[An Introduction to Shipbuilding]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]

An Introduction to
SHIPBUILDING
Prepared and Made Available by
Shipbuilding Division, BETHLEHEM STEEL CO.
TRAINING WITHIN INDUSTRY
Labor Division War Production Board
Washington, D. C.
1^1	/
An Introduction to /
SHIPBUILDING
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Prepared and Made Available by
Shipbuilding Division, BETHLEHEM STEEL CO.
TRAINING WITHIN INDUSTRY
Labor Division War Production Board Washington, D. C.
United States Government Printing Office Washington : 1942
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
- Price 20 cents
Reprinted with permission of Bethlehem Steel Company
Foreword
TpEW PEOPLE know how a ship actually grows from the time it is designed until the time it is ready for use. It is intended that this booklet will be an aid to all new men in shipyards by making them more familiar with shipbuilding operations.
A ship is a very complex structure. The fitting of the steel work and the installation of the machinery and equipment are exacting jobs, particularly on naval vessels. There is a great need for coordination of plans, material and labor among the twenty-five or thirty departments in a shipyard.
All the information about shipbuilding cannot be set down on a few pages, but this brief summary may stimulate discussion, inquiry and further study.
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Contents
Page
Foreword............................................. 3
Ships and Ship Terms................................. 5
Shipbuilding Materials.............................. 9
Structural Members.................................. 11
Routing of Plans and Materials...................... 15
MoldLoft............................................ 19
Fabrication......................................... 25
Hull Construction . ................................ 27
Welding............................................. 35
Launching .......................................... 41
Engineering......................................... 43
Outfitting......................................... 46
Safety ............................................. 50
Ship Terms and Their Meanings................. ... 51
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Ships and Ship Terms
SHIPS may be put into two main classifications— warships and commercial ships.
Warships are of various types, built to serve definite purposes in the highly complex naval warfare of today. Principal types of warships are battleships, cruisers (heavy and light), airplane carriers, destroyers and submarines. Some investigation and study will acquaint one in more detail with the design and purpose of these various ships.
Types of commercial ships are passenger vessels, freighters, tankers, colliers (coal carriers), ore carriers, tugs and trawlers.
Three basic requirements of ships are ability to float (buoyancy), ability to stay together (strength), ability to stay right side up (stability).
Ships differ in the following characteristics according to the uses for which they are intended: size (length, breadth, and depth), shape, weight, equipment and speed.
The forward end of the ship is called the bow, the after end is the stern, and half way between the two is amidships. The beam of the ship is the distance
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from side to side at its widest point. The depth is the distance between the keel and the main deck amidships. The draft is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the water surface. A line from the bow of the ship to the center of the stern is called the centerline. Looking toward the forward end, the part of the ship on the left of the centerline is called the port side, and on the right, the starboard side.
A ship is moved by its propellers (or propeller) rotating beneath the water. These propellers are located at the after end of the ship, and are connected by propeller shafts to the engines, which supply the power for turning them. The action of the propeller upon the water produces a pushing effect, or thrust, thus giving the ship motion.
The hull or body of the ship includes the outer skin or shell and all the members and parts which hold this shell together, divide it into compartments, and give it strength and rigidity. Most hulls, today, are made of steel and are held together and made tight with rivets and welding. For many years steel ships were entirely riveted, but, because in recent times methods of welding have been improved and uses increased, welding is being substituted more and more for riveting.
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ANGLE BAR
"H" BAR
BULB ANGLE
T BEAM
FLAT BAR
TYPICAL SHAPES USED IN
STEEL SHIP CONSTRUCTION
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Shipbuilding Materials
STEEL forgings, castings, plates and shapes are the principal materials used in ship construction.
forgings are formed from red hot steel by means of hammering or pressing, and are used where great strength is required. Crankshafts, propeller shafts and rudder stocks are forged.
Castings are formed of molten steel poured into molds. Stem frames, stems, propeller struts, anchors, hawse pipes, and various small fittings of intricate form are usually cast.
Plates and shapes are used more frequently than any other form of steel. Plates are flat rolled steel of uniform thickness from % in. up. They are used for shell, decks, bulkheads, trunks, coamings, etc. Shapes most used in shipbuilding are angle bars, channels, bulb angles, tee bars and I-Beams. (See sketch.) The entire hull (excluding castings and forgings) is constructed of shapes and plates assembled in a large variety of forms.
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Structural Members
IET’S consider for a moment the structural mem-
J hers of a ship, their names arid uses. The shell plating is the outer skin of thè ship and is made up of a great many plates of steel fastened together by riveting or welding. Each horizontal row of plating is termed a strake. Strakes are usually lettered A-B-C-D, etc., beginning with the row next to the keel. This strake is called the garboard strake and the top strake the sheer strake,. The two essentials of the shell are watertightness and strength.,
The flat keel of a ship is the row of plates at the bottom of the ship extending from the bow to the stem along the centerline. Decks, corresponding to the floors of a house, are flat sections" of steel plates. The deck constructed between three and four feet above the shell at the bottom is called the inner bottom, or tank top plating, because between these two sections of steel plates are tanks used for carrying fuel oil, water ballast, etc. The transverse vertical plates dividing these tanks into sections are termed floors. Stringers are large beams or angles fitted in various parts of the vessel to give added
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ELEVATION OF A TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD SHOWING ADJACENT MEMBERS AND SHIP'S LINES USED FOR REGULATING OF BULKHEAD
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strength. Depending upon their locations, stringers are known as bilge stringers, side stringers, hold stringers, etc.
