced during a brief literature and onsite
investigation, rather than an in-depth study and analysis, which may well
be worth doing if Hawaii is going to proceed with OTEC, but which would
take several weeks longer to complete, in Scotland alone, as noted in the
conclusory section.

II. SCOTLAND: VISUAL IMPACT OF PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION IN PART OF ANOTHER
ISLAND STATE IN COASTAL AREAS

A. Relevant Oil and Gas Industrial DevelopmeVt in Scotland: An
Overview

The finding of vast oil and,gas reserves in the North Sea and the
proximity and availability of sites from which to seek out, develop and
service production wells in Scotland resulted in the transformation of much
of Scotland's coastal population centers, as well as some previously
isolated and sparsely populated areas. By the close of the first decade of
development, upwards of 60,000 jobs were created in 14 communities, of
which nearly 50,000 still remain (Lyddon; North Sea Information Sheet).
While most of this development occurred in and around the less scenic and
more proximate (to the production areas in the North Sea) east coast cities
(Dundee, Aberdeen, Inverness) nevertheless substantial development also
occurred in the Clyde Firth, and at Loch Kishorn for construction of plat-
forms (see discussion below) as well as the remote Orkney and Shetland
Islands to the north (see below). Indeed, by February of 1981, over 6,000
people were employed in building platforms alone, with an additional 19,000
employed in services such as catering, marine transport, warehousing, and
inspection. Less than a quarter of the total employed were engaged in the
so-called primary industry of exploration and production - the two cate-
gories less relevant, incidentally, to Hawaii (Fact Sheet).

-6-

The major land-impacting development that is most like the type
that could similarly affect Hawaii appear to be as follows:

1. Inverness (including east coast Nigg Bay and surrounding
firths): Steel platform construction, backup services and
steel fabrication.

2. Peterhead (east coast): Service and repair base for explora-
tion rigs.
3. Abe-rdeen (east coast): Regional headquarters for a number
of oil firms; offshore service base; huge influx of related
industry fabrication or warehousing (pipes, etc.).

4. St. Fergus (east coast): Petrochemical with some service of
offshore exploration.
5. Cruden Bay (east coast): Shore transfer terminal - vaguely
similar to what might come ashore from OTEC platform to
deliver electricity - entirely hidden under dunes and golf
course with the exception of two pump tanks.

6. Dundee (east coast): Offshore service base and module
faFr-ication center.

7. Flotta (Orkney Islands): Receiving terminals and plants.

8. Sullom Voe (Shetlands): Terminals.

9. Loch Kishorn (west coast scenic area): Concrete platform
construction.

10. Clyde Estuary (west coast): Concrete platform construction.

Each of these is discussed either individually or in the context
of particular issues below.

B. The Planning Control Context: An Overview

Land use planning in all of the United Kingdom of Great Britain,
including Scotland, is governed by the national Town and Country Planning
Acts, the latest principle version of which was promulgated in 1980, though
for purposes of this discussion, little of consequence happened since 1968
(Callies, Callies and Garner, Young, Moore, Heap, Cullingworth). Basi-
cally, no development is permitted without specific planning permission
from the local government in whose jurisdiction the proposed development is
to take place. Up until 1981, this was nearly without exception and
general classes of permissions which were automatically deemed to be granted

-7-

for certain classes of development were virtually unheard of. (Recently,
these last have been expanded and, in certain economically and physically
deteriorated areas, called enterprise zones, land use controls will be
virtually lifted altogether.) Thus, while certain broadly worded struc-
tural plans (similar to Hawaii's State Plan, Act 100) and narrowly drawn
and mapped development plans (similar to Hawaii's County Development Plans)
are in theory to guide the local governments in granting (or not) planning
permission, there is no legal requirement that the local government be
bound by the contents of either document, although there is a risk of being
overridden by the central government's Secretary of State for the Environ-
ment on individual decisions. At certain stages of the planning permission
hearing and application process, various parties have rights to demand a
public inquiry, a sort of full-blown, long and expensive public hearing to
thresh out most of the issues (Young, Fisher). This usually occurs when
certain major objections are officially made.and unresolved.

In any event, as the land-based developments associated with
oil/gas exploration were rightly expected to be large and with major impacts
of a land use nature, the Secretary of State as Planning Minister for
Scotland directed that all major oil-related developments should be ulti-
mately referred to him so that he could make the final decision "if neces-
sary" (Lyddon), although the initial application did in fact go to the
appropriate local government authority first. Between 1970 and 1979, 78
such major applications were made, and although some (including seven oil
refineries and a dozen platform construction yards) were never built and in
some cases never approved, five major oil and gas terminals, 11 platform
yards, five major pipelines and 54 other developments were so approved
without either major objections or public inquiry (Lyddon). Of the four
public inquiries that were held, all involved platform construction yard
applications in sensitive, scenic west coast regions (Lyddon).

