Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and
Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports
(12-JUL-07, GAO-07-535).
Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes
have changed in higher education, with female enrollment
surpassing male enrollment, and female athletic participation
showing gains as well. These changes have generated public
interest in whether women participate in athletics at comparable
levels to men and whether men's opportunities have decreased as a
result of the increased opportunities for women. Under the
Comptroller General's authority, GAO assessed the extent to which
the numbers of men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams and
participants at 4-year colleges have changed from the 1991-1992
through 2004-2005 school years.
-------------------------Indexing Terms-------------------------
REPORTNUM: GAO-07-535
ACCNO: A72550
TITLE: Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and
Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports
DATE: 07/12/2007
SUBJECT: College students
Colleges and universities
Comparative analysis
Internal controls
Sports
Statistical data
Women
******************************************************************
** This file contains an ASCII representation of the text of a **
** GAO Product. **
** **
** No attempt has been made to display graphic images, although **
** figure captions are reproduced. Tables are included, but **
** may not resemble those in the printed version. **
** **
** Please see the PDF (Portable Document Format) file, when **
** available, for a complete electronic file of the printed **
** document's contents. **
** **
******************************************************************
GAO-07-535
* [1]NCAA Open Group Athletic Data
* [2]NCAA Closed Group Athletic Data
* [3]Sport by Sport Analyses
* [4]Department of Education Enrollment Data
* [5]GAO Contact
* [6]Staff Acknowledgments
* [7]GAO's Mission
* [8]Obtaining Copies of GAO Reports and Testimony
* [9]Order by Mail or Phone
* [10]To Report Fraud, Waste, and Abuse in Federal Programs
* [11]Congressional Relations
* [12]Public Affairs
Report to Congressional Addressees
United States Government Accountability Office
GAO
July 2007
INTERCOLLEGIATEATHLETICS
Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic
Association Sports
GAO-07-535
Contents
Letter 1
Appendix I Briefing Slides 5
Appendix II Scope and Methodology 26
NCAA Open-Group Athletic Data 29
NCAA Closed-Group Athletic Data 30
Sport-by-Sport Analyses 31
Department of Education Enrollment Data 33
Appendix III Schools Included in the Open Group 35
Appendix IV Schools Included in the Closed Group 50
Appendix V Comments from the Department of Education 61
Appendix VI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 63
Related GAO Products 64
Tables
Table 1: Availability of Team and Participant Data from Various Sources 29
Table 2: Sports Included in the NCAA Report and Analyzed for This Report
33
Table 3: Open-Group Schools (state abbreviation) 35
Table 4: Closed-Group Schools (state abbreviation) 50
Abbreviations
A & M Agricultural and Mechanical
A & T Agricultural and Technical
CUNY (The) City University of New York
EADA Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act
Education Department of Education
IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
NAIA National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association
NCCAA National Christian College Athletic Association
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NFHS National Federation of State High School Associations
NJCAA National Junior College Athletic Association
SUNY (The) State University of New York
USCAA United States Collegiate Athletic Association
This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright
protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without further permission from GAO. However, because this
work may contain copyrighted images or other material, permission from the
copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to reproduce this material
separately.
United States Government Accountability Office
Washington, DC 20548
July 12, 2007
The Honorable Edward M. Kennedy
Chairman
The Honorable Michael B. Enzi
Ranking Member
Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions
United States Senate
The Honorable Joseph I. Lieberman
Chairman
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
United States Senate
The Honorable George Miller
Chairman
The Honorable Howard P. "Buck" McKeon
Ranking Member
Committee on Education and Labor
House of Representatives
The Honorable Patty Murray
United States Senate
Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes at
colleges and universities have changed significantly. In particular,
women's undergraduate enrollment has increased more than twice as fast as
men's since 1970, and, by 1978, female enrollment surpassed male
enrollment for the first time. During this same time period, women's
opportunities in college athletics have increased as well, both in terms
of the number of female participants and the number of women's teams.
Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes at
colleges and universities have changed significantly. In particular,
women's undergraduate enrollment has increased more than twice as fast as
men's since 1970, and, by 1978, female enrollment surpassed male
enrollment for the first time. During this same time period, women's
opportunities in college athletics have increased as well, both in terms
of the number of female participants and the number of women's teams.
These changes have generated public interest in whether women participate
in athletics at comparable levels to men and whether men's opportunities
have decreased as a result of increased opportunities for women. To
explore these issues, we addressed the following two questions under the
Comptroller General's authority: These changes have generated public
interest in whether women participate in athletics at comparable levels to
men and whether men's opportunities have decreased as a result of
increased opportunities for women. To explore these issues, we addressed
the following two questions under the Comptroller General's authority:
o To what extent have the numbers of men's and women's
intercollegiate sports teams at 4-year schools changed in recent
years? o To what extent have the numbers of men's and women's
intercollegiate sports teams at 4-year schools changed in recent
years?
o To what extent have the numbers of male and female participants
in intercollegiate sports at 4-year schools changed in recent
years?
During the week of March 26-30, 2007, we briefed interested congressional
staff on the results of our study, and this report formally conveys
information provided during those briefings. In general, we found that
women exhibited greater gains than men in athletic opportunities from the
1991-1992 to 2004-2005 school years. More specifically, we found that:
o The number of women's teams showed large increases over the
period and surpassed the number of men's teams by the mid-to-late
1990s. For example, the number of women's golf, lacrosse, and
soccer teams more than doubled from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. The
overall number of men's teams showed more modest increases, with
the number of wrestling teams actually decreasing over the period.
o The numbers of both male and female participants steadily
increased from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. Female participants did
show larger rates of increase, but men's participation levels were
greater than women's, both in absolute terms and relative to their
respective enrollments, throughout this time period. Female
participation increased from 1991-1992 levels more than female
enrollment, whereas male participation increased at rates similar
to male enrollment. However, at the school level, overall athletic
participation rates were significantly^1 greater for men in at
least three out of four coed colleges and universities from
1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
To determine these changes in the numbers of teams and participants at
4-year schools, we obtained athletic data from the National Collegiate
Athletics Association (NCAA)^2--the largest athletic association in the
U.S.--for two groups of colleges and universities:
o Open Group--This group includes the entire NCAA membership,
which increased from 847 schools in 1991-1992 to 1,045 schools in
2004-2005. Data for this group were obtained from the NCAA's
published reports on sports sponsorship and participation. Trends
observed for this group may reflect both school-level decisions to
add, drop, expand, or contract teams and changes in NCAA
membership.
o Closed Group--This group includes the 750 colleges and
universities that were consistent members of the NCAA throughout
the time period^3 and that consistently reported team and
participant information in each year. Data for this group were
customized by the NCAA for this report. Trends observed for this
group reflect school-level decisions only.
^1 "Significantly" designates 5 percentage points or greater.
^2 We used NCAA data because they were the only viable option for
analyzing annual athletic trends for teams and participants over an
extended period.
For our report, we examined all 27 NCAA sports that were consistently
reported throughout the time period, and we reviewed full-time
undergraduate enrollment data from the Department of Education for both
groups of schools to understand the context for the athletic trends.^4 To
determine the reliability of the athletic data, we interviewed NCAA
officials, assessed the process by which the data were collected,
performed internal consistency checks, examined year-to-year fluctuations,
and compared equivalent items across the open and closed groups. To assess
the reliability of enrollment data, we reviewed a data reliability study
conducted by the department and performed internal quality control checks
on the enrollment data. Through this process, we determined that both the
athletic and enrollment data we used were reliable for the purposes of
this report. For additional information on our study review, please see
appendix II. For additional results of our analysis by sport, please see
GAO-07-744SP.^5 We conducted our work from December 2005 to June 2007 in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.
This study focused on recent team and participant trends in
intercollegiate sports for both men and women.^6 We did not assess the
extent to which these trends may be caused or affected by external
factors--such as gender-equity concerns, budget fluctuations, changes in
high school and college student populations, or the popularity of any one
sport--because this was beyond the scope of our work. In addition,
available data did not allow us to assess the causal relationship between
athletic trends and these external factors.
^3These schools were not members of the National Association of
Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA).
^4Schools in our study varied in the number of NCAA sports they sponsored.
^5GAO, Intercollegiate Athletics: Trends by Sport in National Collegiate
Athletic Association Sports, [13]GAO-07-744SP (Washington, D.C.: June
2007).
^6This report measures trends in teams and participants in intercollegiate
athletics. In contrast, the Department of Education has separate standards
it uses to determine whether institutions of higher education provide
equal athletic opportunity for members of both sexes pursuant to Title IX
of the Education Amendments of 1972 (20 U.S.C. SS1681-88). This report
does not address--and is not intended to address--compliance with federal
laws or regulations.
We provided a draft of this report to officials of the U.S. Department of
Education for review and comment, and also for technical review. In
written comments on our draft report, Education did not explicitly agree
or disagree with our findings, but did highlight our finding that men had
greater overall participation levels than women throughout our study
period, both in absolute terms and relative to their respective
enrollments. Education also recommended that we include a footnote
clarifying that the measures used in this report are distinct from the
department's standards for assessing compliance with federal laws, and we
included footnote 6 above. Education further explained that it measures
whether equal athletic opportunities are provided to men and women based
on the number of athletic participants, but not the number of teams
sponsored. In particular, Education said that one of the measures the
department uses to assess a school's compliance with federal laws is
whether the percent of male and female athletes at the school is
"substantially proportionate" to the percent of male and female students
enrolled in the school. Education's written comments appear in appendix V.
We also incorporated Education's technical comments, where appropriate.
Because they are technical and not substantive in nature, they are not
published in this report.
We also provided a draft of this report to NCAA officials for technical
review and incorporated their technical comments, where appropriate.
We are sending copies of this report to relevant congressional committees
and other interested parties and will make copies available to others upon
request. In addition, this report will be available at no charge on GAO's
Web site at [14]http://www.gao.gov . If you or your staff has any
questions about this report, please contact me at (202) 512-7215 or
[15][email protected] . Contact points for our Offices of Congressional
Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report.
Other major contributors to this report are listed in appendix VI.
George A. Scott
Director, Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues
Appendix I: Briefing Slides
Appendix II: Scope and Methodology
To determine the recent trends in teams and participants in
intercollegiate athletics, we analyzed athletic data from the National
Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) and enrollment data from the
department of Education (Education) for two groups of colleges and
universities:
o Open Group--This group includes the entire NCAA membership,
which increased from 847 schools in the 1991-1992 school year to
1,045 schools in the 2004-2005 school year. Observed trends for
this group will reflect both school-level sports sponsorship
decisions and changes in NCAA membership. The primary source of
athletic data for this group was the NCAA's 1981-82 to 2004-05
Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report, which is
available from the NCAA Web site (
[16]http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/research
). Data from this publication were modified for the purposes of
this report via correspondence with NCAA officials, as discussed
below. The source of aggregate enrollment data for this group was
Education's Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)
Peer Analysis System, also available on the Internet (
[17]http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas ). See appendix III for the list
of schools that were included in the open group at any time during
the study period.
o Closed Group--This group includes the fixed group of 750
colleges and universities that were consistent members of the NCAA
throughout the time period, that were not members of the National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) at any time during
the time period,^1 and that reported team and participant
information in each year of our time period. The NCAA analyzed its
internal school-level data and provided us customized team and
participant aggregate statistics for use in this report, as
discussed hereafter. The source of enrollment data for this group
was also Education's IPEDS Peer Analysis System. For the
school-level comparison between athletic participation and
enrollment, we provided the NCAA school-level enrollment data for
its members from IPEDS, and the NCAA used these data in concert
with its school-level athletic data to generate the results of
this comparison. See appendix IV for the list of 750 schools that
were included in the closed group.
^1The NAIA is the second-largest national intercollegiate association in
the United States. We eliminated colleges and universities that were joint
members of the NCAA and NAIA to reduce the possibility of schools not
having reported complete information to the NCAA.
Annual athletic data for the open group are available from the NCAA for
the 1981-1982 through 2004-2005 school years, but data for the closed
group are available only for the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005 school years.
Thus, the focus of this report is on the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005
period. For both groups, total participant counts reflect the sum of the
number of individuals participating in each of the individual sports that
were consistently reported throughout the time period. To the extent that
some athletes participated on more than one team, the number of
participants may be overstated.
