Federal Job Classification: Comparison of Job Content with Grades
Assigned in Selected Occupations (Letter Report, 10/95, GAO/GGD-96-20).
Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the relationship
between job content and General Schedule (GS) grades assigned using the
Factor Evaluation System (FES), focusing on whether the relationship
varied on the basis of the proportion of women and minorities in various
occupations.
GAO found that: (1) the difference between actual GS grades and the
grades based on job content under FES was directly related to female and
minority representation in nonsupervisory positions reviewed; (2) the
likelihood of a position being overgraded increased as the incumbents'
GS grades increased, but there was no correlation between undergrading
and GS grades; (3) occupations with high female representation were more
likely to be undergraded than those occupations with medium or low
female representation; (4) occupations with high minority representation
were more likely to be overgraded than those occupations with medium or
low minority representation; (5) classification experts believed that
FES did not place sufficient value on the physical demands and working
conditions of certain specialist occupations with high minority
representation, which caused them to be overgraded on a strict FES
basis; (6) private sector wage levels may have resulted in overgraded
positions in computer-related occupations; (7) the Office of Personnel
Management (OPM) needs to monitor its development of a new federal job
classification system to ensure that disparities are identified and
addressed; and (8) OPM has established a new oversight office which will
conduct a governmentwide classification study.
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: GGD-96-20
TITLE: Federal Job Classification: Comparison of Job Content with
Grades Assigned in Selected Occupations
DATE: 10/95
SUBJECT: Federal employees
GS grade classification
Women
Minorities
Statistical methods
Personnel management
Surveys
Job classification
IDENTIFIER: Factor Evaluation System
General Schedule System
**************************************************************************
* This file contains an ASCII representation of the text of a GAO *
* report. Delineations within the text indicating chapter titles, *
* headings, and bullets are preserved. Major divisions and subdivisions *
* of the text, such as Chapters, Sections, and Appendixes, are *
* identified by double and single lines. The numbers on the right end *
* of these lines indicate the position of each of the subsections in the *
* document outline. These numbers do NOT correspond with the page *
* numbers of the printed product. *
* *
* No attempt has been made to display graphic images, although figure *
* captions are reproduced. Tables are included, but may not resemble *
* those in the printed version. *
* *
* A printed copy of this report may be obtained from the GAO Document *
* Distribution Facility by calling (202) 512-6000, by faxing your *
* request to (301) 258-4066, or by writing to P.O. Box 6015, *
* Gaithersburg, MD 20884-6015. We are unable to accept electronic orders *
* for printed documents at this time. *
**************************************************************************
Cover
================================================================ COVER
Report to Congressional Requesters
November 1995
FEDERAL JOB CLASSIFICATION -
COMPARISON OF JOB CONTENT WITH
GRADES ASSIGNED IN SELECTED
OCCUPATIONS
GAO/GGD-96-20
Federal Job Classification
(966406)
Abbreviations
=============================================================== ABBREV
CPDF - Central Personnel Data File
FES - Factor Evaluation System
GS - General Schedule
MSPB - Merit System Protection Board
OPM - Office of Personnel Management
PATCO - Professional, Administrative, Technical, Clerical, Other
Letter
=============================================================== LETTER
B-217675
November 6, 1995
The Honorable John Glenn
Ranking Minority Member
Committee on Governmental Affairs
United States Senate
The Honorable William L. Clay
House of Representatives
The Honorable Eleanor Holmes Norton
House of Representatives
The Honorable Vic Fazio
House of Representatives
The Honorable Steny H. Hoyer
House of Representatives
Over the years, many studies have suggested that women and minorities
are paid less than men and nonminorities who work in comparable
positions. These observations have raised questions about whether
the federal government's classification systems result in lower
grades being assigned to positions in occupations having large
numbers of female or minority incumbents than to other comparable
occupations. This report responds to your request that we determine
whether the relationship between job content and grades assigned
using the Factor Evaluation System (FES) varied on the basis of the
proportions of women and minorities in occupations.\1
--------------------
\1 FES, which covers almost one-third of the federal full-time
permanent white-collar workforce, is a point-factor system for
determining grades and is considered to be more orderly or rigorous
than other federal classification systems.
BACKGROUND
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :1
Position classification systems are formal methods for determining
the relative worth of positions in an organization. The Office of
Personnel Management (OPM) has responsibility and authority for
federal position classification, except for certain positions in
agencies exempted by law. OPM develops and issues classification
standards and policies for the federal personnel system. Federal
agencies then use these standards and policies to assign grades to
positions.
The General Schedule (GS) is a 15-grade pay system that covers 442
white-collar occupations and approximately 1.5 million full-time
permanent employees in the federal white-collar workforce. Agencies
classify most of these positions using either narrative or FES
point-factor classification standards.\2 The FES primary standard
serves as the framework for individual classification standards
written for each occupation. When we began our study, FES standards
were in effect for 77 occupations covering approximately 441,000
full-time permanent nonsupervisory employees.
Under FES, positions are assigned grades on the basis of the duties,
responsibilities, and the qualifications required in terms of the
following nine factors:
knowledge required by the position includes the skills needed to
apply that knowledge;
supervisory controls entail the control exercised by the
incumbent's supervisor (not the incumbent's span of control over
subordinates);
guidelines provide reference data or impose certain constraints on
the incumbent's use of knowledge; include desk manuals,
established procedures and policies, traditional practices, and
materials such as dictionaries, etc.; and vary by specificity,
applicability, and availability;
complexity consists of the nature, variety, and intricacy of tasks
and the difficulty and originality involved in performing the
work;
scope and effect encompass the relationship between the breadth and
depth of the work and the effect of work products and services
within and outside the organization;
personal contacts refer to contacts with persons not in the
supervisory chain;
purpose of contacts ranges from factual exchanges of information to
situations involving significant or controversial issues and
differing viewpoints, goals, or objectives;
physical demands include physical characteristics such as agility,
dexterity, and physical exertion--such as climbing, lifting,
pushing, etc.; and
work environment pertains to the risks and discomforts in the
employee's physical surroundings or work assigned.
As shown in table 1, each factor is broken down into graduated
levels. Factors are composed of from three to nine levels with most
having four to six levels. One factor--knowledge required by the
position--has the largest range of points, from 50 for level 1 to
1,850 for level 9.
Table 1
FES Factors and Points by Factor Levels
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
------------------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Knowledge required by the 50 200 350 550 750 950 1,2 1,5 1,8
position 50 50 50
Supervisory controls 25 125 275 450 650
Guidelines 25 125 275 450 650
Complexity 25 75 150 225 325 450
Scope and effect 25 75 150 225 325 450
Personal contacts 10 25 60 110
Purpose of contacts 20 50 120 220
Physical demands 5 20 50
Work environment 5 20 50
----------------------------------------------------------------------
\a The blank spaces in columns indicate that no further levels exist
for the corresponding factor.
Source: FES Primary Standard.
To determine a position's GS grade, the agency typically compares
either the position description or information gathered through a
"desk audit" with the nine FES factors described in the
classification standard.\3 After all nine factors are evaluated, the
points for all factors are totaled, and the total for each position
is converted to a GS grade by using a conversion table (see table 2).
Table 2
FES GS Grade Conversion Table
GS grade Point range
---------------------------------------- ----------------------------
GS-1 190 -250
GS-2 255 -450
GS-3 455 -650
GS-4 655 -850
GS-5 855 -1,100
GS-6 1,105 -1,350
GS-7 1,355 -1,600
GS-8 1,605 -1,850
GS-9 1,855 -2,100
GS-10 2,105 -2,350
GS-11 2,355 -2,750
GS-12 2,755 -3,150
GS-13 3,155 -3,600
GS-14 3,605 -4,050
GS-15 4,055 -up
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: FES Primary Standard.
--------------------
\2 The point-factor system involves assigning a point value or weight
to each compensable factor and totaling the points assigned to obtain
a job worth score that measures the relative importance of each
position to an organization. Narrative standards use fewer factors
to describe the important characteristics of the work, and the GS
grade is determined through nonquantitative analysis.
\3 Desk audits typically consist of a trained classifier's
face-to-face interviews with the incumbent and supervisor and
observations of the work operations, sometimes including an
examination of work products.
APPROACH
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :2
A contractor, with our supervision, developed a job content
questionnaire on the basis of the FES primary standard. The
contractor distributed it to a stratified random sample of 2,060
pairs of incumbents and their supervisors and received responses from
1,639 incumbent/supervisor pairs, which represents an overall
response rate of about 80 percent. Because individual federal
positions are classified through labor-intensive desk audits, it was
not practical for us to study the majority of FES occupations using
traditional classification methods.
The contractor did, however, do desk audits of 78 judgmentally
selected positions and compared the audit results with the related
questionnaire responses. These comparisons indicated a fairly high
correlation across occupations. The validity coefficient between the
GS grades resulting from the desk audits and those from the
questionnaires was .80 when the incumbent and supervisor
questionnaire responses were averaged.\4 We considered this
correlation to be sufficiently high to validate the use of the job
content questionnaire results for comparing groups of occupations.\5
However, we cannot attest to the questionnaire's validity when used
across GS grades within occupations, for specific occupations, or for
individual positions. Further, our study was not designed to
determine whether, and if so why, the job content reflected by the
questionnaires differed from that contained in the official job
descriptions, which are the bases for the actual GS grades.
We used an OPM database to identify a representative segment of
incumbents and their supervisors in occupations with high, medium, or
low representations of women or minorities. We defined occupations
with high, medium, and low female representation as those in which
women represented 70 percent or more, 31 to 69 percent, and 30
percent or less of incumbents, respectively. We considered
occupations in which minorities represented more than 41 percent, 23
to 41 percent, or less than 23 percent of incumbents as those with
high, medium, and low minority representation, respectively.
Examples of occupations with high female representation included
secretary, dental hygienist, medical clerk, dental assistant, and
occupational therapist. Examples of occupations with high minority
representation included border patrol agent and computer and equal
employment opportunity specialists.
We selected our sample of incumbents and their supervisors from a
total of 58 occupations, which collectively represented about 90
percent of the full-time permanent nonsupervisory employees covered
by FES when we designed our study. Because preliminary analyses
indicated that more variation in undergrading and overgrading existed
among occupations with similar gender and minority representation
than between groups of occupations with different gender and minority
representations, we did our analyses on the 37 occupations for which
we had received completed questionnaires from at least 10 or more
incumbent/supervisor pairs, for a total of 1,358 pairs or positions.
These 37 occupations represented almost one-quarter of the federal
white-collar workforce, or about 79 percent of the employees covered
by FES, and the results of our study are generalizable only to this
population.\6
On the basis of the average total factor level points derived from
the questionnaires completed by the incumbent and the supervisor, we
determined the GS grade for each position using the FES conversion
table (see table 2). We compared the questionnaire grade with the
incumbent's actual GS grade and considered the position to be aptly,
or appropriately, graded if the questionnaire grade and the actual
grade were the same. Otherwise, we considered positions to be
overgraded if the actual grade was higher than the questionnaire
grade and undergraded if the actual grade was lower than the
questionnaire grade.
Our study was not designed to permit us to
approximate the number of positions that appeared to be overgraded,
undergraded, or aptly graded for the portion of the federal
workforce to which the results of our study are generalizable;
identify the causes of any overgrading or undergrading resulting
from either (1) our use of the primary rather than the
occupation-specific classification standards, (2) the agencies'
application of classification standards to individual positions,
or (3) management decisions regarding the work incumbents were
actually assigned versus their job descriptions;
determine whether any difference on the basis of gender or minority
status was inherent in the design of FES, as a product either of
the factors that constitute FES or the allocation of weight or
the point range assigned to each factor; or
calculate what pay adjustments, if any, should be made.
Appendix I contains a more detailed discussion of the job content
questionnaire development and validation, sample selection, and
response rate calculation.
To determine the effects of female or minority representation on
relative overgrading and undergrading, we used odds and odds ratios.
We calculated the odds of occupations being undergraded rather than
aptly graded by dividing the number of positions undergraded by the
number aptly graded for groups of occupations. To determine how much
more likely one group of occupations was to be undergraded than
another group, we divided the odds of being undergraded for one group
of occupations by the odds for the other group to form an odds ratio.
We used the same procedures for overgrading.
We used loglinear analysis to determine how the odds of occupations
being overgraded or undergraded versus aptly graded varied (1) across
the range of GS grades and (2) when the female or minority
representation of the occupation was high, medium, or low. The
strength of this particular statistical approach is that multiple
variables can be analyzed simultaneously. Appendix II provides more
detailed information on the calculation of odds and odds ratios and
loglinear models tested and the results obtained.
To gain historical perspective, we reviewed previous studies of
federal classification issues. We also conferred with federal
classification experts to obtain additional insights about possible
explanations for specific findings.
This study should not be referred to as a "pay equity" study because
we examined only the relationship between job content and GS grades
assigned through the use of FES and whether that relationship varied
with the proportion of women or minorities in occupations.
We obtained comments from OPM that are discussed on pages 11 through
12 and presented in appendix III. We did our study from January 1990
to September 1995 in accordance with generally accepted government
auditing standards.
--------------------
\4 A validity coefficient measures the consistency between two data
sets.
\5 Psychological testing standards traditionally required validity
coefficients of at least .70 for all tests, and on that basis, we
conclude that our result is sufficiently valid. However,
psychologists have acknowledged that coefficients as low as .30 can
be of practical value. This is the only classification study we are
aware of in which desk audits were used to demonstrate that the
questionnaire results were similar to those which would be attained
in an actual position classification.
\6 Because we could not obtain reliable estimates of the odds of
overgrading and undergrading for occupations with small numbers of
respondents, we deleted those 21 occupations with fewer than 10
incumbent/supervisor pairs.
RESULTS IN BRIEF
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :3
For the nonsupervisory positions in the 37 occupations we studied,
our analyses suggest that the difference between the actual GS grades
and those we determined using a job content questionnaire was
directly related to the female and minority representation of the
occupations we examined.\7 If the actual grade was higher than the
questionnaire-derived grade, we considered the position to be
overgraded; if the actual grade was lower than the questionnaire
grade, we considered the position to be undergraded.
The likelihood of a position being overgraded, rather than aptly
graded, increased as the incumbents' GS grades increased. However,
the incumbents' grades had virtually no effect on the likelihood that
a position was undergraded versus aptly graded. After statistically
eliminating this effect of the incumbents' GS grades, we found that
the occupations we studied with high female representation were more
likely to be undergraded rather than aptly graded compared with the
occupations having medium or low female representation. As mentioned
above, we defined occupations with high female representation as
those in which 70 percent or more of the incumbents were women. This
definition was used on the basis of the current literature when we
designed our study.
The literature contained no consistent basis on which to define
minority representation. On the basis of our past work, we initially
adopted a standard of more than 48 percent to define high minority
representation.\8 However, we found it necessary to adjust our
definition for high minority representation to occupations in which
more than 41 percent of the incumbents were minorities in order to
include at least two occupations with each possible mix of gender and
minority representation (e.g., low female, high minority
representation).
We would have preferred that our original definition had provided a
sufficient mix of occupations in our sample. And it is important to
note that about half of the incumbents in the total population of the
occupations defined by our study as having a high minority
representation were in fact nonminorities. Within these parameters,
after eliminating the effects of the incumbents' GS grades, we found
that occupations with high minority representation were more likely
to be overgraded rather than aptly graded in comparison with the
occupations having medium or low minority representation.
The National Performance Review has contended that the current
federal classification systems have too many occupations and grades
and has recommended that a more flexible "broad-banded" system be
adopted. OPM is currently, within the existing statutory framework,
planning to revise the classification standards and increase
classification oversight. Our study suggests any new system should
be closely monitored to ensure that unintended disparities are
identified and addressed.
--------------------
\7 We developed our job content questionnaire on the basis of the FES
primary standard that serves as the framework for individual
classification standards written for each occupation. The actual GS
grades were assigned using these occupation-specific standards.
Further, the questionnaire was designed and validated to achieve our
review objectives relative to comparing groups of occupations. It
was not designed as and is not a valid substitute for traditional
classification methods. Therefore, the questionnaire should not be
used to draw definitive conclusions regarding overgrading or
undergrading of individual positions.
\8 When we designed our study, minorities comprised approximately 32
percent of the workforce covered by FES. We initially defined
occupations with high minority representation as those in which more
than 48 percent (150 percent of the 32 percent minority workforce
representation) of the incumbents were minorities.
EFFECTS OF FEMALE AND MINORITY
REPRESENTATION ON RELATIVE
OVERGRADING AND UNDERGRADING
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :4
To evaluate whether gender or minority representation had an effect
on the variation between the actual grades and the questionnaire
grades, we statistically eliminated the effect of the incumbents' GS
grades.\9 Analysis of the remaining variation showed that occupations
with high female representation were 1.77 times more likely to be
undergraded rather than aptly graded compared with occupations having
a low or medium female representation. Occupations with high
minority representation were 2.18 times more likely to be overgraded
rather than aptly graded compared with occupations having a low or
medium minority representation.\10
Classification experts with whom we consulted about our results and
the available literature offered a few occupation-specific hypotheses
about possible causes. For example, key occupations with high
minority representation that appeared to be overgraded included (1)
border patrol agents, (2) equal employment opportunity and compliance
specialists, and (3) computer specialists. Previous studies of
federal classification issues maintained that FES was ineffective for
specialists such as law enforcement related occupations because
physical demands and work environment are not highly valued FES
factors but are considered significant in these occupations.
Although empirical data are lacking, the classification experts we
consulted suggested that when equal employment opportunity
occupations were established in the 1970s, they involved a heavy
workload of cases and, even though not recognized by FES, the GS
grades of these occupations may have been increased on that basis.
Furthermore, private sector wages may have resulted in overgrading
positions in computer-related occupations. Explanations are somewhat
less evident regarding occupations with high female representation,
which appear more likely to be undergraded.
--------------------
\9 The likelihood or odds of a position being overgraded increased as
the GS grade increased; that is, as the grade increased by one GS
grade, the odds that a position was overgraded versus aptly graded
increased by a factor of 1.64. For example, the odds of positions
being overgraded in occupations with an average grade of GS-9 were
approximately 5 to 1 (i.e., five positions were overgraded for every
one that was aptly graded), while the odds of positions being
overgraded in occupations with an average grade of GS-10 were about
8.2 to 1. The factor of 1.64 (8.2 / 5 = 1.64) indicates that
positions in the higher graded occupations were 1.64 times more
likely than those in the lower graded occupations to be overgraded.
At the 95 percent level of confidence, as the grade increased by one
GS grade, the odds that a position was overgraded versus aptly graded
increased by a factor ranging from 1.53 to 1.77.
The GS grade had no significant effect on the odds that a position
was undergraded versus aptly graded.
\10 At the 95 percent level of confidence, occupations with high
female representation were from 1.33 to 2.35 times more likely to be
undergraded than occupations with medium or low female
representation, and occupations with high minority representation
were from 1.62 to 2.94 times more likely to be overgraded than those
with medium or low representation.
CURRENT EFFORTS TO REVAMP
CLASSIFICATION STANDARDS AND
SYSTEMS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :5
Critics of the federal classification system, including reports from
the National Academy of Public Administration and the National
Performance Review, have argued that the classification system is
overly complex, with too many occupations and GS grades, and that a
less rigid system would be more effective. They have recommended
fewer occupations and more flexible broad-banded grade structures.
OPM officials told us recently that, within the existing statutory
framework, OPM plans to revise the classification standards and
increase its oversight of various processes including classification.
A current proposal for rewriting classification standards would
reduce the inventory of 442 white-collar classification standards to
about 74. Rather than individual occupations, the new standards
would focus on the 22 "job families" of related occupations with
separate standards, as applicable, for professional, administrative,
technical, and clerical positions.\11
OPM has also established a new oversight office, which, among other
things, is planning various governmentwide policy studies. OPM has
tentatively allocated about 145 staff years to this effort; most of
these resources are located in field offices rather than at
headquarters. One of the highest priorities will be a governmentwide
classification study, with particular emphasis on determining the
accuracy of "border grades"--those grades most likely to be placed at
the lower and upper limits of any newly created grade bands. A team
is examining options for doing this study, and work on the study is
scheduled to begin early in fiscal year 1996.
--------------------
\11 "Job families" consist of related occupations that are grouped
together such as the General Administrative, Clerical, and Office
Service Group; the Accounting and Budget Group; the Physical Science
Group; etc.
CONCLUSIONS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :6
Although FES is considered a more orderly or rigorous method than
other federal classification systems, our study identified
differences in the grading of positions in occupations with high
representations of women or minorities. The National Performance
Review and other studies suggest that the current classification
systems should be abandoned in favor of more flexible, broad-banded
systems. The results of our study indicate that it is important that
policymakers closely monitor any new systems to ensure that (1)
unintended disparities are identified so that they can be corrected
and (2) the national policy underlying the current classification
system--that jobs be classified so that pay is equal for
substantially equal work--is being satisfactorily achieved. Since
OPM is in the process of substantially revising the classification
and oversight systems, we are making no recommendations in this
report.
AGENCY COMMENTS AND OUR
EVALUATION
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :7
OPM provided written comments on a draft of this report. (See app.
III.) OPM took issue with our methodology, saying that it was
insufficient to support our findings. OPM also discussed its plans
to further explore job classification accuracy issues.
OPM took exception with our methodology in two respects. First, it
believes we inappropriately used the primary classification standard
rather than occupation-specific standards as the basis for our job
content questionnaire. OPM said that the primary standard was
designed to be used as an overall outline wherein more specific
standards would be developed, not as a basis for evaluating
individual positions. Although we used the primary standard rather
than the occupation-specific standards in the development of our
methodology, we examined the specific standard for several
occupations in our sample to see if we could identify any ways in
which the use of the occupation-specific standard might have led to a
different result. We did not identify any such effect. We also
asked OPM's classification experts to identify occupations in our
sample for which the specific standards were, in their view,
sufficiently different from the primary standard that our results
would have been affected in identifiable ways. They did not identify
any such occupations. Thus we continue to believe that our use of
the primary standard was appropriate and that our methodology
produced useful results.
OPM's second exception with our methodology was our use of a job
content questionnaire rather than traditional desk audits to assign
grades to positions. OPM said that our use of a questionnaire
resulted in employees and supervisors, unfamiliar with FES ground
rules, being asked to select generic phrases that were not in context
and that this in turn resulted in the grades we assigned being less
credible than those derived by federal agencies. We acknowledge in
our text that actual GS grades are assigned on the basis of
occupation-specific standards and that the desk audit is a typical
way to assign a grade to a position. As noted in the text, desk
audits are labor-intensive, and it was not practical for us to study
the majority of FES occupations using traditional classification
methods. Because of this, we took care to validate our results.
First, we had a contractor do desk audits on positions in a number of
occupations in our sample. Next, we compared the results of those
desk audits with the questionnaire results for those positions. This
comparison showed a fairly high correlation between the GS grades
resulting from desk audits and those from the questionnaire. Thus,
we believe that our methodology is appropriate to identify patterns
of overgrading and undergrading among groups of occupations with
different representations of women or minorities.
OPM also questioned our study results by comparing them with other
studies. More specifically, OPM said that other agencies' studies
and OPM's classification appeals data indicated lower levels of
misclassification than our study. We are unaware of any recent
studies or appeals data in which a direct comparison with our study
could be meaningful. Although OPM's most recent report on the
overall federal white-collar position classification accuracy
indicated a lower level of misclassification than our study, it was
published in 1983. We acknowledge that classification appeals also
indicate a lower level of misclassification than our study. However,
classification experts with whom we consulted said that appeals data
are unlikely to represent those federal employees whose positions may
be overgraded. As indicated by the Merit System Protection Board
(MSPB), almost no one files a classification appeal.\12
Finally, OPM said that it shares with us the need to ensure that the
federal government's classification systems and their applications
are fair and unbiased. OPM said that to this end, its newly designed
oversight program will have a major focus on ensuring that current
and new classifications systems advance the merit principles of equal
pay and the efficient and effective use of the federal workforce.
OPM said that it expects to decide on the classification review
design by the end of fiscal year 1995 and begin work on the review in
early fiscal year 1996.
--------------------
\12 According to MSPB only 240 of the government's 2.1 million
civilian nonpostal employees filed an appeal in 1988, or about one
one-hundredth of 1 percent.
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :7.1
We are sending copies of this report to interested Members of
Congress and congressional committees that have responsibilities for
public sector employment issues, the Director of the Office of
Personnel Management, and other interested parties. Copies will also
be made available to others upon request.
Major contributors to this report are listed in appendix IV. If you
have any questions about the report, please call me at (202)
512-7824.
Nancy Kingsbury
Director
Planning and Reporting
QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT, SAMPLE
SELECTION, RESPONSE RATE
CALCULATION, AND VALIDATION
METHODOLOGY
=========================================================== Appendix I
Using the competitive bid process, we contracted with a national
management consultant--Barrett & Associates, Inc., of Akron, Ohio--to
(1) develop a job content questionnaire that enabled the contractor
to estimate GS grades for positions in our nationwide sample using
input from the incumbents and their supervisors, (2) distribute the
questionnaire to a sample of incumbent/supervisor pairs attaining at
least an 80 percent response rate, (3) develop a semistructured
interview guide for completing desk audits, (4) validate the
questionnaire through the use of desk audits, and (5) analyze the
questionnaire responses.\1 The analyses were done to determine
whether a link existed between the GS grades assigned to positions
through the use of the Factor Evaluation System (FES) and the number
of women or minorities in occupations that we included in our study.
We selected the sample of incumbent/supervisor pairs and worked
closely with the contractor providing supervision throughout the
process. Because the preliminary analyses showed that more variation
existed within groups of occupations rather than between those
groups, we refined the analyses of the questionnaire responses as
described in appendix II.
In addition to working with the contractor, we consulted periodically
with an ad hoc panel of experts that provided technical guidance
during the early design phase of our study. Our panel consisted of
Ms. Ruth Rogers, former Chief, Standards Division, Department of
Personnel, Government of the District of Columbia, who provided
staff assistance to the District's pay equity study;\2
Dr. Donald Schwab, Professor of Business Research and Industrial
Relations, University of Wisconsin-Madison, who has written
extensively on the issue of comparable worth; and
Dr. Ronnie Steinberg, Professor of Sociology and Women's Studies,
Temple University, who has considerable experience with pay
equity issues and job content questionnaires.
We also consulted with Dr. David Rindskopf, Professor, Graduate
School and University Center, City University of New York, for
assistance with our sample selection methodology.
After we completed our analyses, we shared our results with and
obtained informal comments from five federal officials with
classification experience. In addition to a representative from OPM
and GAO's personnel office, we selected three of these experts from a
list of recommended candidates provided at our request by the
Classification and Compensation Society, a professional organization
of federal classifiers and other personnel specialists. The
classification experts included a mix of male, female, minority, and
nonminority individuals who worked in OPM's then Personnel Systems
and Oversight Group and in the personnel offices of the Federal
Aviation Administration, the Department of Defense, the Library of
Congress, and the General Accounting Office.