A prime tool in keeping down the level of objection and provision
of national guidance to local governments as to what would be nationally
acceptable development where, was the series of National Planning Guide-
lines issued to set area development priorities. The Guidelines form the
basis for the Secretary of State's assessment of developments which are
thought to raise national issues, and are to be taken into account by local
governments in both the preparation of plans and the execution of develop-
ment policies. General guidance is set out for large-scale industry,
agriculture, forestry, nature conservation, landscape and recreation, and
the coast. Further more detailed guidelines were issued for specific
subject areas, and in 1974, such a set was issued entitled North Sea Oil
and Gas Coastal Planning Guidelines. Noting that the pressure of such
developments clearly demonstrated the need for national policy guidelines
on the way in which such developments should take place, the central govern-
ment provided that certain areas should be designated as "preferred develop-
ment zones" where such development should be appropriate and should be
encouraged, and "preferred conservation zones" areas of particular national
scenic, environmental or ecological importance in which such development
would, in general, be inappropriate and justifiable "only in exceptional

-8-

circumstances." For the latter, the central government relied on an offi-
cial coastal survey which set out the resources of the Scottish coast. The
government noted that the zones did not always conform with local land use
plans and directed that they should not be regarded as rigid. In setting
out the criteria used to make the zone designations, the Guidelines noted
that to some extent the government was forced to compromise between a
scenic area and the particular needs of industry for platform construction
(deep and weather-protected bays).

The Guidelines then specifically designated 16 preferred develop-
ment zones, including Aberdeen, Peterhead, the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the
Clyde area, Dundee - indeed most of the areas actually developed. It then
set out 22 preferred conservation zones, including some very near to, or
identical with, some areas that were in part developed, such as the Black
Isle across from the major development at Nigg Bay near Inverness, and
St. Fergus, whose fine sand beach and high dunes were in fact preserved as
noted above and below. Noting that any intrusion into the zones would have
to be justified by compelling arguments, including a demonstration that no
suitable sites existed "outwith a preferred conservation zone," the Guide-
lines designated virtually the whole of the west coast for a distance of
1,100 miles a conservation zone. Hence the need for an inquiry concerning
the concrete platform yard eventually permitted at Loch Kishorn near the
Isle of Skye. To some extent the designations were aided by the designa-
tion of much of the north Highland area as Areas of Great Scenic Beauty,
the closest one can come to a national park (there are none) in Scotland.
In general, the following guidelines were used in designations:

1. A coastline with scientific, ecological or scenic features
which would be vulnerable to development.

2. Particular sections of the coastline where an existing or
proposed use would be incompatible with major oil and gas
developments.

3. Areas of the coast containing small scale communities whose
expansion might cause serious economic and social problems.

4. Areas of the coast with towns and villages whose character
should be protected.

5. Tourist and recreation areas or other places where develop-
ments other than major industrial processes should have
priority.

While the Planning Guidelines provided considerable guidance for
shore-related oil/gas development, it is worth noting that national con-
servation-preservation designations are common to Scotland under other
legal authority, as is the case in all of Great Britain. Thus, while the
central government failed to authorize the designation of any national
parks in Scotland, it did authorize first the designation of Areas of Great
Landscape Value (AGL's), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSI's) and, in

-9-

the late 1970's, National-Scenic AReas (NSA's). Development in any of
these areas cannot simply be permitted by the usually all-powerful local
authority. The statutorily created Countryside Commission, the guardian of
the national countryside, must, by recent regulation and statute, review
all development for which local planning permission is granted in such
area, and in the event of a dispute between the Countryside Commission and
the local authority over the manner or placement of such development, the
matter goes to the Secretary of State for the Environment for resolution.
By 1981, the NSA designations alone covered 20 percent of the Scottish
Highlands. There is evidence that while such large percentages may be
popular in England and elsewhere in Scotland, it is resented in areas of
low employment and-economic activity where the local population would
prefer a more even balancing of conservation against economic activity.
They do not see themselves as a "green lung" for the rest of the United
Kingdom (Cameron).

There was also much use of reports and impact analyses, some 54
being completed in the first nine years (Lyddon).

C. The System in Practice: The Handling of Specific Projects

Much of,the development relating to such oil/gas construction
activity as might relate to Hawaii has taken place - as the Guidelines
suggested - in Scotland's comparatively less attractive and less tourist-
oriented east coast. With the exception of St. Fergus noted above and
below, comparatively little effort was made to mitigate the visual effects
of this development.