Enrollment data are available from Education from the 1991-1992 through
1998-1999 and 2000-2001 through 2004-2005 school years; data for the
1999-2000 school year for aggregate analysis have not been publicly
released, and Education has no plans to release such data in the future.^2
As a result, enrollment data for this school year were omitted from the
aggregate comparisons between athletic participation and enrollment
provided on slides 19 and 20 of appendix I. However, school-level data for
school-level analysis are available for 1999-2000, so this year was
included for schools reporting enrollment data for the school-level
comparison provided on slide 21 of appendix I.
We interviewed NCAA officials and performed internal quality control
checks on both the athletic and enrollment data and determined that these
data were reliable for the purposes of this report. We conducted our work
from December 2005 to June 2007 in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards.
We did not assess the extent to which these trends may be caused or
affected by external factors--such as gender-equity concerns, budget
fluctuations, changes in high school and college student populations, or
the popularity of any one sport--because this was beyond the scope of our
work. However, in 2001 we presented reasons self-reported by school
administrators for why teams were added and dropped.^3 Also, the
introduction to the NCAA sports sponsorship and participation report
presents several other potentially influential factors as well.
^2Officials from Education note that the agency did not complete
reliability testing of data for the 1999-2000 school year because
reporting rates were particularly low for this year. Please see the
associated discussion in "Department of Education Enrollment Data" below.
^3For more information, see GAO, Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year
Colleges' Experiences Adding and Discontinuing Teams, [18]GAO-01-297
(Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2001).
For this report, we examined the possibility of using data from the other
national athletic associations--including the NAIA, the National Christian
College Athletic Association (NCCAA), the National Junior College Athletic
Association (NJCAA), and the United States Collegiate Athletic Association
(USCAA)--as well as individual athletic conferences (e.g., Big Ten
Conference), institutions of higher education, the National Federation of
State High School Associations (NFHS), and state governing organizations
for high schools. We found that nationally representative team and
participant annual data are not systematically available at either the
college or high school level for before the 2000-2001 school year.^4
Education now collects and stores athletic team and participant data via
the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act (EADA), but Education does not have
these data for before the 2000-2001 school year. Furthermore, Education
officials expressed some concerns about the reliability of EADA data.^5
Thus, we determined that the NCAA data were the only viable option for
analyzing annual athletic trends for teams and participants for both open
and closed groups of colleges and universities over an extended period.
^4 The EADA generally requires institutions of higher education to
annually collect and make publicly available team, participant, and other
athletic data for the immediately preceding school year starting in
October 1996 for the 1995-1996 school year. However, the EADA does not
require institutions to retain those data for subsequent years.
^5 For example, the definition of "reporting year" has varied from school
to school, with some schools reporting over an 8 month period, and other
schools reporting over different 12 month periods. Education noted that
the very first year of data collection (2000-2001) was particularly
problematic because submissions varied dramatically from school to school
and for other reasons.
Table 1: Availability of Team and Participant Data from Various Sources
Availability of information, by source
Information Athletic
required Schools Conferences associations Education
Number of men's Media guides Annual NCAA: NAIA: 1991-1992 EADA data
and women's reports NCCAA:USCAA - present for
sports teams, by (data quality for all NJCAA: 2000-2001
school may vary by years NFHS: - present 2000-2001
year and by Not - present
gender) available
2004-2005
EADA records - present
2004-2005
- present
Not
available
Numbers of men Media guides Not NCAA: NAIA: 1991-1992 EADA data
and women and squad available NCCAA:USCAA - present for
participating in lists NJCAA: 2000-2001
school sports, NFHS: - present 2000-2001
by school (data quality Not - present
may vary by available
year and by 2004-2005
gender) - present
2004-2005
EADA records - present
Not
available
Men's and Not available Not NCAA: NAIA: 1981-1982 EADA data
women's sports available NCCAA:USCAA - present for
teams and NJCAA: Unknown
participants, in NFHS: 1994-1995 2000-2001
aggregate - present - present
2001-2002
- present
2000-2001
- present
1971-1972
- present
Source: GAO interviews with school, conference, association, and Education
officials.
NCAA Open-Group Athletic Data
The NCAA's 1981-82 to 2004-05 Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates
Report provides annual data on the number of teams sponsored and the
number of participants by sport and in aggregate for all men's (27) and
women's (27) sports sponsored by the NCAA. Please see this original report
for variable definitions and factors influencing historical trends, such
as changes in data collection procedures that occurred between 1981-1982
and 2004-2005. This NCAA report is based on reports provided by schools to
the NCAA each year,^6 and the NCAA uses these school reports to help
manage its sports championships, scholarships, and divisional championship
realignment. We used the team and participant data directly from the NCAA
report.
^6 For school years 1991-1992 through 1994-1995 and 1999-2000 through
2004-2005, the report uses annual NCAA membership reports provided by
schools. For school years 1995-1996 through 1998-1999, the report is based
on athletic records collected by schools to meet the requirements of the
EADA.
Because the NCAA membership has changed annually, changes in the aggregate
figures for the NCAA may reflect both school-level decisions to add, drop,
expand, or contract teams and the changing membership itself.
We modified some data presented in the tables of the NCAA report to
resolve apparent inconsistencies and unexplained fluctuations of those
published data. With regard to consistency, we compared aggregate figures
for each sport to the sum of disaggregated figures for the corresponding
sports. Where internal inconsistency or large and unexplained fluctuations
(e.g., apparent numerical typographical errors) were found, we determined,
in concert with NCAA officials, whether and how to correct those data to
resolve those inconsistencies. With regard to fluctuations, we examined
year-to-year fluctuations in the athletic data for each sport and in
aggregate. Where large and unexplained fluctuations were found--such as
with the case of apparent numerical/typographical errors--we determined,
in concert with NCAA officials, whether and how to correct those data as
well. Thus, there are a small number of data points used for this report
that differ from what is published in the NCAA report.
NCAA Closed-Group Athletic Data
To isolate the effect of school-level decisions to add, drop, expand, or
contract sport teams on athletic trends from (a) the changing NCAA
membership, (b) the effect of schools being members of both the NCAA and
another athletic association and not reporting comprehensive athletic
information to the NCAA, and (c) inconsistent annual reporting by certain
schools, we constructed, in concert with the NCAA, a fixed, or "closed,"
group of schools that met all three (3) of the following criteria:
o They were members of the NCAA in each year from 1991-1992 to
2004-2005.
o They were not also members of the second-largest athletic
association, the NAIA, in any year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
o They reported team and participant information in each year from
1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
This yielded a group of 750 schools, or just over 88 percent of the
overall NCAA membership in 1991-1992 and just under 72 percent of the
overall membership in 2004-2005. Of this group, 14 schools reported to
Education via IPEDS that they were also members of an athletic
organization other than the NAIA in at least one year of our study period.
To the extent that these schools progressively reported more of their
female sport information to the NCAA over time, increases in female trends
relative to male trends may be slightly overstated. To the extent that
these schools progressively reported more of their male sport information
over time, increases in female trends relative to male trends may be
slightly understated.
The NCAA has retained school-level team and participant data for its
entire membership from the 1991-1992 school year to the present. Because
the NCAA classifies its school-level information as private, the NCAA
analyzed team and participant data for this closed group in-house and then
provided aggregate figures for this closed group and the programming code
used to generate these figures. NCAA officials noted that data for school
years 1993-1994, 1998-1999, and 2000-2001 may be slightly less consistent
than data for the other school years of the study period. We reviewed the
NCAA's programming code and had the NCAA make adjustments and corrections
where necessary. We examined the internal consistency of the data for the
closed group that resulted from this code by comparing aggregate figures
to the sum of disaggregated figures and by examining year-to-year
fluctuations in the athletic data. We also compared figures for the
closed-group to the equivalent figures for the open group. Where internal
inconsistency, inconsistency between the open and closed group, or large
and unexplained fluctuations were found, we eliminated those data from our
analysis, as discussed below. Through our assessment and the elimination
of inconsistent data, we determined that data used for the closed group
were sufficient for the purposes of our report.
Sport-by-Sport Analyses
Our sport-by-sport and aggregate figures reflect the 14 men's and 13
women's sports that had team and participant information reported
throughout the study period, that are comparable across the open and
closed groups, and for which male and female data exist separately. This
report does not contain all the results of our trend analysis. A more
detailed analysis by sport can be viewed at [19]GAO-07-744SP .
With regard to reporting consistency, the NCAA has retained historical
figures for each of its sports for each year in which either the sport was
identified as emerging or the NCAA held a championship for that sport as
well as various other years. To the extent that several sports have
emerged or added a championship since the 1991-1992 school year, data tend
to be more comprehensive across the 54 NCAA sports in recent years
relative to the beginning of our study period. However, to become an
emerging sport, there must already be 20 or more NCAA-sponsored and/or
competitive club teams that exist in that sport, and there must be other
signs of sustained and increasing interest in the sport. Thus, nonentries
in a given year of NCAA data do not necessarily reflect a lack of
sponsorship or participation in that year. Furthermore, several sports
have data for the beginning and end of our study period, but not the
intervening years. To account for the inconsistency of reporting across
sports and across time, the NCAA included in its customized data only the
subset of sports for which data were reported in each year of the study
period.
To enable a direct comparison between the open and closed groups, we
analyzed only those sports for which data existed in each year and in both
the open and closed groups. The sports included in the closed-group data
narrowed the list of included sports substantially, but we also compared
figures across the two groups for external consistency as well. In
particular, we eliminated four sports where aggregate figures for the
closed group were larger than aggregate figures for the open group, which
is impossible by construction.
With regard to the reporting of male and female participant counts, the
NCAA has reported male and female athletic data for coed/mixed-gender
sports differently over time. For some years, overall participant counts
for mixed-gender sports were divided in half when allocated to male and
female participant counts, and for other years actual counts were
recorded. Because of this inconsistency in reporting, participant counts
for sports such as fencing, rifle, and skiing for certain years may not
reflect actual male and female participants, and thus these sports were
not included in this report. In summary, the sports we analyzed
(a) have data reported in each year of the study period,
(b) were common to or reported in both groups of data analyzed
(open group and closed group), and
(c) excluded certain coed-mixed gender sports because of
inconsistent reporting across the study period.
Ultimately, this yielded the 14 men's and 13 women's sports analyzed in
this report, whose participants reflect 98 percent of the NCAA's overall
male participation and 99 percent of the overall female participation in
1991-1992, and 99 percent and 93 percent of male and female participation,
respectively, in 2004-2005. See Table 2 for the sports included in the
NCAA report and analyzed for this report.
Table 2: Sports Included in the NCAA Report and Analyzed for This Report
Men's sports Men's sports Women's sports Women's sports
included in both the included only included in both the included only in
NCAA and GAO reports in the NCAA NCAA and GAO reports the NCAA report
(14) report (13) (13) (14)
Baseball Archery Basketball Archery
Basketball Badminton Cross-Country Badminton
Cross-Country Bowling Field Hockey Bowling
Football Equestrian Golf Equestrian
Golf Fencing Gymnastics Fencing
Ice Hockey Gymnastics Lacrosse Ice Hockey
Lacrosse Rifle Soccer Rifle
Soccer Rowing Softball Rowing
Swimming/Diving Rugby Swimming/Diving Rugby
Tennis Sailing Tennis Skiing
Track, Indoor Skiing Track, Indoor Squash
Track, Outdoor Squash Track, Outdoor Synchronized
Swimming
Volleyball Water Polo Volleyball
Team Handball
Wrestling
Water Polo
Source: GAO analysis.
Department of Education Enrollment Data
For both aggregate and school-level enrollment, we obtained full-time,
undergraduate enrollment data from IPEDS, which is the core postsecondary
education data collection program for the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), which, in turn, is the primary federal entity for
collecting and analyzing data related to education. Specifically, IPEDS is
a single, comprehensive system of surveys designed to collect
institution-level data from all primary providers of postsecondary
education in such areas as student enrollment and program completion,
faculty and staff characteristics, and school finances. We obtained
aggregate enrollment data for both the open and closed groups based on the
schools listed in the annual NCAA membership directories and the list of
750 schools included in the closed group. These data are the basis for our
aggregate comparisons between participation and enrollment, presented in
slides 19 and 20 of appendix I. Officials from Education noted that the
agency did not complete data reliability testing for the purpose of
extrapolating reported institutional data from the 1999-2000 school year
to generate aggregate figures because reporting for this earlier period
was optional to the schools and reporting rates were particularly low for
this year. Thus, we did not include aggregate figures for 1999-2000 for
this analysis.