--------------------
\1 Desk audits consist of face-to-face interviews between trained
classifiers and the incumbent and supervisor to identify and observe
work operations and products. The validation was done to determine
whether our questionnaire could be used to estimate GS grades similar
to those that would be attained in actual desk audits. When we
designed our study, we set a goal of achieving a .80 validity
coefficient, which measures the consistency between two data sets.
\2 According to a District of Columbia official, in July 1990, the
District contracted with a consulting firm to do a pay equity study,
and in April 1994, the contractor provided a final report with
recommendations.
QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT AND
GS GRADE ESTIMATION
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:1
We developed a job content questionnaire that enabled us to estimate
GS grades for positions covered by FES, a point factor position
classification system the federal government used to classify 77 of
the 455 white-collar occupations when we designed our study.\3 On the
basis of the factor descriptions in the FES primary standard, we
constructed questions that allowed us to determine the appropriate
level for each factor.\4 Table I.1 shows the points associated with
each factor level.
Table I.1
FES Factors and Points by Factor Levels
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
------------------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Knowledge required by the 50 200 350 550 750 950 1,2 1,5 1,8
position 50 50 50
Supervisory controls 25 125 275 450 650
Guidelines 25 125 275 450 650
Complexity 25 75 150 225 325 450
Scope and effect 25 75 150 225 325 450
Personal contacts 10 25 60 110
Purpose of contacts 20 50 120 220
Physical demands 5 20 50
Work environment 5 20 50
----------------------------------------------------------------------
\a The blank spaces in columns indicate that no further levels exist
for the corresponding factor.
Source: FES Primary Standard.
Figures I.1 and I.2 show an excerpt from the FES primary standard and
the resulting question that we included in our job content
questionnaire, respectively.
Figure I.1: Excerpt from the
FES Primary Standard
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Figure I.2: Excerpt from the
Job Content Questionnaire
(See figure in printed
edition.)
The GS grade is determined by totaling the points assigned to each of
the nine factors and using the grade conversion table shown in table
I.2.
Table I.2
Conversion of FES Points to GS Grade
GS grade Point range
---------------------------------------- ----------------------------
GS-1 190 -250
GS-2 255 -450
GS-3 455 -650
GS-4 655 -850
GS-5 855 -1,100
GS-6 1,105 -1,350
GS-7 1,355 -1,600
GS-8 1,605 -1,850
GS-9 1,855 -2,100
GS-10 2,105 -2,350
GS-11 2,355 -2,750
GS-12 2,755 -3,150
GS-13 3,155 -3,600
GS-14 3,605 -4,050
GS-15 4,055 -up
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: FES Primary Standard.
To determine whether incumbents could readily understand the
questionnaire and complete it within a reasonable time period, we
completed three sets of pretests. In total, we selected about 30
incumbents and supervisors who were located in the Cleveland
metropolitan area and who represented a range of GS grades and
occupations covered by FES. After observing them as they completed
the questionnaire, we interviewed each incumbent or supervisor to
identify how the questionnaire could be improved; we rewrote or
edited most of the questions on the basis of the information they
provided. During the initial pretest, we also revised our
semistructured interview guide for use in completing subsequent desk
audits.
On the basis of questionnaire responses received from incumbents and
their supervisors, we estimated the appropriate GS grade for each
position in our sample by (1) determining the appropriate level (and
corresponding points) for each of the nine factors, (2) averaging the
total points computed separately for the incumbent and the
supervisor, and (3) using the FES points-to-grade conversion table to
assign a GS grade to the position. We decided to average the input
from the incumbent and the supervisor to balance the views of those
who would place more reliance on the input of incumbents versus that
of supervisors. Table I.3 shows an example of how we estimated the
GS grade for one position in our sample.
Table I.3
Example of GS Grade Estimation Based on
Incumbent and Supervisor Questionnaire
Responses
Averag
e
Factor Factor total
Factor level Points level Points points
------------------------------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
Knowledge required by 4 550 3 350
the position
Supervisory controls 2 125 2 125
Guidelines 2 125 1 25
Complexity 3 150 1 25
Scope and effect 2 75 4 225
Personal contacts 3 60 1 10
Purpose of contacts 1 20 1 20
Physical demands 2 20 1 5
Work environment 1 5 2 20
======================================================================
Total points 1,130 805 967
Estimated GS grade GS-5
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: The blank spaces in columns indicate that we estimated GS
grades by averaging the total points on the basis of input from the
incumbent and the supervisor rather than the points assigned to each
factor.
--------------------
\3 A point factor position classification system uses a set of
factors and factor weights to order positions hierarchically in terms
of their value to an employer. FES uses the following nine factors
to describe the duties and responsibilities of a position: knowledge
required by the position, supervisory controls, guidelines,
complexity, scope and effect, personal contacts, purpose of contacts,
physical demands, and work environment. Each factor is broken down
into graduated levels. Factors are composed of from three to nine
levels.
\4 The FES primary standard serves as the framework for individual
classification standards written for each occupation. We compared
the occupation-specific standards with the primary standard for four
occupational series--computer operations, border patrol agent, equal
employment opportunity, and equal opportunity compliance--and
determined that these occupation-specific standards appeared to be
within the framework of the primary standard.
SAMPLE SELECTION
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:2
We selected our nationwide sample from the full-time permanent
nonsupervisory incumbents in the 77 occupations for which an FES
standard had been in existence for at least 1 year when we completed
our study design in May 1992. Because of limited resources, we
excluded incumbents who (1) were stationed outside of the continental
United States or (2) worked for agencies with less than 500
employees. Each of the 77 occupations included from 35 to 91,769
incumbents for a total of 441,189 full-time permanent nonsupervisory
incumbents. Women constituted about 61 percent of the total
workforce covered by FES and minorities, approximately 32 percent.
We used OPM's Central Personnel Data File (CPDF), updated as of June
1992, to select our sample. These were the most recent data
available when we designed our study. We did not independently
verify the accuracy of this database.
We defined each of the 77 occupations covered by FES as having a
high, medium, or low representation of women or minorities. On the
basis of the current literature, we defined occupations with high,
medium, and low female representation as those in which women
represented 70 percent or more, 31 to 69 percent, and 30 percent or
less of the incumbents, respectively. The literature contained no
consistent basis on which to define minority representation;
therefore, on the basis of our past work, we initially adopted a
standard of more than 48 percent (150 percent of the 32 percent
minority workforce representation) to define high minority
representation; less than 16 percent (50 percent of 32 percent), low
minority representation; and 16 to 48 percent, medium minority
representation. However, in order to include in our sample at least
two occupations with each possible mix of gender and minority
representation (e.g., low female, high minority representation), we
found it necessary to adjust our definitions for occupations with
high, medium, and low minority representation to those in which
minorities represented more than 41 percent, 23 to 41 percent, and
less than 23 percent of incumbents, respectively. Table I.4 shows
the distribution of the 77 occupations in a nine-cell matrix
configured according to female and minority representation.
Table I.4
Distribution of the 77 FES Occupations
Female representation High Medium Low Total
------------------------------ -------- -------- -------- ========
High 6 14 2 22
Medium 12 10 5 27
Low 3 3 22 28
======================================================================
Total 21 27 29 77
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: GAO analysis of data obtained from OPM.
From the 77 occupations covered by FES, we selected 58 on the basis
of four characteristics--number of incumbents, PATCO (professional,
administrative, technical, clerical, and other) category,\5 job
family,\6 and GS grade distribution. First, we chose occupations in
each matrix cell with the largest number of incumbents. Second, we
examined the PATCO category of the occupations selected within each
cell and chose additional occupations to include all categories.
Third, we reviewed the job families represented by the occupations
already selected and chose additional occupations increasing the
number of families included in our study to 17 out of a total of 22.
Finally, we examined the GS grade distributions of the occupations
selected and chose occupations that included grades not previously
selected within each row and column of the matrix. Table I.5 shows
the female and minority representation, PATCO category, and number of
full-time permanent nonsupervisory incumbents for each of the 77
occupations covered by FES when we selected our sample as well as the
58 occupations selected for inclusion in our sample.
Table I.5
Female and Minority Representation,
PATCO Category, and Number of Incumbents
for the 77 Occupations Covered by FES
Full-time
permanent
Occupational nonsupervisory
series\a Female Minority PATCO\b incumbents
------------ -------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------------
318 Secretary High Medium C 91,769
334 Computer Medium Medium A 43,958
specialist
1102 Contracting Medium Medium P 25,355
525 Accounting High Medium C,T\c 18,081
technician
621 Nursing Medium High T 14,984
assistant
305 Mail and file Medium High C 14,630
592 Tax examining High Medium C,T\d 13,271
1910 Quality Low Low A 12,163
assurance
203 Personnel High High C,T\d 11,640
clerical and
assistance
511 Auditing Medium Low P 11,413
560 Budget High Medium A 11,099
analysis
830 Mechanical Low Low P 10,726
engineering
679 Medical clerk High High C 10,697
510 Accounting Medium Medium P 8,838
335 Computer clerk High Medium C,T\e 8,353
and assistant
332 Computer Medium High T 6,833
operation
610 Nurse High Medium P 5,746
1320 Chemistry Low Low P 5,347
83 Police Low Medium O 5,096
80 Security Medium Medium A 4,616
administration
391 Telecommunicat Low Low A 4,568
ions
644 Medical Medium Medium P 4,491
technologist
457 Soil Low Low P 4,027
conservation
540 Voucher High Medium C 3,978
examining
(561) (Budget (High) (Medium) (C,T\d) (3,937)
clerical and
assistance)
85 Security guard Low High O 3,882
(1370) (Cartography) (Low) (Low) (P) (3,817)
460 Forestry Low Low P 3,764
(544) (Civilian pay) (High) (Medium) (C,T\e) (3,524)
(819) (Environmental (Low) (Low) (P) (3,461)
engineering)
950 Paralegal High Medium A 3,460
specialist
18 Safety and Low Low A 3,420
occupational
health
management
1035 Public affairs Medium Low A 3,202
1896 Border patrol Low High O 3,176
agent
475 Agricultural Low Low P 3,088
management
1311 Physical Low Low T 2,987
science
technician
(545) (Military pay) (High) (Medium) (C,T\e) (2,935)
(840) (Nuclear (Low) (Low) (P) (2,873)
engineering)
681 Dental High High T 2,660
assistant
620 Practical High High T 2,563
nurse
647 Diagnostic Medium Medium T 2,433
radiologic
technologist
2134 Shipment High Medium C 2,070
clerical and
assistance
622 Medical supply Medium High T 1,986
aide and
technician
260 Equal Medium High A 1,907
employment
opportunity
(486) (Wildlife (Low) (Low) (P) (1,850)
biology)
1173 Housing Medium Medium A 1,841
management
(458) (Soil (Medium) (Low) (T) (1,835)
conservation
technician)
649 Medical Medium High T 1,819
instrument
technician
350 Equipment Medium High C 1,779
operator
808 Architecture Low Medium P 1,686
360 Equal Medium High A 1,526
opportunity
compliance
(1980) (Agricultural (Low) (Low) (T) (1,438)
commodity
grading)
1371 Cartographic Medium Low T 1,358
technician
(482) (Fishery (Low) (Low) (P) (1,358)
biology)
690 Industrial Medium Low P 1,247
hygiene
1822 Mine safety Low Low T 1,190
and health
1889 Import Medium Medium A 1,159
specialist
630 Dietician and High Medium P 1,111
nutritionist
436 Plant Low Medium P 1,097
protection and
quarantine
701 Veterinary Low Low P 834
medical
science
188 Recreation Medium Medium A 805
specialist
1040 Language Medium High A 585
specialist
(651) (Respiratory (Medium) (High) (T) (496)
therapist)
361 Equal High High T 486
opportunity
assistance
270 Federal Medium Medium A 416
retirement
benefits
1720 Education Medium High P 369
program
(485) (Wildlife (Low) (Low) (P) (365)
refuge
management)
682 Dental hygiene High Low T 335
(2121) (Railroad (Low) (Low) (A) (322)
safety)
309 Correspondence High High C 310
clerk
(2123) (Motor carrier (Low) (Low) (A) (284)
safety)
(669) (Medical (High) (Medium) (A) (170)
records
administration
)
(1161) (Crop (Low) (Low) (A) (109)
insurance
administration
)
(1162) (Crop (Low) (Low) (A) (54)
insurance
underwriting)
631 Occupational High Low P 49
therapist
(1884) (Customs (Low) (High) (O) (47)
patrol
officer)
(160) (Civil rights (Medium) (High) (A) (35)
analysis)
================================================================================
Subtotal/ 412,279
included in
study
Subtotal/ (28,910)
not included
in study
================================================================================
Total 441,189
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: This table includes occupational series, or occupations,
covered by FES that had been in existence for at least 1 year as of
May 1992.
\a We selected incumbents for our sample from the 58 occupational
series not shown in parentheses.
\b The PATCO category indicates the general characteristics of the
work done within each federal white-collar occupation and is
represented as Professional, Administrative, Technical, Clerical, or
Other.
\c The PATCO category for this occupation is Clerical for GS grades 1
to 3 and Technical for grades 4 and above.
\d The PATCO category for this occupation is Clerical for GS grades 1
to 5 and Technical for grades 6 and above.
\e The PATCO category for this occupation is Clerical for GS grades 1
to 4 and Technical for grades 5 and above.
Source: GAO analysis of data obtained from OPM.
We selected no more than 11 occupations for each matrix cell because
we planned to validate the job content questionnaire by completing
two sets of 100 desk audits that would each (1) include at least one
position from each occupation in our sample and (2) be evenly
distributed among the 9 matrix cells. Table I.6 shows the
distribution of the 58 occupations selected for inclusion in our
sample by matrix cell.
Table I.6
Distribution of the 58 Occupations
Included in the Sample
Female representation High Medium Low Total
------------------------------ -------- -------- -------- ========
High 6 10 2 18
Medium 10 10 4 24
Low 2 3 11 16
======================================================================
Total 18 23 17 58
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: GAO analysis of data obtained from OPM.
After selecting the 58 occupations, we completed a pilot test by
distributing the job content questionnaire to 389 pairs of incumbents
and their supervisors who were located in either the Cleveland, OH,
or Washington, D.C. areas and who represented a range of GS grades
and occupations included in our sample. Because the CPDF does not
identify a specific address or supervisor for incumbents, we
forwarded the questionnaires to the appropriate agency personnel
offices for distribution. Pairs of trained job analysts composed of
at least one female and one minority completed the first set of desk
audits for 100 of the 257 positions for which the incumbent and the
supervisor returned a questionnaire.\7 Of the 100 positions, we
included in our analyses the 84 positions for which the incumbent and
the supervisor provided complete responses to all questionnaire
items. To ensure the independence of the validation process, the
contractor instructed the job analysts not to review the
incumbent/supervisor responses to the questionnaire for any position
before they completed a desk audit.
On the basis of the pilot test, we determined that (1) incumbents at
higher GS grades tended to undervalue their positions when compared
to the desk audit, while incumbents at lower grades tended to
overvalue their positions and (2) the grades of incumbents included
in our study were not evenly distributed across the matrix rows and
columns. As a result, the validity coefficient between GS grades
estimated on the basis of the desk audits versus incumbent/supervisor
questionnaire responses was .74. Because the combination of the two
effects threatened to distort the results of our planned statistical
comparisons, we stratified our sample by classifying the incumbents
of the 58 occupations into one of seven groups, or strata, on the
basis of GS grade: grades 1 to 4, grade 5, grade 6, grades 7 to 8,
grades 9 to 10, grade 11, and grades 12 to 15. We then determined
the number of incumbent/supervisor pairs needed within each matrix
cell using a complex balancing design to ensure that the row and
column totals would be about equal. This stratified sampling
strategy enabled us to balance the grade distribution of incumbents
selected within each row and column of the matrix, and thus,
eliminate any grade level effect in subsequent analyses.
We randomly selected our sample of full-time permanent nonsupervisory
incumbents from the 58 occupations that met the criteria for each
matrix cell and GS grade stratum and distributed the job content
questionnaire to 2,233 incumbents and their supervisors. Because of
the random selection process, we did not select incumbents from 3 of
the 58 occupational series--import specialist, education program, and
correspondence clerk. Table I.7 shows the distribution of the 2,233
incumbents in a matrix configured according to female and minority
representation and strata.
Table I.7
Distribution of the 2,233 Incumbents by
Female and Minority Representation and
Strata
Female
representati
on GS grade strata High Medium Low Total
------------ ------------------------ ------ ------ ------ ======
High GS-1 to 4 45 44 1 90
GS-5 65 66 19 150
GS-6 30 30 30 90
GS-7 to 8 30 30 29 89
GS-9 to 10 30 30 12 72
GS-11 3 44 15 62
GS-12 to 15 1 144 1 146
======================================================================
Subtotal 204 388 107 699
Medium GS-1 to 4 30 16 44 90
GS-5 50 50 50 150
GS-6 30 30 30 90
GS-7 to 8 30 30 30 90
GS-9 to 10 30 30 30 90
GS-11 42 28 20 90
GS-12 to 15 115 19 50 184
======================================================================
Subtotal 327 203 254 784
Low GS-1 to 4 15 30 45 90
GS-5 35 34 81 150
GS-6 30 30 30 90
GS-7 to 8 30 30 30 90
GS-9 to 10 30 30 30 90
GS-11 45 18 27 90
GS-12 to 15 34 19 97 150
======================================================================
Subtotal 219 191 340 750
======================================================================
Total 750 782 701 2,233
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: GAO analysis of data obtained from OPM.
In addition to the sample of 2,233 incumbent and supervisor pairs, we
also selected a supplemental sample of 303 pairs to enable us to
complete a second set of desk audits expeditiously. We selected the
supplemental sample from those incumbents in the 58 occupations who
were located in one of three geographical areas--Washington, D.C.,
Dayton/Cincinnati, OH, or Los Angeles, CA--to represent incumbents
working in the eastern, central, and western United States. Because
we did not randomly select the pairs in the supplemental sample from
all incumbents working in the 58 occupations covered by FES, we did
not include their questionnaire responses in our response rate
calculation or analyses.
--------------------
\5 OPM assigns a PATCO category to each white-collar occupation on
the basis of the general subject matter of work, level of difficulty
or responsibility, and educational requirements.
Professional occupations require incumbents to use discretion and
judgment to apply knowledge acquired through education or training
equivalent to a bachelor's degree in a specialized field.
Administrative occupations involve the exercise of analytical ability
and personal responsibility to apply concepts and
practices--typically learned through a general college education or
progressively responsible work--to one or more fields of management.
Technical occupations consist of nonroutine work that is learned
on-the-job or from specialized training less than that represented by
college graduation to support professional or administrative fields.
Clerical occupations require incumbents to do structured work
according to established policies, which are learned through training
or work experience, to support office operations.
Other occupations include those miscellaneous occupations that are
not included in one of the four other categories.
\6 Job families consist of related occupations that are numbered
using the same multiple of 100. For example, GS-300, the general
administration, clerical, and office services group includes the mail
and file (GS-305), computer operation (GS-332), and
telecommunications (GS-391) occupations.
\7 Although the majority of the job analysts had extensive desk audit
experience, the contractor provided the analysts with comprehensive
training that included writing job descriptions and classifying jobs
through the use of FES.
RESPONSE RATE CALCULATION
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:3
We forwarded the job content questionnaires to the appropriate agency
personnel offices for distribution to each of the 2,233
incumbent/supervisor pairs. For 179 pairs, agency officials notified
us that either the incumbent or the supervisor no longer held the
position indicated by the CPDF or were located outside of the United
States. As planned, we eliminated these pairs from our study. Of
the remaining 2,054 pairs, we received questionnaires from 1,633
pairs of respondents, for a response rate of 80 percent. Table I.8
shows the disposition of each of the 2,233 incumbent/supervisor pairs
in our sample.
Table I.8
Disposition of Incumbent/Supervisor
Pairs in the Sample
---------------------------------------------------------- ----------
Incumbent/supervisor pairs eliminated from the study
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Incumbent resigned or terminated 63
Incumbent transferred to another agency 48
Incumbent in different occupation than one 29
identified by the CPDF
Incumbent or supervisor retired 26
Incumbent or supervisor outside the United States 3
Incumbent in position not covered by FES 9
Incumbent deceased 1
======================================================================
Subtotal 179\a
Incumbent/supervisor pairs in the study
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Respondents 1,633
Nonrespondents 421\b
======================================================================
Subtotal 2,054
======================================================================
Total incumbent/supervisor pairs in sample 2,233
----------------------------------------------------------------------
\a Of the 179 incumbent/supervisor pairs, we eliminated 177 pairs
from the study on the basis of factors relating to the incumbent.
Two were eliminated on the basis of factors relating to the
supervisor.
\b The 421 pairs of nonrespondents consisted of (1) 349 pairs for
which either the incumbent, the supervisor, or both did not respond
to our questionnaire after three follow-up efforts and (2) 72 pairs
for which we were unable to forward a questionnaire to either the
incumbent, the supervisor, or both for reasons which did not
eliminate the pairs from our study (e.g., either the incumbent or the
supervisor was on extended leave).
OCCUPATIONS INCLUDED IN THE
STUDY ANALYSES
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:4
For 201 of the 1,633 pairs of respondents, either the incumbent, the
supervisor, or both left some questionnaire items unanswered.
Therefore, we included the remaining 1,432 pairs in our preliminary
analyses. On the basis of the incumbent/supervisor questionnaire
responses, we estimated the GS grade for each of the 1,432 positions
and compared this grade with the position's actual grade. We
considered positions to be appropriately graded when the actual grade
equalled the questionnaire grade; otherwise, we considered the
position to be overgraded if the actual grade was higher than the
questionnaire grade; and undergraded if the actual grade was lower
than the questionnaire grade.
When we designed this study, we planned to compare the overgrading
and undergrading among groups of occupations with different gender
and minority representations or among matrix rows and columns.
However, preliminary analyses showed that more variation in
overgrading and undergrading existed within the same row or column
rather than between different rows or columns. For this reason, we
analyzed the 37 occupations for which we had received completed
questionnaires from at least 10 or more incumbent/supervisor pairs.
We did not include the remaining 18 occupations in our analyses
because we could not obtain reliable estimates of overgrading and
undergrading for an occupation with less than 10 pairs of
respondents.\8 The 37 occupations included 1,358 incumbent/supervisor
pairs and represented about 79 percent of the incumbents covered by
FES. Table I.9 shows the gender and minority representation of the
37 occupations included in our study.
Table I.9
Female and Minority Representation of
the 37 Occupations Included in the Study
Female representation High Medium Low
------------------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
High Dental Accounting Dental
assistant technician hygiene
Medical clerk Budget Occupational
analysis therapist
Personnel Nurse
clerical and
assistance
Paralegal
specialist
Secretary
Medium Computer Accounting Auditing
operation
Equal Computer Cartographic
employment specialist technician
opportunity
Equal Contracting Industrial
opportunity hygiene
compliance
Mail and file Diagnostic Public
radiologic affairs
technologist
Nursing Housing
assistant management
Low Border patrol Plant Agricultural
agent protection management
and
quarantine
Security Police Chemistry
guard
Forestry
Mechanical
engineering
Quality
assurance
Physical
science
technician
Safety and
occupational
health
management
Soil
conservation
Telecommunica
tions
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: GAO analysis of data obtained from OPM.
--------------------
\8 The 18 occupational series for which we received completed
questionnaires from less than 10 incumbent/supervisor pairs included
tax examining, computer clerk and assistant, security administration,
medical technologist, voucher examining, practical nurse, shipment
clerical and assistance, medical supply aide and technician, medical
instrument technician, equipment operator, architecture, mine safety
and health, dietician and nutritionist, veterinary medical science,
recreation specialist, language specialist, equal opportunity
assistance, and federal retirement benefits.
QUESTIONNAIRE VALIDATION
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:5
We validated our job content questionnaire by using a second set of
desk audits. To simplify selecting positions that represented a
broad range of grades, we combined our seven strata into three
groups: high (GS-11 to 15), medium (GS-6 to 10), and low (GS-1 to
5). We then scheduled interviews with incumbent/supervisor pairs,
which allowed us to complete desk audits that were distributed evenly
across the three GS grade ranges, the three selected geographical
locations, and the nine matrix cells. Again, to ensure the
independence of the validation process, the contractor instructed the
job analysts not to review the incumbent/supervisor responses to the
questionnaire for any position before they completed a desk audit.
Although we completed 100 desk audits, we validated the questionnaire
on the basis of the 78 positions that represented the 37 occupations
included in our analyses and for which the incumbent and supervisor
provided complete responses to the questionnaire. For the 78
positions, we completed 24 desk audits for high, 35 for medium, and
19 for low graded positions; and 37 desk audits in Washington, D.C.;
21 in Los Angeles, CA; and 20 in Dayton/Cincinnati, OH. Table I.10
shows the distribution of the 78 positions for which a desk audit was
completed by occupation and matrix cell.
Table I.10
Distribution of Desk Audits Completed
According to Female and Minority
Representation for the 37 Occupations
Included in the Study
Fema
le
repr
esen
tati
on High Medium Low Total
---- ---------- -------- ------------ -------- ---------- ------ ========
High Dental 0 Accounting 0 Dental 8
assistant technician hygiene
Medical 3 Budget 2 Occupation 1
clerk analysis al
therapist
Personnel 6 Nurse 0
clerical
and
assistance
Paralegal 1
specialist
Secretary 3
================================================================================
Subtotal 9 Subtotal 6 Subtotal 9 24
Medi Computer 2 Accounting 2 Auditing 4
um operation
Equal 2 Computer 3 Cartograph 5
employment specialist ic
opportunit technician
y
Equal 0 Contracting 3 Industrial 2
opportunit hygiene
y
compliance
Mail and 2 Diagnostic 1 Public 4
file radiologic affairs
technologist
Nursing 1 Housing 1
assistant management
================================================================================
Subtotal 7 Subtotal 10 Subtotal 15 32
Low Border 4 Plant 0 Agricultur 0
patrol protection al
agent and management
quarantine
Security 3 Police 6 Chemistry 3
guard
Forestry 0
Mechanical 3
engineerin
g
Quality 0
assurance
Physical 2
science
technician
Safety and 1
occupation
al
health
management
Soil 0
conservati
on
Telecommun 0
ications
================================================================================
Subtotal 7 Subtotal 6 Subtotal 9 22
================================================================================
Tota 23 22 33 78
l
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The resulting validity coefficient between GS grades estimated on the
basis of the 78 desk audits versus incumbent/supervisor questionnaire
responses was .80, thus meeting the goal we set when we designed the
study. This is the only classification study we are aware of in
which desk audits were used to validate the questionnaire results.