Bulkheads are large partitions made of plates riveted or welded together and stiffened with angle bars, tee bars, etc. They divide the ship into compartments fore-and-aft, or from port to starboard, and they may run between two or more decks.
The stem is fastened to the forward end of the keel by a stem foot casting and extends up to the top of the hull at the bow. The frames, which are the ribs of the ship, serve to give the ship its form and at the same time support and stiffen the shell plating. They are fastened at the bottom to the outer ends of the floors by brackets and at the top to the deck beams.
Decks are supported by transverse and longitudinal members called beams and girders.
Brackets are small pieces of steel, sometimes flanged, used as connections and strengthening pieces. (See sketch, page 14.)
Foundations are the supports on which all machinery (turbines, condensers, boilers, pumps, ventilation fans, generators, etc.) is set. Very little equipment is set directly on the decks.
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Routing of Plans and Materials
THE routing of plans and materials through the various departments of a shipyard is of particular interest, and to be familiar with the procedure is helpful in understanding shipyard operations.
The plans for all parts and equipment of a ship are drawn by the drafting room, and because several departments may have work to do with the same plan, many blueprints of one plan are made.
On hull work the first department to receive these plans is the mold loft. This department makes molds or templates of wood or paper which are used as patterns in fabricating the steel.
Next, to the fabricating shop (sometimes called the steel mill) go molds from the loft, plans from the drafting room, and plates and shapes from the storage yard. This ordered material comes to the shipyard from a steel plant which produces and manufactures the steel from raw materials. In the fabricating shop, steel is cut, shaped, punched and drilled to exact duplication of the molds with continual reference to the plans.
Some of this fabricated material then passes out to the storage spaces adjacent to the ship. The rest
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is used in making up large preassembled units (bulkheads, rudders, web frames, stem assemblies, etc.). This work is done in the shop or outside on assembly platforms. When assembled these units are taken to storage spaces or directly to the ship, depending upon whether the progress of the work on the ship is such that they may be erected at that time.
On reaching the ship, the material is hoisted into place by men called erectors, and worked on by shipfitters, drillers, riveters, and other ship constructors.
The plans which the other departments in the yard use in their work are sent to them by the drafting rooms; piping plans to the pipe shop, electrical plans to the electrical department, etc. These departments get their material from the various warehouses in the yard and from a main store which usually handles small parts such as bolts, nuts, screws, and small steel bars and shapes.
Some departments do both ship work and shop work as the diagram shows. The work done by certain shops may be installed on the ship by other departments. For example: valves manufactured by the machine shop are usually handled by the pipefitting department; chains and anchor gear manufactured by the blacksmith shop are nearly
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always installed on ship by outside machinists or riggers; jack rods and hand rails manufactured by the blacksmith shop are usually installed by carpenters. The important point to be remembered in this brief discussion of routing is that, to assure the steady, efficient operations of the shop and ship workers, the plans and materials should be available at all times.
(DIAGONALS OMITTED FOR CLARITY)
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Mold Loft
A FTER the plans are drawn, the second step in the building of a ship is done in the mold loft. The many steel plates and shapes making up a ship must fit together when assembled. How is this assured? It is done by making a full sized pattern (called a mold or template) of wood or paper for almost every structural part of the ship before working on the steel.
These molds or templates are made in a large, well lighted room called the mold loft. Men working in the mold loft are called loftsmen.
The first operation in the loft is the drawing of the ship’s lines to full size on the floor. The lines most used make up the body plan which is drawn from dimensions given by the drafting room. The lines of this plan show one-half of the cross-sectional view of consecutive slices of the ship, usually four feet apart on navy ships, from the bow to the stern. Those sections forward of amidships are on the right side of the centerline, and sections aft of amidships are shown on the left. Only one-half of the section is drawn because the form of the ship is usually the same both port and starboard.
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FRAME LINES	FORWARD
actpr	(SPACED THROUGHOUT PERPENDICULAR
PERPENDICULAR	, SHIPS LENGTH) J j i ¿Z
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Molds are flat strips of wood, tacked together in such a way as to show the exact length, width and shape of the piece of steel as it will be when ready to go on the ship. Since structural members on one side of the ship are usually duplicated on the other, in most instances only one template is needed for both pieces.
The shapes of the molds for most members of the ship are taken directly from the lines of the body plan.
Members of the ship for which molds or templates are made include the keel, inner bottom, stem, frames, shell plates, decks, bulkheads, girders, beams, stiffeners, foundations, and all the smaller parts including brackets, collars, liners, clips, etc. When the template is too large for handling, it may be constructed in two or more sections.
In order to facilitate exact fitting of a member on the ship, certain lines are noted on the mold and later transferred to the material. They are the centerline, frame line, buttock line, and water line. Frame lines, perpendicular to the centerline, show locations on the ship between bow and stern; buttock lines, parallel to the centerline, indicate locations outboard from the centerline; water lines, parallel to the base line, indicate locations between the base line and the top of the ship.