1. The Orkney Islands and Flotta.

An exception of sorts is Flotta in the Orkneys. As noted
previously, the development there consists not of platform construction,
but of facilities needed to bring ashore and process petroleum products.
While there would certainly be differences from the onshore facilities
needed for transferring energy from an offshore OTEC platform, nonetheless
there are some striking parallels as well. The Orkneys are offshore
islands, for the most part sparsely populated, flat and barren, making any
sizable structure visible for some distance. Moreover, climate and soil is
such that the planting of large trees to screen such developments would be
impossible. The structures themselves, both storage tanks and others,
could be expected to be several stories high and several hundred feet long.
Before planning permission was eventually granted, therefore, several
interesting techniques were employed in order to mitigate, if not elimi-
nate, the visual intrusion:

a. By means of models and computer checks, various visual
profiles were devised for potential sites of the struc-
ture, and the ones chosen were those which apparently
best reduced the apparent size of the structures through
.use of berms, fill, lower land areas, and the grouping

_10-

of the structures so as to blur their hard edges and
separate definition from as many viewpoints as possi-
ble.

b. Chips of various paint colors were laid on color photo-
graphs of the site, and the least prominent were then
placed on large panels at the site, so that colors
which most blended with the typical heather moors could
be chosen to reduce the prominence of the structures.

C. What bushes and grasses that would grow in the areas
were planted on the site, especially on the berms and
other areas where the soil was disturbed and exposed.

The social impact of new technology and the influx - even
temporarily - of, thousands of workers into an area of traditional crafts
and husbandry with a population of around 1,700 was substantially mitigated
by choosing the relatively uninhabited island of Flotta, with a total
population of 73, for the major development. While there was therefore
major disruption there, it was sufficiently isolated from the other islands
so as to comparatively minimize impact to the rest of the Orkneys. Indeed,
it has been observed that, as the population on Flotta had declined from
425 to 73 in the past 100 years, the development of the terminal facilities
may well have prevented Flotta from becoming wholly uninhabited in a few
years (Robertson). The main facilities - berths both adjacent to the
shoreline at Scapa Flow and offshore single mooring bouys for supertankers-
presently employ approximately 90 people, two-thirds of which are local
(Wave Generation Report).

2. Loch Kishorn and the Construction of Concrete Platforms in
a Designated Conservation Area.

The concrete platform construction yard at Loch Kishorn is
one of 'two proposed on the scenic west coast of Scotland in an area of
striking natural beauty (inland-directed) and consequently high tourist
attraction and value. The second, near Drambuie, never received permission
after a full-blown planning inquiry, largely because the National Trust
decided such use of its land at the site would be contrary to the terms of
its duties as landowners (Pickett). However, the Howard-Doris platform
construction site at Loch Kishorn was approved. An Environmental Impact
Assessment made in early 1977 identified several adverse impacts, most of
them visual:

-quarrying of gravel nearby for construction
-construction of a dock
-wet site for platform tower formation
-noise
-lights at night (night work)

The platform towers themselves have the biggest visual
impact. The last one was 650 feet high when finished, although such plat-
forms are at that height for only a small part of the construction period,
and at lesser but nonetheless intrusive heights for considerable additional
periods. Of a more permanent nature: several cranes at 120 feet and a
main building at 85 feet.

But as the Impact Assessment makes abundantly clear, the
visual impact, while substantial, is very localized due to steeply sloping
hills into the Loch itself. It is the local community that is principally
affected, and interviews conducted with the local population indicated
almost no unfavorable reaction. This is perhaps attributable to the
already noted local view that amenities ought to be balanced with the need
for economic development and jobs. Indeed there is some evidence that the
platform construction yard, and especially the huge platforms themselves,
became something of a tourist attraction. While the construction yard
employed 1,700 at its peak, most were from outside the immediate area,
though for the most part within Scotland itself (Pickett; Wave Energy
Generation Report).

3. The Shetland Islands and Sullom Voe.

Sullom Voe in the Shetland Islands represents another oil
terminal development. Temporary construction workers number about 2,000,
mostly from outside the Shetlands, requiring, incidentally, about 550 extra
housing units (those for Flotta were temporarily housed in workers' camps).
Population accordingly rose from 700 to over 3,000 during construction.
(Wave Energy Generation Report). As in the Orkneys, the visual impact, is
limited due to the isolation of the islands (Bisset). The impact on tradi-
tional lifestyles and products such as Shetland woolens is affected, though
by how much is not clear. While women are said to neglect their knitting
in favor of higher-paying cleaning jobs, and infrastructure is said to be
strained. (Paget and Lloyd), it is not clear that this is anything more than
a temporary shift the money from which will enable locals to undertake
private capital improvements to property and make other "one-shot" pur-
chases during these relatively good times (Pickett, Mackenzie).

4. Clyde Estuary: Anatomy of Multi-Site Impact Analysis.

In the mid-1970s it became clear that a prime site for the
construction of platforms would be the Clyde Estuary near Glasgow. The
Scottish Development Department and the Department of Energy commissioned
an impact analysis of the construction of such platforms at 16 possible
sites (Holmes). Indeed, it was suggested that by heavily utilizing the
Clyde, with its relative proximity to Glasgow, other more scenic areas
could be spared altogetheri While this was rejected by the authors of the
Report on the ground that what scenic areas there were in the Clyde Estuary
were more important that those elsewhere on the west coast (because the
Clyde was near to so many more people and, therefore, the impact could be
said to be greater), nevertheless the sheer number of the sites considered
clearly indicate the level of expected development.