Table I.11 shows the validity coefficients between GS grades
estimated on the basis of desk audits versus the questionnaire
responses for incumbent/supervisor pairs, supervisors, and
incumbents.
Table I.11
Validity Coefficients for Grades
Estimated on the Basis of the 78 Desk
Audits Versus the Questionnaire
Responses for Incumbent/Supervisor
Pairs, Supervisors Only, and Incumbents
Only
Source of questionnaire responses Validity coefficient
---------------------------------------- ----------------------------
Incumbent/supervisor pairs .80
Supervisors .75
Incumbents .73
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: While we validated our questionnaire on the basis of the
responses from incumbent/supervisor pairs, we reported the validity
coefficients for supervisors only and incumbents only for the purpose
of full disclosure.
For the 37 occupations included in our analyses, we used loglinear
statistical techniques to analyze the odds of individual occupations
being overgraded or undergraded versus appropriately graded (1) in
relation to GS grades and (2) when the female or minority
representation of an occupation was high, medium, or low. The
strength of this particular statistical approach was that multiple
variables could be analyzed simultaneously, thereby enabling us to
examine complex relationships in the data. Appendix II provides more
detailed information on our loglinear methodology, the loglinear
models tested, and the results obtained.
LOGLINEAR METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS
RESULTS
========================================================== Appendix II
This appendix provides additional technical detail on our analytical
approach. It contains a general description of loglinear
methodology, describes the variables analyzed, and presents the
loglinear models tested and the results obtained in each analysis.
DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix II:1
We used loglinear analyses to examine the relationship between the
likelihood of being overgraded or undergraded and (1) the average GS
grade of the sampled incumbents by occupation and (2) female and
minority representation.\1 We first looked at the relationship
between the likelihood of being overgraded or undergraded and female
or minority representation without taking the effect of the average
GS grade into consideration. For each analysis, we considered the
preferred model to be the simplest one that fit the data and could
not be significantly improved by more complex models. The preferred
model included those components that had statistically significant
relationships with effects after we controlled for the influences of
other factors. Hence, the estimates we obtained were net effects
determined after the association of each variable with all other
variables had been taken into account or statistically eliminated.
On the basis of the preferred model, we estimated the direction and
magnitude of the relationships using odds and odds ratios. The odds
indicated the likelihood that an outcome would occur given a
particular factor or combination of factors, and the odds ratios
indicated the size of the effect of the various factors on that
likelihood. The more the odds ratio diverges from 1.0, the stronger
the relationship.
--------------------
\1 We opted to use loglinear models rather than logistic regression
models because of the trichotomous nature (i.e., three
characteristics as opposed to being of a continuous nature) of the
dependent variable. Logistic regression models could have been used
had we chosen to look separately at the two odds that we examined,
i.e., the odds of overgrading versus aptly grading and the odds of
undergrading versus aptly grading. This would have allowed us to
control simultaneously for the average GS grade, gender, and minority
status had we wanted to determine how the relationship between job
content and GS grades assigned using FES varied on the basis of the
gender and minority status of incumbents. Because our objective was
to determine whether the relationship varied on the basis of the
proportion of women and minorities in occupations, we chose the
simpler modeling strategy.
OCCUPATIONS INCLUDED IN OUR
STUDY
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix II:2
All of our analyses were based on the 37 occupations shown in table
II.1. The table also indicates by occupation whether the female or
minority representation was high, medium, or low; the average GS
grade of the incumbents in the sample; whether the incumbents were
overgraded, aptly graded, or undergraded; and the odds of being
either overgraded or undergraded versus aptly graded.\2 For each
occupation or group of occupations, we derived the odds of being
overgraded versus aptly graded by dividing the number of incumbents
that were overgraded by the number aptly graded. The odds of being
undergraded versus aptly graded were similarly calculated.
Table II.1
Female and Minority Representation,
Average GS Grades, Observed Sample
Frequencies, and Odds of Being
Overgraded and Undergraded Versus Aptly
Graded for 37 Occupations Without
Controlling for GS Grade
Average
GS GS grade Over Under
occupation in Over Aptly Under Tota versus versus
High Medium Low High Medium Low al series sample graded graded graded l aptly\a aptly\b
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ---------- ---------------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ---- ------- -------
X X 203 Personnel 6.81 33 20 16 69 1.63 0.80
clerical and
assistance
X X 679 Medical clerk 4.45 4 3 15 22 1.29 4.43
X X 681 Dental assistant 5.12 2 6 9 17 0.38 1.46
X X 560 Budget analysis 11.98 84 1 1 86 56.33 1.00
X X 318 Secretary 5.40 20 24 38 82 0.84 1.57
X X 610 Nurse 11.20 16 2 2 20 6.60 1.00
X X 950 Paralegal 11.56 16 0 0 16 33.00 1.00
specialist
X X 525 Accounting 5.62 6 2 5 13 2.60 2.20
technician
X X 682 Dental hygiene 6.56 2 9 48 59 0.26 5.11
X X 631 Occupational 10.50 3 1 8 12 2.33 5.67
therapist
Subtotal for occupations with high female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
186 68 142 396 2.72 2.08
X X 360 Equal 11.86 46 3 0 49 13.29 0.14
opportunity
compliance
X X 260 Equal employment 12.26 41 0 1 42 83.00 3.00
opportunity
X X 332 Computer 7.93 36 3 2 41 10.43 0.71
operations
X X 621 Nursing 4.90 8 8 13 29 1.00 1.59
assistant
X X 305 Mail and file 4.20 2 5 3 10 0.45 0.64
X X 647 Diagnostic 5.94 5 6 23 34 0.85 3.62
radiologic
technologist
X X 334 Computer 9.67 26 3 4 33 7.57 1.29
specialist
X X 1102 Contracting 8.57 17 7 4 28 2.33 0.60
X X 510 Accounting 9.20 10 2 3 15 4.20 1.40
X X 1173 Housing 5.45 1 5 5 11 0.27 1.00
management
X X 1371 Cartographic 6.04 45 25 29 99 1.78 1.16
technician
X X 1035 Public affairs 10.38 41 5 7 53 7.55 1.36
X X 511 Auditing 10.74 42 3 1 46 12.14 0.43
X X 690 Industrial 9.74 16 4 7 27 3.67 1.67
hygiene
Subtotal for occupations with medium female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
336 79 102 517 4.23 1.29
X X 1896 Border patrol 10.75 85 4 3 92 19.00 0.78
agent
X X 85 Security guard 5.15 16 9 21 46 1.74 2.26
X X 83 Police 5.34 4 16 38 58 0.27 2.33
X X 436 Plant protection 9.13 14 2 0 16 5.80 0.20
and
quarantine
X X 1311 Physical science 5.55 31 30 19 80 1.03 0.64
technician
X X 830 Mechanical 10.95 34 6 3 43 5.31 0.54
engineering
X X 1910 Quality 9.95 17 2 3 22 7.00 1.40
assurance
X X 460 Forestry 8.25 6 5 9 20 1.18 1.73
X X 1320 Chemistry 10.88 13 2 2 17 5.40 1.00
X X 457 Soil 8.75 10 3 3 16 3.00 1.00
conservation
X X 475 Agricultural 9.21 9 3 2 14 2.71 0.71
management
X X 391 Telecommunicatio 10.64 8 0 3 11 17.00 7.00
ns
X X 18 Safety and 11.90 9 1 0 10 6.33 0.33
occupational
health
management
Subtotal for occupations with low female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
256 83 106 445 3.07 1.28
=====================================================================================================================================================
Total 8.29 778 230 350 1,35 3.38 1.52
8
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Odds were calculated after adding a small constant (0.5) to
all cell frequencies so that cells with zeros could be included in
the calculations.
\a The odds of being overgraded versus aptly graded are equal to the
number of overgraded incumbents divided by the number of aptly graded
incumbents.
\b The odds of being undergraded versus aptly graded are equal to the
number of undergraded incumbents divided by the number of aptly
graded incumbents.
Source: GAO analysis of questionnaire data.
--------------------
\2 We defined occupations with high, medium, and low female
representation as those in which women represented 70 percent or
more, 31 to 69 percent, and 30 percent or less of incumbents,
respectively. We defined occupations with high, medium, and low
minority representation as those in which minorities represented more
than 41 percent, 22 to 41 percent, or less than 22 percent of
incumbents, respectively.
On the basis of the average points derived from the questionnaires
completed by the incumbent and the supervisor, we determined the GS
grade for each position. We compared that questionnaire grade with
the incumbent's actual GS grade and considered the position to be
aptly, or appropriately, graded if the questionnaire grade and the
actual grade were the same. Otherwise, we considered positions to be
overgraded if the actual grade was higher than the questionnaire
grade and undergraded if the actual grade was lower than the
questionnaire grade.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
OVERGRADING/UNDERGRADING AND
FEMALE OR MINORITY
REPRESENTATION WITHOUT
CONTROLLING FOR GS GRADE\3
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix II:3
While we derived the study results from models fitted to table II.1,
we first considered the relationship between incumbents being
overgraded, aptly graded, or undergraded and female representation
(see table II.2). It should be noted that the effect of the average
GS grade was not statistically eliminated, or controlled for, in this
comparison. For high, medium, and low female representation,
overgraded and undergraded incumbents outnumbered those appropriately
graded. We computed the odds as described above, and these odds
indicated the extent to which overgraded or undergraded incumbents
outnumbered aptly graded incumbents. We computed ratios, sometimes
referred to as odds ratios, by dividing the odds of overgrading or
undergrading in one group of occupations by the corresponding odds in
another group. For example, occupations with high female
representation were about 1.62 times more likely to be undergraded
rather than aptly graded when compared with occupations having medium
female representation (2.09 / 1.29 = 1.62). The odds ratios shown in
the table indicate sizable differences in overgrading and
undergrading between occupations with high female representation and
those with medium representation but only slight differences between
those occupations with medium representation and those with low
representation.
Table II.2
Relationship Between the Observed Sample
Frequencies and Female Representation
Without Controlling for GS Grade
Fem
ale
rep
res Aptl
ent y Odds of over Odds of
ati Overgrad grad Undergrad Tota versus aptly under versus
on ed ed ed l graded Ratios aptly graded Ratios
--- -------- ---- --------- ---- ------------ ------ ------------ ------
Hig 186 68 142 396 2.74 0.64 2.09 1.62
h
Med 336 79 102 517 4.25 1.38 1.29 1.01
ium
Low 256 83 106 445 3.08 1.28
================================================================================
Tot 778 230 350 1,35
al 8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: The blank spaces in columns indicate that we did not compute
odds or odds ratios.
Table II.2 indicates that all groups of occupations tended to be
overgraded versus aptly or undergraded. The focus of our study was
determining whether occupations with high female representation
differed significantly from those with medium or low female
representation. To determine whether the differences in the sample
data shown in table II.2 reflected "real" differences in the
population and not simply chance or sampling fluctuations, we fit the
models shown in the top section of table II.3 to the data shown in
table II.1.
On the basis of the likelihood ratio chi-square values and degrees of
freedom associated with the different models we fit to the observed
data, the preferred model was the third one in the upper and lower
sections of the table.\4 The third model in the upper section of the
table indicated a pronounced tendency for incumbents of jobs with
high female representation to be undergraded. The third model in the
lower section of the table indicated a pronounced tendency for the
incumbents of occupations with high minority representation to be
overgraded.
Table II.3
Hierarchical Models Tested to Examine
Relationships Between Observed Sample
Frequencies and Female and Minority
Representation
Likelihood
Represen Model Degrees of ratio chi- Probabilit Pseudo-
tation number freedom square y R\2 \a
-------- -------- ---------- ---------- ------------ ---------- ----------
Female F1 {F} {D} 4 37.18 < 0.001 0.000
F2 {F} {D} 2 5.63 0.06 0.849
{FHD}
F3 {F} {D} 3 8.57 0.04 0.770
{FHDU}
F4 {F} {D} 0 0.00 1.00 1.000
{FD}
Minority M1 {M} {D} 4 18.23 < 0.001 0.000
M2 {M} {D} 2 0.98 0.61 0.946
{MHD}
M3 {M} {D} 3 1.57 0.67 0.914
{MHDO}
M4 {M} {D} 0 0.00 1.00 1.000
{MD}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Legend
F = Female representation (high, medium, or low).
D = Difference between actual GS grade and questionnaire grade
(overgraded, aptly, or undergraded).
M = Minority representation (high, medium, or low).
Note: The subscripts H, U, and O represent dummy variables, which
contrast (1) high female or minority representation with medium and
low, (2) undergraded with aptly and overgraded, and (3) overgraded
with aptly and undergraded, respectively.
\a Pseudo-R\2 is calculated, following Goodman (1978), by subtracting
the L\2 for a given model from the L\2 for the baseline model of
independence (e.g., (37.18 - 5.63) / 37.18 = 0.849).
The result indicates the proportion of the variation in the dependent
variable (the change in GS grade or the odds of overgrading or
undergrading) that is accounted for by the factor or set of factors
included in the model.
Table II.4 shows the results of fitting the models in the upper
section of table II.3 to the data in table II.2. The odds ratios we
derived from the preferred model (F3) indicated that in the
population from which we drew our sample, incumbents of occupations
with high female representation were twice as likely (i.e., 2.02
times as likely as shown in the table) to be undergraded compared
with either aptly or overgraded, as incumbents of occupations with
low or medium female representation. Again, we emphasize that the
effect of the average GS grade was not statistically eliminated, or
controlled for, when making this comparison.
Table II.4
Relationship Between the Expected
Frequencies and Female Representation
Without Controlling for GS Grade
Odds of Odds of
Aptl over under
Female y versus versus
representati Overgrad grad Undergrad aptly Rati aptly Rati
Model on ed ed ed Total graded os graded os
--------------- ------------ -------- ---- --------- ------ ---------- ---- ---------- ----
F1 High 226.87 67.0 102.06 396.00 3.38 1.00 1.52 1.00
7
Medium 296.19 87.5 133.25 517.00 3.38 1.00 1.52 1.00
6
Low 254.94 75.3 114.69 445.00 3.38 1.52
7
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
F2 High 186.00 68.0 142.00 396.00 2.74 0.75 2.09 1.63
0
Medium 318.15 87.0 111.78 517.00 3.65 1.00 1.28 1.00
6
Low 273.85 74.9 96.22 445.00 3.65 1.28
4
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
F3 High 196.04 57.9 142.00 396.00 3.38 1.00 2.45 2.02
6
Medium 312.76 92.4 111.78 517.00 3.38 1.00 1.21 1.00
6
Low 269.20 79.5 96.22 445.00 3.38 1.21
8
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note 1: The blank spaces in columns indicate that we did not compute
odds or odds ratios.
Note 2: Due to rounding, expected frequencies do not always add to
the total.
We also considered the relationship between incumbents being
overgraded, aptly graded, or undergraded and minority representation
(see table II.5). It should be noted that the effect of the average
GS grade was not statistically eliminated, or controlled for, in this
comparison. For high, medium, and low minority representation, the
number of overgraded and undergraded incumbents outnumbered those
appropriately graded. The odds shown in the table indicate the
extent to which overgraded or undergraded incumbents outnumbered
aptly graded incumbents. Occupations with high minority
representation were 1.43 times more likely to be overgraded rather
than aptly graded when compared with occupations having medium
minority representation (4.48 / 3.13 = 1.43). The odds ratios shown
in table II.5 indicate pronounced differences in overgrading and
undergrading between occupations with high minority representation
and those with medium representation but only slight differences
between those occupations with medium representation and those with
low representation.
Table II.5
Relationship Between the Observed Sample
Frequencies and Minority Representation
Without Controlling for GS Grade
Min
ori
ty
rep
res Aptl
ent y Odds of over Odds of
ati Overgrad grad Undergrad Tota versus aptly under versus
on ed ed ed l graded Ratios aptly graded Ratios
--- -------- ---- --------- ---- ------------ ------ ------------ ------
Hig 273 61 83 417 4.48 1.43 1.36 0.77
h
Med 219 70 123 412 3.13 1.08 1.76 1.21
ium
Low 286 99 144 529 2.89 1.45
================================================================================
Tot 778 230 350 1,35
al 8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: The blank spaces in columns indicate where we did not compute
odds or odds ratios.
Table II.5 indicates that all groups of occupations tend to be
overgraded versus aptly or undergraded. The focus of our study was
determining whether occupations with high minority representation
differed significantly from those with medium or low minority
representation.
Table II.6 shows the results of fitting the models in the lower
section of table II.3 to the data in table II.5. The odds ratios we
derived from the expected frequencies indicate the extent of the
differences that existed in the population. As previously noted, the
preferred model selected was model M3, which indicated that in the
population, incumbents of occupations with high minority
representation were 1.64 times more likely to be overgraded rather
than either aptly or undergraded. The effect of the average GS grade
was not statistically eliminated, or controlled for, in this
comparison.
Table II.6
Relationship Between the Expected
Frequencies and Minority Representation
Without Controlling for GS Grade
Odds of Odds of
Aptl over under
Minority y versus versus
representati Overgrad grad Undergrad aptly Rati aptly Rati
Model on ed ed ed Total graded os graded os
--------------- ------------ -------- ---- --------- ------ ---------- ---- ---------- ----
M1 High 238.90 70.6 107.47 417.00 3.38 1.00 1.52 1.00
3
Medium 236.04 69.7 106.19 412.00 3.38 1.00 1.52 1.00
8
Low 303.06 89.5 136.34 529.00 3.38 1.52
9
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
M2 High 273.00 61.0 83.00 417.00 4.48 1.50 1.36 0.86
0
Medium 221.11 73.9 116.90 412.00 2.99 1.00 1.58 1.00
9
Low 283.89 95.0 150.10 529.00 2.99 1.58
1
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
M3 High 273.00 57.1 86.90 417.00 4.78 1.64 1.52 1.00
0
Medium 221.11 75.7 115.20 412.00 2.92 1.00 1.52 1.00
0
Low 283.89 97.2 147.91 529.00 2.92 1.52
0
====================================================================================================
Total 778.00 230. 350.00 1,358.
00 00
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note 1: The blank spaces in columns indicate that we did not compute
odds or odds ratios.
Note 2: Due to rounding, expected frequencies do not always add to
the total.
--------------------
\3 All of the results reported in this section are provided for
illustrative purposes only.
\4 The likelihood ratio chi-square indicates the relative fit of the
various models to the data in the tables.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
OVERGRADING/UNDERGRADING VERSUS
GS GRADE AND FEMALE AND
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix II:4
As depicted in figures II.1 and II.2, we determined through
preliminary analyses that as the average GS grade increased (1) the
odds of overgrading increased significantly and (2) the odds of
undergrading decreased slightly. The trend lines through the
scatterplots of points, or occupations, shown in figures II.1 and
II.2 were obtained from a loglinear model, which allowed the average
GS grade to be linearly related to the odds of overgrading and
undergrading.\5
Figure II.1: Odds of
Overgrading by Average GS Grade
Across 37 Occupations
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Note: Each plotted point
represents one of the 37
occupations in our study.
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Figure II.2: Odds of
Undergrading by Average GS
Grade Across 37 Occupations
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Note: Each plotted point
represents one of the 37
occupations in our study.
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Table II.7 shows the loglinear models fit to the data in table II.1
to arrive at the preferred model--model 11. The first model is the
baseline and asserts that the odds of overgrading and undergrading do
not vary across the 37 occupations. Model 2, which allows those odds
to vary linearly by average GS grade, improved significantly upon
model 1 and indicates that 67 percent of the variation between the
actual GS grades and grades calculated on the basis of the
questionnaire was attributable to the average GS grade.\6 The
difference between the pseudo-R\2 for model 11 and that for model 2
indicates that female and minority representation accounted for about
6 percent of the variation (.731 - .673 = .058).\7 Therefore, model
11, the preferred model indicates that 73 percent of the variation
between the actual GS grades and grades calculated on the basis of
the questionnaire was attributable to a combination of average GS
grade and female and minority representation. The remaining 27
percent of the variation was not explained by the variables in our
study.
Table II.7
Loglinear Models Tested to Examine the
Relationship Between the Frequencies,
the GS Grade, and Female and Minority
Representation
Mode Degree Likeliho
l s of od ratio
numb freedo chi- Pseudo-
er Models tested m square\a R\2 \b
---- ------------------------------------ ------ -------- --------
1 {O} {D} 72 698.33 0.000
2 {O} {GLD} 70 228.10 0.673
3 {O} {GLD} {FHD} 68 214.64 0.693
4 {O} {GLD} {MHD} 68 202.34 0.710
5 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} 66 185.26 0.735
6 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} {FMD} 64 183.16 0.738
7 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} {MMD} 64 182.77 0.738
8 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} {FHMHD} 64 181.36 0.740
9 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} {FHGLD} 64 181.29 0.740
10 {O} {GLD} {FHD} {MHD} {MHGLD} 64 180.04 0.742
11 {O} {GLD} {FHDU} {MHDO} 68 188.11 0.731
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Legend
O = Occupation (1 of 37 occupations covered by FES that were included
in our study).
D = Difference between actual GS grade and questionnaire grade
(overgraded, aptly, or undergraded).
G = Grade (GS-1 to 15).
F = Female representation (high, medium, or low).
M = Minority representation (high, medium, or low).
Subscript L indicates a linear constraint imposed upon the effect of
the GS grade on overgrading or undergrading.
Subscripts H and M represent dummy variables which contrast high
female or minority representation with medium and low representation,
and medium female or minority representation with high and low
representation, respectively.
Subscript U represents a dummy variable which contrasts undergraded
with aptly and overgraded.
Subscript O indicates overgraded with aptly and undergraded.
\a The likelihood ratio chi-square (L\2 ) indicates the relative fit
of the various models to the data in the table.
\b Pseudo-R\2 is calculated, following Goodman (1978), by subtracting
the L\2 for a given model from the L\2 for the baseline model of
independence (e.g., (698.33 - 228.10) / 698.33 = 0.673). The result
indicates the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable
(the change in GS grade or the odds of overgrading or undergrading)
that is accounted for by the factor or set of factors included in the
model.
Table II.8 shows the expected frequencies under model 11 and the odds
of overgrading and undergrading derived from them. Across the 37
occupations included in our study, of the total 1,358 positions in
our sample, about 780 or 57 percent appeared to be overgraded, 352 or
26 percent appeared to be undergraded, and 232 or 17 percent appeared
to be aptly graded.\8
We recognize that, on the surface, these summary results could raise
questions about the overall accuracy of the FES classification
system. We believe that our results should be viewed with caution in
this respect because we did not design our study to assess the
overall accuracy of the classification system. Rather, our use of
nontraditional methods, i.e., the use of the primary standard rather
than occupation-specific standards on which to develop a job content
questionnaire coupled with the use of the questionnaire rather than
desk audits, and our sample selection methodology were designed to
examine the relative assignment of grades among groups of
occupations. That is, our study was designed to assess whether there
were differences in the likelihood of overgrading or undergrading
among groups of occupations that included higher or lower proportions
of women and minorities.
We validated our design for achieving this objective; we did not
validate our design for an objective of expressing an opinion on the
overall accuracy of the classification system. Had we undertaken
such an assessment, we would have utilized a more extensive strategy
to validate the relationship between the questionnaire we developed
and the results of more traditional classification tools such as desk
audits, or indeed a heavier reliance directly on desk audits, which
is how classification accuracy studies are usually conducted.
We also recognize that the overall extent of apparent overgrading or
undergrading identified may involve some measurement error. However,
we have no reason to believe that such error would be more pronounced
for any particular group of occupations, for example, occupations
with high female representation compared with those with medium or
low representation. Thus, we do not believe that our estimates of
the differences in odds of overgrading or undergrading for the groups
of occupations included in our analysis have been affected by any
possible measurement error. Also, the likelihood of a position being
overgraded, rather than aptly graded increased as the incumbents' GS
grades increased. However, the incumbents' grades had virtually no
effect on the likelihood that a position was undergraded versus aptly
graded. Accordingly, in measuring the odds of overgrading among
those groups of occupations, we controlled for (statistically
eliminated the effect of) the grade level effect we observed. The
remaining variation in the data indicated statistically significant
differences among the groups of occupations, and we report on those
results.
Table II.8
Female and Minority Representation,
Average GS Grades, Expected Frequencies,
and Odds of Overgraded and Undergraded
Versus Aptly Graded for 37 Occupations
Average
GS grade Over Under
GS occupational in Over Aptly Under versus versus
High Medium Low High Medium Low series sample graded graded graded Total aptly\a aptly\b
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------- ---------------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
X X 203 Personnel 6.81 33.93 11.04 24.17 69 3.07 2.19
clerical and
assistance
X X 679 Medical clerk 4.45 4.64 4.88 12.63 22 0.95 2.59
X X 681 Dental assistant 5.12 4.75 3.57 8.83 17 1.33 2.47
X X 560 Budget analysis 11.98 75.78 4.13 6.24 86 18.35 1.51
X X 318 Secretary 5.40 13.94 19.94 48.27 82 0.70 2.42
X X 610 Nurse 11.20 16.67 1.34 2.14 20 12.44 1.60
X X 950 Paralegal 11.56 13.78 0.92 1.44 16 14.98 1.57
specialist
X X 525 Accounting 5.62 2.46 3.16 7.53 13 0.78 2.38
technician
X X 682 Dental hygiene 6.56 16.46 13.22 29.47 59 1.25 2.23
X X 631 Occupational 10.50 9.31 1.06 1.78 12 8.78 1.68
therapist
Subtotal for occupations with high female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
191.72 63.26 142.50 396 3.04 2.27
X X 360 Equal 11.86 46.84 1.24 1.07 49 37.77 0.86
opportunity
compliance
X X 260 Equal 12.26 40.53 0.88 0.74 42 46.06 0.84
employment
opportunity
X X 332 Computer 7.93 29.40 5.49 6.27 41 5.36 1.14
operations
X X 621 Nursing 4.90 9.61 8.08 11.46 29 1.19 1.42
assistant
X X 305 Mail and file 4.20 2.56 3.05 4.54 10 0.84 1.49
X X 647 Diagnostic 5.94 9.66 10.57 13.92 34 0.91 1.32
radiologic
technologist
X X 334 Computer 9.67 24.66 4.23 4.27 33 5.83 1.01
specialist
X X 1102 Contracting 8.57 17.38 5.15 5.62 28 3.37 1.09
X X 510 Accounting 9.20 10.50 2.27 2.37 15 4.63 1.04
X X 1173 Housing 5.45 2.59 3.62 4.94 11 0.72 1.36
management
X X 1371 Cartographic 6.04 29.15 30.33 39.67 99 0.96 1.31
technician
X X 1035 Public affairs 10.38 43.00 5.18 4.97 53 8.30 0.96
X X 511 Auditing 10.74 38.62 3.89 3.64 46 9.93 0.94
X X 690 Industrial 9.74 20.38 3.38 3.39 27 6.03 1.00
hygiene
Subtotal for occupations with medium female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
324.88 87.36 106.87 517 3.72 1.22
X X 1896 Border patrol 10.75 84.62 3.89 3.63 92 21.75 0.93
agent
X X 85 Security guard 5.15 16.62 12.34 17.19 46 1.35 1.39
X X 83 Police 5.34 12.93 19.04 26.18 58 0.68 1.38
X X 436 Plant protection 9.13 11.07 2.48 2.60 16 4.46 1.05
and
quarantine
X X 1311 Physical 5.55 19.43 25.79 34.93 80 0.75 1.35
science
technician
X X 830 Mechanical 10.95 36.74 3.34 3.07 43 11.00 0.92
engineering
X X 1910 Quality 9.95 17.08 2.55 2.52 22 6.70 0.99
assurance
X X 460 Forestry 8.25 11.62 4.03 4.50 20 2.88 1.12
X X 1320 Chemistry 10.88 14.52 1.37 1.26 17 10.60 0.92
X X 457 Soil 8.75 10.34 2.80 3.02 16 3.69 1.08
conservation
X X 475 Agricultural 9.21 9.83 2.12 2.21 14 4.68 1.04
management
X X 391 Telecommunicatio 10.64 9.25 0.98 0.92 11 9.44 0.94
ns
X X 18 Safety and 11.90 9.18 0.52 0.45 10 17.65 0.87
occupational
health
management
Subtotal for occupations with low female representation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=====================================================================================================================================================
263.33 81.25 102.48 445 3.24 1.26
=====================================================================================================================================================
Total 8.29 779.93 231.87 351.85 1,358\c 3.37 1.52
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\a The odds of being overgraded versus aptly graded are equal to the
number of overgraded incumbents divided by the number of aptly graded
incumbents.
