[Ground Water Supply for Military Operations]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]
NON-CIRCULATING
GROUND WATER
OPERATIONS
Document Reserve
WAR DEPARTMENT • 1 F E B RUA RY 19 44
TM5-296
WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL
SUPPLY FOR MILITARY
WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL
TM 5-296
GROUND WATER
SUPPLY FOR
MILITARY
OPERATIONS
WAR DEPARTMENT • 1 FEBRUARY 1944
United States Government Printing Office Washington 1944
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington, D. C, - Price 15 cents
WAR DEPARTMENT, Washington 25, D. C., 1 February 1944.
TM 5-296, Ground Water Supply for Military Operations, is published for the information and guidance of all concerned.
[A.G. 300. 7 (26 Nov 43).]
By order of the Secretary of War:
G. C. MARSHALL, Chiej of Staff. Official:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General.'
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
B 5 (5); R 5 (5); Bn 5 (5); I Bn 5 (75).
(For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.)
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CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL____________________ 1-5 5
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF GROUND-
WATER OCCURRENCE
Section I. Rocks as water reservoirs_ 6-11 10
II. Types of rocks and their waterbearing properties__________ 12-14 14
III. Structures of rocks and their water-bearing properties_____ 15-26 23
IV. Movement of ground water____ 27-32 33
V. Artesian conditions______ 33-37 35
CHAPTER 3. COASTAL GROUND WATER 38 41 38
CHAPTER 4. DESERT GROUND WATER
CONDITIONS_________________ 42-44 45
CHAPTER 5. SPRINGS___________________ 45-47 55
CHAPTER 6. QUALITY OF WATER_______ 48-50 62
CHAPTER 7. GROUND-WATER RECON-
NAISSANCE
Section I. Sources of information-- 51-54 68
II. Field reconnaissance______55—61 69
III. Subsurface correlation_,- 62-64 75
IV. Reports---------------------- 65 78
APPENDIX I. GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE________ 79
APPENDIX II. GLOSSARY_________________________ 80
APPENDIX III. BIBLIOGRAPHY-------------------- 84
INDEX_________________________________________ 87
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE. This manual presents fundamental information on the occurrence of ground water and on the location of " ground-water supplies for military purposes. It covers the occurrence
of water in rocks, the relationships between rock structures and groundwater movement, the location of usable water in coastal zones and desert regions, the occurrence of springs, the quality of water to be expected from various sources, and methods of ground-water reconnaissance. In geologic terms, “rocks” include loose deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, as well as consolidated materials such as granite, basalt, and limestone.
2. THE GROUND-WATER PROBLEM, a. Potable water is essential to all military operations. The usual sources of such water are surface waters such as rivers, creeks, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, or existing municipal supplies. Where these are inadequate or nonexistent, it is necessary to develop other ground-water supplies.
b. Many areas in subhumid, semiarid, and arid regions have insufficient natural surface-water supplies for military operations for at least a part of the year. Areas falling into this category are most of the Great Plains of the United States; parts of southern Europe; most of North Africa; the greater part of Australia; the plains and plateau areas of China; most of Asia Minor; and much of southern South America. In such areas, the use of water of major streams requires construction of large impounding dams.
C. Most land is underlain by one or more rock formations that will yield at least small perennial supplies of water to wells. In some places, the quantity may be too small to justify attempts at recovery; in others, the water may be too highly mineralized for use. Location of an adequate ground-water supply, therefore, requires a knowledge of the principles controlling the occurrence of water in rock formations. In a new area for which geologic information is not available, the first step in developing a ground-water supply is a geologic reconnaissance (see ch. 7).
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d. For most regions of the world some general geologic information is available, and for many areas specific ground-water data exists. One source of such information is the Terrain Intelligence Folios of the Strategic Engineering Studies prepared by the Intelligence Branch, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. If available, such folios should be studied before any field investigations in a specific area are made.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. Water beneath the surface of the earth occurs in three zones: the zone of soil moisture where water temporarily is held in pore spaces by capillarity and other soil conditions; the zone of aeration, or zone of percolation, beneath the soil layer where both water and air are present in the pore spaces; and zone of saturation, where all spaces are filled with water. These zones are shown in figure 1. The top of the saturated zone is called the “water table.” It is not flat, but has a variable depth beneath the surface, depending upon surface topography, rainfall, direction of water movement, rock structure, and porosity. Water in the zone of soil moisture may evaporate directly or through transpiration by plants, or may percolate downward into the zone of aeration and thence to the zone of saturation. Permeable rocks in the zone of saturation yield water to wells, but wells ending in the zone of aeration produce no water.
4. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE, a. The series of processes by which water is circulated from the oceans to the atmosphere and thence
Figure 1. Ground-water and surface-water relationship.
to the surface of the earth and beneath it, is known as the hydrologic cycle (figs. 2 and 3).
b. An understanding of the occurrence of ground water is based on a general knowledge of these processes and their relationships to each
TEMPORARY \ LAKE
PERMANENT t LAKE
^.PERMANENT
^STREAM
■ ZONE OF AERATION
o'
WATER-TABLE z.