-12-

As with the other sites, social and economic impacts were
discussed, including the likely spin-off for the cement industry if plat-
forms made of concrete were constructed in the area. However, for our
purposes, the major points of interest have to do with the concentration on
visual impact.
It was first noted that the Clyde Estuary was characterized
by varying degrees of steep coastal inlets. Sufficient water depth per-
mitting, the preferable sites from a visual perspective would be those
which were both as remote as possible from population centers and as hemmed
in as possible by higher land forms, thus restricting the view of the
platforms from as many points and to as few people as possible. There was
great skepticism expressed concerning the likelihood of platforms between
450 and 800 feet in height continuing to be tourist attractions, and about
the return of tourism, once negatively affected for a period of years,
after the period of platform construction came to an end.

The Report considered the visual impact of a platform in its
construction stage on the estuary and effect on the character of the
landscape. Only three other major factors dealing with land (transporta-
tion, retention of agriculture, and reinstatement of the site) were dis-
cussed in detail. The Report then analyzed each of the 16 sites, often
sketching the platform as it would appear in its most intrusive phase
against the particular landscape. All critical land use factors, including
nearby historic, scientific, scenic and other critical environmental
factors, were placed on a location map of the area. A "site visual con-
tainment boundary" was drawn around each site, together with contours and
screening potential. Then the various major criteria were subdivided and
ranked, and matrices devised showing, first, the ranking of each site in
each category, and then the ranking of the sites by the sum of all cate-
gories. While highly subjective, the exercise represents a reasonable
manner in which to rank sites for such visually intrusive developments
provided there is a choice as to location. It is not clear there is such a
choice of locations for potential OTEC platforms in Hawaii.

5. Cruden Bay: What Impact?

Located on one of the few areas regarded as scenic enough to
warrant protection on Scotland's east coast, St. Fergus represents an
example of how to design an onshore terminal to make it as visually unob-
trusive as possible. The major pipelines from the production areas onto
the shore pass beneath both fragile dune areas and a golf course, with nary
an indication that they are there, except for the presence of two pump
station tank-like structures.

6. Inverness-Nigg: What Bay?

The contrast with the platform (steel) construction yard and
storage facilities at Nigg Bay could not be more pronounced. The construc-
tion there of one of the world's largest steel platforms, though lying on

-13-

its side, dominates the bay which is otherwise scenic, from virtually any
vantage point (see photographs attached). It is not, however, visible from
Inverness itself, but only from scattered communities up and down the bay,
so that while the visual intrusion for those who can see it for miles
around is great, those numbers are small. That intrusion, however, is
very, very great.

7. Peterhead: Impact, yes, but then, whats to save?

The exploration rigs are not nearly so large as the platform
at Nigg, though they are dozens of feet high in a community with little
else over four stories. The contrast between the north side of the harbor
where small boat fishing predominates, and the south side where the rigs
are, is pronounced, and visible from any point on the bay itself (see
attached photographs), and for a few miles around, though often not from
the town itself which spills gently down a hill in many parts to the sea,
often down narrow streets with few views anyway. Moreover, it would be
difficult to find much redeeming charm in Peterhead on even a good day,
which is not common in this part of Scotland. It therefore can be argued
that the choice for such facilities here, though both visually intrusive
and smack against a population center, is a good one. This should be
contrasted with St. Fergus, which has little there except oil facilities,
no particular scenery different from other parts of the east coast, and
little in the way of nearby roads from which the development is particularly
extraordinarily visible.

8. Dundee and Aberdeen.

Both of these are regional centers of population which have
grown substantially due to the impact of the North Sea oil/gas industries
for which they serve as headquarters and manufacturing centers, though the
former is in decline. As a result, while a great deal is visible from the
water front, little is visible from elsewhere. Of course, neither is as
sea-oriented as it once was, and tourism focuses not so much on their
immediate beach areas (though nearby beaches they have, which are used a
good deal locally and regionally for holidays) but on various historic
aspects of the towns themselves - their old areas - or on long estuaries
from which the oil/gas facilities are but dimly visible, if at all. Thus,
crossing the British Rail bridge across the river estuary into Dundee, one
is aware of substantial harbor and dock facilities in the distance, but not
of any particularly intrusive structure. Of course, neither is presently
constructing large platforms in the city environs. (Ardesier is a few
miles distant).