\b The odds of being undergraded versus aptly graded are equal to the
number of undergraded incumbents divided by the number of aptly
graded incumbents.
\c Due to rounding, totals for overgraded, aptly graded, and
undergraded do not add to 1,358.
Source: GAO analysis of questionnaire data.
Table II.9 provides coefficients that indicate the direction and
magnitude of the different effects included in model 11. The table
shows that the relationship between the average GS grades of
occupations and high minority representation and the odds of
incumbents being overgraded was statistically significant, while only
high female representation was related in a significant way to the
odds of incumbents being undergraded.
The odds ratio 1.64 tells us that as the average GS grade increased
across occupations by one grade, the odds of incumbents being
overgraded increased by a factor of 1.64; that is, the likelihood of
being overgraded in an occupation in which the average grade of
incumbents was GS-10 was 1.64 times as great as the likelihood of
being overgraded in an occupation in which the average grade was
GS-9. Independent of that, occupations with high minority
representation were 2.18 times more likely to be overgraded than
occupations with low or medium minority representation. Finally,
occupations with high female representation were 1.77 times more
likely to be undergraded as occupations with low or medium female
representation. The coefficient for the GS grade effect on
undergrading was not significantly different from 1.0 (which
indicates no effect), and the z-value associated with it implies that
the effect can reasonably be due to chance.\9
Table II.9
Coefficients and Odds Ratios Describing
the Effects of the Average GS Grade and
High Female and Minority Representation
on Overgrading and Undergrading
Lower 95 Upper 95
percent percent
confidence confidence
Coefficient\ Standard Odds interval interval
Factor a error Z-value ratio\b estimate estimate
-------- ------------ -------- -------- -------- ------------ ------------
Effect on overgrading
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GS grade 0.497 0.038 13.24 1.64 1.53 1.77
High 0.780 0.153 5.10 2.18 1.62 2.94
minority
represe
ntation
Effect on undergrading
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GS grade -0.071 0.043 -1.65 0.93 0.86 1.01
High 0.570 0.145 3.94 1.77 1.33 2.35
female
represe
ntation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Coefficients, standard errors, and z-values are taken from the
Loglinear Program in SPSSx.
\a Coefficients are logged coefficients and indicate how much the
natural logarithm of the odds of overgrading or undergrading differ
across GS grades or female and minority representation.
\b Odds ratios are derived directly from coefficients by taking
antilogarithms. They are more readily interpretable than
coefficients because they indicate how much the odds of overgrading
or undergrading increase when GS grade increases or when occupations
with high female or minority representation are compared with
occupations having low or medium female or minority representation.
(See figure in printed edition.)Appendix III
--------------------
\5 We derived the estimated odds that define the trend lines in the
figures from maximum likelihood estimation procedures rather than the
more common generalized least squares procedures. These estimated
odds that we plotted in the two figures take into consideration the
number of sampled incumbents in each occupation.
\6 We determine whether one model significantly improves upon another
by comparing values of L\2 --the likelihood ratio chi-square--which
indicates the fit of the models to data or how well the expected
frequencies resulting from the models correspond to the observed or
sample frequencies. Since the difference in L\2 values between model
1 and 2 is highly significant given the difference in degrees of
freedom between the two (i.e., 698.33 - 228.10 = 470.23 with 72 - 70
= 2 degrees of freedom), we would choose model 2 as the preferred
model of the two and conclude that the linear effect of the GS grade
(which is present in model 2 but not in model 1) is a significant
effect or one that cannot be attributed to sampling fluctuations or
chance. Comparisons between other models involve similar
calculations and logic.
\7 The effects of the average GS grade and the female and minority
representation operate largely independent of each other. The effect
of female and minority representation would account for approximately
7 percent of the variation if introduced into the model before the GS
grade.
\8 Due to rounding, the frequency totals for overgraded, undergraded,
and aptly graded positions do not add to 1,358.
\9 Z-values are the ratios of coefficients to their standard errors.
When z-values exceed + 1.96 or - 1.96, coefficients are statistically
significant at the 95 percent level of confidence.
COMMENTS FROM THE OFFICE OF
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT
========================================================== Appendix II
61-62.
(See figure in printed edition.)
(See figure in printed edition.)
(See figure in printed edition.)
The following are GAO's supplemental comments on the Office of
Personnel Management's letter dated September 8, 1995.
GAO COMMENTS
1. OPM said that some findings in our study, such as the overgrading
and undergrading within the same occupation, were left largely
unexplained. As noted in the text, the job content questionnaire was
designed and validated to achieve our review objective relative to
comparing groups of occupations, and we cannot attest to the
questionnaire's validity when used across GS grades within
occupations, for specific occupations, or for individual positions.
2. OPM said that several uninvestigated variables were mentioned in
our study, any one of which might account for some or all of the
differences between the study results and the agency classification
results. As noted in the text, we reported that 73 percent of the
variation we found between actual GS grades and those we estimated on
the basis of the questionnaire was attributable to the average GS
grades and female or minority representation; the remaining 27
percent was not explained by the variables included in our study.
Thus, we believe the variables in our study accounted for most of the
variation.
MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS REPORT
========================================================== Appendix IV
GENERAL GOVERNMENT DIVISION,
WASHINGTON, D.C.
Larry H. Endy, Assistant Director, Federal Management and
Workforce Issues
Brenda J. Bridges, Evaluator-in-Charge
Gregory H. Wilmoth, Senior Social Science Analyst
Douglas M. Sloane, Senior Social Science Analyst
Don D. Allison, Senior Evaluator
Jennifer S. Cruise, Senior Evaluator
BIBLIOGRAPHY
=========================================================== Appendix 0
Aaron, H.J., and C.M. Lougy. The Comparable Worth Controversy.
Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1986.
Acker, J. "Sex Bias in Job Evaluation: A Comparable Worth Issue,"
Ingredients for Women's Employment Policy. Albany: State University
of New York Press, 1987.
Acker, J. Doing Comparable Worth: Gender, Class, and Pay Equity.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989.
Agarwal, N.C. "Pay Discrimination: A Comparative Analysis of
Research Evidence and Public Policy in Canada, the United States, and
Britain." Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol. 18 (1983), pp.
28-38.
Agarwal, N.C. "Pay Equity in Canada: Current Developments." Labor
Law Journal, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 518-525.
Agassi, J.B. Women on the Job: The Attitudes of Women to Their
Work. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
A Guide to Pay Equity in Local Government. State of Minnesota
Department of Employee Relations. St. Paul, MN: 1990.
Aklin, M.T. Office Job Evaluation. Des Plaines, IL: Industrial
Management Society, 1971.
Aldrich, M., and R. Buchele. The Economics of Comparable Worth.
Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1986.
Alexander, R.A., and G.V. Barrett. "Equitable Salary Increase
Judgments Based Upon Merit and Non-merit Considerations: A
Cross-national Comparison." International Review of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 31 (1982), pp. 443-454.
Algina, J. "Comments on Bartko's `On Various Intraclass Correlation
Reliability Coefficients.'" Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 85 (1978),
pp. 135-138.
Allison, E.K. "Sex Linked Differentials in the Beauty Industry." The
Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 11 (1976), pp. 383-390.
Almquist, E.M. Minorities, Gender, and Work. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1979.
Anderson, C.H. and D.B. Corts. Development of a Framework for a
Factor-ranking Benchmark System for Job Evaluation. U.S. Civil
Service Commission, Personnel Research and Development Center,
Project 6B132A. Washington, D.C.: 1973.
Andrews, I.R., and E.R. Valenzi. "Overpay Inequity or Self- Image
as a Worker: A Critical Examination of an Experimental Induction
Procedure." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 5
(1970), pp. 266-276.
A Job Evaluation Study of Selected Job Classes of the State and
Counties of Hawaii. Arthur Young International. Honolulu, HA:
1987.
Arvey, R.D. "Sex Bias in Job Evaluation Procedures." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 39 (1986), pp. 315-335.
Arvey, R.D., and M. Begalla. "Analyzing the Homemaker Job Using the
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 60 (1975), pp. 513-517.
Arvey, R.D., et al. "Potential Sources of Bias in Job Analytic
Processes." Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 25 (1982), pp.
618-629.
Arvey, R.D., and J.A. Fossum. "Application of Personnel Assessment
Concepts and Methods in Job Evaluation Procedures." Personnel
Assessment Monographs, Vol. 1 (1986).
Arvey, R.D., and K.E. Holt. "Cost Impact of Alternative Comparable
Worth Strategies." Presented at the 94th Annual Convention of the
American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.: 1986.
Arvey, R.D., S.E. Maxwell, and L.M. Abraham. "Reliability
Artifacts in Comparable Worth Procedures." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 70 (1985), pp. 695-705.
Arvey, R.D., E.M. Passino, and J.W. Lounsbury. "Job Analysis
Results as Influenced by Sex of Incumbent and Sex of Analyst."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 62 (1977), pp. 411-416.
Ash, P. "The Reliability of Job Evaluation Factors." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 32 (1948), pp. 313-320.
Ash, P. "A Statistical Analysis of the Navy's Method of Position
Evaluation." Public Personnel Review, Vol. 11 (1950), pp. 130-138.
Ash, R.A. "Empirical Validity Evidence for a Task-based Job-
component Method of Job Analysis." Presented at the Annual Conference
of the International Personnel Management Association Assessment
Council, Orlando, FL: 1989.
Ashenfelter, O., and J.D. Mooney. "Graduate Education, Ability, and
Earnings." Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 50 (1968), pp.
78-86.
Asher, M., and J. Popkin. "The Effect of Gender and Race
Differentials on Public-private Wage Comparisons: A Study of Postal
Workers." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 38 (1984), pp.
16-25.
Astin, H.S., and A.E. Bayer. "Sex Discrimination in Academe."
Educational Records, Vol. 53 (1972), pp. 101-118.
A Study of Comparable Worth Within the State of Maine Classification
and Compensation System. William M. Mercer- Meidinger, Inc. New
York: 1986.
Atchison, T., and W. French. "Pay Systems for Scientists and
Engineers." Industrial Relations, Vol. 7 (1967), pp. 44-56.
Auster, E.R. "Task Characteristics as a Bridge Between Macro- and
Microlevel Research on Salary Inequality Between Men and Women."
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14 (1989), pp. 173-193.
Avolio, B.J., K.G. Kroeck, and B.R. Nathan. "Category
Accessibility, Ratings of Prototypicality, and Perceptions of
Managerial Role Attributes." Psychological Reports, Vol. 62 (1988),
pp. 195-210.
Azevedo, R.E., and L. Roth. "Canadian-United States Experience with
Comparable Worth: The View From Minnesota." Labor Law Journal, Vol.
41 (1990), pp. 531-534.
Baer, J.A. The Chains of Protection. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 1978.
Bailey, W.R., and A.E. Schwenk. "Wage Rate Variation by Size of
Establishment." Industrial Relations, Vol. 19 (1980), pp. 192-198.
Barnes, W.E., and F.B. Jones. "Differences in Male and Female
Quitting." Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 9 (1974), pp. 439-451.
Barnett, E. "Comparable Worth and the Equal Pay Act: Proving
Sex-based Wage Discrimination Claims after County of Washington v.
Gunther." Wayne Law Review, Vol. 28 (1982), pp. 1669-1700.
Baron, J.M., A. Davis-Blake, and W.T. Bielby. "The Structure of
Opportunity: How Promotion Ladders Vary Within and Among
Organizations." Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 31 (1986),
pp. 248-273.
Barrett, G.V. "Salary Increase Models: A Cross-national
Comparison." Research Seminar on Comparitive Managerial Behavior
Research at the International Institute of Management, Berlin: 1971.
Barrett, G.V. "Job Evaluation as a Fair and Effective Technique for
Establishing Pay." Presented at the Personnel/Human Resource
Management Division, 1990 National Meeting of the Academy of
Management, San Francisco, CA: 1990.
Barrett, G.V. "Comparison of Skill-based Pay with Traditional Job
Evaluation Techniques." Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 1
(1991), pp. 97-105.
Barrett, G.V. "Task Design, Individual Attributes, Work
Satisfaction, and Productivity." Work Organization Research:
American and European Perspectives. Kent, OH: Kent State University
Press, 1978.
Barrett, G.V., et al. "Frequently Encountered Problems in the
Application of Regression Analysis to the Investigation of Sex
Discrimination in Salaries." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 15
(1986), pp. 143-157.
Barrett, G.V., and B.M. Bass. "Cross-cultural Issues in Industrial
and Organizational Psychology," Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing
Co, 1976.
Barrett, G.V., F.H. Dambrot, and G.R. Smith. The Relationship
Between Individual Attributes and Job Design: Review and Annotated
Bibliography. University of Akron, Department of Pyschology,
Technical Report 6. Akron, OH: 1975.
Barrett, G.V., and D. Doverspike. "Fundamental Errors and Erroneous
Beliefs in Using Regression Analysis as a Test for Sex
Discrimination." Law and Psychology Review, Vol. 13 (1989), pp.
1-24.
Barrett, G.V., and D. Doverspike. "Another Defense of Point-factor
Job Evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 66 (1989), pp. 33-36.
Barrett, G.V., and S.B. Morris. "The American Psychological
Association's Amicus Curiae Brief in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins:
The Values of Science Versus the Values of the Law," Law and Human
Behavior, Vol. 17 (1993), pp. 201-215.
Barrett, G.V., and D.M. Sansonetti. "Issues Concerning the Use of
Regression Analysis in Salary Discrimination Cases." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 41 (1988), pp. 503-516.
Barrett, G.V., W.S. Whittaker, and R.A. Alexander. "Equitable
Salary Increases: A Cross-national Comparison." Abstract Guide of
20th International Congress of Psychology, Tokyo: 1972.
Bar-tal, D., et al., eds. Stereotyping and Prejudice, New York:
Springer-Verlag, 1989.
Basow, S.A. Gender Stereotypes: Traditions and Alternatives, 2nd
ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1986.
Bass, B.M., and B.J. Avolio. The Transformational and Transactional
Leadership Behavior of Management Men and Women as Described by the
Men and Women Who Directly Report to Them. University of New York at
Binghamton, Center for Leadership Studies/School of Management,
Report 91-3. Binghamton, NY: 1991.
Beatty, R.W., and J.R. Beatty. "Job Evaluation and Discrimination:
Legal, Economic, and Measurement Perspectives on Comparable Worth and
Women's Pay," Women In The Workforce. New York: Praeger Publishers,
1982.
Beatty, R.W., and J.R. Beatty. "Some Problems with Contemporary Job
Evaluation Systems," Comparable Worth and Wage Discrimination:
Technical Possibilities and Political Realities. Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 1984.
Becker, M.E. "Comparable Worth in Antidiscrimination Legislation: A
Reply to Freed and Polsby." University of Chicago Law Review, Vol.
51 (1984), pp. 1112-1134.
Belcher, D.W. "Pay Equity or Pay Fairness?" Compensation Review,
Vol. 11 (1979), pp. 31-37.
Bellace, J.R. "The Impact of the American and British Equal Pay
Guarantee on Job Evaluation." Applied Psychology An International
Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 9-24.
Bellak, A.O., M.W. Bates, and D.M. Glasner. "Job Evaluation: Its
Role in the Comparable Worth Debate." Public Personnel Management,
Vol. 12 (1983), pp. 418-424.
Bellar, A.H. "The Economics of Enforcement of an Antidiscrimination
Law: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964." Journal of Law and
Economics, Vol. 21 (1978), pp. 359-380.
Bellows, R.M., and M.F. Estep. "Job Evaluation Simplified: The
Utility of the Occupational Characteristics Checklist." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 32 (1948), pp. 354-359.
Benge, E.J. "Statistical Study of a Job Evaluation Point System."
Modern Management, (1947), pp. 17-23.
Benge, E.J., S.L.H. Burk, and E.N. Hay. Manual of Job Evaluation:
Procedures of Job Analysis and Appraisal. New York and London:
Harper and Brothers, 1941.
Benson, P.G., and J.S. Hornsby. "The Politics of Pay: The Use of
Influence Tactics in Job Evaluation Committees." Group and
Organization Studies, Vol. 13 (1988), pp. 208-224.
Benson, P.G., and J.S. Hornsby. "Job Evaluation Committees as Small
Groups: Implications of Group Dynamics for Fairness in Pay."
International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 14 (1991), pp.
845-869.
Berelson, B. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe,
IL: Folcroft Press, 1970.
Bergmann, B.R. The Economic Emergence of Women. New York: Basic
Books, 1986.
Berheide, C.W., et al. Minorities and Pay Equity in New York State.
Center for Women in Government, Working Paper 17. Albany, NY: 1986.
Berheide, C.W., et al. "A Pay Equity Analysis of Female-dominated
and Disproportionately Minority New York State Job Titles." Humanity
and Society, Vol. 11 (1987), pp. 465-485.
Bertaux, N.E. "The Roots of Today's `Women's Jobs' and `Men's Jobs':
Using the Index of Dissimilarity Segregation by Gender." Explorations
in Economic History, Vol. 28 (1991), pp. 433-459.
Betz, N.E., and G. Hackett. "The Relationship of Career-related
Self-efficacy Expectations to Perceived Career Options in College
Women and Men." Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 28 (1981),
pp. 399-410.
Beuhring, T. "Designing a New Job Evaluation System Based on
Employee Input." Presented at the 94th Annual American Psychological
Association Conference, Washington, D.C.: 1986.
Beuhring, T. "Incorporating Employee Values in Job Evaluation."
Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 169-189.
Beutell, N.J., and O.C. Brenner. "Sex Differences in Work Values."
Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 28 (1986), pp. 29-41.
Bielby, W.T., and J.N. Baron. "Undoing Discrimination: Job
Integration and Comparable Worth," Ingredients for Women's Employment
Policy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Bigoness, W.J. "Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences."
Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 9 (1988), pp. 139-147.
Birnbaum, M.H. "Procedures for the Detection and Correction of
Salary Inequities," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries
Among College and University Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, 1979.
Birnbaum, M.H. "Perceived Equity of Salary Policies." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 68 (1983), pp. 49-59.
Birnbaum, M.H. "Relationships Among Models of Salary Bias." American
Psychologist, Vol. 40 (1985), pp. 862-866.
Blau, F.D. Equal Pay in the Office. Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, 1977.
Blau, F.D., and L.M. Kahn. "Race and Sex Differences in Quits by
Young Workers." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 34
(1981), pp. 563-577.
Blaxall, M., and B. Reagan, eds. Women and the Workplace. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1976.
Blinder, A.S., ed. Paying for Productivity. Washington, D.C.: The
Brookings Institute, 1990.
Blood, M.R., W.K. Graham, and S. Zedeck. "Resolving Compensation
Disputes With Three-party Job Evaluation." Applied Psychology: An
International Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 39-50.
Blum, L.M. "Possibilities and Limits of the Comparable Worth
Movement." Gender and Society, Vol. 1 (1987), pp. 380-399.
Blum, L.M. Between Feminism and Labor: The Significance of the
Comparable Worth Movement. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press, 1991.
Blumrosen, A.W. "The Group Interest Concept, Employment
Discrimination, and Legislative Intent: The Fallacy of Connecticut
v. Teal." Harvard Journal on Legislation, Vol. 20 (1983), pp.
99-135.
Blumrosen, R.G. "Wage Discrimination, Job Segregation, and Title VII
of the Civil Rights Act of 1964." Journal of Law Reform, Vol. 12
(1979), pp. 399-502.
Blumrosen, R.G. "Wage Discrimination and Job Segregation: The
Survival of a Theory." University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform,
Vol. 14 (1980), pp. 1-14.
Blumrosen, R.G. "Wage Discrimination, Job Segregation, and Women
Workers." Employee Relations Law Journal, Vol. 6 (1980), pp.
77-136.
BNA. "Changing Pay Practices: New Developments in Employee
Compensation." Labor Relations Week, Vol. 2 (1988), pp. 1-220.
Boardman, S.K., C.C. Harrington, and S.V. Horowitz. "Successful
Women: A Psychological Investigation of Family Class and Education
Origins," Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
Booker, S., and L.C. Nuckolls. "Legal and Economic Aspects of
Comparable Worth." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 15 (1986), pp.
189-206.
Borjas, G.J. "Job Mobility and Earnings Over the Life Cycle."
Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 34 (1981), pp. 365-376.
Borjas, G.J. "The Measurement of Race and Gender Wage Differentials:
Evidence From the Federal Sector." Industrial and Labor Relations
Review, Vol. 37 (1983), pp. 79-91.
Bose, C., and G. Spitze, eds. Ingredients for Women's Employment
Policy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Bowey, A.M., R. Thorpe, and P. Hellier. Payment Systems and
Productivity. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Brennan, E.J. "Comparable Worth: Employers Can No Longer Pass the
Buck." Personnel Journal, Vol. 64 (1985), pp. 110-111.
Brenner, O.C. "Relationship of Education to Sex, Managerial Status,
and the Managerial Stereotype." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.
67 (1982), pp. 380-383.
Brittingham, B.E., et al. "A Multiple Regression Model for
Predicting Men's and Women's Salaries in Higher Education," Salary
Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and University
Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Bronstein, P., et al., eds. "Stepping on the Academic Career Ladder:
How Are Women Doing?" Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage, 1987.
Brooks, L. "Sexist Language in Occupational Information: Does It
Make a Difference?" Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 23 (1983),
pp. 227-232.
Brown, H.P. The Inequality of Pay. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press, 1977.
Brown, K.A., and D.L. Huber. "Lowering Floors and Raising Ceilings:
A Longitudinal Assessment of the Effects of an Earnings-at-risk Plan
on Pay Satisfaction." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 45 (1992), pp.
279-311.
Browne, K.R. "Comparable Worth: An Impermissible Form of
Affirmative Action?" Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review, Vol. 22
(1989), pp. 717-759.
Browne, M.N., and B. Powers. "Henry George and Comparable Worth:
Hypothetical Markets as a Stimulus for Reforming the Labor Market."
American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 47 (1988), pp.
461-471.
Buchele, R., and M. Aldrich. "How Much Difference Would Comparable
Worth Make?" Industrial Relations, Vol. 24 (1985), pp. 222-233.
Buckley, J.E. "Pay Differences Between Men and Women in the Same
Job." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 94 (1971), pp. 36-39.
Buel, W.D. "A Simplification of Hay's Method of Recording Paired
Comparisons." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 44 (1960), pp.
347-348.
Buford, J.A., and D.R. Norris. "A Salary Equalization Model:
Identifying and Correcting Sex-based Salary Differences." Employee
Relations Law Journal, Vol. 6 (1981), pp. 406-421.
Bungel, J.H. "To Each According to Her Worth?" The Public Interest,
Vol. 67 (1982), pp. 77-93.
Callahan-Levy, C.M. "Sex Differences in the Allocation of Pay."
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 37 (1979), pp.
43-446.
Camden, C.T., and C.W. Kennedy. "Manager Communicative Style and
Nurse Morale." Human Communication Research, Vol. 12 (1986), pp.
551-563.
Campion, M.A., and C.J. Berger. "Conceptual Integration and
Empirical Test of Job Design and Compensation Relationships."
Personnel Psychology, Vol. 43 (1990), pp. 525-553.
Campion, M.A., R.G. Lord, and E.D. Pursell. "Individual and
Organizational Correlates of Promotion Refusal." Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 19 (1981), pp. 42-49.
Cannings, K. "An Interdisciplinary Approach to Analyzing the
Managerial Gender Gap." Human Relations, Vol. 44 (1991), pp.
679-695.
Cappelli, P., and W.F. Cascio. "Why Some Jobs Command Wage
Premiums: A Test of Career Tournament and Internal Labor Market
Hypotheses." Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 34 (1991), pp.
848-868.
Carey, J.F. "Participative Job Evaluation." Compensation Review,
Vol. 9 (1977), pp. 29-38.
Carlisi, A.M. "The Influence of Sex Stereotyping and the Sex of the
Job Evaluator on Job Evaluation Ratings." Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Akron, OH: 1984.
Carney, T.F. Content Analysis: A Technique for Systematic Inference
From Communications. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1972.
Carter, R.D., et al. "Multivariate Alternatives to Regression
Analysis in the Evaluation of Salary Equity-parity." Research in
Higher Education, Vol. 20 (1984), pp. 167-179.
Cascio, W.F. Applied Psychology in Personnel Management, 3rd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987.
Cellar, D.F., et al. "The Effects of Rater Training, Job Analysis
Format and Congruence of Training on Job Evaluation Ratings." Journal
of Business and Psychology, Vol. 3 (1989), pp. 387-401.
Cellar, D.F., et al. "The Effect of Field Independence, Job Analysis
Format, and Sex of Rater on the Accuracy of Job Evaluation Ratings."
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 19 (1989), pp. 363-376.
Cellar, D.F., M.C. Kernan, and G.V. Barrett. "Conventional Wisdom
and Ratings of Job Characteristics: Can Observers be Objective?"
Journal of Management, Vol. 11 (1985), pp. 131-138.
Centers, R., and D.E. Bugental. "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Job
Motivations Among Different Segments of the Working Population."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 50 (1966), pp. 193-197.
Centra, J.A. Women, Men, and a Doctorate. Princeton, NJ:
Educational Testing Service, 1974.
Chacko, T.I. "Women and Equal Employment Opportunity: Some
Unintended Effects." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982),
pp. 119-123.