For the school-level comparisons between participation and enrollment, we
provided the NCAA with school-by-school enrollment for each year in our
study period for schools that reported enrollment information through
IPEDS in each year and that had male and female enrollment each of at
least 100 in each year of the study period, characterized as "coed
schools." In addition, several college and university campuses reported
either athletic data to the NCAA or enrollment data to Education jointly
with other campuses. To ensure the compatibility of athletic and
enrollment data, we merged the data for these campuses together and
treated the campuses collectively as one unit. This resulted in enrollment
data being provided for 715 schools or school-campus combinations in the
closed group, and the resultant NCAA analysis is what is presented in
slide 21 of appendix I. Although Education has not released enrollment
figures for 1999-2000 for aggregate reporting purposes, officials from
Education noted that data that have been reported are reliable for
school-level reporting purposes, so 1999-2000 is included in this
analysis.
Because IPEDS data are statistical agency data that are collected and
audited within the NCES, we focused our reliability testing on the
consistency between internal NCES data documentation and downloaded data,
and we examined the consistency of summary statistics and the frequency of
missing values across years. Our testing found no differences between our
files and the IPEDS data dictionaries, no unusual increases in the
frequency of missing variables across years (other than for 1999-2000),
and no changes in the mean or standard deviation of enrollment above 5
percent and no changes in the maximum or minimum enrollment per school
above 10 percent from one year to the next. In addition, NCES has
completed individual data reliability testing for its 1991-1992 through
2005-2006 data and released a 2005 report detailing the reliability of its
enrollment data, among other data. (See
[20]http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2005175 to access this
report.) Therefore, we determined that the IPEDS enrollment data are
sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this report.
Appendix III: Schools Included in the Open Group
The following 1,052 schools were included in the overall NCAA membership
for at least one year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. This list is based on
the NCAA's annual membership lists for this period.
Table 3: Open-Group Schools (state abbreviation)
Abilene Christian University (Tex.) Armstrong Atlantic State
University (Ga.)
Adams State College (Colo.)
Asbury College (Ky.)
Adelphi University (N.Y.)
Ashland University (Ohio)
Adrian College (Mich.)
Assumption College (Mass.)
Agnes Scott College (Ga.)
Auburn University Main Campus
Alabama A & M University (Ala.) (Ala.)
Alabama State University (Ala.) Augsburg College (Minn.)
Albany State University (Ga.) Augusta State University (Ga.)
Albertus Magnus College (Conn.) Augustana College (Ill.)
Albion College (Mich.) Augustana College (S.D.)
Albright College (Pa.) Aurora University (Ill.)
Alcorn State University (Miss.) Austin College (Tex.)
Alderson Broaddus College (W.Va.) Austin Peay State University
(Tenn.)
Alfred University (N.Y.)
Averett University (Va.)
Allegheny College (Pa.)
Babson College (Mass.)
Alma College (Mich.)
Baldwin-Wallace College (Ohio)
Alvernia College (Pa.)
Ball State University (Ind.)
Alverno College (Wis.)
Baptist Bible College and Seminary
American International College (Mass.) (Pa.)
American University (D.C.) Bard College (N.Y.)
American University of Puerto Rico Barnard College (N.Y.)
(P.R.)
Barry University (Fla.)
Amherst College (Mass.)
Barton College (N.C.)
Anderson College (S.C.)
Bates College (Maine)
Anderson University (Ind.)
Bay Path College (Mass.)
Angelo State University (Tex.)
Baylor University (Tex.)
Anna Maria College (Mass.)
Becker College (Mass.)
Appalachian State University (N.C.)
Bellarmine University (Ky.)
Arcadia University (Pa.)
Belmont Abbey College (N.C.)
Arizona State University at the Tempe
Campus (Ariz.) Belmont University (Tenn.)
Arkansas State University-Main Campus Beloit College (Wis.)
(Ark.)
Bemidji State University (Minn.)
Arkansas Tech University (Ark.)
Benedict College (S.C.)
Benedictine University (Ill.)
Bennett College (N.C.) California State
University-Bakersfield (Calif.)
Bentley College (Mass.)
California State University-Chico
Berea College (Ky.) (Calif.)
Bethany College (W.Va.) California State University-Dominguez
Hills (Calif.)
Bethel University (Minn.)
California State University-East Bay
Bethune Cookman College (Fla.) (Calif.)
Birmingham Southern College (Ala.) California State University-Fresno
(Calif.)
Blackburn College (Ill.)
California State University-Fullerton
Bloomfield College (N.J.) (Calif.)
Bloomsburg University of California State University-Long
Pennsylvania (Pa.) Beach (Calif.)
Bluefield State College (W.Va.) California State University-Los
Angeles (Calif.)
Bluffton University (Ohio)
California State
Boise State University (Idaho) University-Northridge (Calif.)
Boston College (Mass.) California State
University-Sacramento (Calif.)
Boston University (Mass.)
California State University-San
Bowdoin College (Maine) Bernardino (Calif.)
Bowie State University (Md.) California State
University-Stanislaus (Calif.)
Bowling Green State University-Main
Campus (Ohio) California University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.)
Bradley University (Ill.)
Calvin College (Mich.)
Brandeis University (Mass.)
Cameron University (Okla.)
Bridgewater College (Va.)
Campbell University Inc (N.C.)
Bridgewater State College (Mass.)
Canisius College (N.Y.)
Brigham Young University (Utah)
Capital University (Ohio)
Brigham Young University-Hawaii
Campus (Hawaii) Carleton College (Minn.)
Brown University (R.I.) Carnegie Mellon University (Pa.)
Bryant University (R.I.) Carroll College (Wis.)
Bryn Mawr College (Pa.) Carson-Newman College (Tenn.)
Bucknell University (Pa.) Carthage College (Wis.)
Buena Vista University (Iowa) Case Western Reserve University
(Ohio)
Butler University (Ind.)
Castleton State College (Vt.)
Cabrini College (Pa.)
Catawba College (N.C.)
Caldwell College (N.J.)
Catholic University of America (D.C.)
California Institute of Technology
(Calif.) Cazenovia College (N.Y.)
California Lutheran University Cedar Crest College (Pa.)
(Calif.)
Centenary College (N.J.)
California Polytechnic State
University-San Luis Obispo (Calif.) Centenary College of Louisiana (La.)
California State Polytechnic
University-Pomona (Calif.)
Central College (Iowa) College of Saint Benedict (Minn.)
Central Connecticut State University College of Saint Elizabeth (N.J.)
(Conn.)
College of St Catherine (Minn.)
Central Michigan University (Mich.)
College of the Holy Cross (Mass.)
Central Missouri State University
(Mo.) College of William and Mary (Va.)
Central Washington University (Wash.) College of Wooster (Ohio)
Centre College (Ky.) Colorado Christian University
(Colo.)
Chadron State College (Neb.)
Colorado College (Colo.)
Chaminade University of Honolulu
(Hawaii) Colorado School of Mines (Colo.)
Chapman University (Calif.) Colorado State University (Colo.)
Charleston Southern University (S.C.) Colorado State University-Pueblo
(Colo.)
Chatham College (Pa.)
Columbia Union College (Md.)
Chestnut Hill College (Pa.)
Columbia University in the City of
Cheyney University of Pennsylvania New York (N.Y.)
(Pa.)
Columbus State University (Ga.)
Chicago State University (Ill.)
Concord University (W.Va.)
Chowan College (N.C.)
Concordia College (N.Y.)
Christian Brothers University (Tenn.)
Concordia College at Moorhead
Christopher Newport University (Va.) (Minn.)
Citadel Military College of South Concordia University (Ill.)
Carolina (S.C.)
Concordia University at Austin
Claremont McKenna College (Calif.) (Tex.)
Clarion University of Pennsylvania Concordia University-St Paul (Minn.)
(Pa.)
Concordia University-Wisconsin
Clark Atlanta University (Ga.) (Wis.)
Clark University (Mass.) Connecticut College (Conn.)
Clarke College (Iowa) Converse College (S.C.)
Clarkson University (N.Y.) Coppin State University (Md.)
Clayton College and State University Cornell College (Iowa)
(Ga.)
Cornell University-Endowed Colleges
Clemson University (S.C.) (N.Y.)
Cleveland State University (Ohio) Creighton University (Neb.)
Coastal Carolina University (S.C.) CUNY Bernard M Baruch College (N.Y.)
Coe College (Iowa) CUNY Brooklyn College (N.Y.)
Coker College (S.C.) CUNY City College (N.Y.)
Colby College (Maine) CUNY College of Staten Island (N.Y.)
Colby-Sawyer College (N.H.) CUNY Hunter College (N.Y.)
Colgate University (N.Y.) CUNY John Jay College Criminal
Justice (N.Y.)
College Misericordia (Pa.)
CUNY Lehman College (N.Y.)
College of Charleston (S.C.)
CUNY Medgar Evers College (N.Y.)
College of Mount Saint Joseph (Ohio)
CUNY New York City College of
College of Mount Saint Vincent (N.Y.) Technology (N.Y.)
College of Notre Dame of Maryland CUNY Queens College (N.Y.)
(Md.)
College of Our Lady of the Elms
(Mass.)
CUNY York College (N.Y.) Eastern New Mexico University-Main
Campus (N.M.)
Curry College (Mass.)
Eastern Oregon University (Ore.)
Dallas Baptist University (Tex.)
Eastern University (Pa.)
Daniel Webster College (N.H.)
Eastern Washington University
Dartmouth College (N.H.) (Wash.)
Davidson College (N.C.) Eckerd College (Fla.)
Davis and Elkins College (W.Va.) Edgewood College (Wis.)
Defiance College (Ohio) Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.)
Delaware State University (Del.)
Elizabeth City State University
Delaware Valley College (Pa.) (N.C.)
Delta State University (Miss.) Elizabethtown College (Pa.)
Denison University (Ohio) Elmhurst College (Ill.)
Depaul University (Ill.) Elmira College (N.Y.)
Depauw University (Ind.) Elon University (N.C.)
Desales University (Pa.) Emerson College (Mass.)
Dickinson College (Pa.) Emmanuel College (Mass.)
Dominican College of Blauvelt (N.Y.) Emory and Henry College (Va.)
Dominican University (Ill.) Emory University (Ga.)
Dowling College (N.Y.) Emporia State University (Kan.)
Drake University (Iowa) Endicott College (Mass.)
Drew University (N.J.) Erskine College and Seminary (S.C.)
Drexel University (Pa.) Eureka College (Ill.)
Drury University (Mo.) Fairfield University (Conn.)
Duke University (N.C.) Fairleigh Dickinson
University-College at Florham (N.J.)
Duquesne University (Pa.)
Fairleigh Dickinson
D'Youville College (N.Y.) University-Metropolitan Campus
(N.J.)
Earlham College (Ind.)
Fairmont State University (W.Va.)
East Carolina University (N.C.)
Farmingdale State University of New
East Central University (Okla.) York (N.Y.)
East Stroudsburg University of Fayetteville State University (N.C.)
Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Felician College (N.J.)
East Tennessee State University
(Tenn.) Ferris State University (Mich.)
East Texas Baptist University (Tex.) Ferrum College (Va.)
Eastern Connecticut State University Fisk University (Tenn.)
(Conn.)
Fitchburg State College (Mass.)
Eastern Illinois University (Ill.)
Florida Agricultural and Mechanical
Eastern Kentucky University (Ky.) University (Fla.)
Eastern Mennonite University (Va.) Florida Atlantic University-Boca
Raton (Fla.)
Eastern Michigan University (Mich.)
Florida Gulf Coast University (Fla.)
Eastern Nazarene College (Mass.)
Florida Institute of Greensboro College (N.C.)
Technology-Melbourne (Fla.)
Greenville College (Ill.)
Florida International University
(Fla.) Grinnell College (Iowa)
Florida Southern College (Fla.) Grove City College (Pa.)
Florida State University (Fla.) Guilford College (N.C.)
Fontbonne University (Mo.) Gustavus Adolphus College (Minn.)
Fordham University (N.Y.) Gwynedd Mercy College (Pa.)
Fort Hays State University (Kan.) Hamilton College (N.Y.)
Fort Lewis College (Colo.) Hamline University (Minn.)
Fort Valley State University (Ga.) Hampden-Sydney College (Va.)
Framingham State College (Mass.) Hampton University (Va.)
Francis Marion University (S.C.) Hanover College (Ind.)
Franklin and Marshall College (Pa.) Harding University (Ark.)