III. TEXAS AND LOUISIANA: A CURSORY OVERVIEW

Texas and Louisiana represent states in which major oil companies have
engaged in considerable offshore exploration, drilling and production for
decades (Riley). Discussions with oil company executives, together with
comments from a few independent experts, indicates they have done so largely

-14-

free of regulation. Not surprisingly, oil exploration and production
platforms and the odd onshore facility are by and large regarded posi-
tively, as signs of growth and progress. Significantly, much of the
equipment is located either in areas not generally regarded as tourist-
oriented or scenically valuable by the residents most impacted, or they are
sufficiently far offshore to be visually irrelevant. No one reported being
subject to a regulatory regime which hindered location or size of either
construction or placement of oil exploration and production equipment.
However, information gathered is sketchy and often second hand in these
locations, as visits were confined to one-day "stop overs."

A. Louisiana

There is considerable activity in Louisiana both in the fabri-
cation of oil exploration and extractive equipment and its location in
coastal regions. Those interviewed appeared to have considerable experi-
ence in dealing with platforms and other exploration/production equipment.
It was suggested that OTEC in Hawaii could use the semi-submersible type of
platform widely used in lengths excee-ding, say, 1,500 feet, tethered to the
bottom by up to eight anchor cables. It was pointed out, however, that
such platformsi while stable and large, were expensive and that perhaps
Hawaii could make do with a vessel similar to a drillship instead. This
could have several advantages:

1. Cost. Much less than the least expensive platform.

2. Reliability. Could move to optimal temperature conditions
for OTEC process, disclosed via computer-linked sensors. As
there is no need to remain fixed to a precise given area on
the ocean floor, the stability afforded by a platform might
not be necessary. It was pointed out that it takes at least
three days to move a tethered semi-submersible platform.

3. Less Visual Interference. A more acceptable sight on the
Fa-waiian seascape.

There may, however, be disadvantages:

1. Interruption of Service. While such vessels are very sea-
worthy, they must often be disconnected in the event of a
storm, both to manuever and to get out of its path. Semi-
submersibles are relatively impervious to ocean storms,
constructed as they are to an operational platform height
above the highest wave generated by a 100-year storm.
2. Size. It is not altogether clear that an offshore ship
could hold sufficient equipment for an OTEC facility which
could produce a significant percentage of energy.
Trade publications, together with slides provided by contacts at
AMOCO, demonstrate the visual effects of both ship and semi-submersible
pl a tform.

-15-

B Texas

As in Louisiana, Texas appears generally to welcome platform
construction and placement (indeed all energy industrial activity) wherever
placed. Except for the long gulf coast barrier island that is Padre Island,
there is little coastal tourism in Texas, especially for non-Texans. The
Texas altitude toward the gulf coast coastal zone is perhaps best exempli-
fied by a recent reconsideration of participation in the Federal Coastal
Zone Management Program, in which Hawaii is a recognized leader. Padre
Island is probably in a reasonable state of preservation due to its federal
designation as a National Seashore.

Nevertheless, the oil industry appears to have done a reasonably
thorough job in preparing environmental impact assessments for certain of
its projects (OCS EIS; Mid-Atlantic Regional Study).

These tend to discuss principally nonvisual attributes of the
projects being proposed, however, and so are of little value as models for
assessing such impacts in Hawaii. On the other hand, the EISs go exten-
sively into probable socio-economic effects. These, together with studies
such as the Rice Center Sabine Pass Economic Base Analysis and the Conoco
"Reference for Operating Managers" pr6-v-idean excellent format for assess-
ing the likely impact of an OTEC platform producing facility in Hawaii.
The former is particularly strong on assessing employment potential.

Conversation with an industry representative indicates that an
indigenous OTEC platform construction industry would be relatively unob-
trusive only if the platforms were very modest in size.

ARCO's district engineer was good enough to prov ide pictures of
typical facilities, two of the most pertinent of which are attached.

IV. ALTERNATIVES TO OTEC: WAVE ENERGY AND PUMPED STORAGE

Hawaii is a leader in a variety of alternative energy sources.
Indeed, most sources interviewed expressed interest not only in learning
more about the State's OTEC experiments, but also its wind energy and
geothermal production. However, two additional techniques have received
considerable attention in Scotland and Wales, respectively: Wave Energy
and Pumped Storage.

A. Wave Energy

In Scotland in particular, the use of energy generated by various
devices floating upon or just beneath waves is a matter of considerable
interest and investigation at a number of institutions (Implications of
Wave Energy Generation). Among the more popular:
1. Salters (Nodding) Ducks.

A string of vanes on a central core, each string 1,040 m
long parallel to the waves. Energy derived from oscillation of the waves.

-16-

Each "duck" to be 24 m long, 20 m high with a 20-m draft, weighing 250,000
tons (concrete) each.

2. Cockerells Contouring Rafts.
Series of hinged rafts in lines at right angles to waves.
Energy derived from movement between hin es 2,500 units, each 50 m long,
7 m high, with a 3-m draft, 15,000 tons ?con'crete) each.
3. NELs Air Pressure Buoy (Oscillating Water Column).

A vessel with open end under water. Rise and fall of
internal water level forces a reservoir of air through a turbine. 100 each
143 m long, 52 m high, 25.5-m draft, 95,000 tons (concrete) each.