Charles, A.W. "Installing Single-factor Job Evaluation."
Compensation Review, Vol. 3 (1971), pp. 9-21.
Chesler, D.J. "Reliability and Comparability of Different Job
Evaluation Systems." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 32 (1948),
pp. 465-475.
Chesler, D.J. "Reliability of Abbreviated Job Evaluation Scales."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 32 (1948), pp. 622-628.
Chesler, D.J. "Abbreviated Job Evaluation Scales Developed on the
Basis of `Internal' and `External' Criteria." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 33 (1949), pp. 151-157.
Chewning, M.F., and W.E. Walker. "Sex-typing of Tasks and
Occupations." Psychological Reports, Vol. 47 (1980), pp. 696-698.
Chi, K.S. "Comparable Worth: Implications of the Washington Case."
State Government, Vol. 57 (1984), pp. 34-45.
Chiswick, B.R. "Immigrant Earnings Patterns by Sex, Race and Ethnic
Groupings." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 103 (1980), pp. 22-25.
Clauss, C.A. "Comparable Worth--The Theory, Its Legal Foundation,
and the Feasibility of Implementation." University of Michigan
Journal of Law Reform, Vol. 20 (1986), pp. 7-97.
Cleveland, J.N., and G. Hollman. "The Effects of the Age-type of
Tasks and Incumbent Age Composition on Job Perceptions." Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 36 (1990), pp. 181-194.
Coch, J.V. "Student Choice of Undergraduate Major Field of Study and
Private Internal Rates of Return." Industrial and Labor Relations
Review, Vol. 26 (1972), pp. 680-685.
Cohen, L. "More Reliable Job Evaluation." Personnel Psychology, Vol.
4 (1948), pp. 457-464.
Cohen, M.S. "Sex Differences in Compensation." The Journal of Human
Resources, Vol. 6 (1971), pp. 434-447.
Cole, J.R. Fair Science: Women in the Scientific Community. New
York: Free Press, 1979.
Collett, M.J. "Comparable Worth: An Overview." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 12 (1983), pp. 325-331.
Collins, J.M., and P.M. Muchinsky. "An Assessment of the Construct
Validity of Three Job Evaluation Methods: A Field Experiment."
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 36 (1993), pp. 895-904.
Collins, R. "Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational
Stratification." American Sociological Review, Vol 36 (1971), pp.
1002-1019.
Comparable Worth: An Analysis and Recommendations. U.S. Commission
on Civil Rights. Washington, D.C.: 1985.
Comparable Worth: A Symposium on the Issues and Alternatives. Equal
Employment Advisory Council. Washington, D.C.: 1981.
Comparable Worth for Federal Jobs: A Wrong Turn Off the Road Toward
Pay Equity and Women's Career Advancement. U.S. Office of Personnel
Management. Washington D.C.: 1987.
Comparable Worth in Montana State Government: A Report to the 52nd
Legislature. Montana State, State Personnel Division, Department of
Administration. Helena, MT: 1991.
Comparable Worth: Issue for the 80s: A Consultation of the U.S.
Commission on Civil Rights. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.
Washington, D.C.: 1984.
Converse, J.M., and S. Presser. Survey Questions: Handcrafting the
Standardized Questionnaire. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications,
1986.
Cooper, C.L., and M.J. Davidson. "The High Cost of Stress on Women
Managers." Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 10 (1982), pp. 44-53.
Cooper, E.A., and G.V. Barrett. "Equal Pay and Gender:
Implications of Court Cases for Personnel Practices." Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 9 (1984), pp. 84-94.
Cooper, E.A., D. Doverspike, and G.V. Barrett. "Comparison of
Different Methods of Determining the Sex Type of an Occupation."
Psychological Reports, Vol. 57 (1985), pp. 747-750.
Cooper, E.A., et al. "Sex Bias in Job Evaluation: The Effect of Sex
on Judgments of Factor and Level Weights." Educational and
Psychological Measurement, Vol. 47 (1987), pp. 369-375.
Cooper, E.A., and R.W. Scholl. "Reliability of Job Evaluation:
Differences Across Sex-typed Jobs." Journal of Business and
Psychology, Vol. 4 (1989), pp. 155-165.
Cooper, H.M., J.M. Burger, and T.L. Good. "Gender Differences in
the Academic Locus of Control Beliefs of Young Children." Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 40 (1981), pp. 562-572.
Cortis, L.E. "Psychological Factors in Job Evaluation." South
African Journal of Psychology, Vol. 2 (1972), pp. 55-66.
Craver, G. "Survey of Job Evaluation Practices in State and County
Governments." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 6 (1977), pp.
121-131.
Cummings, L.L. "Compensation, Culture, and Motivation."
Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 12 (1984), pp. 33-44.
Curry, E.W., and D. Walling. "Occupational Prestige: Exploration
of a Theoretical Basis." Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 25
(1984), pp. 124-138.
Dackawich, J., J. Best, and W. York. "Occupational and Educational
Expectations: Sex and Ethnic Variations." Paper, California State
University, 1978.
Dadoy, M. "Role et Place de l'Analyse du Travail Dans les Systemes
d'Evaluation de la Qualification du Travail." Le Travail Humain, Vol.
54 (1991), pp. 97-112.
Daniels, H.W. "Winning Acceptance for the Job Evaluation Plan."
Personnel, Vol. 30 (1953), pp. 30-32.
Danielson, J.L., and R. Smith. "The Application of Regression
Analysis to Equality and Merit in Personnel Decisions." Public
Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 10 (1981), pp. 126-131.
Darlington, R.B. "Multiple Regression in Psychological Research and
Practice." Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 69 (1968), pp. 161-182.
Davies, M.W. Women's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and
Office Workers 1870-1930. Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
1982.
Davis, J.C., and C.M. Hubbard. "On the Measurement of
Discrimination Against Women." American Journal of Economics and
Sociology, Vol. 38 (1979), pp. 287-292.
Davis, K.R. and W.I. Sauser. "Effects of Alternative Weighting
Methods in a Policy-capturing Approach to Job Evaluation: A Review
and Empirical Investigation." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44 (1991),
pp. 85-127.
Davis, K.R., and W.I. Sauser. "A Comparison of Factor Weighting
Methods in Job Evaluation: Implications for Compensation Systems."
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 22 (1993), pp. 91-106.
Davis, M.K., and J. Tiffin. "Cross Validation of an Abbreviated
Point Job Evaluation System." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 34
(1950), pp. 225-228.
Dean, J.W., Jr., and D.J. Brass. "Social Interaction and the
Perception of Job Characteristics in an Organization." Human
Relations, Vol. 38 (1985), pp. 571-582.
De Corte, W. "Estimating Sex-related Bias in Job Evaluation."
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 66
(1993), pp. 83-96.
DeGooyer, J., and L. Westley. Women's Work: Undervalued,
Underpaid. National Commission on Working Women. Washington, D.C.:
1984.
Delaney, H.D., R.D. Norman, and D.A. Miller. "An Exploration of
the Verbal Encodability Hypothesis for Sex Differences in the
Digit-symbol (Symbol-digit) Test." Intelligence, Vol. 5 (1981), pp.
199-208.
DeNisi, A.S., E.T. Cornelius, III., and A.G. Blencoe. "Further
Investigation of Common Knowledge Effects on Job Analysis Ratings."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 72 (1987), pp. 262-268.
Deremer, C., D.R. Quaries, and C.M. Temple. "The Success Rate of
Personal Salary Negotiations: A Further Investigation of Academic
Pay Differentials by Sex." Research in Higher Education, Vol. 16
(1986), pp. 139-154.
Dertien, M.G. "The Accuracy of Job Evaluation Plans." Personnel
Journal, Vol. 60 (1981), pp. 566-570.
Desmond, R.E., and D.J. Weiss. "Worker Estimation of Ability
Requirements of Their Jobs." Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 7
(1975), pp. 23-27.
De Sola Pool, I., ed. Trends in Content Analysis. Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press, 1959.
DeVader, C.L. "A Comparison of Three Category Types and Their
Applicability to I/O Rating." Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Akron, 1986.
Diamond, E.E. "Theories of Career Development and the Reality of
Women at Work," Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage,
1987.
Dick, A.H. "Job Evaluation's Role in Employee Relations." Personnel
Journal, Vol. 53 (1974), pp. 176-179.
Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 4th ed. U.S. Department of
Labor. Washington, D.C.: 1991.
Dillingham, A.E. "Sex Differences in Labor Market Injury Risk."
Industrial Relations, Vol. 20 (1981), pp. 117-122.
Dolton, P.J. "Testing for Sex Discrimination in Maximum Likelihood
Models." Applied Economics, Vol. 16 (1984), pp. 225-235.
Dornstein, M. "Perceptions Regarding Standards for Evaluating Pay
Equity and Their Determinants." Journal of Occupational Psychology,
Vol. 58 (1985), pp. 321-330.
Dornstein, M. "Pay Equity Evaluations of Occupations and Their
Bases." Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 18 (1988), pp.
905-924.
Dornstein, M. "The Fairness Judgments of Received Pay and Their
Determinants." Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 62 (1989),
pp. 287-299.
Doverspike, D. "A Statistical Analysis of Internal Sex Bias in a Job
Evaluation Instrument (Doctoral dissertation, The University of
Akron, 1983)." Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 43 (1983),
p. 3063B.
Doverspike, D., and G.V. Barrett. "An Internal Bias Analysis of a
Job Evaluation Instrument." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 69
(1984), pp. 648-662.
Doverspike, D., et al. "Generalizability Analysis of a Point-method
Job Evaluation Instrument." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68
(1983), pp. 476-483.
Doverspike, D., et al. "Sex Differences in Short-term Memory
Processing." Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 58 (1984), pp.
135-139.
Drazin, R. and E.R. Auster. "Wage Differences Between Men and
Women: Performance Appraisal Ratings vs. Salary Allocation as the
Locus of Bias." Human Resource Management, Vol. 26 (1987), pp.
157-168.
Driver, R.S. "A Case History in Merit Rating." Personnel, Vol. 13
(1939), pp. 262-269.
Driver, R.S. "The Validity and Reliability of Ratings." Personnel,
Vol. 16 (1940), pp. 137-191.
Dunham, R.B. "Relationships of Perceived Job Design Characteristics
to Job Ability Requirements and Job Value." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 62 (1977), pp. 760-763.
Dunson, B.H. "Pay, Experience, and Productivity: The Government-
Sector Case." The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 20 (1985), pp.
153-160.
Durio, H.F., and C.A. Kidlow. "The Nonretention of Capable Women
Engineering Students." Research in Higher Education, Vol. 13 (1980),
pp. 61-71.
Dyer, L., D.P. Schwab, and R.D. Theriault. "Managerial Perceptions
Regarding Salary Increase Criteria." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 29
(1976), pp. 233-242.
Egli, C.P. "Judicial Refinement of Statistical Evidence in Title VII
Cases." Connecticut Law Review, Vol. 13 (1981), pp. 515-548.
Ehrenberg, R.G., ed. Do Compensation Policies Matter? Ithaca, NY:
ILR Press, 1990.
Eldred, C. A Report of a Study of Women Training or Working in
Outside Plant Craft Jobs in the Bell System. Westate, Inc.,
Rockville, MD: 1975.
Elizur, D. Job Evaluation: A Systematic Approach. Hants, England:
Gower, 1980.
Elizur, D. Systematic Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth.
Brooksville, VA: Gower Publishing Company, 1987.
Elizur, D. "Systematic Selection of Job Evaluation Items." Applied
Psychology An International Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 51-59.
Elizur, D. "The Scaling Method of Job Evaluation." Compensation
Review, Vol. 10 (1978), pp. 34-46.
Elizur, D., and H. Thierry. "Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, and
Compensation: An Introduction." Applied Psychology: An
International Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 3-7.
Ellerman, D.A., and E.R. Smith. "Generalized and Individual Bias in
the Evaluation of the Work of Women: Sexism in Australia."
Australian Journal of Psychology, Vol. 35 (1983), pp. 71-79.
Employment Attributes of Recent Science and Engineering Graduates.
National Science Foundation, Publication 80-311. Washington, D.C.:
1980.
England, P. Comparable worth: Theories and Evidence. New York:
Aldine de Gruyter, 1992.
England, P., M. Chassie, and L. McCormack. "Skill Demands and
Earnings in Female and Male Occupations." Sociology and Social
Research, Vol. 66 (1982), pp. 147-168.
England, P., and D. Dunn. "Evaluating Work and Comparable Worth,"
Annual Review of Sociology. Palo Alto, CA: 1988.
England, P., et al. "Explaining Occupational Sex Segregation and
Wages: Findings From a Model With Fixed Effects." American
Sociological Review, Vol. 53 (1988), pp. 544-558.
England, P. and B.S. Kilbourne. "Using Job Evaluation to Achieve
Pay Equity." International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 14
(1991), pp. 823-843.
England, P., and S.D. McLaughlin. "Sex Segregation of Jobs and
Male-female Income Differentials," Discrimination in Organizations:
Using Social Indicators to Manage Social Change. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1979.
Epperson, L.L. "The Dynamics of Factor Comparison/point Evaluation."
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 4 (1975), pp. 38-48.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. "The Equal Pay Act:
Interpretations." Federal Register, Vol. 46 (1991), pp.
43848-43852.
Ervin, D., B.J. Thomas, and Zey-Ferrell. "Sex Discrimination and
Rewards in a Public Comprehensive University." Human Relations, Vol.
37 (1984), pp. 1005-1025.
Evans, S.M., and B.J. Nelson. Wage Justice: Comparable Worth and
the Paradox of Technocratic Reform. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1989.
Executive Summary of the Classification Modernization Study. State
of Ohio, Ohio's Bureau of Employment Services, Women's Division.
Columbus, OH: 1986.
Eyde, L.D. "Evaluating Job Evaluation: Emerging Research Issues for
Comparable Worth Analysis." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 12
(1983), pp. 425-444.
Fagerlind, I. Formal Education and Adult Earnings: A Longitudinal
Study on the Economic Benefits of Education. Stockholm, Sweden:
Almquist and Wiksell International, 1975.
Farley, L. Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harassment of Women on the
Job. New York: Warner Books, 1980.
Feldberg, R.L. "Comparable Worth: Toward Theory and Practice in the
United States." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol.
10 (1984), pp. 311-328.
Feldberg, R.L. "Comparable Worth: The Relationship of Method and
Politics," Ingredients for Women's Employment Policy. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1987.
Feldstein, H.R. "Sex-based Wage Discrimination Claims After County
of Washington v. Gunther." Columbia Law Review, Vol. 81 (1981), pp.
1333-1347.
Ferber, M.A., and B.G. Burnbaum. "Labor Force Participation
Patterns and Earnings of Women Clerical Workers." The Journal of
Human Resources, Vol. 16 (1981), pp. 416-426.
Ferber, M.A., and W.W. McMahon. "Women's Expected Earnings and
Their Investment in Higher Education." The Journal of Human
Resources, Vol. 14 (1979), pp. 405-520.
Ferraro, G.A. "Bridging the Wage Gap: Pay Equity and Job
Evaluations." American Psychologist, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 1166-1170.
Ferris, G.R., and D.C. Gilmore. "A Methodological Note on Job
Complexity Indexes." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 70 (1985),
pp. 225-227.
FES, Factor Evaluation System, Position Classification Standards,
General Introduction, Background, and Instructions, Section VII,
Instruction for the Factor Evaluation System. U.S. Civil Service
Commission, Transmittal Sheet 27. Washington, D.C.: 1977.
Filer, R.K. "Sexual Differences in Earnings: The Role of Individual
Personalities and Tastes." Human Resources, Vol. 18 (1983), pp.
82-99.
Final Report and Recommendations of the Task Force on State
Compensation and Classification Equity to the 63rd Legislative
Assembly. Task Force on State Compensation and Classification
Equity, State of Oregon. Salem, OR: 1985.
Final Report: PAQ Gender/race Analyses for Arlington County, VA.
Jeanneret and Associates, Inc. Houston, TX: 1986.
Findley, S. "Making Sense of Pay Equity: Issues for a Feminist
Political Practice," Just Wages: A Feminist Assessment of Pay
Equity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991.
Finkelstein, J.A., and C.H. Hatch. "Job Evaluation: New
Technology, New Role for HR Managers." Personnel, Vol. 64 (1987),
pp. 5-10.
Fisher, G.D. "Salary Surveys--An Antitrust Prospective." Personnel
Administrator, (1985) pp. 87-97, 154.
Fitzpatrick, B. "An Objective Test of Job Evaluation Validity."
Personnel, Vol. 28 (1949), pp. 128-131.
Flammang, J.A. "Effective Implementation: The Case of the
Comparable Worth in San Jose." Policy Studies Review, Vol. 5 (1986),
pp. 815-837.
Flammang, J.A. "Women Made a Difference: Comparable Worth in San
Jose," The Women's Movements of the United States and Western Europe.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987.
Fleishman, E.A. Rating Scale Booklet F-JAS: Fleishman Job Analysis
Survey. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992.
Fleishman, E.A., and M.D. Mumford. "Evaluating Classifications of
Job Behavior: A Construct Validation of the Ability Requirement
Scales." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 41 (1991), pp. 523-575.
Fleishman, E.A., and M.E. Reilly. Administrator's Guide: Fleishman
Job Analysis Survey. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press,
1992.
Fleishman, E.A., and M.E. Reilly. Handbook of Human Abilities:
Definitions, Measurements, and Job Task Requirements. Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologist Press, 1992.
Forgionne, G.A., and V.E. Peeters. "Differences in Job Motivation
and Satisfaction Among Female and Male Managers." Human Relations,
Vol. 35 (1982), pp. 101-118.
Fottler, M.D., and T. Bain. "Managerial Aspirations of High School
Seniors: A Comparison of Males and Females." Journal of Vocational
Behavior, Vol. 16 (1980), pp. 83-95.
Fox, M.F. "Sex, Salary, and Achievement: Reward Dualism in
Academia." Sociology of Education, Vol. 54 (1981), pp. 71-84.
Fox, M.F. "Sex Segregation and Salary Structure in Academics."
Sociology of Work and Occupations, Vol. 8 (1981), pp. 36-60.
Frank, M.S. "Position Classification: A State-of-the-Art Review and
Analysis." Public Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 11 (1982), pp.
239-247.
Frank, R.H. "Are Workers Paid Their Marginal Products?" The American
Economic Review, Vol. 74 (1984), pp. 549-571.
Fraser, S.L., S.F. Cronshaw, and R.A. Alexander. "Generalizability
Analysis of a Point Method Job Evaluation Instrument: A Field
Study." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 69 (1984), pp. 643-647.
Frasher, J.M., R.S. Frasher, and F.B. Wims. "Sex-role Stereotyping
in School Superintendents' Personnel Decisions." Sex Roles, Vol. 8
(1982), pp. 261-268.
Freed, M.G., and D.D. Polsby. "Comparable Worth in the Equal Pay
Act." University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 51 (1984), pp.
1078-1111.
Freedman, S.M. "The Effects of Subordinate Sex, Pay Equity, and
Strength of Demand on Compensation Decisions." Sex Roles, Vol. 5
(1979), pp. 649-658.
Freeman, R.B. "Overinvestment in College Training?" The Journal of
Human Behavior, Vol. 10 (1975), pp. 287-311.
Friedman, L., and R.J. Harvey. "Can Raters With Reduced Job
Descriptive Information Provide Accurate Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ) Ratings?" Personnel Psychology, Vol. 39 (1986),
pp. 779-796.
Frug, M.J. Women and the Law. Westbury, NY: The Foundation Press,
1992.
Fuchs, V.R. Women's Quest for Economic Equality. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1988.
Fudge, J., and P. McDermott, eds. Just Wages: A Feminist
Assessment of Pay Equity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1991.
Fulghum, J.B. "The Employer's Liabilities Under Comparable Worth."
Personnel Journal, Vol. 62 (1983), pp. 400-412.
Fulghum, J.B. "The Newest Balancing Act: A Comparable Worth Study."
Personnel Journal, Vol. 63 (1984), pp. 32-38.
Gasaway, L.N. "Comparable Worth: A Post-Gunther Overview."
Georgetown Law Journal, Vol. 69 (1981), pp. 1123-1169.
Gaskell, J. "What Counts as Skill? Reflections on Pay Equity," Just
Wages: A Feminist Assessment of Pay Equity. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1991.
Gaskell, J.S. "Conceptions of Skill and the Work of Women: Some
Historical and Political Issues." The Politics of Diversity:
Feminism, Marxism and Nationalism. London: Verso, 1986.
Gerbner, G., et al., eds. The Analysis of Communication Content:
Developments in Scientific Theories and Computer Techniques.
Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1978.
Gerhart, B. "Gender Differences in Current and Starting Salaries:
The Role of Performance, College Major, and Job Title." Industrial
and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 43 (1990), pp. 418-433.
Gerhart, B. and N.E. Cheikh. "Earnings and Percentage Female: A
Longitudinal Study." Industrial Relations, Vol. 30 (1991), pp.
62-78.
Gerhart, B.A., and G.T. Milklavich. "Salaries, Salary Growth,
Promotions of Men and Women in a Large, Private Firm," Pay Equity:
Empirical Inquiries. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press,
1989.
Gethman, B.R. "The Job Market, Sex Bias, and Comparable Worth."
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 16 (1987), pp. 173-180.
Ghiselli, E.E., J.P. Campbell, and S. Zedeck. Measurement Theory
for the Behavioral Sciences. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and
Company, 1981.
Gibson, J.W., and E.P. Prien. "Validation of Minimum
Qualifications." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 6 (1977), pp.
447-451.
Giese, S.L., R.A. Alexander, and G.V. Barrett. "Comparison of
Students and Professionals as Subjects in Job Evaluation Research."
Presented at the 4th annual conference of the Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, Boston: 1989.
Giles, B.A., and G.V. Barrett. "Utility of Merit Increases."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 55 (1971), pp. 103-109.
Gilligan, C. "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and
Morality." Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 47 (1977), pp. 481-517.
Goals and Techniques for a Merit Pay System: Information for State
and Local Government. U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Office
of Intergovernmental Personnel Programs. Washington, D.C.: 1981.
Gold, M.V. A Dialogue on Comparable Worth. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press,
1983.
Goldin, C. Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of
American Women. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Gollob, H.F. "Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries." American
Psychologist, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 448-451.
Gomberg, W. "A Trade Unionist Looks at Job Evaluation." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 35 (1951), pp. 1-7.
Gomez-Megia, L.R., ed. Compensation and Benefits. Washington, D.C.:
Bureau of National Affairs Books, 1989.
Gomez-Megia, L.R., R.C. Page, and W.W. Tornow. "A Comparison of
the Practical Utility of Traditional, Statistical, and Hybrid Job
Evaluation Approaches." Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 25
(1982), pp. 790-809.
Gordon, M.E., and W.J. Fitzgibbons. "Empirical Test of the Validity
of Seniority as a Factor in Staffing Decisions." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982), pp. 311-319.
Government of Canada Position Information Questionnaire. Canadian
Human Rights Commission, Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value Study
Joint Union/management Initiative. Ottawa: 1987.
Graddick, M.M., and J.L. Farr. "Professionals in Scientific
Disciplines: Sex-related Differences in Working Life Commitments."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68 (1983), pp. 641-645.
Graham, M., and A.C. Hyde. "Comparable Worth in the United States:
Legal and Administrative Developments in the 1980s." International
Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 14 (1991), pp. 799-821.
Graham-Moore, B., and T.L. Roos. Gainsharing: Plans for Improving
Performance. Washington, D.C.: The Bureau of National Affairs,
1990.
Grams, R., and D.P. Schwab. "An Investigation of Systematic
Gender-related Error in Job Evaluation." Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 28 (1985), pp. 279-290.
Grant, D.L. "An Analysis of a Point Rating Job Evaluation Plan."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35 (1951), pp. 236-240.
Gray, J.S. "Custom Made Systems of Job Evaluations." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 34 (1950), pp. 378-380.
Gray, J.S. "Adjusting Base Weights in Job Evaluation." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 35 (1951), pp. 8-10.
Gray, J.S., and M.C. Jones. "Ready Made Versus Custom Made Systems
of Job Evaluation." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35 (1951),
pp. 11-14.
Gray, M.W. "Legal Perspectives on Sex Equity in Faculty Employment."
Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 41 (1985), pp. 121-134.
Gray, M.W., and W.L. Scott. "A `Statistical' Remedy for
Statistically Identified Discrimination." Academe, Vol. 66 (1980),
pp. 174-181.
Green, S.B., and T. Stutzman. "An Evaluation of Methods to Select
Respondents for Structured Job-analysis Questionnaires." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 39 (1986), pp. 543-564.
Greenberger, E., and L.D. Steinberg. "Sex Differences in Early
Labor Force Experience: Harbinger of Things to Come." Social Forces,
Vol. 62 (1983), pp. 467-486.
Greig, J.J., P.F. Orazem, and J.P. Mattila. "Measurement Error in
Comparable Worth Pay Analysis: Causes, Consequences, and
Corrections." Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp.
135-151.
Grider, D., and L.A. Toombs. "Disproving Valuation Discrimination:
A Study of Evaluator Gender Bias." ACA Journal, Vol. 2 (1993), pp.
24-33.
Gronau, R. "Sex-related Wage Differentials and Women's Interrupted
Labor Careers--The Chicken or the Egg." Journal of Labor Economics,
Vol. 6 (1988), pp. 277-301.
Gross, A.L., J. Faggen, and K. McCarthy. "The Differential
Predictability of the College Performance of Males and Females."
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 34 (1974), pp.
363-365.
Grubb, W.N., and R.H. Wilson. "Sources of Increasing Inequality in
Wages and Salaries, 1960-1980." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 112
(1989), pp. 3-13.
Grune, J.A., ed. Manual on Pay Equity: Raising Wages for Women's
Work. Washington, D.C.: Committee on Pay Equity, 1979.
Grune, J.A., and N. Reder. "Pay Equity: An Innovative Public
Policy Approach to Eliminating Sex-based Wage Discrimination." Public
Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 12 (1984), pp. 70-80.
Grune, J.A., and N. Reder. "Addendum--Pay Equity: An Innovative
Public Policy Approach to Eliminating Sex-based Wage Discrimination."
Public Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 13 (1984), pp. 70-80.
Grusky, O. "Career Mobility and Organizational Commitment."
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 10 (1966), pp. 488-502.
Guion, R.H. "A Parametric Study of Comparable Worth: Social
Judgment Theory and Latent Trait Theory Applied to Job Evaluation."
Abstract, 1981.
Gunderson, M. "Probit and Logit Estimates of Labor Force
Participation." Industrial Relations, Vol. 19 (1980), pp. 216-220.
Gupta, N., and G.D. Jenkins, Jr. "Practical Problems in Using Job
Evaluation Systems to Determine Compensation." Human Resource
Management Review, Vol. 1 (1991), pp. 133-144.
Gutek, B.A., and L. Larwood. "Introduction: Women's Careers Are
Important and Different," Women's Career Development. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage, 1987.