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TO SUIT THE TEMPLATE
FINISHED PLATE
INSTALLED
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Other markings on the molds or templates may show rivet holes, cuts, bevels, lightening holes, locations of stiffeners and brackets, weight of plate, etc. In short, everything that helps to identify the piece of material and everything that has to be done to the plate or shape before it is ready to be fitted on the ship are shown on the mold.
On some pieces, to be certain of sufficient length and width, a notation is made to add extra stock to the plate or shape. If necessary the extra stock can be burned (cut) off when the member is fitted on the ship.
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SECTION SHOWING COMPARTMENTS (CRUISER)
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Fabrication
THE third step in the construction of a ship is the fabrication of the steel plates and shapes in the fabricating shop.
This shop includes a plate shop and an anglesmith shop, the former working almost entirely on cold steel, the latter on hot steel.
In the plate shop, plates and shapes are cut to the templates supplied by the loft. The cutting may be done by machine shears, planers, and hand torches. However, plates are usually cut on tables by an acetylene cutting machine. Measuring lines and other identifying marks are copied from the template to the steel pieces.
Punching of the rivet holes as marked on the templates is done in the plate shop by punchpresses. These holes are punched undersize and will be reamed out later. Where very heavy plates or narrow bars are used, the holes may be drilled instead of punched.
Shaping of structural members is done both in the plate shop and anglesmith shop. In the plate shop straightening, bending, flanging, etc., are done
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on cold steel with heavy presses or rolls. In the anglesmith shop the parts to be shaped are heated to make them more pliable. Here most of the shaping is done by hand with sledge hammers, levering tools, dogs, etc.
Servicemen (welders, burners, chippers) are available for work in the fabricating shop. As such, their work is considered shop work. In recent years shop work and ground assembly have been increased wherever practical, because conditions in the shop are more conducive to economical operation than are conditions on ship.
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Hull Construction
r I WE structural building of the ship with the steel parts and assemblies which the fabricating shop has turned out is done by seven different types of craftsmen.
a.	Erectors
b.	Shipfitters
c.	Reamers and Drillers
d.	Riveters
e.	Chippers and Calkers
f.	Burners
g.	Welders
The erector’s job is to get all the steel parts on the ship when and where they are needed. The heavy members and pre-assembled units are hoisted by cranes to the ship, where they are temporarily fastened in their approximate locations.
It is then the shipfitter’s work to fit these pieces together exactly as shown on the blueprints. All the members of a ship have definite locations and purposes and must be fastened together according to the methods shown on the plans. The shipfitter
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does this work with the aid of service men (burners, tack welders and chippers). Also he lifts (makes) templates to actual dimensions on the ship when the dimensions might vary slightly from those given on the blueprints.
The work of a reamer and driller consists of preparing all the holes for riveting. As mentioned before, most of the holes in the plate are punched undersize in the fabricating shop. Very often holes in the one member do not line up exactly with the corresponding holes in another member to which the connection is being made. These holes are then lined up for the rivets by enlarging them to full size with reaming tools (see sketch). Holes which were not punched or drilled in the shop must be drilled on the ship. This reaming and drilling work is done with air-driven tools.
Riveting is usually done by a gang of three men —a heater, a holder-on, and a riveter. The heater, using a forge and tongs, heats the rivets. Only through experience does he learn how much heat is needed for each size and type of rivet. The heated rivet is then passed on to the holder-on who inserts it in the hole and holds it firmly in place with a pneumatic jack. The riveter, on the opposite side
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TYPES OF RIVETS
of the pieces to be riveted together, hammers the protruding end of the rivet with a pneumatic hammer equipped with a die of such size and shape as to form the desired “point.” If the point is countersunk or flush he then cuts off any excess stock before it has cooled.
A chipper, using an air hammer, does the cutting off or chipping, as it is called in shipbuilding, of very small amounts of excess stock on a piece of steel. There are various chisel points used for chipping operations (see sketch, page 32), and a good chipper knows which to use on each particular job. A chipper also does calking. This operation is the pounding or pressing together of steel with an air hammer and calking tool to make a watertight joint. The edges of riveted joints and flush rivets are usually calked.
A burner, using a burning torch, cuts off all excess stock on plates, shapes, pipes, etc. This cutting operation is done by a jet of oxygen directed on a point which has been preheated by a gas flame. The gas (acetylene) and oxygen are supplied in steel tanks (bottles)—gas in a black tank, oxygen in a yellow one. Both are transmitted through hoses
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FLAT
RIPPER
CAPE
DIAMOND POINT
CHIPPING TOOLS
CALKING
RIVET SET
ROUGHING
BOBBING
CALKING
CALKING TOOLS
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CHIPPING THE EDGE OF A PLATE
4432» 0-42-3
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ELECTRIC WELDING
TUBES FOR OXYGEN
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to the burning torch where valves regulate the amount of each coming out of the torch tip. In addition to removing excess stock from the plates and shapes, a burner cuts holes or openings for airports, pipes, cables, doors, hatches, etc. Burning is done with both hand torches and automatic burning equipment.