■ZONE OF
■■I SOIL I
ISTUREJ
ZONE OF SATURATION
Figure 2. The hydrologic cycle.
OCEAN ' S«*
Subhumid. A subhumid climate is one with average annual rainfall of 20 to 30 inches.
Syncline. A rock structure in which the strata dip in two directions toward an axis.
Till. An unstratified, unsorted glacial deposit.
Transpiration. Evaporation through the action of plants.
Turbulent flow. Free flow of fluids in open channels. It is characterized by eddies and cross currents.
Unconformity. A break representing an interval of erosion between two rock strata or formations.
Water table. The upper surface of the saturated zone.
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APPENDIX III
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. *Barksdale, II. C., Sundstrom, R. W., and Brunstein, M. S., Supplementary Report on the Ground-Water Supplies of the Atlantic City Region, New Jersey Water Policy Commission, Spec. Rep’t. No. 6, 1936.
2. *Brown, J. S., A Study of Coastal Ground Water with Special Reference to Connecticut, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 537, 1925.
3. Clark, William O., Ground Water in Santa Clara Valley, California, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 519, 1914.
4. Darton, N. H., Artesian Waters in the Vicinity of the Black Hills, South Dakota, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 428, 1918.
5. Lahee, F. H., Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1931.
6. Lees, J. H., Geology of Crawford County, Iowa, Iowa Geol. Surv. Vol. 32, pp. 239- 362, 1927.
7. *Legget, Robert F., Geology and Engineering (chs. XVI and XVII), McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1939.
8. Norton, W. H., Hendrixson, W. S., Simpson, H. E., and Meinzer, O. E., Underground Water Resources of Iowa, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-Supply Paper 293, 1912.
9. *Meinzer, O. E., The Occurrence of Ground Water in the United States, With a Discussion of Principles, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 494, 1923.
10. *Meinzer, O. E., Outline of Ground-Water Hydrology With Definitions. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 494, 1923.
11. *Meinzer, O. E., Large Springs in the United States, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 557, 1927.
12. *Meinzer, O. E., Plants as Indicators of Ground Water, U. S. Gol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 557, 1927.
13. Meinzer, O. E., and Wenzel, L. K., Present Status of Our Knowledge Regarding Hydraulics of Ground Water, Econ. Geol. Vol. 35, No. 8, Dec. 1940.
‘General ground-water references.
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14. *Meinzer, O. E., and Collaborators, Hydrology (Physics of the Earth, IX), McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1942.
15. Sayre, A. N., Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Duval County, Texas, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 776, 1937.
16. Thompson, D. G., Ground Water for Irrigation Near Gage, Ellis County, Oklahoma, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 500, 1922.
17. Thompson, D. G., The Mohave Desert Region, California, a Geologic and Hydrologic Reconnaissance, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 578, 1929.
18. *Tolman, C. F., Ground Water, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1938.
19. Headwaters Control and Use, Soil Conservation Service and Forest Service, U. S., Dept of Agric., 1936.
20. Permafrost or Permanently-frozen Ground and Related Engineering Problems, U. S. Geol. Surv. Special Report 62,1943.
21. Water Supply and Purification, War Department Technical Manual 5-295, 1942.
22. Well Drilling, War Department Technical Manual 5-297, 1942.
Miscellaneous Sources
Jones, Victor H., Field Notes on Ground-Water Hydrology, Iowa Geol. Survey, 1934-5 (unpublished).
Shantz, H. L., Photographs of Desert Plants, U. S. Forest Service. Photographs of Rock Outcrops and Desert Basin, U. S. Geol. Survey.
•General ground-water references.