Haberfeld, Y. "Employment Discrimination: An Organizational Model."
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 35 (1992), pp. 161-180.
Hahn, D.C., and R.L. Dipboye. "Effects of Training and Information
on the Accuracy and Reliability of Job Evaluations." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 73 (1988), pp. 146-153.
Haignere, L.V., C.A. Chertos, and R.J. Steinberg. Managerial
Promotion in the Public Sector: The Importance of Eligibility
Requirements on Women and Minorities. Albany, NY Center for Women in
Government, State University of New York. Albany: 1981.
Hall, J.K., and P.E. Spector. "Relationships of Work Stress
Measures for Employees with the Same Job." Work and Stress, Vol. 5
(1991), pp. 29-35.
Hall, R., and G.V. Barrett. "Payday for Patients: Federal
Guidelines or a Job-sample Approach?" American Psychologist, Vol. 46
(1977), pp. 586-588.
Hallard, A.H., and H.G. Schultz. "A Factor Analysis of a Salary Job
Evaluation Plan." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35 (1952), pp.
243-246.
Handbook for Analyzing Jobs. U.S. Department of Labor. Washington,
D.C.: 1972.
Handbook of Occupational Groups and Series. U.S. Office of
Personnel Management, Washington, D.C.: 1990.
Hansen, R.D., and V.E. O'Leary. "Sex-Determined Attributions,"
Women, Gender, and Social Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1985.
Harding, F.D., J.M. Madden, and K. Colson. "Analysis of a Job
Evaluation System." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 44 (1960),
pp. 354-357.
Harding, S. The Science Question in Feminism. Ithica, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1986.
Harrel, M.S., et al. "Predicting Compensation Among MBA Graduates
Five and Ten Years After Graduation." Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 62 (1971), pp. 636-640.
Hartenian, L.S., and N.B. Johnson. "Establishing the Reliability
and Validity of Wage Surveys." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 20
(1991), pp. 367- 383.
Hartman, A. "Comparable Worth." Harvard Women's Law Journal, Vol. 6
(1983), pp. 201-218.
Hartmann, H.I. "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex,"
Women and the Workplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1976.
Hartmann, H.I. "The Family as the Locus of Gender, Class, and
Political Struggle: The Example of Housework." Journal of Women in
Culture and Society, Vol. 6 (1981), pp. 366-394.
Hartmann, H.I. "Comparable Worth and Women's Economic Independence,"
Ingredients for Women's Employment Policy. Albany: State University
of New York Press, 1987.
Hartmann, H.I., ed. Comparable Worth: New Directions for Research.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1985.
Hartmann, H.I., ed. Computer Chips and Paper Clips: Technology and
Women's Employment Case Studies and Policy Perspectives, Vol. II.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986.
Hartmann, H.I. "Internal Labor Markets and Gender: A Case Study of
Promotions," Gender in the Workplace. Washington, D.C.: The
Brookings Institution, 1987.
Hartmann, H.I. "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex,"
Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist
Reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990.
Hartmann, H.I., R.E. Krant, and L.A. Tilly, eds. Computer Chips
and Paper Clips: Technology and Women's Employment, Vol. I.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986.
Hartmann, H.I., and D.M. Pearce. High Skill and Low Pay: The
Economics of Child Care at Work. Institute for Women's Policy
Research. Washington, D.C.: 1989.
Hartmann, H., and R. Spalter-Roth. Women in Telecommunications: An
Acception to the Rule. Institute for Women's Policy Research.
Washington, D.C.: 1989.
Hartog, J. "On the Multicapability Theory of Income Distribution."
European Economic Review, Vol. 19 (1977), pp. 157-171.
Hartog, J. "Earnings and Capability Requirements." Review of
Economics and Statistics, Vol. 62 (1980), pp. 230-240.
Harvey, R.J. "Job Analysis." Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed., Vol. II. Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1991.
Harvey, R.J., et al. "Dimensionality of the Job Element Inventory, a
Simplified Worker-oriented Job Analysis Questionnaire." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 73 (1988), pp. 639-646.
Hay, E.N. "Planning for Fair Salaries and Wages." Personnel Journal,
Vol. 18 (1939), pp. 141-150.
Hay, E.N. "Job Evaluation--A Discussion." Personnel Journal, Vol.
28 (1949), pp. 262-266.
Hay, E.N. "Techniques of Securing Agreement in Job Evaluation
Committees." Personnel, Vol. 26 (1950), pp. 307-312.
Hay, E.N. "The Application of Weber's Law to Job Evaluation
Estimates." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 34 (1950), pp.
102-104.
Hay, E.N. "The Attitude of the American Federation of Labor on Job
Evaluation." Personnel Journal, Vol. 26, pp. 163-169.
Hay, E.N. "What Kind of Job Evaluation?--A Reply." Public Personnel
Review, Vol. 14 (1953), pp. 123-127.
Hay, E.N., and D. Purves. "The Profile Method of High-level Job
Evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 28 (1951), pp. 162-170.
Hay, E.N., and D. Purves. "A New Method of Job Evaluation: A Guide
Chart-profile Method." Personnel, Vol. 31 (1954), pp. 72-80.
Hayes, R. "Gender Nontraditional or Sex Atypical or Gender Dominant
or ... Research: Are We Measuring the Same Thing?" Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 29 (1986), pp. 79-88.
Hazel, J.T. "Reliability of Job Ratings as a Function of Time Spent
on Evaluation." The Journal of Industrial Psychology, Vol. 4 (1966),
pp. 16-19.
Hazel, J.T., J.M. Madden, and E.E. Christal. "Agreement Between
Worker-supervisor Descriptions of the Worker's Job." Journal of
Industrial Psychology, Vol. 9 (1964), pp. 71-79.
Hegtvedt, K.A. "Fairness Conceptualizations and Comparable Worth."
Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 81-97.
Heilman, M.E. "High School Students Occupational Interest as a
Function of Projected Sex Ratios in Male Dominated Occupations."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64 (1979), pp. 275-279.
Henderson, R. Compensation Management, 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
Henderson, R.I., and K.L. Clarke. "Job Pay for Job Worth:
Designing and Managing an Equitable Job Classification and Pay
System." Research Monograph 86, College of Business Administration.
Atlanta: Georgia State University Business Publishing Division,
1981.
Hennig, M., and A. Jardim. The Managerial Woman. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1977.
Hermkens, P., and P. Van Wijngaarden. "Job Evaluation and
Justification Criteria for Income Differentials." Applied Psychology:
An International Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 109-117.
Hersch, J. "Male-female Differences in Hourly Wages: The Role of
Human Capital, Working Conditions and Housework." Industrial and
Labor Relations Review, Vol. 44 (1991), pp. 746-759.
Hewitt, B.M., and R.D. Goldman. "Occam's Razor Slices Through the
Myth That College Women Overachieve." Journal of Educational
Psychology, Vol. 67 (1975), pp. 325-330.
Hill, M.A., and M.R. Killingsworth, eds. Comparable Worth:
Analysis and Evidence. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1989.
Hitt, M.A., and S.H. Barr. "Managerial Selection Decision Models:
The Examination of Configural Cue Processing." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 74 (1989), pp. 53-61.
Hoffmann, C.C., and K.P. Hoffmann. "Does Comparable Worth Obscure
the Real Issues?" Personnel Journal, Vol. 66 (1987), pp. 83-95.
Hoffmann, C., and S.S. Reed. "Sex Discrimination?--The XYZ Affair."
The Public Interest, Vol. 62 (1981), pp. 21-39.
Hogan, J.C., et al. "Reliability and Validity of Methods for
Evaluating Perceived Physical Effort." Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 65 (1980), pp. 672-679.
Hollenbeck, J.R., et al. "Sex Differences in Occupational Choice,
Pay, and Worth: A Supply-side Approach to Understanding the
Male-female Wage Gap." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 40 (1987), pp.
715-743.
Holsti, O.R. Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and
Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1969.
Hornsby, J.S., P.G. Benson, and B.N. Smith. "An Investigation of
Gender Bias in the Job Evaluation Process." Journal of Business and
Psychology, Vol. 2 (1987), pp. 150-159.
Horrigan, J., and A. Harriman. "Comparable Worth: Public Sector
Unions and Employers Provide a Model for Implementing Pay Equity."
Labor Law Journal, Vol. 39 (1988), pp. 704-711.
How to Write Position Descriptions. U.S. Civil Service Commission.
Washington D.C.: 1978.
Huber, V.L. "Comparison of Supervisor-incumbent and Female-male
Multidimensional Job Evaluation Ratings." The Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 76 (1991), pp. 115-121.
Hunt, T. "Futurism and Futurists in Personnel." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 13 (1984), pp. 511-520.
Hunter, L. "A Method for Monitoring University Faculty Salary
Policies for Sex Bias," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in
Salaries Among College and University Professors. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1979.
Huseman, R.C., J.D. Hatfield, and E.W. Miles. "Test for Individual
Perceptions of Job Equity: Some Preliminary Findings." Perceptual
and Motor Skills, Vol. 61 (1985), pp. 1055-1064.
Hutner, F.C. Equal Pay for Comparable Worth: The Working Woman's
Issue of the Eighties. New York: Praeger, 1986.
Instructions for the Factor Evaluation System. U.S. Civil Service
Commission. Washington, D.C.: 1977.
Interpretative Bulletin of Code of Federal Regulations, Equal Pay for
Equal Work, Under the Fair Labor Standards Act, Title 29 Part 800.
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment Standards Administration, Wage
and Hour Division. Washington, D.C.: 1971.
Introductory Guide for Use With the Position Analysis Questionnaire.
PAQ Services, Inc. Logan, UT: 1991.
Ivancevich, J.M., and S.M. Smith. "Job Difficulty as Interpreted by
Incumbents: A Study of Nurses and Engineers." Human Relations, Vol.
35 (1982), pp. 391-412.
Jackson, L.A. "Relative Deprivation and the Gender Wage Gap."
Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 117-133.
Jackson, L.A., and S.V. Grabski. "Perceptions of Fair Pay and the
Gender Wage Gap." Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 18
(1988), pp. 606-625.
Jacobs, J.A. Revolving Doors: Sex Segregation and Women's Careers.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.
Jacques, E. Time-span Handbook. London: Heinemann, 1971.
Jacques, E. "Taking Time Seriously in Evaluating Jobs." Harvard
Business Review, Vol. 57 (1979), pp. 124-132.
Jagacinski, C.M., W.K. LeBold, and K.W. Linden. "The Relative
Career Advancement of Men and Women Engineers in the United States."
Work and Stress, Vol. 1 (1987), pp. 235-247.
James, L.R. "Aggregation Bias in Estimates of Perceptual Agreement."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982), pp. 219-229.
Jaussaud, D.P. "Can Job Evaluation Systems Help Determine the
Comparable Worth of Male and Female Occupations?" Journal of Economic
Issues, Vol. 18 (1984), pp. 473-482.
Jeanneret, P.R. "Equitable Job Evaluation and Classification With
the Position Analysis Questionnaire." Compensation Review, Vol. 12
(1980), pp. 32-47.
Jeanneret, P.R. "Affidavit of Paul Richard Jeanneret." Houston, TX:
1983.
Job Evaluation: A Practical Guide. British Institute of Management.
Southampton: 1961.
Job Evaluation Handbook. State of Iowa. Des Moines.
Job Evaluation. International Labour Organization. Geneva,
Switzerland: 1986.
Johnson, N.B. and R.A. Ash. "Integrating the Labor Market With Job
Evaluation: Clearing the Cobwebs." Presented at the 1st Annual
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Conference.
Chicago: 1986.
Jones, M.B., C.A. Braddick, and P.M. Shafer. "Will Broadband
Replace Traditional Salary Structures?" Journal of Compensation and
Benefits, Vol. 7 (1991), pp. 30-35.
Kahn, A., R.E. Nelson, and W.P. Gaeddert. "Sex of Subject and Sex
Composition of the Group as Determinants of Reward Allocations."
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 38 (1980), pp.
737-750.
Kahn, A., et al. "Equity and Equality: Male and Female Means to a
Just End." Basic and Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 1 (1980), pp.
173-197.
Kahn, A.S., and W.P. Gaeddert. "From Theories of Equity to Theories
of Justice: The Liberating Consequences of Studying Women," Women,
Gender, and Social Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 1985.
Kalin, R., and D.C. Hodgins. "Sex Bias in Judgements of
Occupational Suitability." Canadian Journal of Behavior Science, Vol.
16 (1984), pp. 311-325.
Kandel, T. What Women Earn. New York: The Linden Press/Simon and
Schuster, 1981.
Kandel, W.L. "Current Developments in EEO: Pregnancy Discrimination
in Context." Employee Relations Law Journal, Vol. 5 (1979), pp.
258-268.
Kanter, R.M. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic
Books, 1977.
Kanter, R.M. "The Impact of Hierarchical Structures on the Work
Behavior of Women and Men." Social Problems, Vol. 23 (1978), pp.
415-430.
Kanter, R.M. "From Status to Contribution: Some Organizational
Implications of the Changing Basis for Pay." Personnel, Vol. 64
(1987), pp. 12-37.
Katzell, M.E., and W.C. Byham, eds. Women in the Work Force:
Confrontation With Change. New York: Behavioral Publication Inc.,
1972.
Kauggman, B.E., ed. How Labor Markets Work. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1988.
Kaye, D. "Statistical Evidence of Discrimination." Journal of the
American Statistical Association, Vol. 77 (1982), pp. 773-792.
Keith, P.M. "Sex, Occupation, Year of Graduation and Perceptions of
Job Factors." Journal of Employment Counseling, Vol. 15 (1980), pp.
180-186.
Kelley, H.H. "The Processes of Causal Attribution." American
Psychologist, Vol. 28 (1973), pp. 107-128.
Kelly, R.M., and J. Bayes, eds. Comparable Worth, Pay Equity, and
Public Policy. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.
Kerr, C., and L.H. Fisher. "Effect of Environment and
Administration on Job Evaluation." Harvard Business Review, Vol. 28
(1950), pp. 77-96.
Kessler-Harris, A. "The Debate Over Equality for Women in the Work
Place: Recognizing Differences," Women and Work 1: An Annual
Review. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1985.
Kessler-Harris, A. "The Just Price, the Free Market, and the Value
of Women." Feminist Studies, Vol. 14 (1988), pp. 235-250.
Kessler-Harris, A. A Women's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social
Consequences. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky,
1990.
Kiesler, S., and T. Finholt. "The Mystery of RSI." American
Psychologist, Vol. 43 (1988), pp. 1004-1015.
Kilberg, W.J. "The Earnings Gap and Comparable Worth." Employee
Relations Law Journal, Vol. 102 (1985), pp. 579-583.
Killingsworth, M.R. "Comparable Worth in the Job Market: Estimating
Its Effects." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 108 (1985), pp. 39-41.
Killingsworth, M.R. The Economics of Comparable Worth. Kalamazoo,
MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1990.
Knapp, L., and R.R. Knapp. "Clustered Occupational Interest
Measurement Based on Sex-balanced Inventory Items." Journal of
Educational Measurement, Vol. 19 (1982), pp. 75-81.
Knepper, J.K. Attitudes Towards Wage-setting in the Private Sector:
A Case Study. The National Commission on Working Women. Washington,
D.C.
Komarovsky, M. "Female Freshman View Their Future: Career Salience
and Its Correlates." Sex Roles, Vol. 8 (1982), pp. 299-314.
Kovach, K.A. "Implicit Stereotyping in Personnel Decisions."
Personnel Journal, Vol. 60 (1981), pp. 716-722.
Kozlowski, S.W.J., and J.K. Ford. "Rater Information Acquisition
Processes: Tracing the Effects of Prior Knowledge, Performance
Level, Search Constraint, and Memory Demand." Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 49 (1991), pp. 282-301.
Krefting, L.A., P.K. Berger, and M.J. Wallace. "The Contribution
of Sex Distribution, Job Content, and Occupational Classification to
Job Sextyping: Two Studies." Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol.
13 (1978), pp. 181-191.
Kress, A.L. "Sound Wage Payment Policies," The AMA Handbook of Wage
and Salary Administration: Tested Compensation Methods for Factory,
Office, and Managerial Personnel. New York: American Management
Association, 1950.
Krippendorff, K. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its
Methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1980.
Kurtz, M., and E.C. Hocking. "Nurses v. Tree-trimmers." Public
Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 12 (1983), pp. 369-381.
Lacey, N. "Legislation Against Sex Discrimination: Questions From a
Feminist Perspective." Journal of Law and Society, Vol. 14 (1987),
pp. 411-421.
Laking, J., and R. Roark. Retailing Job Analysis and Job
Evaluation. New York: National Retail Merchants Association, 1975.
Langstroth, L. "Job Evaluation Discussion." Personnel Journal, Vol.
29 (1950), pp. 180-182.
Langwell, K.M. "Real Returns to Career Decisions: The Physicians
Specialty and Location Choices." The Journal of Human Resources, Vol.
15 (1980), pp. 278-86.
Lanham, E. "Job Evaluation in Municipalities." Public Personnel
Review, Vol. 14 (1953), pp. 26-30.
Lanham, E. "Policies and Practices in Job Evaluation: A Survey."
Personnel, Vol. 29 (1953), pp. 492-498.
Lanham, E. Job Evaluation. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1955.
Larwood, L., and U.E. Gattiker. "A Comparison of the Career Paths
Used by Successful Women and Men," Women's Career Development.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
Larwood, L., A.H. Stromberg, and B.A. Gutek, eds. Women and Work
1: An Annual Review. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.,
1985.
Lawler, E.E., III. Pay and Organizational Effectiveness: A
Psychological View. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Lawler, E.E., III. Pay and Organization Development. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1981.
Lawler, E.E., III. "What's Wrong With Point-factor Job Evaluation."
Personnel, Vol. 64 (1987), pp. 38-44.
Lawler, E.E., III. Strategic Pay: Aligning Organizational
Strategies and Pay Systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
Lawler, E.E., III, and J.R. Hackman. "Impact of Employee
Participation in the Development of Pay Incentive Plans." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 53 (1969), pp. 467-471.
Lawshe, C.H. "Studies in Job Evaluation: The Adequacy of
Abbreviated Point Ratings for Hourly-paid Jobs in Three Industrial
Plants." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 29 (1945), pp.
177-184.
Lawshe, C.H. "Toward Simplified Job Evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 22
(1945), pp. 153-160.
Lawshe, C.H. "The Reliability of Two Job Evaluation Systems."
American Psychologist, Vol. 2 (1947), pp. 339.
Lawshe, C.H., and S.L. Alessi. "Studies in Job Evaluation:
Analysis of Another Point Rating Scale for Hourly-paid Jobs and the
Adequacy of an Abbreviated Scale." Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 30 (1946), pp. 310-319.
Lawshe, C.H., and P.C. Fabro. "Studies in Job Evaluation: The
Reliability of an Abbreviated Job Evaluation System." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 43 (1949), pp. 158-166.
Lawshe, C.H., and A.A. Maleski. "Studies in Job Evaluation: An
Analysis of Point Ratings for Salary Paid Jobs in an Industrial
Plant." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 30 (1946), pp. 117-128.
Lawshe, C.H., and E.J. McCormick. "What Do You Buy With the Wage or
Salary Dollar?" Personnel, Vol. 24 (1947), pp. 102-106.
Lawshe, C.H., and G.A. Satter. "Studies in Job Evaluation: Factor
Analyses of Point Ratings for Hourly-paid Jobs in Three Industrial
plants." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 28 (1944), pp.
189-198.
Lawshe, C.H., and R.F. Wilson "Studies in Job Evaluation: An
Analysis of the Factor Comparison Systems as It Functions in a Paper
Mill." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 30 (1946), pp. 426-434.
Lawshe, C.H., and R. Wilson. "Studies in Job Evaluation: The
Reliability of Two Point Rating Systems." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 31 (1947), pp. 355-365.
Lee, B.A., D.W. Leslie, and S.G. Olswang. "Implications of
Comparable Worth for Academe." Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 58
(1987), pp. 609-628.
Lee, Y.S. "Shaping Judicial Response to Gender Discrimination in
Employment Compensation." Public Administration Review, Vol. 49
(1989), pp. 420-430.
Leonard, J.S. "Executive Pay and Firm Performance," Do Compensation
Policies Matter? Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1990.
Lester, R.A. Reasoning About Discrimination: The Analysis of
Professional and Executive Work in Federal Antibias Programs.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
Leuptow, L.B. "Sex-typing and Change in the Occupational Choices of
High School Seniors: 1964-1975." Sociology of Education, Vol. 54
(1981), pp. 16-24.
Levin, M. "Comparable Worth: The Feminist Road to Socialism."
Commentary, (1983), pp. 13-19.
Levine, E.L., M. Bennett, and R.A. Ash. "Evaluation and Use of
Four Job Analysis Methods for Personnel Selection." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 8 (1979), pp. 146-151.
Lewis, C.T. "Assessing the Validity of Job Evaluation." Public
Personnel Management, Vol. 18 (1989), pp. 45-63.
Lewis, C.T., and C.K. Stevens. "An Analysis of Job Evaluation
Committee and Job Holder Gender Effects on Job Evaluation." Public
Personnel Management, Vol. 19 (1990), pp. 271-278.
Lewis, G. "Sexual Segregation of Occupations and Earnings
Differential in Federal Employment." Public Administration Quarterly,
Vol. 9 (1985), pp. 274-290.
Lewis, G.B. "Clerical Work and Women's Earnings in the Federal Civil
Service," Comparable Worth, Pay Equity, and Public Policy. New York:
Greenwood Press, 1988.
Lindsay, C.M., and M.T. Maloney. "A Model and Some Evidence
Concerning the Influence of Discrimination on Wages." Economic
Inquiry, Vol. 26 (1988), pp. 645-660.
Linn, R.L. "Fair Test Use in Selection." Review of Educational
Research, Vol. 43 (1973), pp. 139-161.
Livernash, E.R., ed. Comparable Worth: Issues and Alternatives.
Equal Employment Advisory Council. Washington, D.C.: 1980.
Livernash, E.R., ed. Comparable Worth: Issues and Alternatives, 2nd
ed. rev. Equal Employment Advisory Council. Washington, D.C.:
1984.
Livy, B. Job Evaluation: A Critical Review. New York: John Wiley
and Sons, 1975.
Lloyd, C.B., and B.T. Niemi. The Economics of Sex Differentials.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
Lo Bosco, M. "Job Analysis, Job Evaluation, and Job Classification."
Personnel, Vol. 62 (1985), pp. 70-74.
Locke, N. "Few Factors or Many?--An Analysis of a Point System of
Classification." Personnel, Vol. 25 (1949), pp. 442-448.
Loeb, J.W., M.A. Ferber, and H.M. Lowry. "The Effectiveness of
Affirmative Action for Women." Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 49
(1978), pp. 218-230.
London, M. "Employee Perceptions of the Job Reclassification
Process." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 29 (1976), pp. 67-77.
Long, J.V. "The Idiosyncratic Determiners of Salary Differences,"
Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and
University Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Lorber, L.Z., et al. Sex and Salary: A Legal and Personnel Analysis
of Comparable Worth. The American Society for Personnel
Administration. Alexandria, VA: 1985.
Lott, M.R. Wage Scales and Job Evaluation: Scientific Determination
of Wage Rates on the Basis of Services Rendered. New York: Ronald
Press, 1926.
Lowe, R.H., and M.A. Wittig. "Comparable Worth: Individual,
Interpersonal, and Structural Considerations." Journal of Social
Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 223-246.
Lumpton, T., ed. Payment Systems: Selected Reading. Baltimore, MD:
Penguin Books, 1972.
Lunneborg, P.W. "Service vs. Technical Interest--Biggest Sex
Difference of All?" Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Vol. 28 (1979),
pp. 146-153.
Lutes, D., and N. Rothchild. "Compensation: Pay Equity Loses to
Chicken Little and Other Excuses." Personnel Journal, Vol. 65
(1986), pp. 124-130.
Lutz, L.D. "What Kind of Job Evaluation?" Public Personnel Review,
Vol. 14 (1953), pp. 119-122.
Lynn, N.B., and R.E. Vaden. "Toward a Non-sexist Personnel
Opportunity Structure: The Federal Executive Bureaucracy." Public
Personnel Management, Vol. 8 (1979), pp. 209-215.
Lytle, C.W. Job Evaluation Methods. New York: The Ronald Press,
1946.
Maccoby, E.E. and C.N. Jacklin. The Psychology of Sex Differences.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974.
MacDonald, N.E., and J.S. Hyde. "Fear of Success, Need Achievement,
and Fear of Failure: A Factor Analytic Study." Sex Roles, Vol. 6
(1980), pp. 695-711.
Madden, J.M. The Methods and Foundations of Job Evaluation in the
United States Air Force. Lackland Air Force Base, Personnel
Laboratory, Aeronautical System Division, Air Force System Command,
Technical Report ASD-TR-61-100. 1961.
Madden, J.M. "The Effect of Varying the Degree of Rater Familiarity
in Job Evaluation." Personnel Administration, Vol. 25 (1962), pp.
42-46.
Madden, J.M. "A Further Note on the Familiarity Effect in Job
Evaluation." Personnel Administration, Vol. 26 (1963), pp. 52-53.
Madden, J.M. "Policy-capturing Model for Analyzing Individual and
Group Judgement in Job Evaluation." Journal of Industrial Psychology,
Vol. 2 (1964), pp. 36-42.
Madden, J.M., and R.D. Bourdon. "Effects of Variations in Rating
Scale Formats on Judgment." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 48
(1964), pp. 147-151.
Madigan, R.M. "Comparable Worth Judgments: A Measurement Properties
Analysis." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 70 (1985), pp.
137-147.
Madigan, R.M., and F.S. Hills. "Job Evaluation and Pay Equity."
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 17 (1988), pp. 323-330.
Madigan, R.M., and D.J. Hoover. "Effects of Alternative Job
Evaluation Methods on Decisions Involving Pay Equity." Academy of
Management Journal, Vol. 29 (1986), pp. 84-100.
Maggio, R. The Dictionary of Bias-free Usage: A Guide to
Nondiscriminatory Language. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1991.
Mahoney, T.A., ed. Compensation and Reward Perspectives. Homewood,
IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1979.
Mahoney, T.A. "Organizational Hierarchy and Position Worth." Academy
of Management Journal, Vol. 22 (1979), pp. 726-737.
Mahoney, T.A. "Approaches to the Definition of Comparable Worth."
Academy of Management Review, Vol. 8 (1983), pp. 14-22.
Mahoney, T.A. "Understanding Comparable Worth: A Societal and
Political Perspective." Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 9
(1987), pp. 209-245.
Mahoney, T.A. "The Symbolic Meaning of Pay Contingencies." Human
Resource Management Review, Vol. 1 (1991), pp. 179-192.