Franklin College (Ind.) Hardin-Simmons University (Tex.)
Franklin Pierce College (N.H.) Hartwick College (N.Y.)
Frostburg State University (Md.) Harvard University (Mass.)
Furman University (S.C.) Harvey Mudd College (Calif.)
Gallaudet University (D.C.) Haverford College (Pa.)
Gannon University (Pa.) Hawaii Pacific University (Hawaii)
Gardner-Webb University (N.C.) Heidelberg College (Ohio)
George Fox University (Ore.) Henderson State University (Ark.)
George Mason University (Va.) Hendrix College (Ark.)
George Washington University (D.C.) High Point University (N.C.)
Georgetown University (D.C.) Hilbert College (N.Y.)
Georgia College and State University Hillsdale College (Mich.)
(Ga.)
Hiram College (Ohio)
Georgia Institute of Technology-Main
Campus (Ga.) Hobart William Smith Colleges (N.Y.)
Georgia Southern University (Ga.) Hofstra University (N.Y.)
Georgia State University (Ga.) Hollins University (Va.)
Georgian Court University (N.J.) Holy Family University (Pa.)
Gettysburg College (Pa.) Hood College (Md.)
Glenville State College (W.Va.) Hope College (Mich.)
Goldey-Beacom College (Del.) Howard Payne University (Tex.)
Gonzaga University (Wash.) Howard University (D.C.)
Gordon College (Mass.) Humboldt State University (Calif.)
Goucher College (Md.) Huntingdon College (Ala.)
Grambling State University (La.) Husson College (Maine)
Grand Canyon University (Ariz.) Idaho State University (Idaho)
Grand Valley State University (Mich.) Illinois College (Ill.)
Green Mountain College (Vt.)
Illinois State University (Ill.) Lafayette College (Pa.)
Illinois Wesleyan University (Ill.) Lagrange College (Ga.)
Immaculata University (Pa.) Lake Erie College (Ohio)
Indiana State University (Ind.) Lake Forest College (Ill.)
Indiana University of Lake Superior State University
Pennsylvania-Main Campus (Pa.) (Mich.)
Indiana University-Bloomington (Ind.) Lakeland College (Wis.)
Indiana University-Purdue Lamar University (Tex.)
University-Fort Wayne (Ind.)
Lander University (S.C.)
Indiana University-Purdue
University-Indianapolis (Ind.) Lane College (Tenn.)
Iona College (N.Y.) Lasell College (Mass.)
Iowa State University (Iowa) Lawrence University (Wis.)
Ithaca College (N.Y.) Le Moyne College (N.Y.)
Jackson State University (Miss.) Le Moyne-Owen College (Tenn.)
Jacksonville State University (Ala.) Lebanon Valley College (Pa.)
Jacksonville University (Fla.) Lees-Mcrae College (N.C.)
James Madison University (Va.) Lehigh University (Pa.)
Jarvis Christian College (Tex.) Lenoir-Rhyne College (N.C.)
John Carroll University (Ohio) Lesley University (Mass.)
Johns Hopkins University (Md.) Letourneau University (Tex.)
Johnson & Wales University (R.I.) Lewis & Clark College (Ore.)
Johnson C Smith University (N.C.) Lewis University (Ill.)
Johnson State College (Vt.) Liberty University (Va.)
Juniata College (Pa.) Limestone College (S.C.)
Kalamazoo College (Mich.) Lincoln Memorial University (Tenn.)
Kansas State University (Kan.) Lincoln University (Mo.)
Kean University (N.J.) Lincoln University (Pa.)
Keene State College (N.H.) Linfield College (Ore.)
Kennesaw State University (Ga.) Lipscomb University (Tenn.)
Kent State University-Main Campus Livingstone College (N.C.)
(Ohio)
Lock Haven University of
Kentucky State University (Ky.) Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Kentucky Wesleyan College (Ky.) Long Island University-Brooklyn
Campus (N.Y.)
Kenyon College (Ohio)
Long Island University-C W Post
Keuka College (N.Y.) Campus (N.Y.)
Kings College (Pa.) Longwood University (Va.)
Knox College (Ill.) Loras College (Iowa)
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania Louisiana College (La.)
(Pa.)
Louisiana State Univ & Ag & Mech &
La Roche College (Pa.) Hebert Laws Ctr (La.)
La Salle University (Pa.)
Louisiana Tech University (La.) Meredith College (N.C.)
Loyola College in Maryland (Md.) Merrimack College (Mass.)
Loyola Marymount University (Calif.) Mesa State College (Colo.)
Loyola University Chicago (Ill.) Messiah College (Pa.)
Luther College (Iowa) Methodist College (N.C.)
Lycoming College (Pa.) Metropolitan State College of Denver
(Colo.)
Lynchburg College (Va.)
Miami University-Oxford (Ohio)
Lynn University (Fla.)
Michigan State University (Mich.)
Macalester College (Minn.)
Michigan Technological University
MacMurray College (Ill.) (Mich.)
Maine Maritime Academy (Maine) Middle Tennessee State University
(Tenn.)
Manchester College (Ind.)
Middlebury College (Vt.)
Manhattan College (N.Y.)
Midwestern State University (Tex.)
Manhattanville College (N.Y.)
Miles College (Ala.)
Mansfield University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.) Millersville University of
Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Maranatha Baptist Bible College Inc
(Wis.) Millikin University (Ill.)
Marian College of Fond Du Lac (Wis.) Mills College (Calif.)
Marietta College (Ohio) Millsaps College (Miss.)
Marist College (N.Y.) Milwaukee School of Engineering
(Wis.)
Marquette University (Wis.)
Minnesota State University-Mankato
Mars Hill College (N.C.) (Minn.)
Marshall University (W.Va.) Minnesota State University-Moorhead
(Minn.)
Martin Luther College (Minn.)
Mississippi College (Miss.)
Mary Baldwin College (Va.)
Mississippi State University (Miss.)
Marymount University (Va.)
Mississippi University For Women
Maryville College (Tenn.) (Miss.)
Maryville University of Saint Louis Mississippi Valley State University
(Mo.) (Miss.)
Marywood University (Pa.) Missouri Southern State University
(Mo.)
Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts
(Mass.) Missouri Western State College (Mo.)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Molloy College (N.Y.)
(Mass.)
Monmouth College (Ill.)
Massachusetts Maritime Academy
(Mass.) Monmouth University (N.J.)
McDaniel College (Md.) Montana State University-Billings
(Mont.)
McMurry University (Tex.)
Montana State University-Bozeman
McNeese State University (La.) (Mont.)
Medaille College (N.Y.) Montclair State University (N.J.)
Menlo College (Calif.) Moravian College and Theological
Seminary (Pa.)
Mercer University (Ga.)
Mercy College-Main Campus (N.Y.)
Mercyhurst College (Pa.)
Morehead State University (Ky.) North Park University (Ill.)
Morehouse College (Ga.) Northeastern Illinois University
(Ill.)
Morgan State University (Md.)
Northeastern State University
Morningside College (Iowa) (Okla.)
Morris Brown College (Ga.) Northeastern University (Mass.)
Mount Holyoke College (Mass.) Northern Arizona University (Ariz.)
Mount Ida College (Mass.) Northern Illinois University (Ill.)
Mount Olive College (N.C.) Northern Kentucky University (Ky.)
Mount Saint Mary College (N.Y.) Northern Michigan University (Mich.)
Mount St Mary's University (Md.) Northern State University (S.D.)
Mount Union College (Ohio) Northland College (Wis.)
Muhlenberg College (Pa.) Northwest Missouri State University
(Mo.)
Murray State University (Ky.)
Northwest Nazarene University
Muskingum College (Ohio) (Idaho)
Nazareth College of Rochester (N.Y.) Northwestern College (Wis.)
Nebraska Wesleyan University (Neb.) Northwestern State University of
Louisiana (La.)
Neumann College (Pa.)
Northwestern University (Ill.)
New England College (N.H.)
Northwood University (Mich.)
New Jersey City University (N.J.)
Norwich University (Vt.)
New Jersey Institute of Technology
(N.J.) Notre Dame De Namur University
(Calif.)
New Mexico Highlands University
(N.M.) Nova Southeastern University (Fla.)
New Mexico State University-Main Nyack College (N.Y.)
Campus (N.M.)
Oakland City University (Ind.)
New York Institute of Technology-Old
Westbury (N.Y.) Oakland University (Mich.)
New York University (N.Y.) Oberlin College (Ohio)
Newberry College (S.C.) Occidental College (Calif.)
Newbury College-Brookline (Mass.) Oglethorpe University (Ga.)
Niagara University (N.Y.) Ohio Northern University (Ohio)
Nicholls State University (La.) Ohio State University-Main Campus
(Ohio)
Nichols College (Mass.)
Ohio University-Main Campus (Ohio)
Norfolk State University (Va.)
Ohio Valley College (W.Va.)
North Carolina A & T State University
(N.C.) Ohio Wesleyan University (Ohio)
North Carolina Central University Oklahoma Panhandle State University
(N.C.) (Okla.)
North Carolina State University at Oklahoma State University-Main
Raleigh (N.C.) Campus (Okla.)
North Carolina Wesleyan College Old Dominion University (Va.)
(N.C.)
Olivet College (Mich.)
North Central College (Ill.)
Oral Roberts University (Okla.)
North Dakota State University-Main
Campus (N.D.) Oregon State University (Ore.)
North Greenville College (S.C.)
Otterbein College (Ohio) Regis University (Colo.)
Ouachita Baptist University (Ark.) Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(N.Y.)
Pace University-New York (N.Y.)
Rhode Island College (R.I.)
Pacific Lutheran University (Wash.)
Rhodes College (Tenn.)
Pacific University (Ore.)
Rice University (Tex.)
Paine College (Ga.)
Rider University (N.J.)
Peace College (N.C.)
Ripon College (Wis.)
Pennsylvania State University-Main
Campus (Pa.) Rivier College (N.H.)
Pennsylvania State University-Penn Roanoke College (Va.)
State Altoona (Pa.)
Robert Morris University (Pa.)
Pennsylvania State Univ-Penn St
Erie-Behrend Coll (Pa.) Rochester Institute of Technology
(N.Y.)
Pepperdine University (Calif.)
Rockford College (Ill.)
Pfeiffer University (N.C.)
Rockhurst University (Mo.)
Philadelphia Biblical
University-Langhorne (Pa.) Roger Williams University (R.I.)
Philadelphia University (Pa.) Rollins College (Fla.)
Piedmont College (Ga.) Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
(Ind.)
Pine Manor College (Mass.)
Rosemont College (Pa.)
Pittsburg State University (Kan.)
Rowan University (N.J.)
Pitzer College (Calif.)
Rust College (Miss.)
Plymouth State University (N.H.)
Rutgers University-Camden (N.J.)
Polytechnic University (N.Y.)
Rutgers University-New Brunswick
Pomona College (Calif.) (N.J.)
Portland State University (Ore.) Rutgers University-Newark (N.J.)
Post University (Conn.) Sacred Heart University (Conn.)
Prairie View A & M University (Tex.) Saginaw Valley State University
(Mich.)
Presbyterian College (S.C.)
Saint Anselm College (N.H.)
Princeton University (N.J.)
Saint Augustines College (N.C.)
Principia College (Ill.)
Saint Bonaventure University (N.Y.)
Providence College (R.I.)
Saint Cloud State University (Minn.)
Purdue University-Main Campus (Ind.)
Saint Edward's University (Tex.)
Queens University of Charlotte (N.C.)
Saint Francis University (Pa.)
Quincy University (Ill.)
Saint John Fisher College (N.Y.)
Quinnipiac University (Conn.)
Saint Johns University (Minn.)
Radford University (Va.)
Saint Joseph College (Conn.)
Ramapo College of New Jersey (N.J.)
Saint Josephs College (Ind.)
Randolph-Macon College (Va.)
Saint Josephs College (Maine)
Randolph-Macon Woman's College (Va.)
Saint Josephs College-Suffolk Campus
Regis College (Mass.) (N.Y.)
Saint Josephs University (Pa.)
Saint Leo University (Fla.)
Saint Louis University-Main Campus Slippery Rock University of
(Mo.) Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Saint Martins College (Wash.) Smith College (Mass.)
Saint Mary's College (Ind.) Sonoma State University (Calif.)
Saint Marys College of California South Carolina State University
(Calif.) (S.C.)
Saint Mary's University of Minnesota South Dakota State University (S.D.)
(Minn.)