A welder, as his name implies, does the welding of parts of the ship which, according to the plans, are to be so fastened.
Welding
IT IS worth while to know a few of the elementary facts about welding because of its increasing use in the construction of commercial and war vessels.
Electric arc welding is the method most used in shipyards. It is a fusion method of welding whereby metal is deposited at a joint after the edges have been brought to a heat high enough to melt and fuse with the added metal. This metal is in the form of round rods varying in diameter from about 1 /16 in. to % in. The rods, called electrodes, are held tightly in an insulated holder connected to a cable through which power is supplied. Heat is created by means of an electric current which passes in an arc through a gap of about % in. between the work
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BULKHEAD TO DECK CONNECTIONS
RIVETED
WELDED
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to be welded and the electrode. To start the operation the welder touches the rod to the work, setting up the current. Immediately he lifts the electrode away from the work about % in. He determines the exact length of the gap or arc by the type of electrode, its diameter and the amount of current used. The electrode is moved at a uniform rate along the joint to be welded, the electrode itself being melted and deposited at the connection.
Electrodes used in arc welding are either bare or coated. Most of those used in the shipyard are the coated type, and the purpose of the coating, or flux, is to facilitate the welding operation and improve the type of weld.
Most of the electric welding is done with hand torches. In recent years, however, there have been several automatic welding machines developed which have proven satisfactory for certain types of welding. They are particularly good for long seams or butts welded in a flat position.
Because of the intensity of the light produced by the electric arc, it is possible to weld only by looking through a protective colored glass. This glass is inserted in an insulated helmet which offers protection from ultra-violet and infra-red rays in addition to shielding the welder’s face from sparks and
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RABBET- (WELDED OR RIVETED)
CRIMP "(RIVETED)
METHODS OF CONNECTING PLATES
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molten metal showered by the arc. Leather gloves and clothing are worn by welders for added protection.
The accompanying sketch shows the various types of riveted and welded connections. The improvement in the quality of the welds during the last few years has made most welded joints equal, if not superior, to the riveted joint in strength.
A substantial saving of weight is achieved by the welded method of constructing ships. This is most important today in the building of navy ships where lightness and speed are of primary importance.
The main problem encountered in welded construction is that of distortion and buckling. As a weld cools, it shrinks and draws the welded plates together. If these plates are not free to move, they may buckle, or internal strains may be set up in them, weakening the structure of the ship.
Most of the welder’s time is spent fastening together the structural parts of the ship. There is, however, a need for welders in almost all of the departments for both shop and ship work.
A tack welder temporarily fastens in place any part or parts of the ship. This is done by means of short beads of weld called tacks (about an inch long) placed in spots marked or pointed out on the members to be connected.
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Launching
TRANSFERRING the ship from the slipway to the water is called launching. While the ship is being constructed it is supported by keel blocks and heavy wooden posts (shores). For launching, two or four runways of heavy timber, called the ground ways, are constructed under the entire length of the ship at equal distances port and starboard from the centerline. On top of these timbers is placed another set of timbers with blocks built up on top of them to the underside of the ship. These are called the sliding ways. At the forward and after ends are cradle-like structures called poppets which give added support at these points. The poppets, sliding ways and blocks combine to make up the cradle.
Between the sliding and ground ways is placed a layer of grease and tallow. Because the ground ways are built on a slope, or declivity, usually % or % in. to the foot, steel tie-plates are usually attached, one end to the sliding ways and the other to the ground ways, to keep the ship from sliding into the water.
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On the day of launching, the blocks on the sliding ways are wedged up to take the weight of the ship off the keel blocks and shores and place it entirely on the sliding ways. Then the keel blocks and shores are removed. When the tie-plates holding the whole structure are burned through, the ship and sliding ways, including poppets, slide down the greased ground ways. If the ship does not slide, it is started by hydraulic rams.
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Engineering
ALL emphasis up to this point has been placed on -L* building the hull of a ship, that is, structural work. There are also two other important phases of shipbuilding—engineering and outfitting. Engineering work includes the installation of propulsion and auxiliary machinery, steering apparatus, and all piping. Outfitting is the installing of living facilities on a ship.
Stated very simply, the ship propels itself in this way: steam is generated in the boilers of the ship and passes through large steam pipes to the turbine or turbines. The action of the steam under pressure against the fan-like blades of the turbine causes the turbine to rotate. This rotary motion is transmitted through a reduction gear to the propeller shaft, to which the propeller is attached. The steam, after passing through the turbine, is condensed to water which is used again in the boilers. The boilers are located on a ship in the fire or boiler rooms. The number, location, and arrangement of these compartments on the ship depend entirely on the type and design of the vessel.
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The rudder, located at the stem of the ship, is operated by steering gear machinery and can be controlled from several places on the ship. On a navy ship there may be as many as four locations from which it is possible to operate the rudder controls.
As mentioned before, in addition to the propulsion machinery and steering apparatus there are numerous auxiliary motors, pumps and compressors and many feet of piping for fresh water, fuel oil, steam, etc.