Mahoney, T.A., and R.H. Blake. "Judgements of Appropriate
Occupational Pay as Influenced by Occupational Characteristics and
Sex Characterizations." Applied Psychology An International Review,
Vol. 36 (1987), pp. 25-38.
Mahoney, T.A., B. Rosen, and S.L. Rynes. "Where Do Compensation
Specialists Stand on Comparable Worth?" Compensation Review, Vol. 16
(1984), pp. 27-40.
Majeres, R.L. "Sex Differences in Symbol-digit Substitution and
Speeded Matching." Intelligence, Vol. 7 (1983), pp. 313-327.
Major, B. "Gender Differences in Comparisons and Entitlement:
Implications for Comparable Worth." Journal of Social Issues, Vol.
45 (1989), pp. 99-115.
Major, B., and B. Forcey. "Social Comparisons and Pay Evaluations:
Preferences for Same-sex and Same-job Wage Comparisons." Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21 (1985), pp. 393-405.
Major, B., and E. Konar. "An Investigation of Sex Differences in
Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes." Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 27 (1984), pp. 777-792.
Makela, C.J. "From Equality to Equity: The Path to Comparable
Worth." Educational Record, Vol. 66 (1985), pp. 14-18.
Manese, W.R. Occupational Job Evaluation: A Research-based Approach
to Job Classification. New York: Quorum Books, 1988.
Mangum, S.L. "Comparable Worth and Pay Setting in the Public and
Private Sectors." Journal of Collective Negotiations, Vol. 17
(1988), pp. 1-12.
Marini, M.M., and M.C. Brinton. "Sex Typing in Occupational
Socialization," Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends,
Explanations, Remedies. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press,
1984.
Martin, J., et al. "Now That I Can Have It, I'm Not So Sure I Want
It," Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
Martin, M.P., and J.D. Williams. "Effects of Statewide Salary
Equity Provisions on Institutional Salary Policies: A Regression
Analysis," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries Among
College and University Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books,
1979.
Mathews, J.J., W.E. Collins, and B.B. Cobb. "A Sex Comparison of
Reasons for Attrition in Male-dominated Occupations." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 27 (1974), pp. 535-541.
Matlin, M.W. The Psychology of Women. New York: Holt, Reinhart,
and Winston, 1987.
Matthews, M.D. "Comparison of Supervisors and Incumbents, Estimates
of the Worth of Workers to their Organizations: A Brief Report."
Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 73 (1991), pp. 569-570.
Matzer, J., Jr., ed. Pay and Benefits: New Ideas for Local
Government. International City Management Association. Washington,
D.C.: 1988.
McArthur, L.Z. "Social Judgment Biases in Comparable Worth
Analysis," Comparable Worth. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press, 1985.
McArthur, L.Z., and S.W. Obrant. "Sex Biases in Comparable Worth
Analyses." Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 16 (1986), pp.
757-770.
McConomy, S., and B. Ganschinietz. "Trends in Job Evaluation
Practices of State Personnel Systems: 1981 Survey Findings." Public
Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 12 (1981), pp. 1-12.
McCormick, E.J. "Job and Task Analysis," Handbook of
Industrial/organizational Psychology, 1st ed. Chicago: Rand McNally
College Publishing Company, 1976.
McCormick, E.J. Job Analyses: Methods and Applications. New York:
Amacom, 1978.
McCormick, E.J., P.R. Jeanneret, and R.C. Mecham. Position
Analysis Questionnaire. Purdue Research Foundation, Contract No.
4497 Form B, 8-79. West Lafayette, IN: 1969.
McCormick, E.J., P.R. Jeanneret, and R.C. Mecham. "A Study of Job
Characteristics and Job Dimensions as Based on the Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)." Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph, Vol.
56 (1972), pp. 347-368.
McDonough, P., R. Snider, and J.P. Kaufman. "Male-female and
White-minority Pay Differentials in a Research Organization,"
Discrimination in Organizations: Using Social Indicators to Manage
Social Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979.
McDowell, D.S. "An Analysis of the National Academy of Sciences
Comparable Worth Study," Comparable Worth: Issues and Alternatives,
2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Equal Employment Advisory Council, 1984.
McElrath, K. "Gender, Career Disruption, and Academic Rewards."
Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 63 (1992), pp. 269-281.
McLaughlin, S.D. "Occupational Sex Identification and the Assessment
of Male and Female Earnings in Equality." American Sociological
Review, Vol. 43 (1978), pp. 909-921.
McMahon, W.W., and A.B. Wagner. "Expected Returns to Investment in
Higher Education." The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 16 (1981),
pp. 274-285.
McNulty, D.J. "Differences in Pay Between Men and Women Workers."
Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 90 (1967), pp. 40-43.
McShane, S.L. "Two Tests of Direct Gender Bias in Job Evaluation
Ratings." Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63 (1990), pp.
129-140.
Medoff, J.L., and K.G. Abraham. "Experience, Performance, and
Earnings." The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 95 (1980), pp.
703-736.
Medoff, J.L., and K.G. Abraham. "Are Those Paid More Really More
Productive? The Case of Experience." The Journal of Human Resources,
Vol. 16 (1981), pp. 186-216.
Meeker, S.E. "Equal Pay, Comparable Work, and Job Evaluation." The
Yale Law Journal, Vol. 90 (1981), pp. 657-680.
Mellon, P.M., N. Schmitt, and C. Bylenga. "Differential
Predictability of Females and Males." Sex Roles, Vol. 6 (1980), pp.
173-177.
Meng, G.J. "All the Parts of Comparable Worth." Personnel Journal,
Vol. 69 (1990), pp. 99-104.
Messmer, D.J., and R.J. Solomon. "Differential Predictability in a
Selection Model for Graduate Students: Implications for Validity
Testing." Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 39 (1979),
pp. 859-866.
Meyer, H.H. "Comparison of Foreman and General Foreman Conceptions
of the Foreman's Job Responsibilities." Personnel Psychology, Vol.
12 (1959), pp. 445-452.
Miceli, M.P. "Review of 'Comparable Worth: The Myth and the
Movement.'" Personnel Psychology, Vol. 38 (1985), pp. 474-478.
Michael, R.T., and H.I. Hartmann. "Pay Equity: Assessing the
Issues," Pay Equity: Empirical Inquiries. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1989.
Miles, M.C. "Studies in Job Evaluation: Validity of a Check List
for Evaluating Office Jobs." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 36
(1952), pp. 97-101.
Milkman, R. Gender at Work: The Dynamics of the Job Segregation by
Sex During World War II. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press,
1987.
Milkovich, G.T. "The Emerging Debate," Comparable Worth: Issues and
Alternatives, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Equal Employment Advisory
Council, 1984.
Milkovich, G.T., and J.M. Newman. Compensation, 4th ed. Homewood,
IL: Irwin, 1993.
Milkovich, G.T., and A.K. Wigdor, eds. Pay for Performance:
Evaluating Performance Appraisal and Merit Pay. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1991.
Millborn, S.L. A Secretary and a Cook: Challenging Women's Wages in
the Courts of the United States and Great Britain. New York: ILR
Press, 1989.
Miller, A.R., et al., eds. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical
Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1980.
Miller, M.M. Pay Equity in Ohio's State Agencies: A Preliminary
Report. Ohio's Bureau of Employment Services, Women's Division.
Columbus, OH: 1984.
Mincer, J. "The Distribution of Labor Incomes: A Survey With
Special Reference to the Human Capital Approach." Journal of Economic
Literature, Vol. 8 (1970), pp. 1-26.
Mincer, J., and S. Polachek. "Family Investments in Human Capital:
Earnings of Women." Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 82 (1974),
pp. S72-S108.
Miner, M.G. Job Evaluation Policies and Procedures. Bureau of
National Affairs. Washington, D.C.: 1976.
Modernizing Federal Classification: An Opportunity for Excellence.
National Academy of Public Administration. Washington, D.C.: 1991.
Montgomery, E., and W. Wascher. "Race and Gender Wage Inequality in
Services and Manufacturing." Industrial Relations, Vol. 26 (1987),
pp. 284-290.
Moore, W.J., D.K. Pearce, and R.M. Wilson. "The Regulation of
Occupations and the Earnings of Women." The Journal of Human
Resources, Vol. 16 (1981), pp. 366-383.
Moore, W.J. and J. Raisian. "Government Wage Differentials
Revisited." Journal of Labor Research, Vol. 12 (1991), 13-33.
Moore, L.M., and A.U. Rickel. "Characteristics of Women in
Traditional and Non-traditional Managerial Roles." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 33 (1980), pp. 317-333.
Moroney, J.R., ed. Income Inequality: Trends and International
Comparisons. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Morse, P.K. "Detection of Sex-related Salary Discrimination: A
Demonstration Using Constructed Data," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex
Bias in Salaries Among College and University Professors. Lexington,
MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Motowidlo, S.J. "Relationship Between Self-rated Performance and Pay
Satisfaction Among Sales Representatives." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982), pp. 209-213.
Mount, M.K., and R.A. Ellis. "Investigation of Bias in Job
Evaluation Ratings of Comparable Worth Study Participants." Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 40 (1987), pp. 85-96.
Mount, M.K., and R.A. Ellis. "Sources of Bias in Job Evaluation: A
Review and Critique of Research." Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45
(1989), pp. 153-167.
Moyer, K.L. Sex Differences in Vocational Aspirations and
Expectations of Pennsylvania 11th Grade Students. Pennsylvania
Department of Education, 1978.
Muffo, J.A., L. Braskamp, and I.W. Langston, IV. "Equal Pay for
Equal Qualifications? A Model for Determining Race or Sex
Discrimination in Salaries," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in
Salaries Among College and University Professors. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1979.
Mulcahy, R.W., and J.E. Anderson. "The Bargaining Battleground
Called Comparable Worth." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 15
(1986), pp. 233-247.
Mullins, W.C., and W.W. Kimbrough. "Group Composition as a
Determinant of Job Analysis Outcomes." Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 73 (1988), pp. 657-664.
Mumford, M.D., et al. "Measuring Occupational Difficulty: A
Construct Validation Against Training Criteria." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 72 (1987), pp. 578-587.
Murphy, K.R. "Difficulties in a Statistical Control of Halo."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982), pp. 161-164.
Muson, H. "Hard-hat Women." Across the Board, Vol. 18 (1981), pp.
12-18.
Myers, J.H. "An Experimental Investigation of "Point" Job
Evaluation." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 42 (1958), pp.
357-361.
Myers, J.H. "Removing Halo from Job Evaluation Factor Structure."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 49 (1965), pp. 217-221.
Nash, A.N., and S.J. Carroll. The Management of Compensation.
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1975.
National Survey of Professional, Administrative, Technical, and
Clerical Pay. U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin 2271. Washington,
D.C.: 1986.
Naughton, T.J. "Effect of Female-linked Job Titles on Job Evaluation
Ratings." Journal of Management, Vol. 14 (1988), pp. 567-578.
Neigenfind, J.L. "Position Accuracy Certification." Public Personnel
Management Journal, Vol. 11 (1982), pp. 213-218.
Nelson, B.A., E.M. Opton, and T.E. Wilson. "Wage Discrimination
and the "Comparable Worth" Theory in Perspective." University of
Michigan Journal of Law Reform, Vol. 13 (1980), pp. 1-301.
Newman, W. "Pay Equity Emerges as a Top Labor Issue in the 1980s."
Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 105 (1982), pp. 49-51.
Newman, W. "Statement to the Equal Pay Joint Committee." Public
Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 12 (1983), pp. 382-389.
Niemi, A.W. "Discrimination Against Women Reconsidered." American
Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 38 (1979), pp. 291-292.
Nieva, V.F., and B.A. Gutek. "Sex Effects on Evaluation." Academy
of Management Review, Vol. 5 (1980), pp. 267-276.
Note. "Equal Pay, Comparable Work, and Job Evaluation." The Yale Law
Journal, Vol. 90 (1981), pp. 657-680.
Odel, D. "A Failed Experiment." The National Law Journal, Vol. 14
(1991), pp. 13-14.
Oldham, G.R., and H.E. Miller. "The Effect of Significant Others
Job Complexity on Employee Reactions to Work." Human Relations, Vol.
32 (1979), pp. 247-260.
Olmstead, A.L., and S.M. Sheffrin. "The Medical School Admission
Process: An Empirical Investigation." The Journal of Human
Resources, Vol. 16 (1981), pp. 459-467.
Olney, P.B., Jr. "Meeting the Challenge of Comparable Worth: Part
1." Compensation and Benefits Review, Vol. 19 (1987), pp. 34-44.
Olson, C.A. "An Analysis of Wage Differentials Received by Workers
on Dangerous Jobs." Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 16 (1981), pp.
167-185.
O'Neill, J. "Role Differentiation and the Gender Gap in Wage Rates,"
Women and Work 1: An Annual Review. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc., 1985.
O'Neill, J., M. Brien, and J. Cunningham. "Effects of Comparable
Worth Policy: Evidence from Washington State." American Economic
Review, Vol. 79 (1989), pp. 305-309.
Oppenheimer, V. "The Sex Labeling of Jobs." Industrial Relations,
Vol. 7 (1968), pp. 219-234.
Orazem, P.F., and J.P. Mattila. Comparable Worth and the Structure
of Earnings: The Iowa Case. Iowa State University, 1987.
Orazem, P.F., J.P. Mattila, and C.Y. Ruoh. "An Index Number
Approach to the Measurement of Wage Differentials by Sex." Journal of
Human Resources, Vol. 25 (1990), pp. 125-136.
Orazem, P.F., J.P. Mattila, and S.K. Weikum. "Comparable Worth
Plans and Factor Point Pay Analysis in State Government." Industrial
Relations, Vol. 31 (1992), pp. 195-215.
O'Reilly, A.P. "Skill Requirements: Supervisor-subordinate
Conflict." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 26 (1973), pp. 75-80.
Otis, J.L., and R.H. Leukart. Job Evaluation: A Basis for Sound
Wage Administration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1954.
Ott, M.D. "Retention of Men and Women Engineering Students."
Research in Higher Education, Vol. 9 (1978), pp. 137-150.
Over, R. "Research Impact of Men and Women Social Psychologists."
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 7 (1981), pp.
596-599.
Paglin, M., and A.M. Rufolo. "Heterogeneous Human Capital,
Occupational Choice, and Male-female Earnings Differences." Journal
of Labor Economics, Vol. 8 (1990), pp. 123-144.
Paisner, A.M. "BLS Regional Offices: Contribution to Wage
Programs." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 115 (1992), pp. 30-34.
Palmer, P., and R.M. Spalter-Roth. Gender Practices and Employment:
The Sears Case and the Issue of "Choice". Institute of Women's
Policy Research. Washington, D.C.
Paterson, T.T. Job Evaluation Volume 1--A New Method. London:
Business Books Unlimited, 1972.
Paterson, T.T. Job Evaluation Volume 2--A Manual for the Paterson
Method. London: Business Books Unlimited, 1972.
Paterson, T.T., and T.M. Husband. "Decision-making Responsibility:
Yardstick for Job Evaluation." Compensation Review, Vol. 2 (1970),
pp. 21-31.
Patten, T.H. Fair Pay: The Managerial Challenge of Comparable Job
Worth and Job Evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
Patton, J.A., C.L. Littlefield, and S.A. Self. Job Evaluation:
Text and Cases, 3rd ed. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1964.
Paul, E.F. Equity and Gender: The Comparable Worth Debate. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989.
Pay Equity in Ohio's State Agencies. State of Ohio, Ohio's Bureau of
Employment Services, Women's Division. Columbus, OH: 1986.
Pay Equity: The Minnesota Experience. Commission on the Economic
State of Women, 1989.
Penner, M. "How Job-based Classification Systems Promote
Organizational Ineffectiveness." Public Personnel Management, Vol.
12 (1983), pp. 268-276.
Perrin, S.M. Comparable Worth and Public Policy: The Case of
Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Industrial Research Unit, The Wharton
School, University of Pennsylvania, 1985.
Perrucci, C.C., and D.B. Targ. "Early Work Orientation and Later
Situational Factors as Elements of Work Commitment Among Married
Women College Graduates." The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 19
(1978), pp. 266-280.
Personnel Research Bibliography on Job Evaluation. U.S. Office of
Personnel Management. Washington, D.C.: 1990.
Perspectives on Working Women: A Data Book. U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 2080. Washington, D.C.:
1980.
Peters, L.H., et al. "Sex Bias and Managerial Evaluations: A
Replication and Extension." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 69
(1984), pp. 349-352.
Peterson, J. "The Challenge of Comparable Worth: An
Institutionalist View." Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 24 (1990),
pp. 605-612.
Pezzullo, T.R., and B.E. Brittingham, ed. Salary Equity: Detecting
Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and University Professors.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Pezzullo, T.R., and B.E. Brittingham. "The Assessment of Salary
Equity: A Methodology, Alternatives, and a Dilemma," Salary Equity:
Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and University
Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Pfeffer, J., and J. Ross. "Union-nonunion Effects on Wage and
Status Attainment." Industrial Relations, Vol. 19 (1980), pp.
140-151.
Pfeffer, J., and J. Ross. "The Effects of Marriage and a Working
Wife on Occupational and Wage Attainment." Administrative Science
Quarterly, Vol. 27 (1982), pp. 66-80.
Pfeffer, J., and J. Ross. "Gender-based Wage Differences: The
Effects of Organizational Context." Work and Occupations, Vol. 17
(1990), pp. 55-78.
Phillips, A., and B. Taylor. "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a
Feminist Economics." Feminist Review, Vol. 6 (1980), pp. 79-88.
Phillips, M.D., and R.L. Pepper. "Shipboard Fire-fighting
Performance of Females and Males." Human Factors, Vol. 24 (1982),
pp. 277-283.
Piliavin, J.A., and R.K. Unger. "The Helpful but Helpless Female:
Myth or Reality," Women, Gender, and Social Psychology. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985.
Polachek, S.W. "Potential Biases in Measuring Male-female
Discrimination." Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 10 (1975), pp.
205-229. Polachek, S.W. "Sex Differences in College Major."
Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 31 (1978), pp. 498-508.
Polachek, S.W. "Occupational Self-selection: A Human Capital
Approach to Sex Differences in Occupational Structure." Review of
Economics and Statistics, Vol. 63 (1981), pp. 60-69.
Pommerenke, P.L. "Comparable Worth: A Panacea for Discrimination
Against Women in the Labor Market?" American Economist, Vol. 32
(1988), pp. 44-48.
Powers, T.N. "An Idea With a Long Way to Go." American Bar
Association Journal, Vol. 70 (1984), pp. 16-21.
Pratt, L.J. "Local Government and Comparable Worth: A Case Study."
Document, City of Chattanooga Study. Chattanooga, TN: 1988.
Pratt, L.J., S.A. Smullen, and B.L. Kyer. "The Macroeconomics of
the Equal Pay Act." Journal of Macroeconomics, Vol. 12 (1990), pp.
675-689.
Prediger, D.J. "The Determination of Holland Types Characterizing
Occupational Groups." Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 16
(1980), pp. 33-42.
Prien, E.P., G.V. Barrett, and B. Svetlik. "Use of Questionnaires
in Job Evaluation." Journal of Industrial Psychology, Vol. 3 (1965),
pp. 91-94.
Prien, E.P., I.L. Goldstein, and W.H. Macey. "Multidomain Job
Analysis: Procedures and Application." Training and Development
Journal, Vol. 41 (1987), pp. 68-72.
Prien, E.P., and S.D. Saleh. "A Study of Bias in Job Analysis."
Journal of Industrial Psychology, Vol. 22, pp. 113-117.
Primack, R.B., and V.E. O'Leary. "Research Productivity of Men and
Women Ecologists: A Longitudinal Study of Former Graduate Students."
The Ecological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 70 (1989), pp.
7-21.
Ragan, J.F., and S.P. Smith. "The Impact of Differences in Turnover
Rates on Male-female Pay Differentials." Journal of Human Resources,
Vol. 16 (1981), pp. 343-365.
Ramsey, G.A. "A Generalized Multiple Regression Model for Predicting
College Faculty Salaries and Estimating Sex Bias," Salary Equity:
Detecting Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and University
Professors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Ratner, R.S., ed. Equal Employment Policy for Women: Strategies for
Implementation in United States, Canada, Western Europe.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980.
Ray, J.M., and A.B. Rubin. "Pay Equity for Women in Academic
Libraries: An Analysis of ARL Salary Surveys, 1976/77-1983/84."
College and Research Libraries, Vol. 48 (1987), pp. 36-49.
Raymond, R.D., M.L. Sesnowitz, and D.R. Williams. "Does Sex Still
Matter? New Evidence From the 1980s." Economic Inquiry, Vol. 26
(1988), pp. 43-58.
Rea, L.M., and R.A. Parker. Designing and Conducting Survey
Research: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1992.
Reichenberg, N.E. "Pay Equity in Review." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 15 (1986), pp. 211-231.
Reis, H.T., and L.A. Jackson. "Sex Differences in Reward
Allocation: Subjects, Partners, and Tasks." Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, Vol. 40 (1981), pp. 465-478.
Remick, H. "The Comparable Worth Controversy." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 10 (1981), pp. 371-383.
Remick, H. "An Update on Washington State." Public Personnel
Management Journal, Vol. 12 (1983), pp. 390-394.
Remick, H. "Dilemmas of Implementation: The Case of Nursing,"
Comparable Worth and Wage Discrimination: Technical Possibilities
and Political Realities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
1984.
Remick, H. "Major Issues in A Priori Applications," Comparable Worth
and Wage Discrimination: Technical Possibilities and Political
Realities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.
Remick, H., ed. Comparable Worth and Wage Discrimination: Technical
Possibilities and Political Realities. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1984.
Remick, H. "The Case of Comparable Worth in Washington State."
Policy Studies Review, Vol. 5 (1986), pp. 838-848.
Remick, H., and R.J. Steinberg. "Technical Possibilities and
Political Realities: Concluding Remarks," Comparable Worth and Wage
Discrimination: Technical Possibilities and Political Realities.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.
Report of Wisconsin's Task Force on Comparable Worth. University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin Task Force on Comparable Worth.
Madison, WI: 1986.
Research on Evaluator Bias. Organizational Research and Development,
Inc. Columbus, OH.
Reskin, B.F., ed. Sex Segregation in the Workplace. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1984.
Reskin, B.F., and H.I. Hartmann, eds. Women's Work, Men's Work:
Sex Segregation on the Job. Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press, 1986.
Reskin, B., et al. "Salary-setting Practices That Unfairly
Disadvantage Women." Academe, Vol. 78 (1992), pp. 32-35.
Reskin, B.F., and P.A. Roos. Job Queues, Gender Queues: Explaining
Women's Inroads Into Male Occupations. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1990.
Rhoads, S.E. Incomparable Worth: Pay Equity Meets the Market.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Rhynes, S.L., D.P. Schwab, and H.G. Heneman, III. "The Role of Pay
and Market Pay Variability in Job Application Decisions."
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 31 (1983), pp.
353-364.
Rice, R.W., D. Instone, and J. Adams. "Leader Sex, Leader Success,
and Leadership Process: Two Field Studies." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 69 (1984), pp. 12-31.
Risher, H. "Job Evaluation: Problems and Prospects." Personnel,
Vol. 61 (1984), pp. 53-66.
Risher, H. and C. Fay. "Federal Pay Reform: A Response to an
Emerging Crisis." Public Personnel Management, Vol. 20 (1991), pp.
385-395.
Ritchie, R.J., and V.D. Beardsley. "A Market Research Approach to
Determine Local Labor Market Availability for Non-management Jobs."
Personnel Psychology, Vol. 31 (1978), pp. 449-459.
Rizzo, A., and C. Mendez. The Integration of Women in Management:
A Guide for Human Resources and Management Development Specialists.
New York: Quorum Books, 1990.
Roback, J. A Matter of Choice: A Critique of Comparable Worth by a
Skeptical Feminist. New York: Priority Press Publication, 1986.
Robertson, T.M. "Fundamental Strategies for Wage and Salary
Administration." Personnel Journal, Vol. 65 (1986), pp. 120-132.
Robinson, D.D., O.W. Wahlstrom, and R.C. Mecham. "Comparison of
Job Evaluation Methods: A `Policy-capturing' Approach Using the
Position Analysis Questionnaire." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.
59 (1974), pp. 633-637.
Robinson, M.D., and P.V. Wunnava. "Measuring Direct Discrimination
in Labor Markets Using a Frontier Approach: Evidence from CPS Female
Earnings Data." Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 56 (1989), pp.
212-218.
Rock, M.L., ed. Handbook of Wage and Salary Administration, 2nd ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
Rock, M.L., and L.A. Berger, eds. A Compensation Handbook. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
Rogers, R.C. "Analysis of Two Point-rating Job Evaluation Plans."
Personnel Psychology, Vol. 30 (1946), pp. 579-585.
Roos, P.A. "Sex Stratification in the Workplace: Male-female
Difference in Economic Returns to Occupation." Social Science
Research, Vol. 10 (1981), pp. 195-223.
Roose, J.E., and M.E. Doherty. "A Social Judgement Theoretic
Approach to Sex Discrimination in Faculty Salaries." Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 22 (1978), pp. 193-215.
Root, N. and J.R. Daley. "Are Women Safe Workers? A New Look at
the Data." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 103 (1980), pp. 3-10.
Rosenbaum, J.E. "Organizational Career Mobility: Promotion Chances
in a Corporation During Periods of Growth and Contraction." American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 85 (1979), pp. 21-48.
Rosenbaum, J.E. "Tournament Mobility: Career Patterns in a
Corporation." Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 24 (1979), pp.
220-241.
Rosenbaum, J.E. "Hierarchical and Individual Effects on Earnings."
Industrial Relations, Vol. 19 (1980), pp. 1-14.
Rosengren, K.E., ed. Advances in Content Analysis. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage, 1981.
Rotter, N.G. "Perceived Commitment, Salary Recommendation, and
Employees' Sex." Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 64 (1987), pp.
651-658.
Rousseau, D.M. "Job Perceptions When Working With Data, People, and
Things." Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 55 (1982), pp.
43-52.
Ruderfer, E.D. "Sex-based Wage Discrimination Under Title VII:
Equal Pay for Equal Work or Equal Pay for Comparable Work?" William
and Mary Law Review, Vol. 22 (1981), pp. 421-485.
Rumberger, R.W. "The Changing Skill Requirements of Jobs in the U.S.
Economy." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 34 (1981), pp.
578-590.
Rush, C.H., and R.M. Bellows. "Job Evaluation for a Small
Business." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 2 (1949), pp. 301-310.
Rynes, S.L., and G.T. Milkovich. "Wage Surveys: Dispelling Some
Myths About the `Market Wage.'" Personnel Psychology, Vol. 39
(1986), pp. 71-90.
Rynes, S.L., C.L. Weber, and G.T. Milkovich. "Effects of Market
Survey Rates, Job Evaluation, and Job Gender on Job Pay." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 74 (1989), pp. 114-123.