Southampton College of Long Island
Saint Michaels College (Vt.) University (N.Y.)
Saint Norbert College (Wis.) Southeast Missouri State University
(Mo.)
Saint Olaf College (Minn.)
Southeastern Louisiana University
Saint Pauls College (Va.) (La.)
Saint Peters College (N.J.) Southeastern Oklahoma State
University (Okla.)
Saint Thomas Aquinas College (N.Y.)
Southern Arkansas University Main
Salem International University Campus (Ark.)
(W.Va.)
Southern Connecticut State
Salem State College (Mass.) University (Conn.)
Salisbury University (Md.) Southern Illinois University
Carbondale (Ill.)
Salve Regina University (R.I.)
Southern Illinois University
Sam Houston State University (Tex.) Edwardsville (Ill.)
Samford University (Ala.) Southern Methodist University (Tex.)
San Diego State University (Calif.) Southern New Hampshire University
(N.H.)
San Francisco State University
(Calif.) Southern University and A & M
College (La.)
San Jose State University (Calif.)
Southern Utah University (Utah)
Santa Clara University (Calif.)
Southern Vermont College (Vt.)
Savannah College of Art and Design
(Ga.) Southwest Baptist University (Mo.)
Savannah State University (Ga.) Southwest Minnesota State University
(Minn.)
Schreiner University (Tex.)
Southwest Missouri State University
Scripps College (Calif.) (Mo.)
Seattle Pacific University (Wash.) Southwestern Oklahoma State
University (Okla.)
Seattle University (Wash.)
Southwestern University (Tex.)
Seton Hall University (N.J.)
Spelman College (Ga.)
Sewanee: The University of the South
(Tenn.) Springfield College (Mass.)
Shaw University (N.C.) St Andrews Presbyterian College
(N.C.)
Shenandoah University (Va.)
St Francis College (N.Y.)
Shepherd University (W.Va.)
St John's University-New York (N.Y.)
Shippensburg University of
Pennsylvania (Pa.) St Lawrence University (N.Y.)
Siena College (N.Y.)
Simmons College (Mass.)
Simpson College (Iowa)
Skidmore College (N.Y.)
St Mary's College of Maryland (Md.) Texas A & M University-Commerce
(Tex.)
St Marys University (Tex.)
Texas A & M University-Corpus
Stanford University (Calif.) Christi (Tex.)
State University of West Georgia Texas A & M University-Kingsville
(Ga.) (Tex.)
Stephen F Austin State University Texas Christian University (Tex.)
(Tex.)
Texas Lutheran University (Tex.)
Stephens College (Mo.)
Texas Southern University (Tex.)
Stetson University (Fla.)
Texas State University-San Marcos
Stevens Institute of Technology (Tex.)
(N.J.)
Texas Tech University (Tex.)
Stillman College (Ala.)
Texas Woman's University (Tex.)
Stonehill College (Mass.)
The College of New Jersey (N.J.)
Suffolk University (Mass.)
The College of New Rochelle (N.Y.)
Sul Ross State University (Tex.)
The College of Saint Rose (N.Y.)
SUNY at Albany (N.Y.)
The College of Saint Scholastica
SUNY at Binghamton (N.Y.) (Minn.)
SUNY at Buffalo (N.Y.) The Richard Stockton College of New
Jersey (N.J.)
SUNY at Stony Brook (N.Y.)
The Sage Colleges-Troy Campus (N.Y.)
SUNY College at Brockport (N.Y.)
The University of Alabama (Ala.)
SUNY College at Buffalo (N.Y.)
The University of Findlay (Ohio)
SUNY College at Cortland (N.Y.)
The University of Montana-Missoula
SUNY College at Fredonia (N.Y.) (Mont.)
SUNY College at Geneseo (N.Y.) The University of Tampa (Fla.)
SUNY College at New Paltz (N.Y.) The University of Tennessee (Tenn.)
SUNY College at Old Westbury (N.Y.) The University of
Tennessee-Chattanooga (Tenn.)
SUNY College at Oneonta (N.Y.)
The University of Tennessee-Martin
SUNY College at Oswego (N.Y.) (Tenn.)
SUNY College at Plattsburgh (N.Y.) The University of Texas at Arlington
(Tex.)
SUNY Institute of Technology at
Utica-Rome (N.Y.) The University of Texas at Austin
(Tex.)
SUNY Maritime College (N.Y.)
The University of Texas at Dallas
SUNY-Potsdam (N.Y.) (Tex.)
Susquehanna University (Pa.) The University of Texas at El Paso
(Tex.)
Swarthmore College (Pa.)
The University of Texas at San
Sweet Briar College (Va.) Antonio (Tex.)
Syracuse University (N.Y.) The University of Texas-Pan American
(Tex.)
Tarleton State University (Tex.)
The University of West Florida
Temple University (Pa.) (Fla.)
Tennessee State University (Tenn.) Thiel College (Pa.)
Tennessee Technological University Thomas College (Maine)
(Tenn.)
Thomas More College (Ky.)
Texas A & M University (Tex.)
Tiffin University (Ohio) University of Central Oklahoma
(Okla.)
Towson University (Md.)
University of Charleston (W.Va.)
Transylvania University (Ky.)
University of Chicago (Ill.)
Trinity College (Conn.)
University of Cincinnati-Main Campus
Trinity University (D.C.) (Ohio)
Trinity University (Tex.) University of Colorado at Boulder
(Colo.)
Troy State University-Main Campus
(Ala.) University of Colorado at Colorado
Springs (Colo.)
Truman State University (Mo.)
University of Connecticut (Conn.)
Tufts University (Mass.)
University of Dallas (Tex.)
Tulane University of Louisiana (La.)
University of Dayton (Ohio)
Tusculum College (Tenn.)
University of Delaware (Del.)
Tuskegee University (Ala.)
University of Denver (Colo.)
Union College (N.Y.)
University of Detroit Mercy (Mich.)
United States Air Force Academy
(Colo.) University of Dubuque (Iowa)
United States Coast Guard Academy University of Evansville (Ind.)
(Conn.)
University of Florida (Fla.)
United States Merchant Marine Academy
(N.Y.) University of Georgia (Ga.)
United States Military Academy (N.Y.) University of Hartford (Conn.)
United States Naval Academy (Md.) University of Hawaii at Hilo
(Hawaii)
University of Akron Main Campus
(Ohio) University of Hawaii at Manoa
(Hawaii)
University of Alabama at Birmingham
(Ala.) University of Houston-University
Park (Tex.)
University of Alabama in Huntsville
(Ala.) University of Idaho (Idaho)
University of Alaska Anchorage University of Illinois at Chicago
(Alaska) (Ill.)
University of Alaska Fairbanks University of Illinois at
(Alaska) Urbana-Champaign (Ill.)
University of Arizona (Ariz.) University of Indianapolis (Ind.)
University of Arkansas at Little Rock University of Iowa (Iowa)
(Ark.)
University of Kansas Main Campus
University of Arkansas at Monticello (Kan.)
(Ark.)
University of Kentucky (Ky.)
University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
(Ark.) University of La Verne (Calif.)
University of Arkansas Main Campus University of Louisiana at Lafayette
(Ark.) (La.)
University of Bridgeport (Conn.) University of Louisiana at Monroe
(La.)
University of California-Berkeley
(Calif.) University of Louisville (Ky.)
University of California-Davis University of Maine (Maine)
(Calif.)
University of Maine at Farmington
University of California-Irvine (Maine)
(Calif.)
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
University of California-Los Angeles (Tex.)
(Calif.)
University of Mary Washington (Va.)
University of California-Riverside
(Calif.)
University of California-San Diego
(Calif.)
University of California-Santa
Barbara (Calif.)
University of California-Santa Cruz
(Calif.)
University of Central Arkansas (Ark.)
University of Central Florida (Fla.)
University of Maryland-Baltimore University of North Carolina at
County (Md.) Greensboro (N.C.)
University of Maryland-College Park University of North Carolina at
(Md.) Pembroke (N.C.)
University of Maryland-Eastern Shore University of North
(Md.) Carolina-Wilmington (N.C.)
University of Massachusetts-Amherst University of North Dakota-Main
(Mass.) Campus (N.D.)
University of Massachusetts-Boston University of North Florida (Fla.)
(Mass.)
University of North Texas (Tex.)
University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth
(Mass.) University of Northern Colorado
(Colo.)
University of Massachusetts-Lowell
(Mass.) University of Northern Iowa (Iowa)
University of Memphis (Tenn.) University of Notre Dame (Ind.)
University of Miami (Fla.) University of Oklahoma Norman Campus
(Okla.)
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
(Mich.) University of Oregon (Ore.)
University of Minnesota-Crookston University of Pennsylvania (Pa.)
(Minn.)
University of Pittsburgh-Bradford
University of Minnesota-Duluth (Pa.)
(Minn.)
University of Pittsburgh-Greensburg
University of Minnesota-Morris (Pa.)
(Minn.)
University of Pittsburgh-Johnstown
University of Minnesota-Twin Cities (Pa.)
(Minn.)
University of Pittsburgh-Main Campus
University of Mississippi Main Campus (Pa.)
(Miss.)
University of Portland (Ore.)
University of Missouri-Columbia (Mo.)
University of Puerto Rico-Bayamon
University of Missouri-Kansas City (P.R.)
(Mo.)
University of Puerto Rico-Cayey
University of Missouri-Rolla (Mo.) University College (P.R.)
University of Missouri-St Louis (Mo.) University of Puerto Rico-Humacao
(P.R.)
University of Montevallo (Ala.)
University of Puerto Rico-Mayaguez
University of Nebraska at Kearney (P.R.)
(Neb.)
University of Puerto Rico-Rio
University of Nebraska at Lincoln Piedras Campus (P.R.)
(Neb.)
University of Puget Sound (Wash.)
University of Nebraska at Omaha
(Neb.) University of Redlands (Calif.)
University of Nevada-Las Vegas (Nev.) University of Rhode Island (R.I.)
University of Nevada-Reno (Nev.) University of Richmond (Va.)
University of New England (Maine) University of Rochester (N.Y.)
University of New Hampshire-Main University of San Diego (Calif.)
Campus (N.H.)
University of San Francisco (Calif.)
University of New Haven (Conn.)
University of Scranton (Pa.)
University of New Mexico-Main Campus
(N.M.) University of South Alabama (Ala.)
University of New Orleans (La.)
University of North Alabama (Ala.)
University of North Carolina at
Asheville (N.C.)
University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (N.C.)
University of North Carolina at
Charlotte (N.C.)
University of South Carolina Upstate Upper Iowa University (Iowa)
(S.C.)
Upsala College (N.J.)
University of South Carolina-Aiken
(S.C.) Ursinus College (Pa.)
University of South Carolina-Columbia Utah State University (Utah)
(S.C.)
Utica College (N.Y.)
University of South Dakota (S.D.)
Valdosta State University (Ga.)
University of South Florida (Fla.)
Valparaiso University (Ind.)
University of Southern California
(Calif.) Vanderbilt University (Tenn.)
University of Southern Indiana (Ind.) Vassar College (N.Y.)
University of Southern Maine (Maine) Villa Julie College (Md.)
University of Southern Mississippi Villanova University (Pa.)
(Miss.)
Virginia Commonwealth University
University of St Francis (Ill.) (Va.)
University of St Thomas (Minn.) Virginia Military Institute (Va.)
University of the District of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
Columbia (D.C.) State Univ (Va.)
University of the Incarnate Word Virginia State University (Va.)
(Tex.)
Virginia Union University (Va.)
University of the Ozarks (Ark.)
Virginia Wesleyan College (Va.)
University of the Pacific (Calif.)
Wabash College (Ind.)
University of the Sciences in
Philadelphia (Pa.) Wagner College (N.Y.)
University of Toledo (Ohio) Wake Forest University (N.C.)
University of Tulsa (Okla.) Wartburg College (Iowa)
University of Utah (Utah) Washburn University (Kan.)
University of Vermont and State Washington & Jefferson College (Pa.)
Agricultural Coll (Vt.)
Washington and Lee University (Va.)
University of Virginia-Main Campus
(Va.) Washington College (Md.)
University of Washington-Seattle Washington State University (Wash.)
Campus (Wash.)
Washington University in St Louis
University of West Alabama (Ala.) (Mo.)
University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Wayne State College (Neb.)
(Wis.)
Wayne State University (Mich.)
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
(Wis.) Waynesburg College (Pa.)