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INDEX
Paragraph Page
Aerial photographs___________________________________________ 53 69
Alluvial deposits____________________________________________ 14 20
Artesian conditions______________________•____________________ 33-37 35
Basalt__________________________________________________________ 14 22
Base maps, use----------------------------------------------------- 56 72
Bibliography----------------------------------------------- App. Ill 84
Capillary fringe___________________________________________________ 10 13
Classification:
Rocks____________________________________.______________ 12 14
Springs------------------------------------------------------- 46 55
Underground water (3 zones)____________________________________ 3 6
Clay--------------------------------------------------------------- 14 19
Coal beds__________________________________________________________ 14 21
Coast line, definition_____________________________________________ 38 38
Coast, definition_____________________________'_______________ 38 38
Coastal ground water_________________________________________ 38-41 38
Coastal plains, artesian conditions___________ _. _ _________ 35 36
Correlation of formations____________________________________ 20 27
Correlation, subsurface__________________________i___________ 62 75
Darcy’s law________________________________________________________ 28 33
Definitions_____________________________________________ 38, App. II 38, 80
Desert ground water_____________________________________________ 42-44 45
Desert physiography__________________________________________ 43 46
Development or improvement of springs______________________________ 47 59
Direction and rate of ground-water movement________________________ 29 33
Drilled wells, sanitary protection_________________________________ 50 65
Drilling, test_______________________________________________ 62 75
Existing wells and springs_________________________________________ 59 74
Faults_____________________________________________________________ 25 31
Field reconnaissance_____________________________________________55-61 69
Folds______________________________________________________1_ 22 29
Forces controlling water in rocks___________________________________ 7 11
Formations_________________________________________________ 15, 19, 20 23, 27
Fresh water, relations with salt water_____________________________ 41 39
Geologic sections________________________________________________ 16 23
Geologic time table__________________________________________ App. I 79
Glacial drift______________________________________________________ 36 36
Glossary___________________________________________________ App. II 80
Gneiss____________________________________________________________ 14 22
Granite rocks______________________________________________________ 14 22
Gypsum deposits____________________________________________________ 14 21
Head, relation to water movement__________________________________ 30 33
Hydrologic cycle_________________________________.■__________ 4 6
Igneous rocks______________________________________________________ 12 15
Indicators of ground water_________________________________________ 44 47
Information, sources___________________________________________ 51-54 68
Interior plains, artesian conditions_..____________________________ 34 35
Joints_____________________________________________________________ 24 30
Laminar flow_____________________________________1___________ 27 33
Limestone__________________________________________________________ 14 20
Local authorities__________________________________________________ 52 68
Location of wells__________________________________________________ 61 75
Loess______________________________________________________________ 14 19
Log, prediction__________________________________________________ 60 74
Maps_________________________________________________________ 53, 56 69, 72
Metamorphic rocks__________________________________________________ 12 16
Mineral quality____________________________________________________ 48 62
Minor structures___________________________________________________ 24 30
Movement of ground water________________________________________ 27—32 33
Outcrops___________________________________________________________ 57 72
Peat beds__________________________________________________________ 14 21
Permeability of rocks________________________________________ 8, 31 11, 34
Photographs, aerial________________________________________________ 53 69
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Paragraph Page
Plants as indicators____________________________,_____ ________ 44 47
Playa lakes_____________________________ _______ _____ ________ 43 46
Porosity of rocks______________________________________________ 6 10
Prediction of logs_________________,__r________________________ 60 74
Principles of ground water occurrence__________________________ 6-37 10
Problems_______________________________________________________ 2, 39 5, 38
Purpose and scope______________________________________________ 1 5
Quality of water_________________________________________ . _ 48-50 62
Quartzite_____________________________________________ _ _. 14 18
Reconnaissance, ground-water___________________________________ 51-65 68
Recovery of ground water_______________________________________ 5 9
Reports_______________________ ________________________________ 51, 65 68, 78
Rhyolite_______________ . _____ ______________________ 14 22
Rocks:
As water reservoirs__________________________________________ 6-11 10
Classification_______________________________________________ 12 14
Structures_________________________________________________ 15-26 23
Types_______________________________________________________ 12-13 14
Voids and openings ____________________________________________ 13 16
Water-bearing properties_____________________________.... 14, 19 17, 27
Salt deposits_____________________________________________________ 14 21
Salt water, relations between, and fresh water____________________ 41 39
Sampling___________________________________________________________ 63 76
Sand_______________________________________________________________ 14 18
Sandstone__________________________±_____________________ ____ 14 18
Sanitary protection of drilled wells_______________________________ 50 65
Sanitary quality___________________________________________________ 49 64
Schist_____________________________________________________________ 14 22
Sedimentary rocks__________________________________________________ 12 15
Shale______________________________________________________________ 14 19
Shore, definition__________________________________________________ 38 38
Silt_______________________________________________________________ 14 18
Slate___________________________________________I______________ 14 19
Springs_______________________A_________,---------------------- 45-47 55,74
59
Storage________________________________________________________ 32 34
Strata: Inclination_________________________________________________________ 21 28
Lateral gradation______________________________________________ 18 24
Stratification_____________________________________________________ 17 24
Subsurface correlation__________________________________________ 62-64 75
Surficial geology__________________________________________________ 58 73
Test drilling_______________________________________________ . 62 75
Testing wells______________________________________________________ 64 77
Till_______________________________________________________________ 14 19
Time table, geologic___________________________________________ App. 1 79
Topography:
Desert physiography___________________________________________ 43 46
Relation to ground water_______________________________________ 26 31
Relation with springs_____ ____________________________________ 45 55
Turburlent flow___________________________________________________ 27 33
Unconformities_____________________________________________________ 23 30
Valley-fill artesian water_________________________________________ 37 37
Veins______________________________________________________________ 24 30
Volcanic sediments_________________________________________________ 14 23
Water-bearing properties of rocks______________________________ 14, 19 17, 27
Water reservoirs_________________________________________________ 6-11 10
Water table_________________________________________________ __ 9 13
Water-yielding capacity of rocks___________________________________ 11 13
Water, quality__________________________________________________ 48-50 62
Zones:
Capillary fringe_____________________________________________ 10 13
Classification________________________________________________ 3 6
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