4. Russell Rectifier.

On seabed, two compartments. Valves from one to the other
create a head which will drive a turbine as water runs from higher to
lower. 1,400, each 140 m long, 63 m high, at 175,000 tons (concrete) each.

The best wave activity is estimated to be an area about 8 miles
west of the Hebrides and over a hundred miles long. It is estimated it
would take about two to three weeks to moor the units, and 20 monitoring
substations at about 15 men per station, per team (two each to rotate).
There will, in addition, need to be supply boats, ocean-going tugs and
crews for them. The port and construction facilities are estimated to be
similar to those needed to construct oil platforms. There would, of course,
be power transmission problems (onshore) similar to those for OTEC. It is
worth noting that one of the key objections to wave energy in Scotland is
the need to put the transmission lines across the Isle of Skye, one of the
premier scenic areas in western Scotland and a major tourist destination.
Cable costs underground are thought to be prohibitive.

B. Pumped Storage in Wales

A further alternate energy source, used so far only as an emer-
gency "reserve" in Wales, uses two pumped storage power stations located
off Ffestiniog and Dinorwic. The former has been in operation for some
time; the latter is still under construction.

Basically, pumped storage power generation is identical to con-
ventional hydroelectric power generation, except that the flow of water is
artificially maintained by pumping water from one reservoir, a lower one,
up to another reservoir, an upper one, by means of electric pumps operating
at off-peak or "cheap" electricity user periods. The water in the upper
reservoir then flows through spillways and turns turbines to generate
hydroelectric power. The systems use about three-fourths of the power
generated to refill the upper reservoir from the lower reservoir, so that
it is not terribly efficient. -On the other hand, the "source" is virtually

-17-

free once the reservoirs, Pumps, Pipes, turbines and spillways are in place
(Dinorwic; Ffestiniog).

As such a reservoir system in Hawaii would presumably operate
within the system of water stored reservoirs already in existence (as, for
example, in the Koolaus), the visual intrusion would presumably be minimal.
Moreover, there is evidence that the-reservoirs become tourist attractions,
with the one at Ffestiniog drawing 40,000 visitors a year.

V. CONCLUSION

It is clear from the foregoing survey and analysis that OTEC energy
producing facilities will be visually intrusive. The critical question is
the extent of that intrusion, and where such intrusion takes place. The
experience in Scotland demonstrates that a general land-use management
regime, however sophisticated, can be insufficient to deal with a develop-
ment which, either because of scale or intensity, was simply not contem-
plated at the time the system was devised. Scotland was part of one of the
world's most sophisticated and restrictive systems of land use control, yet
it devised a separate regime barely within that system to deal with oil-
related development, primarily.platform construction, maintenance and
repair. The creation of special regulations and guidelines which declare
certain areas to be preferable for such development (of low scenic value
and/or hidden from view from as many perspectives as possible) and others
to be free from such development (due to high scenic value and/or visi-
bility at/from such distances) would appear to be a concept worth further
investigation. The Scottish Development Department in Edinburgh would be
a good place to start. Contacts there were extremejy receptive and two of
the managerial staff there are regarded as experts on the subject.

The issue of visual impact mitigation becomes at once more critical
and more practicable if it appears possible that Hawaii might develop its
own OTEC energy generation facility construction industry. While the
numbers of potential visual intrusions increase, the location options also
increase. While such facilities cannot be located just anywhere, never-
theless the choice of sites is broader than, say, for the location of an
energy producing OTEC facility; after all, the appropriate ocean/tempera-
ture conditions are where you find them, and there and only there, can one
locate the facility. If all the technically appropriate places turn out to
be scenic areas, then a hard choice between alternative energy and preser-
vation may need to be made. However, even here, techniques used in Scotland
such as color matching of facilities with environment and the sketching in
of the proposed facility on a rendering of a proposed site can help miti-
gate disruptive visual effects.

Production facilities, on the other hand, can, within limits, be
located elsewhere. The academic personnel of the University of Aberdeen's
Department of Land Economy are well-versed in such analytical tradeoffs,
having participated in a major energy/land use study in the mid to late
1970's. Once again, the general systems of management emphasizing critical

_18-

areas and development zones have proved relatively successful in managing
the visual impacts of such deveopments. Obviously, the impacts covered by
secondary development, should Hawaii attract OTEC facilities production
ventures, will be considerable and the experience in Scotland would be
invaluable. Some miscellaneous observations and conclusions:

1. Coordination among the various agencies which will have to deal
with OTEC production facilities is essential. The role of DPED,
which has some of the legal responsibility for locating and
managing the impacts of these facilities, will be critical, but
local government agencies which must cooperate in the permitting
process, as well as other State departments, must be brought in
at an early stage. Scotland's experience demonstrates the need
for this coordination and cooperation.