University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Weber State University (Utah)
(Wis.)
Webster University (Mo.)
University of Wisconsin-Madison
(Wis.) Wellesley College (Mass.)
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Wells College (N.Y.)
(Wis.)
Wentworth Institute of Technology
University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh (Mass.)
(Wis.)
Wesley College (Del.)
University of Wisconsin-Parkside
(Wis.) Wesleyan College (Ga.)
University of Wisconsin-Platteville Wesleyan University (Conn.)
(Wis.)
University of Wisconsin-River Falls
(Wis.)
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
(Wis.)
University of Wisconsin-Stout (Wis.)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
(Wis.)
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
(Wis.)
University of Wyoming (Wyo.)
West Chester University of Wichita State University (Kan.)
Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Widener University-Main Campus (Pa.)
West Liberty State College (W.Va.)
Wiley College (Tex.)
West Texas A & M University (Tex.)
Wilkes University (Pa.)
West Virginia State University
(W.Va.) Willamette University (Ore.)
West Virginia University (W.Va.) William Paterson University of New
Jersey (N.J.)
West Virginia University Institute of
Technology (W.Va.) William Penn University (Iowa)
West Virginia Wesleyan College Williams College (Mass.)
(W.Va.)
Wilmington College (Del.)
Western Carolina University (N.C.)
Wilmington College (Ohio)
Western Connecticut State University
(Conn.) Wilson College (Pa.)
Western Illinois University (Ill.) Wingate University (N.C.)
Western Kentucky University (Ky.) Winona State University (Minn.)
Western Michigan University (Mich.) Winston-Salem State University
(N.C.)
Western New England College (Mass.)
Winthrop University (S.C.)
Western New Mexico University (N.M.)
Wisconsin Lutheran College (Wis.)
Western Oregon University (Ore.)
Wittenberg University (Ohio)
Western State College of Colorado
(Colo.) Wofford College (S.C.)
Western Washington University (Wash.) Worcester Polytechnic Institute
(Mass.)
Westfield State College (Mass.)
Worcester State College (Mass.)
Westminster College (Mo.)
Wright State University-Main Campus
Westminster College (Pa.) (Ohio)
Wheaton College (Ill.) Xavier University (Ohio)
Wheaton College (Mass.) Yale University (Conn.)
Wheeling Jesuit University (W.Va.) Yeshiva University (N.Y.)
Wheelock College (Mass.) York College Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Whitman College (Wash.) Youngstown State University (Ohio)
Whittier College (Calif.)
Whitworth College (Wash.)
Source: NCAA and Department of Education.
Notes: For some schools, "A & M" no longer signifies "Agricultural and
Mechanical" but is simply part of the school name
School names are listed as they were reported to the Department of
Education through the IPEDS system. Thus, some names may differ from how
they are listed in the NCAA membership directories.
Appendix IV: Schools Included in the Closed Group
The following 750 schools were included in the closed group of NCAA
members that met the following three criteria:
o They were members of the NCAA in each year from 1991-1992 to
2004-2005.
o They were not also members of the second-largest athletic
association, the NAIA, in any year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
o They reported team and participant information consistently each
year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
Table 4: Closed-Group Schools (state abbreviation)
Abilene Christian University (Tex.) Augustana College (Ill.)
Adelphi University (N.Y.) Augustana College (S.D.)
Adrian College (Mich.) Aurora University (Ill.)
Alabama A & M University (Ala.) Austin Peay State University (Tenn.)
Alabama State University (Ala.) Averett University (Va.)
Albany State University (Ga.) Babson College (Mass.)
Albertus Magnus College (Conn.) Baldwin-Wallace College (Ohio)
Albion College (Mich.) Ball State University (Ind.)
Albright College (Pa.) Barnard College (N.Y.)
Alcorn State University (Miss.) Barry University (Fla.)
Alfred University (N.Y.) Bates College (Maine)
Allegheny College (Pa.) Baylor University (Tex.)
Alma College (Mich.) Bellarmine University (Ky.)
American International College Beloit College (Wis.)
(Mass.)
Bemidji State University (Minn.)
American University (D.C.)
Benedictine University (Ill.)
Angelo State University (Tex.)
Bentley College (Mass.)
Anna Maria College (Mass.)
Bethany College (W.Va.)
Appalachian State University (N.C.)
Bethel University (Minn.)
Arizona State University at the Tempe
Campus (Ariz.) Bethune Cookman College (Fla.)
Arkansas State University-Main Campus Blackburn College (Ill.)
(Ark.)
Bloomsburg University of
Armstrong Atlantic State University Pennsylvania (Pa.)
(Ga.)
Bluffton University (Ohio)
Ashland University (Ohio)
Boise State University (Idaho)
Assumption College (Mass.)
Boston College (Mass.)
Auburn University Main Campus (Ala.)
Boston University (Mass.)
Augsburg College (Minn.)
Bowdoin College (Maine)
Augusta State University (Ga.)
Bowie State University (Md.) Campbell University Inc (N.C.)
Bowling Green State University-Main Canisius College (N.Y.)
Campus (Ohio)
Capital University (Ohio)
Bradley University (Ill.)
Carleton College (Minn.)
Brandeis University (Mass.)
Carnegie Mellon University (Pa.)
Bridgewater College (Va.)
Carroll College (Wis.)
Bridgewater State College (Mass.)
Carthage College (Wis.)
Brigham Young University (Utah)
Case Western Reserve University
Brown University (R.I.) (Ohio)
Bryant University (R.I.) Catholic University of America
(D.C.)
Bryn Mawr College (Pa.)
Centenary College of Louisiana (La.)
Bucknell University (Pa.)
Central College (Iowa)
Buena Vista University (Iowa)
Central Connecticut State University
Cabrini College (Pa.) (Conn.)
California Institute of Technology Central Michigan University (Mich.)
(Calif.)
Central Missouri State University
California Lutheran University (Mo.)
(Calif.)
Centre College (Ky.)
California Polytechnic State
University-San Luis Obispo (Calif.) Chaminade University of Honolulu
(Hawaii)
California State Polytechnic
University-Pomona (Calif.) Chapman University (Calif.)
California State Charleston Southern University
University-Bakersfield (Calif.) (S.C.)
California State University-Chico Cheyney University of Pennsylvania
(Calif.) (Pa.)
California State University-Dominguez Christopher Newport University (Va.)
Hills (Calif.)
Citadel Military College of South
California State University-Fresno Carolina (S.C.)
(Calif.)
Claremont Mckenna College (Calif.)
California State University-Fullerton
(Calif.) Clarion University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.)
California State University-Long
Beach (Calif.) Clark Atlanta University (Ga.)
California State University-Los Clark University (Mass.)
Angeles (Calif.)
Clarkson University (N.Y.)
California State
University-Northridge (Calif.) Clemson University (S.C.)
California State Cleveland State University (Ohio)
University-Sacramento (Calif.)
Coastal Carolina University (S.C.)
California State University-San
Bernardino (Calif.) Coe College (Iowa)
California State Colby College (Maine)
University-Stanislaus (Calif.)
Colby-Sawyer College (N.H.)
California University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.) Colgate University (N.Y.)
Calvin College (Mich.) College of Charleston (S.C.)
Cameron University (Okla.) College of Notre Dame of Maryland
(Md.)
College of Our Lady of the Elms
(Mass.)
College of Saint Benedict (Minn.)
College of Saint Elizabeth (N.J.) Desales University (Pa.)
College of St Catherine (Minn.) Dickinson College (Pa.)
College of the Holy Cross (Mass.) Dowling College (N.Y.)
College of William and Mary (Va.) Drake University (Iowa)
College of Wooster (Ohio) Drew University (N.J.)
Colorado Christian University (Colo.) Drexel University (Pa.)
Colorado College (Colo.) Duke University (N.C.)
Colorado State University (Colo.) Duquesne University (Pa.)
Colorado State University-Pueblo Earlham College (Ind.)
(Colo.)
East Carolina University (N.C.)
Columbus State University (Ga.)
East Stroudsburg University of
Concordia College (N.Y.) Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Concordia College at Moorhead (Minn.) East Tennessee State University
(Tenn.)
Concordia University (Ill.)
Eastern Connecticut State University
Connecticut College (Conn.) (Conn.)
Coppin State University (Md.) Eastern Illinois University (Ill.)
Cornell College (Iowa) Eastern Kentucky University (Ky.)
Cornell University-Endowed Colleges Eastern Mennonite University (Va.)
(N.Y.)
Eastern Michigan University (Mich.)
Creighton University (Neb.)
Eastern Nazarene College (Mass.)
CUNY City College (N.Y.)
Eastern New Mexico University-Main
CUNY College of Staten Island (N.Y.) Campus (N.M.)
CUNY Hunter College (N.Y.) Eastern Washington University
(Wash.)
CUNY John Jay College Criminal
Justice (N.Y.) Eckerd College (Fla.)
CUNY Lehman College (N.Y.) Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
(Pa.)
CUNY Medgar Evers College (N.Y.)
Elizabeth City State University
CUNY Queens College (N.Y.) (N.C.)
CUNY York College (N.Y.) Elizabethtown College (Pa.)
Curry College (Mass.) Elmhurst College (Ill.)
Daniel Webster College (N.H.) Elmira College (N.Y.)
Dartmouth College (N.H.) Emerson College (Mass.)
Davidson College (N.C.) Emmanuel College (Mass.)
Defiance College (Ohio) Emory and Henry College (Va.)
Delaware State University (Del.) Emory University (Ga.)
Delaware Valley College (Pa.) Fairfield University (Conn.)
Delta State University (Miss.) Fairleigh Dickinson
University-College at Florham (N.J.)
Denison University (Ohio)
Fairleigh Dickinson
Depaul University (Ill.) University-Metropolitan Campus
(N.J.)
Depauw University (Ind.)
Fayetteville State University (N.C.)
Ferris State University (Mich.) Gustavus Adolphus College (Minn.)
Ferrum College (Va.) Hamilton College (N.Y.)
Fisk University (Tenn.) Hamline University (Minn.)
Fitchburg State College (Mass.) Hampden-Sydney College (Va.)
Florida Agricultural and Mechanical Hampton University (Va.)
University (Fla.)
Hartwick College (N.Y.)
Florida Atlantic University-Boca
Raton (Fla.) Harvard University (Mass.)
Florida Institute of Haverford College (Pa.)
Technology-Melbourne (Fla.)
Heidelberg College (Ohio)
Florida International University
(Fla.) Hiram College (Ohio)
Florida Southern College (Fla.) Hobart William Smith Colleges (N.Y.)
Florida State University (Fla.) Hofstra University (N.Y.)
Fontbonne University (Mo.) Hollins University (Va.)
Fordham University (N.Y.) Hood College (Md.)
Fort Valley State University (Ga.) Hope College (Mich.)
Framingham State College (Mass.) Howard University (D.C.)
Franklin and Marshall College (Pa.) Humboldt State University (Calif.)
Franklin Pierce College (N.H.) Idaho State University (Idaho)
Frostburg State University (Md.) Illinois College (Ill.)
Furman University (S.C.) Illinois State University (Ill.)
Gallaudet University (D.C.) Illinois Wesleyan University (Ill.)
Gannon University (Pa.) Immaculata University (Pa.)
George Mason University (Va.) Indiana State University (Ind.)
George Washington University (D.C.) Indiana University of
Pennsylvania-Main Campus (Pa.)
Georgetown University (D.C.)
Indiana University-Bloomington
Georgia College and State University (Ind.)
(Ga.)
Indiana University-Purdue
Georgia Institute of Technology-Main University-Fort Wayne (Ind.)
Campus (Ga.)
Iona College (N.Y.)
Georgia Southern University (Ga.)
Iowa State University (Iowa)
Georgia State University (Ga.)
Ithaca College (N.Y.)
Gettysburg College (Pa.)
Jackson State University (Miss.)
Gonzaga University (Wash.)
Jacksonville State University (Ala.)
Goucher College (Md.)
Jacksonville University (Fla.)
Grambling State University (La.)
James Madison University (Va.)
Grand Valley State University (Mich.)
John Carroll University (Ohio)
Greensboro College (N.C.)
Johns Hopkins University (Md.)
Grinnell College (Iowa)
Johnson C Smith University (N.C.)
Grove City College (Pa.)
Juniata College (Pa.)
Guilford College (N.C.)
Kalamazoo College (Mich.) Luther College (Iowa)
Kansas State University (Kan.) Lycoming College (Pa.)