The jobs in the shipyard performed by the engineering departments are too numerous to list in detail here. The following departments do engineering work:
1.	Blacksmith Shop
2.	Pattern Shop
3.	Machine Shop
4.	Pipe Shop
5.	Boiler Shop
6.	Outside Machinists
7.	Foundry
NOTE: The pattern shop makes forms used in shaping molds to produce metal castings for machine parts and should not he confused with the mold loft
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Some of the jobs done in the shops and on ship by these departments are:
Piping (fresh water, fuel oil, lubricating oil, fire-main, sprinkling, flooding, salt water, scupper and drainage, cargo oil, steam).
Heavy machinery (boilers, turbines, condensers, reduction gears, steering gear, windlass, capstans, etc.).
Uptakes, smoke stacks and fuel burning systems. Shafting and propellers, bearings and stuffing boxes.
Evaporator plant and refrigerating system. Gauges and piping.
Ammunition hoists, elevators, guns and torpedo tubes.
The above list is not complete nor does it include the hundreds of small parts which are installed along with this equipment. Moreover, it should be noted that methods of performing ship and shop work may vary in some ways among the various shipyards.
The small amount of space given to discussion of engineering work is not in any way meant to convey the impression that this work is of less importance than structural work in shipbuilding.
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Outfitting
CERTAIN sections of a ship are set aside for living quarters (lounges, recreational rooms and crew space). In these compartments are installed berths, lockers, dressers, lights, insulation, ventilation equipment, etc. This work is called outfitting.
The following departments do outfitting work: 1
1.	Electrical Department
2.	Sheet Metal Department
3.	Carpenter and Joiner Department
4.	Paint Department
The electricians in a shipyard install all the electric cables, wiring, lights, fixtures and miscellaneous electrical equipment on the ship for five main systems—lighting, power, interior communications, fire control and radio.
The lighting system extends to every compartment except the tanks, the installation requiring hundreds of feet of cable, hundreds of plugs, connection boxes, fuse boxes, switches and fixtures.
Thé power system consists of all heavy cables supplying power from the generators to auxiliary
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motors and machines. The generators, either Diesel or steam driven, supply all the electricity needed on the ship.
Interior communication (fire alarm, telephone, call hells, indicator system, etc.) reaches into most of the compartments of a ship.
Radio systems on board modem ships are built for receiving and sending, and are controlled from several locations on a ship.
Cables on a ship are held up with hangers. Passing through decks and watertight bulkheads, they are made tight by means of stuffing tubes, one cable to a tube. Cables are heavily insulated to make them waterproof and fireproof.
There are certain jobs which are performed by the sheet metal department in nearly every shipyard. One of the first to be started on navy ships is the installation of racks (called stowages) in the ammunition magazines. These compartments are located on the lower decks of the ship and are used for the storing of ammunition, shells, etc. The racks are set up in such a way as to carry the greatest amount bf ammunition in the smallest space.
Practically every compartment on a ship is ventilated. This is done with electrically-driven fans 47
and air pipes or ducts. On a large navy ship ventilation is one of the largest jobs done by the sheet metal department. The air ducts are fabricated (from the plans) out of sheet aluminum or steel. Most of this work is done in the shop and the ducts are afterwards installed on the ship. Because compartments on a ship, especially those on the lower decks and near the centerline, are so closed in, the only way of supplying fresh air to and circulating it in these spaces is to blow it in and draw it out. On navy ships all ventilation systems must be equipped with automatic closing devices for protection against gas attacks.
Large structural compartments on a ship are subdivided by aluminum, light metal or wire mesh bulkheads. These bulkheads extend from deck to deck and are stiffened with aluminum angles, tee bars, etc.
Another important job of the sheet metal department is the installation of insulation and sheathing. The insulation may be crumpled aluminum foil or fibrous glass, and is covered with sheets of aluminum. Insulation is almost always installed on shell surfaces and under the weather decks in living quarters. Other jobs which the sheet metal depart-
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ment handles include installation of certain types of hatches, lockers, bins and racks in the store rooms, and installation of corrosion-resisting decks in the galley (kitchen) and wash rooms.
The carpenter and joiner departments do all the woodwork in a ship and also install miscellaneous equipment. Very important carpenter jobs are building staging outside and inside the ship for the other departments to use, providing the shoring and supports under the ship as it is being built, and constructing the launch ways for launching. On ship the carpenters lay the wood decks, if any, and complete the job by calking and planing them. Lifeboat work and the installation of boat gear are usually done under the supervision of the carpenter department. Fancy woodwork, trimmings, wood railings, etc., are done by the joiner department.
The paint department does all the painting on ship and miscellaneous painting about the yard.
It should be noted that most of the engineering work and outfitting of a ship is done after launching in order to make the slipway available for the building of another ship.
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Safety
j\_LL construction work may be extremely dangerous. Shipbuilding is no exception. Every year men are killed or permanently incapacitated. In spite of continual emphasis on safety—safety rules and safety measures—serious accidents do happen. WHY?
This is the reason. All the safety rules and measures in the world are of no value unless followed by each and every employee. And unless you, an employee, learn the rules and follow them, your life is in real danger. Your wife and children are threatened with loss of income.