Rytina, N.F. "Occupational Segregation and Earnings Differences by
Sex." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 104 (1981), pp. 49-53.
Rytina, N.F. "Earnings of Men and Women: A Look at Specific
Occupations." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 105 (1982), pp. 25-31.
Rytina, N.F., and S.M. Bianchi. "Occupational Reclassification and
Changes in Distribution by Gender." Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 107
(1984), pp. 11-17.
Sackett, P.R., E.T. Cornelius, and T.J. Carron. "A Comparison of
Global Judgement vs. Task-oriented Approaches to Job
Classification." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 34 (1981), pp. 791-804.
Sahl, R.J. "How to Install a Job-evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 66
(1989), pp. 38-42.
Sanborn, H. "Paid Differences Between Men and Women." Industrial and
Labor Relations Review, Vol. 17 (1964), pp. 534-550.
Sanchez, J.I., and S.L. Fraser. "On the Choice of Scales for Task
Analysis." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77 (1992), pp.
545-553.
Sanchez, J.I., and E.L. Levine. "Determining Important Tasks Within
Jobs: A Policy Capturing Approach." Journal of Applied Psychology,
Vol. 78 (1989), pp. 336-342.
Sandy, P.R. Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of
Sexual Inequality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Sape, G.P. "Coping with Comparable Worth." Harvard Business Review,
Vol. 63 (1985), pp. 145-152.
Satter, G.A. "Method of Paired Comparisons and a Specification
Scoring Key in the Evaluation of Jobs." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 33 (1949), pp. 212-221.
Sauer, R.L. "Measuring Relative Worth of Managerial Positions."
Compensation Review, Vol. 4, pp. 9-18.
Sayles, L.R. "Worker Values in Job Evaluation: Impact of Job
Evaluation on Worker Attitudes." Personnel, Vol. 30 (1954), pp.
266-274.
Scanlan, J.P. "Illusions of Job Segregation." Public Interest, Vol.
39 (1988), pp. 54-69.
Schein, V.E. "Relationships Between Sex Role Stereotypes and
Requisite Management Characteristics Among Female Managers." Journal
of Applied Psychology, Vol. 60 (1975), pp. 340-344.
Schleifer, L.M., and O.G. Okogbaa. "System Response Time and Method
of Pay: Cardiovascular Stress Effects in Computer-based Tasks."
Ergonomics, Vol. 33 (1990), pp. 1495-1509.
Schmitt, N., B.W. Coyle, and P.M. Mellon. "Subgroup Differences in
Predictor and Criterion Variances and Differential Validity." Journal
of Applied Psychology, Vol. 63 (1978), pp. 667-672.
Scholl, R.W., and E.A. Cooper. "The Use of Job Evaluation to
Eliminate Gender Based Pay Differentials." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 20 (1991), pp. 1-18.
Schonberger, R., and H. Hennessey, Jr. "Is Equal Pay for Comparable
Work Fair?" Personnel Journal, Vol. 60 (1981), pp. 964-968.
Schroeder, P., and C. Horner. "Comparable Worth: A Wrong Turn."
The Bureaucrat, Vol. 16 (1987/88), pp. 4-9.
Schuster, J. "How to Control Job Evaluation Inflation." Personnel
Administrator, Vol. 30, pp. 167-172.
Schuster, M. "The Scanlon Plan: A Longitudinal Analysis." Journal
of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 20 (1984), pp. 23-38.
Schwab, D.P. "Job Evaluation and Pay Setting: Concepts and
Practices," Comparable Worth: Issues and Alternatives, 2nd ed.
Washington, D.C.: Equal Employment Advisory Council, 1984.
Schwab, D.P. "Job Evaluation Research and Research Needs,"
Comparable Worth: New Directions for Research. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press, 1985.
Schwab, D.P. "Contextual Variables in Employee Performance- turnover
Relationships." Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 34 (1991), pp.
966-975.
Schwab, D.P., and R. Grams. "Sex-related Errors in Job Evaluation:
A `Real-world' Test." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 70 (1985),
pp. 533-539.
Schwab, D.P., and H.G. Heneman. "Assessment of a Consensus-based
Multiple Information Source Job Evaluation System." Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 71 (1986), pp. 354-356.
Schwab, D., and C. Olson. "Merit Pay Practices," Do Compensation
Practices Matter? Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1990.
Schwab, D.P., and D.W. Wichern. "Systematic Bias in Job Evaluation
and Market Wages: Implications for the Comparable Worth Debate."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68 (1983), pp. 60-69.
Scott, J.A., and R. Zickefoose. "Achieving Comparable Worth in a
Non-union Municipal Government Setting: The Chemistry's Right in
Colorado Springs." Presented at the American Society for Public
Administration Conference, 1983.
Scozzaro, P.P., L.M. Subich. "Gender and Occupational Sex-type
Differences in Job Outcome Factor Perceptions." Journal of Vocational
Behavior, Vol. 36 (1990), pp. 109-119.
Seaman, F., and A. Lorimer. Winning at Work: A Book for Women.
Philadelphia: Running Press, 1979.
Seashore, H.G. "Women are More Predictable Than Men." Journal of
Counseling Psychology, Vol. 9 (1962), pp. 261-270.
Shaffer, L.J., and R.M. Wilson. "Racial Discrimination in
Occupational Choice." Industrial Relations, Vol. 19 (1980), pp.
199-205.
Shaw, K.L. "The Income Effects of Occupational Change and the
Investment in Occupational Skills." Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard
University, 1981.
Shimmin, S. "Job Evaluation and Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value."
Applied Psychology--An International Review, Vol. 36 (1987), pp.
61-70.
Sibson, R.E. Compensation, 5th ed. New York: American Management
Association, 1990.
Sigelman, L., H.B. Milward, and J.M. Shepard. "The Salary
Differential Between Male and Female Administrators: Equal Pay for
Equal Work?" Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 25 (1982), pp.
664-671.
Sinnott, P.A. "The Comparable Worth Controversy." Journal of Career
Planning and Employment, Vol. 45 (1985), pp. 46-51.
Smith, B.N., et al. "What Is In a Name: The Impact of Job Titles on
Job Evaluation Results." Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 3
(1989), pp. 341-351.
Smith, B.N., P.G. Benson, and J.S. Hornsby. "The Effects of Job
Description Content on Job Evaluation Judgements." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 75 (1990), pp. 301-309.
Smith, F.S. "Compensating Wage Differentials and Public Policy: A
Review." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 32 (1979), pp.
339-352.
Smith, J. "Comparable Worth, Gender, and Human Capital Theory,"
Ingredients for Women's Employment Policy. Albany: State University
of New York Press, 1987.
Smith, J.E., and M.D. Hakel. "Convergence Among Data Sources,
Response Bias, and Reliability and Validity of a Structured Job
Analysis Questionnaire." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 32 (1979), pp.
677-691.
Smyth, R.C. "How to Rank and Price Management Jobs." Factory
Management and Maintenance, Vol. 108 (1950), pp. 116-117.
Snelgar, R.J. "The Comparability of Job Evaluation Methods in
Supplying Approximately Similar Classifications in Rating One Job
Series." Personnel Psychology, Vol. 36 (1983), pp. 371-380.
Solomon, R.J. "Determining the Fairness of Salary in Public
Employment." Public Personnel Management Journal, Vol. 8 (1980), pp.
154-159.
Sorenson, E. (1989). "Measuring the Pay Disparity Between Typically
Female Occupations and Other Jobs: A Bivariate Selectivity
Approach." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 42, pp.
624-639.
Spalter-Roth, R., and H. Hartmann. Raises and Recognition:
Secretaries, Clerical Workers and the Union Wage Premium. Institute
for Women's Policy Research. Washington, D.C.: 1990.
Spang, S.D. "Pay Equity by Committee: A Labor-management Case
Study." Cupa Journal, Vol. 41 (1990), pp. 21-34.
Spangler, E., M.A. Gordon, and R.M. Pipkin. "Token Women: An
Empirical Test of Kantor's Hypothesis." American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 84 (1978), pp. 160-170.
Sparks, C.P. "Job Analysis," Personnel Management. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, 1982.
Spelfogel, E.J. "Equal Pay for Work of Comparable Value: A New
Concept." Labor Law Review, Vol. 32 (1981), pp. 30-39.
Spence, J.T. and L.L. Sawin. "Images of Masculinity and
Femininity: A Reconceptualization," Women, Gender, and Social
Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985.
Spriegel, W.R., and E. Lanham. "Job Evaluation in Department
Stores." Journal of Retailing, Vol. 27 (1951), pp. 79-85.
Stanley, J.C., and A.C. Porter. "Correlation of Scholastic Aptitude
Test Score With College Grades for Negroes Versus Whites." Journal of
Educational Measurement, Vol. 4 (1967), pp. 199-218.
Steel, B.S., and N.P. Lovrich. "Comparable Worth: The Problematic
Politicization of a Public Personnel Issue." Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 16 (1987), pp. 23-36.
Steiger, Fink, and Kosecoff, Inc. Literature and Secondary Data
Review of the Vocational Education Equity Study--Final Report.
American Institutes for Research. Palo Alto, CA: 1979.
Steinberg, R. "`A Want of Harmony': Perspectives on Wage
Discrimination and Comparable Worth," Comparable Worth and Wage
Discrimination: Technical Possibilities and Political Realities.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.
Steinberg, R.J. "Identifying Wage Discrimination and Implementing
Pay Equity Adjustments," Comparable Worth: Issues for the 80s. U.S.
Commission on Civil Rights, ed. Washington, D.C.: 1984.
Steinberg, R.J. "Evaluating Jobs." Society, Vol. 22 (1985), pp.
44-54.
Steinberg, R. "The Debate on Comparable Worth." New Politics, Vol.
1 (1986), pp. 108-126.
Steinberg, R. "Radical Challenges in a Liberal World: The Mixed
Success of Comparable Worth." Gender and Society, Vol. 1 (1987), pp.
466-475.
Steinberg, R.J. "Social Construction of Skill: Gender, Power, and
Comparable Worth." Work and Occupations, Vol. 17 (1990), pp.
449-482.
Steinberg, R., and L. Haignere. "Equitable Compensation:
Methodological Criteria for Comparable Worth," Ingredients for
Women's Employment Policy. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press, 1987.
Steinberg, R., et al. The New York Pay Equity Study: A Research
Report. Center for Women in Government, State University of New York
at Albany, Albany, NY: 1986.
Steinberg, R., and S. Shapiro. "Sex Differences in Personality
Traits of Female and Male Master of Business Administration
Students." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 67 (1982), pp.
306-310.
Stewart, D.A. "Improving Job Evaluation Results." Personnel, Vol.
25 (1949), pp. 356-365.
Stigers, M.F., and E.G. Reed. The Theory and Practice of Job
Rating. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1942.
Stockard, J., et al. Sex Equity in Education. New York: Academic
Press, 1980.
Stokey, N.L. "Job Differentiation and Wages." The Quarterly Journal
of Economics, Vol. 95 (1980), pp. 431-449.
Stroh, L.K., J.M. Brett, and A.H. Reilly. "All the Right Stuff: A
Comparison of Female and Male Managers' Career Progression." Journal
of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77 (1992), pp. 251-260.
Study on Setting Salaries in the Classified Service. State of
Nevada, Department of Personnel. Carson City, NV: 1985.
Stutz, R.L. and H.E. Smalley. "Management, Union Join in Job
Evaluation." Personnel Journal, Vol. 34 (1950), pp. 412-416.
Subich, L.M., et al. "Occupational Perceptions of Males and Females
as a Function of Sex Ratios, Salary, and Availability." Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Vol. 28 (1986), pp. 123-134.
Suits, D.B. "Dummy Variables: Mechanics v. Interpretation." Review
of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 66 (1984), pp. 177-180.
Sullivan, J.F. "Comparable Worth and the Statistical Audit of Pay
Programs for Illegal Systemic Discrimination." Personnel
Administrator, Vol. 30 (1985), pp. 102-111.
Summers, T.P. "Examination of Sex Differences in Expectations of Pay
and Perceptions of Equity in Pay." Psychological Reports, Vol. 62
(1988), pp. 491-496.
Summers, T.P., and W.H. Hendrix. "Modeling the Role of Pay Equity
Perceptions: A Field Study." Journal of Occupational Psychology,
Vol. 64 (1991), pp. 145-157.
Svetlik, B., E. Prien, and G. Barrett. "Relationships Between Job
Difficulty, Employee's Attitude Toward His Job, and Supervisory
Ratings of the Employee Effectiveness." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 48 (1964), pp. 320-324.
Szmania, J.M., and D. Doverspike. "A Test of the Differential
Investment Hypothesis Applied to the Exploration of Gender
Differences in Reactions to Pay." Journal of Vocational Behavior,
Vol. 37 (1990), pp. 239-250.
Szwajklowski, E., and L. Larwood. "Rational Decision Processes and
Sex Discrimination: Testing `Rational' Bias Theory." Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12 (1991), pp. 507-527.
Taber, T.D., T.A. Beehr, and J.T. Walsh. "Relationships Between
Job Evaluation Ratings and Self-ratings of Job Characteristics."
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 35
(1985), pp. 27-45.
Taber, T.D., and T.D. Peters. "Assessing the Completeness of a Job
Analysis Procedure." Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12
(1991), pp. 581-593.
Taeuber, C. Statistical Handbook on Women in America. Phoenix, AZ:
Oryx Press, 1991.
Task Force Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations. Employees Pay
Equity/Comparable Worth Task Force. Davis, CA: 1985.
Taubman, P.J., and T.J. Wales. "Higher Education, Mental Ability,
and Screening." Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 81 (1973), pp.
28-55.
Taylor, D.E. "Absences From Work Among Full-time Employees." Monthly
Labor Review, Vol. 104 (1981), pp. 68-70.
Taylor, P.A. "Income Inequality in the Federal Civilian Government."
American Sociological Review, Vol. 44 (1979), pp. 468-479.
Taylor, S.H. "The Case for Comparable Worth." Journal of Social
Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 23-37.
The Factor Evaluation System of Position Classification Introduction.
U.S. Civil Service Commission, Bureau of Standards of Policies.
Washington, D.C.: 1976.
Thomas, C. "Pay Equity and Comparable Worth." Labor and Law Journal,
Vol. 34 (1983), pp. 3-12.
Thomas, P.J. "Appraising the Performance of Women: Gender and the
Naval Office," Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage,
1987.
Thompkins, J. "Sources of Measurement Error and Gender Bias in Job
Evaluation." Review of Public Personnel Administration, Vol. 9
(1988), pp. 1-16.
Thompson, B.W. National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class
of 1977. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.: 1974.
Thomsen, D.J. "Eliminating Pay Discrimination Caused by Job
Evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 55 (1978), pp. 11-22.
Thomsen, D.J. "Compensation and Benefits." Personnel Journal, Vol.
62 (1983), p. 38.
Thorndike, E.L. Prediction of Vocational Success. The Commonwealth
Fund. New York: 1934.
Thurow, L.C. Generating Inequality: Mechanisms of Distribution in
the U.S. Economy. New York: Basic Books, 1975.
Tienda, M., and V. Ortiz. "Intraindustry Occupational Recomposition
and Gender Inequality in Earnings," Ingredients for Women's
Employment Policy. Albany: State University of New York Press,
1987.
Tompkins, J., J. Brown, and J.H. McEwen. "Designing a Comparable
Worth Based Job Evaluation System: Failure of an A Priori Approach."
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 19 (1990), pp. 31-42.
Toops, H.A. "Some Concepts of Job Families and Their Importance in
Placement." Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 5
(1945), pp. 195-216.
Tornow, W.W. and P.R. Pinto. "The Development of a Managerial Job
Taxonomy: A System for Describing, Classifying, and Evaluating
Executive Positions." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 61 (1976),
pp. 410-418.
Tosi, H.L., R.J. House, and M.D. Dunnette, eds. Managerial
Motivation and Compensation. Board of Trustees of Michigan State
University. East Lansing, MI: 1972.
Touthey, J.C. "Effects of Additional Women Professionals on Ratings
of Occupational Prestige and Desirability." Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, Vol. 29 (1974), pp. 86-89.
Treiman, D.J. Job Evaluation: An Analytic Review. National Academy
of Sciences. Washington, D.C.: 1979.
Treiman, D.J. "Effect of Choice of Factors and Factor Weights in Job
Evaluation," Comparable Worth and Wage Discrimination: Technical
Possibilities and Political Realities. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1984.
Treiman, D.J., and H.I. Hartmann, eds. Women, Work, and Wages:
Equal Pay for Jobs of Equal Value. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press, 1981.
Treiman, D.J., and K. Terrell. "Women, Work, and Wages--Trends in
the Female Occupation Structure," Social Indicator Models. Russell
Sage Foundation. New York: 1975.
Trusheim, D., and J. Crouse. "Affects of College Prestige on Men's
Occupational Status and Income." Research in Higher Education, Vol.
14 (1981), pp. 283-304.
Tuckman, B.H. "Salary Differences Among University Faculty and Their
Implications for the Future," Salary Equity: Detecting Sex Bias in
Salaries Among College and University Professors. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1979.
Turner, W.D. "The Mathematical Basis of the Percent Method of Job
Evaluation." Personnel, Vol. 25 (1948), pp. 154-160.
Turner, W.D. "Some Precautions in the Use of the Percent Method of
Job Evaluation." Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 33 (1949), pp.
547-552.
Twenhafel, D. 1991 U.S. Senate Employment Practices: A Study of
Staff Salary, Tenure, Demographics and Benefits. Congressional
Management Foundation. Washington, D.C.: 1991.
20 Facts on Women Workers. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the
Secretary, Women's Bureau. Washington, D.C.: 1980.
Ulrich, C. "Why Companies are Looking at Omnibus Pay Programs."
Journal of Compensation and Benefits, Vol. 7 (1991), pp. 30-34.
Ungson, G.R., and R.M. Steers. "Motivation and Politics in
Executive Compensation." Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9
(1984), pp. 313-323.
Valdez, R.L., and B.A. Gutek. "Family Roles: A Help or a Hindrance
for Working Women?" Women's Career Development. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage, 1987.
van der Burg, R., and N. Schoemaker. "Scoring Women on Their Labor
Chances." Women's Studies International Forum, Vol. 8 (1985), pp.
273-278.
van DeVoort, D.M., J.J. McHenry, and N.E. Fried. "A Policy
Capturing Approach to the Valuing of Managerial Jobs: Developing a
Standardized, Computerized Job Grading System." Presented at the 43rd
Annual National Meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, TX,
1983.
Vladeck, J.P. "Equal Access Is Not Enough." American Bar Association
Journal, Vol. 70 (1984), pp. 16-21.
Viscusi, W.K. "Sex Differences in Worker Quitting." Review of
Economics and Statistics, Vol. 62 (1980), pp. 388-398.
Viteles, M.S. "A Psychologist Looks at Job Evaluation." Personnel,
Vol. 17 (1941), pp. 165-176.
Von Frank, J.A. "Equal Pay for Comparable Work." Harvard Civil
Rights Civil Liberties Law Review, Vol. 15 (1980), pp. 475-506.
Walker, C.T. "The Use of Job Evaluation Plans in Salary
Administration." Personnel, Vol. 41 (1987), pp. 28-31.
Wall, R.E. "Salary Inequities and Differences: One College's
Attempt at Identification and Adjustment," Salary Equity Detecting
Sex Bias in Salaries Among College and University Professors.
Lexington MA: Lexington Books, 1979.
Wallace, M.J. "Methodology, Research Practice, and Progress in
Personnel and Industrial Relations." Academy of Management Review,
Vol. 8 (1983), pp. 6-13.
Wallace, M.J., and C.H. Fay. Compensation Theory and Practice, 2nd
ed. Boston: Pws-Kent Publishing Company, 1988.
Wallace, P.A., ed. Equal Employment Opportunity and the AT&T Case.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1976.
Wallace, P.A., and A.M. LaMond, eds. Women, Minorities, and
Employment Discrimination. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1977.
Wallston, B.S., and K.E. Grady. "Integrating the Feminist Critique
and the Crisis in Social Psychology: Another Look at Research
Methods," Women, Gender, and Social Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985.
Ward, K.B., and C.W. Mueller. "Sex Differences in Earnings: The
Influence of Industrial Sector Authority Hierarchy, and Human Capital
Variables." Work and Occupations, Vol. 12 (1985), pp. 437-463.
Warr, P., and G. Parry. "Paid Employment and Women's Psychological
Well-being." Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 91 (1982), pp. 498-516.
Wasem, M.R. "The Comparable Worth Theory, a Critical Analysis."
Baylor Law Review, Vol. 32 (1980), pp. 629-638.
Webb, N.M., et al. "Generalizability of General Education
Development Ratings of Jobs in the United States." Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 66 (1981), pp. 188-192.
Weber, R.P. Basic Content Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990.
Werwie, D.M. Sex and Pay in the Federal Government: Using Job
Evaluation Systems to Implement Comparable Worth. New York:
Greenwood Press, 1987.
Wesman, E.C. "Unions and Comparable Worth: Progress in the Public
Sector." Journal of Collective Negotiations, Vol. 17 (1988), pp.
13-26.
White, M.C., M.D. Crims, and G.L. Desanctis. "Ratings of Prestige
and Desirability: Effects of Additional Women Entering Selected
Business Occupations." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
Vol. 7 (1981), pp. 588-592.
White, P.E. Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering: An
Update. National Science Foundation, Report 303. Washington, D.C.:
1992.
Whyte, W.F. Money and Motivation. New York: Harper and Row, 1955.
Wilcox, A.C. A Method of Determining Equitable Pay. PAQ Services
Research Bulletin 0001-384-120181. 1982.
Wilcox, A.C. A Method of Determining Exemption Status. PAQ Services
Research Bulletin 0002-001-062382. 1982.
Willborn, S.L. A Secretary and a Cook: Challenging Women's Wage in
the Courts of the United States and Great Britain. Ithica, NY: ILR
Press, 1989.
Willborm, S.C. A Comparable Worth Primer. Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, 1986.
Williams, C.L. Gender Differences at Work: Women and Men in
Nontraditional Occupations. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press, 1989.
Williams, D.R. and C.A. Register. "Regional Variations in Earnings
and the Gender Composition of Employment: Is `Women's Work'
Undervalued?" Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 20 (1986), pp.
1121-1134.
Williams, M.L., and G.F. Dreher. "Compensation System Attributes
and Applicant Pool Characteristics." Academy of Management Journal,
Vol. 35 (1992), pp. 571-595.
Williams, R.E., and L.L. Kessler. A Closer Look at Comparable
Worth: A Study of the Basic Questions to be Addressed in Approaching
Pay Equity. National Foundation for the Study of Equal Employment
Policy. Washington, D.C.: 1984.
Willis, N.D. Comparable Worth Study: State of Washington. Norman
D. Willis and Associates. 1974.
Wilson, M.A., and R.J. Harvey. "The Value of Relative-time-spent
Ratings in Task-oriented Job Analysis." Journal of Business and
Psychology, Vol. 4 (1990), pp. 453-461.
Wilson, M.A., R.J. Harvey, and B.A. Macy. "Repeating Items to
Estimate the Test-retest Reliability of Task Inventory Ratings."
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 75 (1990), pp. 158-163.
Wise, D.A. "Academic Achievement and Job Performance." American
Economic Review, Vol. 65 (1975), pp. 350-366.
Wisniewski, S.C. "Achieving Equal Pay for Comparable Worth Through
Arbitration." Employee Relations Law Journal, Vol. 8 (1982), pp.
236-255.
Wittig, M.A., and S.L. Berman. "A Set of Validity Criteria for
Modeling Job-based Compensation Systems." Human Resource Management
Review, Vol. 1 (1991), pp. 107-118.
Wittig, M.A., and R.H. Lowe. "Comparable Worth Theory and Policy."
Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 45 (1989), pp. 1-21.
Wolf, W.Z., and N.D. Fligstein. "Sex and Authority in the Work
Place: The Causes of Sexual Inequality." American Psychologist, Vol.
44 (1979), pp. 235-252.
Wolins, L. "Bias in Rating, Unit of Analysis Mistake and Editorial
Decisions." Manuscript, Iowa State University, 1991.
Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering. National Science
Foundation. Washington, D.C.: 1982.
Women in Management. U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau.
Washington, D.C.: 1980.
Wong, M.G., and C. Hirschman. "Labor Force Participation and
Socioeconomic Attainment of Asian-American Women." Sociological
Perspectives, Vol. 26 (1983), pp. 423-446.
Yanico, B.J., and S.I. Hardin. "Sex-role Self-concept and
Persistance in a Traditional vs. Nontraditional College Major for
Women." Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 18 (1981), pp.
219-227.
Zabalza, A. and Z. Tzammatos. Women and Equal Pay: The Effects of
Legislation on Female Employment and Wages in Britain. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Zanna, M.P., F. Crosby, and G. Loewenstein. "Male Reference Groups
and Discontent Among Female Professionals," Women's Career
Development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
Zedeck, S., and K.L. Mosier. "Work in the Family and Employing
Organization." American Psychologist, Vol. 45 (1990), pp. 240-251.
Ziering, B.A. and N.S. Raju. "Development and Validation of a Job
Family Specific Position Analysis Questionnaire." Journal of Business
and Psychology, Vol. 2 (1988), pp. 228-238.
Zippo, M. "Equal Pay for Comparable Work." Personnel, Vol. 58
(1981), pp. 4-10.
Zuckerman, H., J.R. Cole, and J.T. Bruer, eds. The Outer Circle:
Women in the Scientific Community. New York: W.W. Norton and
Company, 1991.
RELATED GAO PRODUCTS
=========================================================== Appendix 1
Pay Equity: Experiences of Canada and the Province of Ontario
(GAO/GGD-94-27BR, Nov. 2, 1993).
Pay Equity: Washington State's Efforts to Address Comparable Worth
(GAO/GGD-92-87BR, July 1, 1992).
Federal Pay: Comparisons With the Private Sector by Job and Locality
(GAO/GGD-90-81FS, May 15, 1990).
State Department: Minorities and Women are Underrepresented in the
Foreign Service (GAO/NSIAD-89-146, June 26, 1989).
Pay Equity: Status of State Activities (GAO/GGD-86-141BR, Sept. 19,
1986).
Description of Selected Nonfederal Job Evaluation Systems
(GAO/GGD-85-57, July 31, 1985).
Comments on Report on Comparable Worth by the United States
Commission on Civil Rights (GAO/GGD-85-59, June 14, 1985).
Options for Conducting a Pay Equity Study of Federal Pay and
Classification (GAO/GGD-85-37, Mar. 1, 1985).
Distribution of Male and Female Employees in Four Federal
Classification Systems (GAO/GGD-85-20, Nov. 27, 1984).
Description of Selected Systems for Classifying Federal Civilian
Positions and Personnel (GAO/GGD-84-90, July 13, 1984).
Classification of Federal White-Collar Jobs Should Be Better
Controlled (GAO/FPCD-75-173, Dec. 4, 1975).
*** End of document. ***