Kean University (N.J.) Lynchburg College (Va.)
Keene State College (N.H.) Macalester College (Minn.)
Kent State University-Main Campus MacMurray College (Ill.)
(Ohio)
Manhattan College (N.Y.)
Kentucky State University (Ky.)
Manhattanville College (N.Y.)
Kenyon College (Ohio)
Mansfield University of Pennsylvania
Keuka College (N.Y.) (Pa.)
Kings College (Pa.) Marietta College (Ohio)
Knox College (Ill.) Marist College (N.Y.)
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania Marquette University (Wis.)
(Pa.)
Marshall University (W.Va.)
La Salle University (Pa.)
Mary Baldwin College (Va.)
Lafayette College (Pa.)
Marymount University (Va.)
Lake Forest College (Ill.)
Maryville College (Tenn.)
Lake Superior State University
(Mich.) Maryville University of Saint Louis
(Mo.)
Lamar University (Tex.)
Marywood University (Pa.)
Lander University (S.C.)
Massachusetts College of Liberal
Lawrence University (Wis.) Arts (Mass.)
Le Moyne College (N.Y.) Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (Mass.)
Le Moyne-Owen College (Tenn.)
Massachusetts Maritime Academy
Lebanon Valley College (Pa.) (Mass.)
Lewis University (Ill.) McDaniel College (Md.)
Liberty University (Va.) McNeese State University (La.)
Lincoln Memorial University (Tenn.) Mercer University (Ga.)
Lincoln University (Mo.) Mercy College-Main Campus (N.Y.)
Lincoln University (Pa.) Mercyhurst College (Pa.)
Livingstone College (N.C.) Merrimack College (Mass.)
Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania Messiah College (Pa.)
(Pa.)
Methodist College (N.C.)
Long Island University-Brooklyn
Campus (N.Y.) Metropolitan State College of Denver
(Colo.)
Long Island University-C W Post
Campus (N.Y.) Miami University-Oxford (Ohio)
Loras College (Iowa) Michigan State University (Mich.)
Louisiana State Univ & Ag & Mech & Michigan Technological University
Hebert Laws Ctr (La.) (Mich.)
Louisiana Tech University (La.) Middle Tennessee State University
(Tenn.)
Loyola College in Maryland (Md.)
Middlebury College (Vt.)
Loyola Marymount University (Calif.)
Miles College (Ala.)
Loyola University Chicago (Ill.)
Millersville University of
Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Millikin University (Ill.) North Carolina Wesleyan College
(N.C.)
Millsaps College (Miss.)
North Central College (Ill.)
Minnesota State University-Mankato
(Minn.) North Dakota State University-Main
Campus (N.D.)
Mississippi College (Miss.)
North Park University (Ill.)
Mississippi State University (Miss.)
Northeastern University (Mass.)
Mississippi Valley State University
(Miss.) Northern Arizona University (Ariz.)
Missouri Southern State University Northern Illinois University (Ill.)
(Mo.)
Northern Kentucky University (Ky.)
Molloy College (N.Y.)
Northern Michigan University (Mich.)
Monmouth College (Ill.)
Northwestern State University of
Monmouth University (N.J.) Louisiana (La.)
Montana State University-Billings Northwestern University (Ill.)
(Mont.)
Norwich University (Vt.)
Montana State University-Bozeman
(Mont.) Oberlin College (Ohio)
Montclair State University (N.J.) Occidental College (Calif.)
Morehead State University (Ky.) Oglethorpe University (Ga.)
Morehouse College (Ga.) Ohio Northern University (Ohio)
Morgan State University (Md.) Ohio State University-Main Campus
(Ohio)
Mount Holyoke College (Mass.)
Ohio University-Main Campus (Ohio)
Mount Saint Mary College (N.Y.)
Ohio Wesleyan University (Ohio)
Mount St Mary's University (Md.)
Oklahoma State University-Main
Mount Union College (Ohio) Campus (Okla.)
Muhlenberg College (Pa.) Old Dominion University (Va.)
Murray State University (Ky.) Olivet College (Mich.)
Muskingum College (Ohio) Oregon State University (Ore.)
Nazareth College of Rochester (N.Y.) Otterbein College (Ohio)
New England College (N.H.) Pace University-New York (N.Y.)
New Jersey City University (N.J.) Paine College (Ga.)
New Jersey Institute of Technology Pennsylvania State University-Main
(N.J.) Campus (Pa.)
New Mexico State University-Main Pennsylvania State Univ-Penn St
Campus (N.M.) Erie-Behrend Coll (Pa.)
New York University (N.Y.) Pepperdine University (Calif.)
Niagara University (N.Y.) Philadelphia University (Pa.)
Nicholls State University (La.) Pine Manor College (Mass.)
Nichols College (Mass.) Pittsburg State University (Kan.)
Norfolk State University (Va.) Pitzer College (Calif.)
North Carolina A & T State University Plymouth State University (N.H.)
(N.C.)
Polytechnic University (N.Y.)
North Carolina Central University
(N.C.)
North Carolina State University at
Raleigh (N.C.)
Portland State University (Ore.) Saint Leo University (Fla.)
Princeton University (N.J.) Saint Louis University-Main Campus
(Mo.)
Principia College (Ill.)
Saint Mary's College (Ind.)
Providence College (R.I.)
Saint Marys College of California
Purdue University-Main Campus (Ind.) (Calif.)
Queens University of Charlotte (N.C.) Saint Mary's University of Minnesota
(Minn.)
Quinnipiac University (Conn.)
Saint Michaels College (Vt.)
Radford University (Va.)
Saint Norbert College (Wis.)
Ramapo College of New Jersey (N.J.)
Saint Pauls College (Va.)
Randolph-Macon College (Va.)
Saint Peters College (N.J.)
Regis College (Mass.)
Salem State College (Mass.)
Regis University (Colo.)
Salisbury University (Md.)
Rhode Island College (R.I.)
Salve Regina University (R.I.)
Rhodes College (Tenn.)
Sam Houston State University (Tex.)
Rice University (Tex.)
Samford University (Ala.)
Rider University (N.J.)
San Diego State University (Calif.)
Ripon College (Wis.)
San Francisco State University
Roanoke College (Va.) (Calif.)
Robert Morris University (Pa.) San Jose State University (Calif.)
Rochester Institute of Technology Santa Clara University (Calif.)
(N.Y.)
Savannah State University (Ga.)
Rockford College (Ill.)
Seattle Pacific University (Wash.)
Rollins College (Fla.)
Seton Hall University (N.J.)
Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
(Ind.) Sewanee: The University of the South
(Tenn.)
Rosemont College (Pa.)
Shaw University (N.C.)
Rowan University (N.J.)
Shenandoah University (Va.)
Rust College (Miss.)
Shippensburg University of
Rutgers University-Camden (N.J.) Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Rutgers University-New Brunswick Siena College (N.Y.)
(N.J.)
Simmons College (Mass.)
Rutgers University-Newark (N.J.)
Simpson College (Iowa)
Saginaw Valley State University
(Mich.) Skidmore College (N.Y.)
Saint Anselm College (N.H.) Slippery Rock University of
Pennsylvania (Pa.)
Saint Augustines College (N.C.)
Smith College (Mass.)
Saint Bonaventure University (N.Y.)
Sonoma State University (Calif.)
Saint Cloud State University (Minn.)
South Carolina State University
Saint Francis University (Pa.) (S.C.)
Saint John Fisher College (N.Y.) South Dakota State University (S.D.)
Saint Johns University (Minn.) Southeast Missouri State University
(Mo.)
Saint Josephs College (Ind.)
Southeastern Louisiana University
Saint Josephs University (Pa.) (La.)
Southern Connecticut State University SUNY Maritime College (N.Y.)
(Conn.)
SUNY-Potsdam (N.Y.)
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale (Ill.) Susquehanna University (Pa.)
Southern Illinois University Swarthmore College (Pa.)
Edwardsville (Ill.)
Sweet Briar College (Va.)
Southern Methodist University (Tex.)
Syracuse University (N.Y.)
Southern New Hampshire University
(N.H.) Temple University (Pa.)
Southern University and A & M College Tennessee State University (Tenn.)
(La.)
Tennessee Technological University
Southern Utah University (Utah) (Tenn.)
Southwest Baptist University (Mo.) Texas A & M University (Tex.)
Southwest Missouri State University Texas A & M University-Commerce
(Mo.) (Tex.)
Southwest Missouri State University Texas A & M University-Kingsville
(Mo.) (Tex.)
Springfield College (Mass.) Texas Christian University (Tex.)
St Francis College (N.Y.) Texas State University-San Marcos
(Tex.)
St John's University-New York (N.Y.)
Texas Tech University (Tex.)
St Lawrence University (N.Y.)
Texas Woman's University (Tex.)
St Mary's College of Maryland (Md.)
The College of New Jersey (N.J.)
State University of West Georgia
(Ga.) The College of New Rochelle (N.Y.)
Stephen F Austin State University The College of Saint Rose (N.Y.)
(Tex.)
The Richard Stockton College of New
Stetson University (Fla.) Jersey (N.J.)
Stevens Institute of Technology The University of Alabama (Ala.)
(N.J.)
The University of Montana-Missoula
Stonehill College (Mass.) (Mont.)
Suffolk University (Mass.) The University of Tampa (Fla.)
SUNY at Albany (N.Y.) The University of Tennessee (Tenn.)
SUNY at Binghamton (N.Y.) The University of
Tennessee-Chattanooga (Tenn.)
SUNY at Buffalo (N.Y.)
The University of Tennessee-Martin
SUNY at Stony Brook (N.Y.) (Tenn.)
SUNY College at Brockport (N.Y.) The University of Texas at Arlington
(Tex.)
SUNY College at Buffalo (N.Y.)
The University of Texas at Austin
SUNY College at Cortland (N.Y.) (Tex.)
SUNY College at Fredonia (N.Y.) The University of Texas at El Paso
(Tex.)
SUNY College at Geneseo (N.Y.)
The University of Texas at San
SUNY College at New Paltz (N.Y.) Antonio (Tex.)
SUNY College at Old Westbury (N.Y.) The University of Texas-Pan American
(Tex.)
SUNY College at Oneonta (N.Y.)
Thiel College (Pa.)
SUNY College at Oswego (N.Y.)
Thomas More College (Ky.)
SUNY College at Plattsburgh (N.Y.)
Towson University (Md.)
SUNY Institute of Technology at
Utica-Rome (N.Y.)
Trinity College (Conn.) University of Georgia (Ga.)
Trinity University (Tex.) University of Hartford (Conn.)
Troy State University-Main Campus University of Hawaii at Manoa
(Ala.) (Hawaii)
Truman State University (Mo.) University of Idaho (Idaho)
Tufts University (Mass.) University of Illinois at Chicago
(Ill.)
Tuskegee University (Ala.)
University of Illinois at
Union College (N.Y.) Urbana-Champaign (Ill.)
United States Air Force Academy University of Indianapolis (Ind.)
(Colo.)
University of Iowa (Iowa)
United States Coast Guard Academy
(Conn.) University of Kansas Main Campus
(Kan.)
United States Military Academy (N.Y.)
University of Kentucky (Ky.)
United States Naval Academy (Md.)
University of La Verne (Calif.)
University of Akron Main Campus
(Ohio) University of Louisiana at Lafayette
(La.)
University of Alabama at Birmingham
(Ala.) University of Louisiana at Monroe
(La.)
University of Alabama in Huntsville
(Ala.) University of Louisville (Ky.)
University of Alaska Anchorage University of Maine (Maine)
(Alaska)
University of Mary Washington (Va.)
University of Alaska Fairbanks
(Alaska) University of Maryland-Baltimore
County (Md.)
University of Arizona (Ariz.)
University of Maryland-College Park
University of Arkansas at Little Rock (Md.)
(Ark.)
University of Maryland-Eastern Shore
University of Arkansas Main Campus (Md.)
(Ark.)
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
University of Bridgeport (Conn.) (Mass.)
University of California-Davis University of Massachusetts-Boston
(Calif.) (Mass.)
University of California-Irvine University of
(Calif.) Massachusetts-Dartmouth (Mass.)
University of California-Riverside University of Massachusetts-Lowell
(Calif.) (Mass.)
University of California-San Diego University of Memphis (Tenn.)
(Calif.)
University of Miami (Fla.)
University of California-Santa
Barbara (Calif.) University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
(Mich.)
University of Central Florida (Fla.)