Tragedy does play favorites!—those who take chances! Play safe—do your thinking before it is too late. Men have worked in shipyards for years, yes, many men, without injury. Almost without exception, they are the men who thought first, who worked safely, and who did not take a chance.
Remember, too, that the other fellow can be injured by your carelessness and you can be injured by his carelessness. Play fair with him so he’ll play fair with you.
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Ship Terms and Their Meanings
Access Hole—an entrance to a compartment.
Aft or After End—towards stem.
After Peak—aftermost tank of a ship.
After Peak Bulkhead—watertight bulkhead of a ship at forward end of after peak tank.
Air Port or Port Hole—usually a circular opening in the ship’s side (Side Light).
Air Escape—hole or pipe to facilitate the escape of air.
Amidships—half way between bow and stem.
Assemble—to fit two or more parts together, forming a section of a larger part, or a complete unit.
Athwartships or Transverse—across the ship, at right angles to the centerline.
Backing Angle—an angle fitted on the back side of angle butts to reinforce them.
Base Line (B.L.)—horizontal level line at or near top of the flat keel.
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Batten—a thin strip of wood used in making or measuring templates.
Beam (Bm.)—a transverse member, stiffening and supporting a portion of a deck. Also the greatest width of the ship.
Below—under, below deck.
Bevel (Bev.)—the angle between the flanges of a shape or other member. Open Bevel—greater than a right angle; Closed Bevel—less. Also the angular edge on a plate or shape.
Bilge—rounded portion of hull between side and bottom.
Bilge Keel (B.K.)—a longitudinal member fitted to the outside of the shell on the bilge strake of plating to prevent excessive rolling of the ship.
Bottom—portion of the hull below the bilge.
Bow—the forward end of a ship.
Bracket—a small plate used to connect two or more members, such as deck beam to frame.
Breast Hook (B.H.)—a plate structure fitted inside the hull near the bow to give local strength to the shell plating.
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Bridge—the athwartship platform above the weather deck from which the ship is navigated.
Bulkhead (Bhd.)—a partition between compartments. Transverse, extending athwartships; longitudinal, extending fore-and-aft.
Bulwark—shell plating extending above the top deck.
Butt Joint—a joint formed by “butting” the edges of plates or shapes together.
Butt Strap—plate connecting the ends of plates by overlapping each.
Buttock (Btk.)—a line parallel to the centerline of the ship. Also the intersection of a vertical plane parallel to the centerline of the ship with the shell.
Calk—to make a joint tight by driving oakum into wood seams; or by hammering metal edges together.
Camber—the transverse curvature of a deck.
Cant Frame—a frame not square to the centerline, supporting the overhang at the stem of the ship.
Centerline (¿)—the fore-and-aft line at the middle of the ship.
Chain Locker—space or compartment in which anchor chain is stowed.
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Clip—short length of bar, generally an angle, used to attach shapes to the ship structure.
Coaming—the plates and shapes making up the bound* aries of a hatch or skylight. Also lower strake on houses and casings.
Cofferdam—the space between two bulkheads located close together.
Collar—filler plate or shape where shape passes through plating.
Collision Bulkhead—first main watertight bulkhead from bow of ship (also Fore Peak Bulkhead).
Compartment (Compt.)—a subdivision of space or room in a ship.
Compensation—addition of plates or shapes to strengthen parts of a ship.
Counterbore—to drill a recess larger than the original hole, required to accommodate head of screw, end of shaft, etc.
Countersink (Ck.)—the taper of a rivet hole for a flush rivet.
Dead Flat—flat part of the bottom of a ship, or the side amidships.
Deck (Dk.)—the part of a ship that corresponds to the floor of a building.
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Deck Beam—the athwartship support of a deck.
Deck Stringer (Dk. Str.)—the strake of deck plating that runs along the outer edge.
Doubling Plate (Dblr.)—a plate fitted outside or inside of another to give extra strength or stiffness.
Erection—the process of hoisting into place and bolting up the various parts of the ship’s hull, machinery, fittings, etc.
Fabricate—to punch, cut, shear, drill, bend, flange or weld plates and shapes.
Fair—a smooth curve; rivet holes which match exactly. Fairing lines means to make the lines smooth.
Faying Surface—the surface of a plate or shape which is covered by another plate or shape joined to it.
Flange (Fl.)—portion of a plate or shape at, or nearly at, right angles to main portion.
Flare—upward and outward curvature of the frames.
Flat—a small, partial deck, with or without sheer.
Flat Keel (F.K.)—the bottom plate of the ship from stem to stem.
Floors—vertical transverse plates between inner bottom and shell.
Fore-and-Aft—in line with the length of the ship, longitudinally.
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Forecastle—the forward, upper portion of the hull.
Forefoot—bottom of the curve of the stem.
Fore Peak—a large compartment, or tank, just aft of the bow in the lower part of the ship, used for trimming ship.
Forward (Fwd.)—at, near, or towards the bow of a ship.
Foundations—supports for engines, boilers, auxiliaries, etc.
Frameline—a fore-and-aft location, designated by a numeral in sequence, starting usually at the forward perpendicular.
Frames (Fr.)—built-up ribs which give the ship strength transversely, supporting shell plating.