2. The adaptation and extension of existing management and control
systems may be preferable to an entirely new system, in part
because the former can react more quickly. However, tailoring a
system for OTEC may be possible (and ultimately more useful) if,
as it appears, OTEC production is some years off.

3. A wide range of disciplines and skills will need to be brought to
bear on the problems raised here and elsewhere. The valuable
experience outside Hawaii-Scotland, Louisiana, Texas - can be
tapped relatively inexpensively given the costs of OTEC as a
whole and the potential for unfortunate consequences should the
problems and issues fail to be thoroughly explored. Nothing
quite equals personal observation and interviews in places where
those problems and issues have already been explored.

4. It has been observed that opposition to energy facilities is
greatest where there have been none constructed in the area. If
so, Hawaii can expect a lot of community opposition unless job
tradeoffs and energy needs are clearly demonstrated.
5. It has also been observed that it is difficult to I?Llan for
energy facilities, but easy to "plan to prevent" them.
6. The process of such "planning for" will be critical. To be
avoided:

,a. Consider the same issue/issues again and again at each
proposed site.

b. Reopening an issue over and over again in light of con-
stantly surfacing "fresh evidence."

C. A surfeit of citizen participation whereby everyone demands
a say.

_19-

Finally, some thought should be given to Hawaii's suitability as an
OTEC platform facility manufacturing sites especially if the Pacific Basin
market for OTEC developes. Most experts interviewed thought Hawaii has
geographically well-positioned for such a facility, and it might make a
useful addition for our employment base.

It is recommended that the initial contacts in the important area of
management and regulation of OTEC facilities be nurtured and increased as
follows:

1. Follow-up letters and information to contacts in Scotland,
Louisiana and Texas.

2. In-depth examination and continued monitoring of the management/
regulation process..

3. Exchanges of personnel at the Department management level for
brief visits to view current situations and discuss issues and
alternatives.

We appear to have the time to fully identify the potential problems
and investigate alternative solutions. It would be a pity not to use that
time wisely.

_20-

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Books
Cullingworth, J. B., Town and Country Planning in Britain, (7th Ed.)
London, George Allen 6 -Unwin, 1979.
Denman, Donald, Land in a Free Sociq@j, London, Centre for Policy Studies,
1980.

Heap, Sir Desmond, Town and Country Planning, (2nd Ed.) London: Barry
Rose, '1981.
Heap, An Outline of Planning Law, (7th Ed.) London:

Lewis, T. M., and McNicoll, I. H., North Sea Oil and Scotland's Economic
Prospects, London, Croom Helm, 197EF.-

Baldwin, Malcom, and Baldwin, Pamela, Onshore Planning for Offshore Oil,
Conservation Foundation, 1975.

Underwood, Robert, The Future of Scotland, London, Croom Helm, 1977.

Young, Eric, The Law of Planning in Scotland, Glasgow, William Hodge & Co.,
1978.

Articles

Donaldson, Richard M., and Flint, F. Harlan, "The Pactex Project: Any
Lessons Learned?"

Garner, J. F., and Callies, D. L., "Planning Law in England and Wales and
the United States" 1 Anglo-Am. L. Rev. 317, 1973.

Harms, V. W., and Gutshall, N. "Potential Coastal Zone Impacts of Alterna-
tive Ocean Energy Systems"

Robertson, Iain M., "Develo pment of a North Sea Oil Terminal"

Papers

Lyddon,' D. "Environment and Offshore Development: Land Use Planning
Aspect in Scotland" University of London, 1980.

Lloyd, M. G., and Paget, G. E., "Resource Management and Land Use Planning:
Natural Gas in Scotland"

Reports

Central Electricity Generating Board, Ffestiniog Power Station, (undated)

Dinworic Pumped Storage Power Station

Highlands and Islands Development Board, Oil-Related Developments, (map),
1976

Highlands and Islands Development Board, Scottish Highlands and Islands Oil
Map

Highlands and Islands Development Board,.Oil-Related Industries Directory
for the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (May 1981)

Jack Holmes Planning Group, An Examination of Sites for Gravi@y Platform
Construction on the Cl@de Estuary, April 1974 (prepared for the Scottish
Development Department)

Rice Center (Houston), Sabine Pass Econom ic Base Analysis (November 1979)

Rice Center, "Critical Environmental Issues for Conoco" (A Reference for
Operating Managers) (October 1976)

Scottish Development Department, National Planning Guidelines, 1977

Scottish Development Department, North Sea Oil and Gas Coastal Planning
Guidelines, 1974

Scottish Economic Planning Department, North Sea Oil Information Sheet,
February 1981

Susskind, L. and O'Hare, M., Managing the Social and Economic Impacts of
Energy Development, December

Interviews

Robert M. Eury, Vice President, Rice Center, Houston, Texas, Feburary 11,
1981

Baxter D. Honeycult, District Engineer, ARCO Oil and Gas Company, Houston,
Texas, February 10, 1981