University of Minneasota-Twin Cities
University of Central Oklahoma (Minn.)
(Okla.)
University of Mississippi Main
University of Chicago (Ill.) Campus (Miss.)
University of Cincinnati-Main Campus University of Missouri-Columbia
(Ohio) (Mo.)
University of Colorado at Boulder University of Missouri-Kansas City
(Colo.) (Mo.)
University of Dayton (Ohio) University of Missouri-Rolla (Mo.)
University of Delaware (Del.) University of Missouri-St Louis
(Mo.)
University of Denver (Colo.)
University of Nebraska at Kearney
University of Detroit Mercy (Mich.) (Neb.)
University of Dubuque (Iowa) University of Nebraska at Lincoln
(Neb.)
University of Evansville (Ind.)
University of Florida (Fla.)
University of Nebraska at Omaha University of South Carolina Upstate
(Neb.) (S.C.)
University of Nevada-Las Vegas (Nev.) University of South Carolina-Aiken
(S.C.)
University of Nevada-Reno (Nev.)
University of South
University of New Hampshire-Main Carolina-Columbia (S.C.)
Campus (N.H.)
University of South Dakota (S.D.)
University of New Haven (Conn.)
University of South Florida (Fla.)
University of New Mexico-Main Campus
(N.M.) University of Southern California
(Calif.)
University of New Orleans (La.)
University of Southern Indiana
University of North Alabama (Ala.) (Ind.)
University of North Carolina at University of Southern Maine (Maine)
Asheville (N.C.)
University of Southern Mississippi
University of North Carolina at (Miss.)
Chapel Hill (N.C.)
University of St Thomas (Minn.)
University of North Carolina at
Charlotte (N.C.) University of the District of
Columbia (D.C.)
University of North Carolina at
Greensboro (N.C.) University of the Pacific (Calif.)
University of North Carolina at University of Toledo (Ohio)
Pembroke (N.C.)
University of Tulsa (Okla.)
University of North
Carolina-Wilmington (N.C.) University of Utah (Utah)
University of North Dakota-Main University of Vermont and State
Campus (N.D.) Agricultural Coll (Vt.)
University of North Texas (Tex.) University of Virginia-Main Campus
(Va.)
University of Northern Colorado
(Colo.) University of Washington-Seattle
Campus (Wash.)
University of Northern Iowa (Iowa)
University of West Alabama (Ala.)
University of Notre Dame (Ind.)
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
University of Oklahoma Norman Campus (Wis.)
(Okla.)
University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
University of Oregon (Ore.) (Wis.)
University of Pennsylvania (Pa.) University of Wisconsin-Madison
(Wis.)
University of Pittsburgh-Main Campus
(Pa.) University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
(Wis.)
University of Portland (Ore.)
University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh
University of Redlands (Calif.) (Wis.)
University of Rhode Island (R.I.) University of Wisconsin-Stout (Wis.)
University of Richmond (Va.) University of Wisconsin-Superior
(Wis.)
University of Rochester (N.Y.)
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
University of San Diego (Calif.) (Wis.)
University of San Francisco (Calif.) University of Wyoming (Wyo.)
University of Scranton (Pa.) Upper Iowa University (Iowa)
University of South Alabama (Ala.) Ursinus College (Pa.)
Utah State University (Utah)
Utica College (N.Y.)
Valdosta State University (Ga.)
Valparaiso University (Ind.)
Vanderbilt University (Tenn.)
Vassar College (N.Y.)
Villanova University (Pa.)
Virginia Commonwealth University Western Carolina University (N.C.)
(Va.)
Western Connecticut State University
Virginia Military Institute (Va.) (Conn.)
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Western Illinois University (Ill.)
State Univ (Va.)
Western Kentucky University (Ky.)
Virginia State University (Va.)
Western Michigan University (Mich.)
Virginia Union University (Va.)
Western New England College (Mass.)
Virginia Wesleyan College (Va.)
Westfield State College (Mass.)
Wabash College (Ind.)
Wheaton College (Ill.)
Wagner College (N.Y.)
Wheaton College (Mass.)
Wake Forest University (N.C.)
Whittier College (Calif.)
Wartburg College (Iowa)
Wichita State University (Kan.)
Washburn University (Kan.)
Widener University-Main Campus (Pa.)
Washington & Jefferson College (Pa.)
Wilkes University (Pa.)
Washington and Lee University (Va.)
William Paterson University of New
Washington College (Md.) Jersey (N.J.)
Washington State University (Wash.) Williams College (Mass.)
Washington University in St Louis Wilmington College (Del.)
(Mo.)
Winston-Salem State University
Wayne State College (Neb.) (N.C.)
Wayne State University (Mich.) Winthrop University (S.C.)
Waynesburg College (Pa.) Wittenberg University (Ohio)
Weber State University (Utah) Wofford College (S.C.)
Webster University (Mo.) Worcester Polytechnic Institute
(Mass.)
Wellesley College (Mass.)
Worcester State College (Mass.)
Wells College (N.Y.)
Wright State University-Main Campus
Wentworth Institute of Technology (Ohio)
(Mass.)
Xavier University (Ohio)
Wesley College (Del.)
Yale University (Conn.)
Wesleyan University (Conn.)
Yeshiva University (N.Y.)
West Chester University of
Pennsylvania (Pa.) York College Pennsylvania (Pa.)
West Texas A & M University (Tex.) Youngstown State University (Ohio)
West Virginia University (W.Va.)
Sources: NCAA and Department of Education.
Notes: For some schools, "A & M" no longer signifies "Agricultural and
Mechanical" but is simply part of the school name.
School names are listed as they were reported to the Department of
Education through the IPEDS system. Thus, some names may differ from how
they are listed in the NCAA membership directories.
Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Education
Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
GAO Contact
George A. Scott, Director, (202) 512-7215, [21][email protected] .
Staff Acknowledgments
Melissa Emrey-Arras, Assistant Director, and Jeffrey W. Weinstein,
Analyst-in-Charge, managed this assignment. Other staff members who made
key contributions throughout the assignment include Cornelia Ashby, Jeff
Appel, Claudine Pauselli, Ann-Marie Udale, Rachael Valliere, and Carla
Craddock. Luann Moy assisted with methodology and data reliability
testing. Sheila McCoy provided legal assistance. Lisa Mirel, Alice
Feldesman, Karen Burke, and Avy Ashery provided assistance with graphics
and layout.
Related GAO Products
Intercollegiate Athletics: Trends by Sport in National Collegiate Athletic
Association Sports. [22]GAO-07-744SP . Washington, D.C.: July 12, 2007.
Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year Colleges' Experiences Adding and
Discontinuing Teams. [23]GAO-01-297 . Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2001.
Gender Equity: Men's and Women's Participation in Higher Education.
[24]GAO-01-128 . Washington, D.C.: December 15, 2000.
Intercollegiate Athletics: Comparison of Selected Characteristics for
Men's and Women's Programs. [25]HEHS-99-3R . Washington, D.C.: June 18,
1999.
Intercollegiate Athletics: Status of Efforts to Promote Gender Equity.
[26]HEHS-97-10 . Washington, D.C.: October 25, 1996.
Intercollegiate Athletics: Compensation Varies for Selected Personnel in
Athletic Departments. [27]HRD-92-121 . Washington, D.C.: August 19, 1992.
(130543)
GAO's Mission
The Government Accountability Office, the audit, evaluation and
investigative arm of Congress, exists to support Congress in meeting its
constitutional responsibilities and to help improve the performance and
accountability of the federal government for the American people. GAO
examines the use of public funds; evaluates federal programs and policies;
and provides analyses, recommendations, and other assistance to help
Congress make informed oversight, policy, and funding decisions. GAO's
commitment to good government is reflected in its core values of
accountability, integrity, and reliability.
Obtaining Copies of GAO Reports and Testimony
The fastest and easiest way to obtain copies of GAO documents at no cost
is through GAO's Web site ( [28]www.gao.gov ). Each weekday, GAO posts
newly released reports, testimony, and correspondence on its Web site. To
have GAO e-mail you a list of newly posted products every afternoon, go to
[29]www.gao.gov and select "Subscribe to Updates."
Order by Mail or Phone
The first copy of each printed report is free. Additional copies are $2
each. A check or money order should be made out to the Superintendent of
Documents. GAO also accepts VISA and Mastercard. Orders for 100 or more
copies mailed to a single address are discounted 25 percent. Orders should
be sent to:
U.S. Government Accountability Office 441 G Street NW, Room LM Washington,
D.C. 20548
To order by Phone: Voice: (202) 512-6000 TDD: (202) 512-2537 Fax: (202)
512-6061
To Report Fraud, Waste, and Abuse in Federal Programs
Contact:
Web site: [30]www.gao.gov/fraudnet/fraudnet.htm E-mail:
[31][email protected] Automated answering system: (800) 424-5454 or (202)
512-7470
Congressional Relations
Gloria Jarmon, Managing Director, [32][email protected] (202) 512-4400 U.S.
Government Accountability Office, 441 G Street NW, Room 7125 Washington,
D.C. 20548
Public Affairs
Paul Anderson, Managing Director, [33][email protected] (202) 512-4800
U.S. Government Accountability Office, 441 G Street NW, Room 7149
Washington, D.C. 20548
[34]www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535 .
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click on
the link above. To view the e-supplement online, click on
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt? [35]GAO-07-744SP . For more information,
contact George A. Scott at (202) 512-7215 or [email protected].
Highlights of [36]GAO-07-535 , a report to congressional addressees
July 2007
INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS
Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic
Association Sports
Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes have
changed in higher education, with female enrollment surpassing male
enrollment, and female athletic participation showing gains as well. These
changes have generated public interest in whether women participate in
athletics at comparable levels to men and whether men's opportunities have
decreased as a result of the increased opportunities for women. Under the
Comptroller General's authority, GAO assessed the extent to which the
numbers of men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams and participants
at 4-year colleges have changed from the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005
school years.
To address these issues, GAO analyzed athletic data from the National
Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for two groups of colleges: (a) the
entire NCAA membership, or open group, for which trends will reflect
school-level decisions and membership changes, and (b) the consistent
members of the NCAA throughout this period, or closed group, for which
trends will reflect school-level decisions only. We used NCAA data because
they were the only viable option for analyzing annual athletic trends for
teams and participants over an extended period. We analyzed those sports
for which team and participant data were reported each year for both
groups of colleges.
While the numbers of both men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams
increased from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005, women's teams showed greater gains
than men's teams. In fact, there have been more women's than men's teams
since the mid-to-late 1990s for both the entire NCAA membership and the
group of colleges that were consistent members of the NCAA throughout this
period. For both groups of schools, most women's sports and some men's
sports showed increases in teams, but many men's sports showed mixed or
small changes in the number of teams.
The numbers of both male and female athletic participants increased from
1991-1992 to 2004-2005--with female participants showing larger rates of
increase--but men's participation levels were greater than women's
throughout this time period, both in absolute terms and relative to their
respective enrollments. Most women's sports and half of men's sports
showed increases in the number of participants across both groups of
schools. In the context of enrollment, female participation grew at a
faster rate than female enrollment in both groups of schools. However,
from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005, overall participation rates were
significantly greater for men in at least three out of four coed schools
in the closed group.
Number of Male and Female Participants in the Open and Closed Groups,
1991-1992 to 2004-2005 School Years
Notes: These counts reflect the sum of the participants in each of the
individual sports that were consistently reported throughout the time
period. To the extent that athletes participated on more than one team,
the number of participants may be overstated.
For the open group, counts for 1995-1996 through 2004-2005 include
colleges that had applied for but not yet been given full NCAA membership
status; counts for 1991-1992 through 1994-1995 do not include such
colleges.
Open-group participant counts for 1995-1996 through 1998-1999 are NCAA
estimates based on athletic records collected by schools to meet the
requirements of the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act.
References
Visible links
13. ://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
14. http://www.gao.gov/
15. mailto:[email protected]
16. http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/research
17. http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas
18. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-297
19. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
20. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2005175
21. mailto:[email protected]
22. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
23. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-297
24. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-128
25. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HEHS-99-3R
26. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HEHS-97-10
27. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HRD-92-121
28. http://www.gao.gov/
29. http://www.gao.gov/
30. http://www.gao.gov/fraudnet/fraudnet.htm
31. mailto:[email protected]
32. mailto:[email protected]
33. mailto:[email protected]
34. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535
35. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
36. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535
*** End of document. ***