Frame Spacing—distance between frames.
Framing—the shapes and plates supporting the deck and shell plating. Includes frames, beams, floors, longitudinals, girders, keelson, stringers, etc.
Freeing Port—an opening in the bulwark to allow water to run overboard.
Galley—kitchen of a ship.
Galvanizing (Galv.)—process of coating metal with zinc to prevent rust.
Gangway—a passageway, a ladder or other means of boarding a ship.
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Garboard Strake—the strake of shell plating next to the flat keel.
Girder—major strength member, giving intermediate support to local stiffeners.
Groundways—stationary timbers, or tracks, laid on the ground or foundation cribbing, upon which the sliding timbers or ways (supporting a vessel to be launched) travel.
Gunwale—upper edge of sheer strake.
Hatchway—opening in deck for cargo or passengers.
Hawse Pipe—a large fitting extending from deck to side of ship, near the bow, through which the anchor chain passes.
Hold—that part of a vessel where cargo or supplies are carried.
Hull (H.)—the body of a ship, including shell-plating, framing, decks, bulkheads, stanchions, keel and floors.
Inboard (Inbd.)—inside the ship; toward the center.
Inner Bottom (I.B.)—plating forming the upper boundary of the double bottom. Also called tank top.
Intercostal—between frames—not continuous.
Joggling—offsetting the edges of plates so that the plates may be lapped and yet be flush on one side. Applied also to the offsetting of shapes.
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Keel (Flat) (K.)—the fore-and-aft member, usually formed of flat plates end to end, extending from stem to stern on the centerline along the bottom of a ship.
Keel Blocks—heavy wood blocks on which the ship rests during construction.
Keel (Vertical)—the vertical plate structure extending fore-and-aft, located on the centerline and usually connected to the flat keel.
Keelson (Side or Longitudinal)—fore-and-aft member located on each side of the center keel.
King Post—a vertical post to support cargo booms.
Knuckle (Kn.)—a sharp bend in a plate, bar or shape.
Ladder—inclined or vertical steps on board ship taking the place of “stairs.”
Lap—a joint in which one part of a plate overlaps another, thus avoiding the use of a butt strap.
Laying Off—marking plates, bars or shapes for shearing, punching or bending.
Length Over All (L.O.A.)—length of a ship from stem to aftermost point of the stem.
Lift—to lift a template is to make it from measurements given, or to fit it to an erected part.
Lightening Holes—holes cut in plates and frames to reduce weight.
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Limber Hole—a drain hole near the bottom of a floor plate or other member.
Liner—a narrow flat or tapered plate used to fill a void between members which are joined together — as between an outside strake shell plate and a side frame.
Lines—plans of a ship that show its form. From full size lines drawn on the mold loft floor are made templates of the various parts of the hull.
Loftsman—a man who lays out and makes molds for a ship.
Longitudinal (Long.)—a fore-and-aft member running parallel, or nearly parallel, to the centerline of the ship.
Main Deck—the principal deck of the main hull.
Margin Bracket—one connecting side frame to margin plate of inner bottom.
Margin Plate—outboard strake of inner-bottom plating connected to shell.
Mast—a large round piece of timber or steel tube standing nearly vertical, at the centerline of the ship on the deck.
Midship—midway between forward and after perpendiculars.
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Midship Section—a cross section of the ship amidships, showing details of beam, brackets, frames and plating. The midship portion of the ship.
Mold—a light pattern of a part of a ship, usually made of thin wood or paper.
Mold Loft—a long building with wide, smooth floor on which the lines of a ship are drawn full size and from which molds are lifted.
Oil Tight (O.T.)—tight connection to prevent oil leakage.
Outboard (Ob.)—direction out from centerline of ship toward either side.
Overhang—portion of the hull over, and unsupported by, the water.
Pad Eye—an eye located on a pad for fastening riggings, etc.
Panting—the in-and-out movement of shell plates at the bow of a ship when at sea facing a heavy gale, due to water impact.
Panting Stringers—fore-and-aft members inside of shell at bow to prevent panting.
Pickling—dipping plates in acid to remove rust and scale.
Planking—wood covering for decks, etc.
Platform—a partial deck.
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Plating—the plates of the shell, decks, bulkheads, platforms, etc.
Port (P.)—the left-hand side of the ship when looking forward.
Propeller—the screw-like revolving device which drives the ship through the water, usually having three or four blades.
Punch—a machine for punching holes in plates and shapes.
Quarters—living or sleeping rooms for officers and crew.
Rabbet—depression or offset to take an adjoining part; e.g., the rabbet in the stem to take the shell plating.
Rail—the upper edge of the bulwarks.
Reaming—enlarging a hole by means of a revolving, slightly tapered tool with cutting edges along its sides.
Reverse Frame—an angle-bar or other shape riveted to the inner edge of a transverse frame to reinforce it.
Rider Plate (R.P.)—a flat plate connected to the top of the vertical keel.
Rigging—manila and wire ropes, lashings, etc., used to support booms, masts, spars, etc. Also, handling and placing heavy weights and machinery.
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Rubbing Keel—a heavy plate connecting to the under side of the flat keel and running from stem to stem to protect the bottom of the ship.