Hall, David, Director, Town and Country Planning Association, London,
June 17, 1981

Alistair MacLeary, Professor and head, Department of Land Economy, Uni-
versity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, June 20, 1981

M. G. Lloyd, Department of Land Economy, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
June 20, 1981

G. E. Paget, Department of Land Economy, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
June 20, 1981

Brian D. Clark, Director, Department of Geography, University of Aberdeen,
Aberdeen, June 22, 1981

Ron Bisset, Department of Geography, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
June 22, 1981

David M. Henderson, Highlands and Islands Development Board, Inverness,
June 23, 1981

Stanely H. Pickett, Highlands and Islands Development Board, Inverness,
June 24, 1981

Richard Cameron, Chief.Planner, Highlands Regional Council, Inverness,
June 23, 1981

D. E. Fisher, School of Law, University of Dundee, Dundee, June 24, 1981

Alistair MacKenzie, Scottish Development Department, Edinburgh, June 25,
1981

H. P. "'Pat" Riley, Division Production Manager (Offshore), AMOCO Production
Co., New Orleans, August 12, 1981
Ronaldo G. Araujo, Mechanical Engineer (Offshore), AMOCO Production Com-
pany, New Orleans, August 12, 1981

Additional Reports, Copied but.not Brought

Highlands and Islands Development Board, Some Implications of Wave Energy
Generation for the Western Isles (1977)

Environmental Impact Appraisal of Howard-Doris Platform Construction
(1977)

The Impact of Oil-Related Development at Loch Kishorn, Department of Town
PlanniNg, Minot-Watt University, 1975

EIS for Proposed 1978.Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Lease Sale
Offshore Western and Central Gulf of Mexico (OCS Sale No. 55T-,-V`6T.-T, U.S.
De-partment of the Interior

Mid-Atlantic Regional Study, An assessment of the Onshore Effects of
b-ffshore Oil and Gas Development, Woodland-Clyde Consultants (October 1975)

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Oil and Gas Developments OFFSHORE ONSHORE MOSS separation
an r.
February 1981 Discamtrias .......... .____ 0 * a Oil companj oprational H.Q.__ Gas treatment
Commercially proven field_ o + a Oftore sonocst baso-1111 Gas separation plant__-*

PIPELINES Field in production 9 0 te Platform construction site-slasl_-A 04 refinery 0

Licensed concrete Poftodmncsls 0
880"T"'ir"

Under Constructiop- - Designated sea area...---b Modulat/Other major fabrication Construction camp - V
7th round blocks i
operational.-- - company n-ate"d ... s_0 Ppecual,ng yard OR Helicopter baseL.- -0
7th rund awards in
Compressor Station a 0 Dept. of Energy designated are&-- Oil tranship.ant and stmags --_e Selected airports . .... . ........... .+
WGZALA"

OIL RELATED
DEVELOPMENTS
in the Highlands and Islands

existing proposed
STEEL PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION ......... Pq OCEAN INCHCApE (Shat,.
CONCRETE PLATFORM CONSTRUCTIONI.1 ..............I
TANK FARM/ TERMINAL .....................
REFINERY .............................................. 11LI11
Ol-
PIPE COATING ............................e

STEEL FABRICATION ....................
41
SUPPLY -A-*
BACK-UP SERVICE .........................+............+
AIR FACILITY .....................................+

F-

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OCCIDENTAL OF BRITAIN INC

14@AC*-C.@1,1.1,"ess
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Consortitncca

LEWIS OFFSHORE LTD

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[email protected] DORIS LTD
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SEA PLATFORM CONSTRUCTORS (Scotland)D
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H I DB 1976

MORAY FIRTH

OIL RELATED DEVELOPMENT
[email protected] ONIGG
EXISTIN N'
4e
Steel platform construction
HIGHLANDS
Pipe coating FABRICATORS 11Cromart

Back-up service H
HIGHI,41VO
Steel fabrication )e Wol.
8@y
PROPOSE E VA N TO Nr/@ A/ A
Refinery 01,
9-
Concrete platform construction

i0i A -iliTH_
13 RITY
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Industrial estate

Industrial zoning -unoccupied
Ky, N ALL
Possible reclamation ull.p..l M
Fo,t,o,e F0t1 G-19e
Housing expansion Ono
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Conon 8,idge
National nature reserve
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Shell/LPS Deepwater
Production System

FLOATING
PROD. FACILITY

SUR CE
SUPPORT

PROD. RISER

SERVICE UNfT

AISEA BASF.

CLUSTERED
WELL
MANIFOLD EXPORT
CENTER

PROD. PIPELINE
BUNDLES

FROM SATELLITE
WELLS

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Nigg Bay: 705-Foot Platform Under
Construction

77.

Peterhead: Exploratory Platform
in for Repairs/
Servicing

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Nigg Bay: 705-Foot Steel Platform
Under Construction

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