Rudder—a large movable surface by which the ship is steered.
Sagging—straining of the ship that tends to make the middle portion lower than the bow and stem.
Scantlings—the dimensions of various parts of the ship.
Scarph—to thin out a comer of a plate to allow for another plate to lap over it without increasing thickness. Type of joint in heavy timbers, armor plate, castings, etc.
Screen Bulkhead—one that is dust-tight only.
Scupper—a drain, such as from the edge of a deck, discharging overboard or from top of deckhouse to deck below.
Scuttle—a small hatch.
Seam—fore-and-aft joint of plating.
Seam Strap—strap of a butted seam.
Shaft—a long, round, heavy forging connecting engine and propeller.
Shaft Tunnel—enclosed passage around propeller shaft extending from engine room to stem.
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Shears—large machine for cutting plates and shapes.
Shape—long bar of constant cross-section, such as a channel, T-bar, angle-bar, I-beam, etc.
Sheer—fore-and-aft curvature at deck as seen in side elevation of a ship’s outline.
Sheer Plan—side elevation of a ship’s outline.
Sheer Strake—the upper strake of shell plating, just below the bulwarks (at edge of deck).
Shell—the outside plating of a ship from stem to stem. The plates are called Strokes, and are lettered starting at the keel, A-B-C, etc. Strakes are classified as Inner Skin, Outer or Cover, Clinker or In and Out, Forefoot, Shoe, Boss, Sheer, and Garboard.
Shell Expansion Plan—a plan showing details of all plates of the shell. Drawn on girths.
Shore—a large wooden support or prop.
Side—a portion of hull above the bilge.
Skeg—an extension at the extreme after part of the keel supporting the rudder post.
Sliding Ways—the timbers attached to the hull, which carry the ship down the ways when the vessel is launched.
Sounding Pipe—a built-in pipe in an oil or water tank used to measure depth of liquid in the tank.
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Stability—tendency of a ship to remain upright.
Stanchion (Pillar) (Stan.)—an upright member used as a support between decks.
Stapling—collars, forged of angle-bars, to fit around continuous members passing through bulkheads or decks, for watertightness or oiltightness.
Starboard (Star.)—the right-hand side of the ship when looking forward.
Stealer—a strake of shell plating that is made extra wide to fit in place of two narrow strakes near the ends of the ship, where the girth is less.
Steering Gear—apparatus for controlling the rudder.
Stem—forging, casting or rolled steel forming extreme bow of ship, extending from keel to uppermost deck.
Stem—the after end of a ship.
Stem-Frame—a large casting attached to the after end of the keel to form the ship’s stem. Includes rudder post, propeller post, and aperture for propeller on single screw vessels.
Stem Tube—the tube through which the propeller shaft passes from the inside to the outside of the vessel.
Stiffener—an angle-bar, T-bar, channel, etc., used to stiffen and form a support for plating of a bulkhead, web frame, etc.
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Stopwater—packing of canvas and red lead or other material to prevent leakage where calking is impractical.
Stow—to put away securely.
Strake—a course of plating.
Stringer—a fore-and-aft continuous member used to give longitudinal strength.
Stringer Angle—a longitudinal angle connecting shell and deck stringer platé.
Stringer Plate—the outer strake of deck plating, a fore-and-aft continuous member used for longitudinal strength.
Strong Back—a bar for locking cargo port doors and watertight scuttles.
Strut—a support for a propeller shaft, used on ships with more than one propeller. A brace or compression member.
Superstructure—deck houses, etc., above weather deck.
Swash Plate—plates in oil or water tanks to prevent excessive movement of the liquid.
Tail Shaft—a short piece of propeller shaft extending through the stem tube and carrying the propeller.
Tank Top (T.T.)—plating over the inner bottom.
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Template—a mold. A full size pattern.
Tie Plate—a narrow plate forming support for wood.
Transom—transverse part of the shell at the stem.
Transom Frame—aftermost main frame of a ship attached to the stem frame, to which the cant frames are attached.
Transverse (Trans.)—across the ship, at right angles to the centerline; athwartship.
Transverse Frames—athwartship members forming the ship’s ribs.
Transverse Bulkhead—a bulkhead placed at right angles to the centerline.
Trunk—a small casing between decks such as is used for ladders, ventilation, etc.
Uptake—connecting trunk between boilers and smoke stack.
Ventilator—a device for furnishing fresh air to compartments below deck or exhausting foul air.
Water Line (W.L.)—the line of the water’s surface when the ship is afloat, fully manned, loaded, and equipped.
Working Water Line—a line parallel to the base line.
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Watertight (W.T.)—so riveted, calked, or welded as to prevent passage of water.
Ways (Building)—timbers, concrete, planking, wedges, etc., on which a ship is built or launched.
Weather Deck—a deck with no overhead protection.
Web Frame—a frame with a deep web, usually a main strength member.
Web—the vertical portion of a beam. The athwartship portion of a frame.
Welding—making a joint of metal parts by fusing them together.
Well—space in the bottom of a ship into which waste water runs, to be pumped out.
Winch—a small hoisting engine.
Windlass—the machine used to hoist the anchors.
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